WEM01 - Lecture 3 - Hydrology II

17/10/2017
WEM01 Water Resources Management

Climate
Water resources
Pollution
Biodiversity loss
Population growth
Energy
Hydrology
Dr Gary Bilotta
Room C609
G.S.Bilotta@Brighton.ac.uk
School of Environment and Technology
WEM01 Water Resource Management
- Key hydrological processes:

- Precipitation
- Interception
- Throughfall
- Stemflow
- Evaporation
- Transpiration
- Infiltration
- Overland Flow
- Throughflow
- Percolation
- Groundwater flow
- Channel Flow
1
17/10/2017

Why are we interested in understanding and quantifying flow in river channels?
Resource availability

Why are we interested in understanding and quantifying water motion in river channels?
Flood risk
2
17/10/2017

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PyDW4rlbnXs
Erosion risk

Hydropower (in kilowatts) from an Archimedes screw =
Discharge (m3 s-1) x Head (m) x 9.81 (constant for gravity)
Most screws work on an efficiency of up to 80% = multiply kW by 0.8
Head
For more info: http://www.freeflow69.com/index.php/archimedes-screw Hydropower
3
17/10/2017

Discharge
The volume of water passing through a

channel section per unit time is called the
flow rate or discharge (Q) typically measured
in units of m3 s-1 (cumecs):
Q=VxA
Where:
V = velocity (m s-1) of moving water
A = cross-sectional area (m2) of flow

Velocity
• Open channel flow is driven by gravitational energy.
• It is resisted by friction, primarily at the water channel interface but also between
water and dissolved and suspended sediments (Dynamic viscosity), individual ribbons of
flow within the stream (Eddy viscosity) and with the atmosphere.
• The velocity varies in

a channel section due
to these sources of
resistance.
4
17/10/2017

Velocity depth-profile
The rate of change in the velocity of water as you move from the channel boundary is
dependent on the type of flow:
Laminar flow occurs at low velocities in shallow streams with smooth channels, when
the lowest water lamina (thin layer) is retarded by the channel boundary friction.
Overlying lamina move successively faster past each other with a velocity maximum (vmax)
at the surface.
Turbulent flow occurs at high velocities, at

greater water depth and in irregular channels.
Eddy viscosity (i.e. the resistance to flow of a
fluid caused by friction between individual
strands of the flow) consumes energy as
ribbons of water shear past each other, creating
more uniform velocities as faster and slower
ribbons mix.

Reynolds Number
We can determine whether flow is laminar and turbulent using the Reynolds Number
(Re), which is dependent upon the relative value of:
- the hydraulic radius (R),

- the mean water velocity (Vmean), and
- the kinematic viscosity (the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density, v-1):
Re = (ѵmean R)/ v-1
• When Re is <500, flow is laminar.
• When Re is >2000 flow is turbulent.
Dynamic viscosity = the resistance to flow of a fluid (i.e. how viscous it is) - increases
directly with dissolved and suspended sediment load and inversely with temperature.
5
17/10/2017

High turbulence
Engineers need to consider situations of high turbulence, as the flow is unstable and can
lead to bed or bank erosion due to high frictional forces. These forces should be avoided
or appropriately designed for. Typical areas to be aware of include:
• immediately downstream of structures;

• steep sections of river

Measuring discharge
• Discharge is difficult to measure. It is typically a painstaking and sometimes a dangerous (or

thrilling) task.
• For this reason we commonly use stage height (water depth) as a proxy for discharge.
• Stage height can be measured in a

variety of ways, including using a
float, a pressure sensor, or an
acoustic sensor.
• Nevertheless, the easily monitored

time series of stage must be
transformed into one of discharge
through a rating curve (stage-
discharge relationship) that requires
measurements of discharge at a
range of stage heights.
6
17/10/2017

Measuring discharge
The discharge of a river can be measured via three main approaches:
(1) Volumetric gauging

For small, well constrained discharges the discharge can be measured by collecting the
discharge and measuring the volume collected over a given time period. In this case, the
discharge is equal to the volume of water collected divided by the time taken to collect it.
This method is appropriate for streams with a discharge of <10 L s-1.
(2) Velocity-area method

For larger flows we need to measure the velocity of flow and multiply this by the cross-
sectional area. There are numerous methods used to measure the velocity:
• Surface float
• Ott-type current meter
• Electromagnetic current meter
• Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs)
(3) Dilution gauging

Measuring discharge
Surface float method
• A low budget way to measure the water velocity at the surface of a
stream is by using a float, a buoyant object on the water.
• The water velocity is simply determined by timing the movement

of the float over a set distance. A number of objects may be used for
this, but commonly an apple or orange is used.
The procedure is repeated a
number of times to obtain Average depth in Coefficient
the average maximum reach (m)
0.3 0.66
surface velocity, converted 0.6 0.68
to a mean velocity using 0.9 0.70
1.2 0.72
coefficients (Table 1). The 1.5 0.74
mean discharge is then 1.8 0.76
found by multiplying the 2.7 0.77
3.7 0.78
mean velocity (V) by the 4.6 0.79
mean cross-sectional area of Table 1: Mean velocity
flow (A). coefficients.
Source: Hiscock (2005)
7
17/10/2017

Measuring discharge
Ott-type current meter
•A well-known instrument for determining the water velocity at different
locations and depths in a stream is the Ott-type current meter,.
• An electronic device keeps track of the

number of revolutions of the current meter’s
propeller during a set time interval: the flow
velocity can then simply be determined from a
calibration equation provided by the
manufacturer that links the water velocity to
the number of revolutions.
• The average water velocity for a flow

distribution can be found by averaging the
water velocity measurements at different
depths.
• If only one measurement in the vertical is made, a measurement of
40% of the water height (measured from the channel bed upwards)
provides the best estimate of the average water velocity

Measuring discharge
Ott-type current meter
If three measurements are made, these are best made at 20, 40 and
80% of the water height (measured upwards). One should
determine the average velocity as follows:
_
V = V 0.2H + 2V 0.4H + V 0.8H
4
8
17/10/2017

Measuring discharge
Electromagnetic current meter
• Another well known instrument for determining the water
velocity at different locations and depths in a stream, which
is becoming more common, is the electromagnetic current
meter.
• Such a current meter uses the Faraday Principle to measure

the water velocity. As a conductor (water) moves through an
electromagnetic field (generated by the sensor), it generates
a voltage.
• The water velocity is proportional to the voltage measured

by the sensor’s electrodes.
• The average water velocity for a flow distribution may be

determined in exactly the same way as described for the Ott-
type meter.

Measuring discharge
Using an Ott-type or electromagnetic

current meter, the discharge of a
brook or river can be determined using
the velocity-area method.
The discharge in one segment is equal

to the mean velocity in the middle of
the segment multiplied by cross
sectional area of the segment.
The discharge for the whole channel

is simply the sum the discharges
through all the segments at that
transect.
9
17/10/2017
Calculating Discharge Exercise
Depth (m) 0.10 0.30 0.45 0.50 0.45 0.30 0.20 0.10
Velocity (m s-1) 0.02 0.20 0.40 0.85 0.45 0.35 0.25
v v
v v v v
v
Each section has equal width of 0.30 m
HOMEWORK TASK 1

Measuring discharge
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)
•An ADCP is a type of SONAR that can be used to produce a record
of water velocities at a range of depths.
• An ADCP uses sound waves to determine the water velocity,

making use of the so-called Doppler effect, or Doppler shift.
•The ADCP uses the Doppler Effect to determine water velocity by sending a sound pulse
into the water and measuring the change in frequency of that sound pulse reflected back
to the ADCP by sediment or other particulates being transported in the water. The change
in frequency, or Doppler Shift, that is measured by the ADCP is translated into water
velocity.
10
17/10/2017

Measuring discharge
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)
•The ADCP also uses the travel time of a pulse of sound to reach the river bottom as a
means of measuring water depth.
• Normally the ADCP is mounted onto a boat or into a small watercraft with its acoustic
beams directed into the water from the water surface. The ADCP is then guided across
the surface of the river to obtain measurements of velocity and depth across the
channel.
• A GPS is used to track the progress

of the ADCP across the channel and
provide channel-width
measurements.
• The velocity-area method is then

used to calculate discharge.

Measuring discharge
Salt dilution gauging
• In mountain streams, the operation of Ott-
type current meters, electromagnetic current
meters and ADCP may be difficult due to the
turbulence of the water flow, high velocities,
or rocks and shallow sections in the channel.
• In such circumstances, the velocity-area method can not be used. However, a well
suited technique for estimating the discharge in turbulent streams is provided by salt-
dilution gauging, where the discharge is determined by measuring the degree of dilution
by the flowing water of an added solution of sodium chloride.
• The most widely-used version of this method is referred to as the slug injection (gulp
injection) method where a slug or gulp of salt solution is emptied instantaneously into
the stream.
• This method can be used for discharges up to about 10 m3 s-1.
11
17/10/2017

Velocity
We can estimate the mean velocity of the flow by using the Manning equation:
Where:
K = constant with a value of 1
n = Manning’s n (dependent on channel roughness – see table of n values)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
R = A/P
S = channel slope (m/m) Combining Manning’s
equation with the continuity
equation, the expression for
‘steady uniform flow’ can be
derived.
Source: Environment Agency (2011)

Values for Manning's n for Channels
Adapted from original comprehensive list of values

published by Chow (1959)
http://www.fsl.orst.edu/geowater/FX3/help/8_Hydraulic_Reference/Mannings_n_Tables.htm
Streams and Rivers: Physics of Motion
12
17/10/2017

Estimating Q - Exercise
Determine the discharge (Q) when:
• The uniform depth (d) of flow is 2 m

• The water surface slope (S) is 1 in 500;
• The channel is clean, straight with no deep pools (see table of Manning’s n values)
Area, A (m2)= 12 m2
Wetted perimeter, P = 10 m
Hydraulic Radius, R = 1.2
Slope S = 0.002
Manning’s n = 0.030 2m
Q= 12 *(1/0.030)*1.20.66*(0.002)0.5
Q= 20.2 m3 s-1 6m

Estimating Q - Exercise
(1) Determine the discharge (Q) when:
• The uniform depth of flow is 1 m

• The shape has been reduced to a trapezoidal channel with dimensions as given below;
• The water surface slope (S) is 1 in 500;
• The channel roughness is equivalent to a Manning’s ‘n’ of 0.050.
Water Level
Idealised channel cross-section
Natural channel cross-section
1m
(2) What affect would channel straightening
and smoothing have on Q?
i.e. the channel becomes clean and straight with 1m 2m 0.5 m
no rifts or deep pools.
HOMEWORK TASK 2
13
17/10/2017
Daily Mean Flows

Having established a method for measuring flow in a river and recording it, we now need a
way of using the information to provide us with useful data about water resources. Taking
the daily mean flow is one way of doing this.
http://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk/
If we have a lot of data from previous years as well, then it is possible to combine all this into a
simple graph taking the mean of all the daily mean flows for Jan 1st, Jan 2nd Jan 3rd and so on. These
may be plotted on a graph. A log scale is useful for doing this, as this reduced the effect of large
difference between flows in dry and wet weather periods.

Flow Duration Curves
The flow duration curve is a plot that shows the percentage of time that flow in a stream is
likely to equal or exceed some specified value of interest.
http://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk/
This fundamental plot is incredibly useful for a number of applications, e.g. calculating:
- proportion of time allowed for abstraction,
- potential for hydropower generation,
- channel design needed for a flood defence scheme or river restoration project.
14
17/10/2017

See homework on Studentcentral
Flow Duration Curves – Average Daily Discharge
Construct a flow duration curve for a USGS streamflow dataset provided
Step 1: Calculate number of daily values (n) in the record and then sort the average daily
discharges for the period of record from the largest value (first) to the smallest value
(last).
Step 2: Assign each discharge value a rank (M) starting with 1 for the largest daily
discharge value.
Step 3: Calculate percentage of time exceeded (P) for each daily discharge value using the
following equation:
P = 100 * [ M / (n + 1) ]
Where:
P = the % of time that a given flow will be equalled or exceeded
M = the ranked position in the listing
n = the total number of time-steps
Step 4: Plot the Flow Duration Curve (x axis is the percentage of time the indicated
discharge was exceeded; y axis is the discharge). You may want to try logging the Y axis.
HOMEWORK TASK 3

Flood Frequency Estimation and Return Periods
There are two basic applications for flood frequency analysis.
The first is to estimate the potential flood magnitude that can occur in a given time
interval.
http://stream2.cma.gov.cn/pub/comet/HydrologyFlooding/FloodFrequencyAnalysisInternationalEdition/comet/hydro/basic_int/flood_frequency/print.htm
15
17/10/2017

The second primary goal of flood frequency analysis is to estimate the return period for
a certain magnitude flood.
This information can be used by

people such as urban planners and
civil engineers to determine the
best locations and construction
practices for new development.

Often a hydrologist is interested in a specific

flow event – typically the largest of the year.
When they consult only the maximum flow
within a single year, the dataset is called an
annual series.
The letter A on the figure above shows the

events that comprise an annual series. Within
an annual series, only the largest value per
year is allowed, even if an additional significant
peak flow occurred such as we see in 1998
16
17/10/2017

The first step in a frequency analysis is to examine
the streamflow data at the gauging station of
interest and to create a ranked annual series

Next we compute the return period associated with each peak annual Q value:
n 1
Weibull T 
m Note: Data below are abbreviated for ease of viewing.
Then we compute the annual

exceedance probability (%) with each
discharge value:
Annual exceedance probability (%):
= 100* m
n+1
Or simply 1/T *100
The Flood Estimation Handbook is a good guide for selecting appropriate formulas
17
17/10/2017

Then we plot the annual series with the

annual exceedance probability on the X axis
and the annual maximum daily flow per year
on the Y axis.
The X and Y axes both use linear scales, which

presents a problem for the annual exceedance
probability:
It shows a 0 % value, implying with certainty that a

flood above at a particular large value would never
happen. For example, if you extrapolate from the
curve to the Y axis, this suggests that a flood of 9000
flow units per second or greater will never happen.
Extremely large flows are rare, but in reality there is
some small chance of such an event occurring.

Instead, the annual peak flow information

may be presented with a logarithmic rather
than a linear scale.
This is often done to make the data appear

as a straight line allowing easier
extrapolation beyond the data extremes.
18
17/10/2017

There are several different return periods traditionally used by hydrologists (10–, 25–, 50–,
100–year flood).
Estimates of flood return periods can be made with relatively short periods of record. But
the associated confidence level in the flood frequency statistics is much higher with a
longer period of data.

Flood frequency analysis requires that data be

homogeneous, i.e. that each flood needs to
occur under the same type of conditions. Two
flood events are homogeneous if both are
caused by rainfall only.
A potential example of non–homogeneity

is when one flood is caused by rainfall
while another flood is caused by a dam
failure or pipe failure.
Burst water main in SE London (June 2015)

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-
transport/11706253/Burst-water-main-floods-roads-in-
London.html
19
17/10/2017

Basin changes such as land development, water diversions and reservoir construction may
alter the hydrologic properties of a drainage basin over time, thus changing the way a river
responds to storms.
• Such trends may result in future flow behaviour that is different from that observed in
the past, and violate the requirement of homogeneity for flood frequency analysis.
Consequently, flood frequency statistics generated prior to the basin changes no longer apply.

Exceedance Probability
Sometimes a hydrologist may need to know what the chances are over a given time
period that a flood will reach or exceed a specific magnitude. This is sometimes called
the probability of occurrence or the exceedance probability.
Let's say the value "p" is the exceedance probability, in any given year. The exceedance
probability may be formulated simply as the inverse of the return period (or simply 1/T
*100 if you want to present it as a percentage)
For example, for a two-year return period the exceedance probability in any given year is
one divided by two = 0.5, or 50 %.
But we want to know how to calculate the exceedance probability for a period of years,
not just one given year. To do this, we use the formula
Exceedance probability = 1 – (1 – p)n
In this formula we consider all possible flows over the period of interest "n" and we can represent the whole set of flows with "1."
Then (1–p) is the chance of the flow not occurring, or the non–exceedance probability, for any given year.
(1–p)n is all the flows that are less than our flood of interest for the whole time period.
Finally, "1," all possible flows, minus (1–p)n, all flows during the time period than are lower than our flood of interest, leaves us with 1
– (1–p)n, the probability of those flows of interest occurring within the stated time period.
20
17/10/2017

We can also use these same values of
p and n to calculate the probability of
the event not occurring in a 30–year
period, or the non–exceedance
probability.
This table shows the relationship between the return period, the annual exceedance
probability and the annual non–exceedance probability for any single given year.

Let's say you want to know what the probability is for a 50–year flood over a 50–year
period. It's not 100 percent! Calculation for Probability of 50–Year Flood Over 50–Year
Period:
1 – (1 – p)n
We know that n = 50 since we are looking at a 50–year period of time and using the
probability of occurrence table we see that p=0.02 for a 50–year return period.
1 – (1 – 0.02)50 = 1 – (0.98)50
So, applying these values in the equation, the (1–p) value is (1–0.02), or 0.98.
= 1 – 0.36 = 0.64 or 64%
There is a 64% chance of a 50–year flood in a 50–year period.
That means there is a 36% chance we won't see a 50–year flood in the 50–year period.
21
17/10/2017

There are situations when it is advantageous

for the flood statistics to represent more
than one peak flow per year.
For example, for floods that occur frequently

enough, there is a reasonable chance that
this will happen more than once per year.
It is possible that the second or third largest

peak in a particular year may be larger than
the maximum flood of some other year.
In an annual series, such additional events

are ignored since only the largest annual
event is allowed.

Flood Frequency Estimation and Return Periods: Peaks Over Threshold
The partial duration series (Peaks over

Threshold) includes all events above some
arbitrary threshold value.
Typically this is the smallest annual maximum

series value. For example, the letter A shows
only the peak annual flows in this 4–year graph
of flows including the relatively small peak
flow of 10 units in 1997.
The letter P shows all events above a flow

threshold of 10 units.
All of these events would be included in a

flood frequency analysis based on a partial
duration series (Peak over Threshold).
http://evidence.environment-agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/FluvialDesignGuide/Chapter2.aspx?pagenum=4
22
17/10/2017

Criticisms of Flood Frequency Estimation and Return Periods
Return periods give many people a false sense of security, partly because they are often
mistaken as absolutes instead of average frequencies. Also, people can easily misconstrue
the short- and long-term likelihoods of a severe event occurring.
The estimate is inevitably based on limited data. The shorter the record the lower
certainty there must be about estimating rare events or selecting the right model to fit.
Worse than this, because 50-year floods, or any others, can pop up any time, in practice
we are never sure that, say, a 20-year record does not contain a 50-year flood.
Return periods are dependent on stationarity (homogeneity) of catchment characteristics

over time, but non-stationarity can result from a variety of anthropogenic processes
including changes in land use, climate, and water use, with likely interactions among
those processes making it very difficult to attribute trends to a particular cause (Vogel et
al, 2011; Archfield et al., 2016)
As cities and towns become more paved, the size and frequency of floods go up very
quickly. Remarkably, there are no standard approaches for correcting for urbanization
when estimating the 100-year flood.
Design Events
It is difficult to estimate flood frequency values for ungauged basins or basins with limited
data. To help address this problem, the concept of a design storm was developed. The
design storm is a "what–if" approach that may be helpful when planning for potential
floods.
A design storm is a precipitation event of a
specific magnitude and duration; for
example, 150 mm in 24 hours. A design
storm results in a design flood of a specific
magnitude that is used in a "what– if"
scenario to estimate the impact.
Design events are used to evaluate flood

risks to structures and facilities. To meet set
safety levels and/or reduce damage costs,
structures must be able to withstand certain
natural events.
23
17/10/2017
Design Events
Many countries construct design storms based on
depth–duration–frequency curves, which show the
relationship between the depth of precipitation and
frequency of occurrence of different duration periods.
These curves are generated from historical records of

major precipitation events for a given region.
The Probable Maximum Flood (or PMF), sometimes

also referred to as the maximum possible flood, is the
theoretical upper limit that can be expected from the
most severe combination of meteorological and/or
hydrologic conditions.
It is calculated using the greatest depth accumulation

of precipitation that is theoretically possible for a given
storm duration in a particular geographic region.

Summary
Overview of Flow Gauging
• The flow in channels is of high interest to humans for multiple reasons, from flood
prevention and erosion control to water resource management and power generation.
• Present discharge and potential bankfull discharge can be estimated using the Manning
Equation. This equation demonstrates the importance of channel roughness and
hydraulic radius in determining the efficiency of the channel at conveying water.
• Present discharge can be measured using a range of techniques:
- Volumetric gauging (for small discharges)
- Velocity-area gauging using a surface float, an Ott-type current meter, an

electromagnetic current meter, or an ADCP (for a wide range of discharges)
- Dilution gauging (salt-dilution or dye-dilution gauging) depending on the

magnitude and character of flow (for turbulent, shallow, or obscured discharges)
24
17/10/2017

Summary
Overview of Flood Frequency Analysis
• Flood frequency analysis provides information about the statistical potential for
floods.
• Return period expresses a time period (i.e., the 100–year flood) that is the statistical
average time duration between floods of a certain magnitude. The greater the return
period, the larger the flood.
• Annual exceedance probability or probability of occurrence for a given year is the

inverse of the return period. Therefore, the 100–year flood would have an exceedance
probability of 1/100, or 1%.
• Floods, however, do not occur at evenly spaced time intervals. Thus, a 100–year flood
won't necessarily occur just once in a 100–year period.
• A given return period flood is not necessarily the result of a rainfall event with the
same return period. That is, a 25–year rainfall won't necessarily produce a 25–year
flood.

Summary
Overview of Statistical Representation of Floods
• The period of record should be at least half as long as the computed return period.
That is, to estimate a 500–year flood one should have at least 250 years of data.
• Flood frequency statistics are more representative of potential floods when the
period of record is long enough to capture all types of events that are possible.
• The probability of occurrence, or exceedance probability, of a flood over a given

time period can be computed with standardized formulas. This can answer a
question such as, "What is the chance for a 100–year flood over the next 30
years?“
• Reliable flood frequency data require that floods are independent and
homogeneous.
• Basin alterations, such as urbanization, violate the assumption of homogeneity in

flood frequency analysis.
25
17/10/2017

References
Archfield, S.A., Hirsch, R.M., Viglione, A. and Blöschl, G., 2016. Fragmented patterns of flood
change across the United States. Geophysical Research Letters.
Chow, V T (1959). Open-channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill.
Environment Agency (2011) Fluvial Design Guide (Ch.7). Online. Accessed 18/11/2011.
Hendriks, M.R. (2010) Introduction to Physical Hydrology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Vogel, R. M., Yaindl, C. and Walter, M. (2011), Nonstationarity: Flood Magnification and
Recurrence Reduction Factors in the United States. JAWRA Journal of the American Water
Resources Association, 47: 464–474. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00541.x
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/6000/2115548.pdf
http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/100-year-flood-fallacy-return-periods-misleading-
communication-flood-risk
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00541.x/abstract
26

WEM01 - Lecture 3 - Hydrology II

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

WEM01 - Lecture 3 - Hydrology II

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

17/10/2017

WEM01 Water Resources Management

School of Environment and Technology

WEM01 Water Resource Management

- Key hydrological processes:

WEM01 Water Resource Management

WEM01 Water Resource Management

WEM01 Water Resource Management

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Discharge (m3 s-1) x Head (m) x 9.81 (constant for gravity)

Most screws work on an efficiency of up to 80% = multiply kW by 0.8

For more info: http://www.freeflow69.com/index.php/archimedes-screw Hydropower

WEM01 Water Resource Management

The volume of water passing through a

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• The velocity varies in

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Turbulent flow occurs at high velocities, at

WEM01 Water Resource Management

- the hydraulic radius (R),

Re = (ѵmean R)/ v-1

• When Re is <500, flow is laminar.

• When Re is >2000 flow is turbulent.

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• immediately downstream of structures;

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• Discharge is difficult to measure. It is typically a painstaking and sometimes a dangerous (or

• Stage height can be measured in a

• Nevertheless, the easily monitored

WEM01 Water Resource Management

(1) Volumetric gauging

(2) Velocity-area method

(3) Dilution gauging

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• The water velocity is simply determined by timing the movement

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• An electronic device keeps track of the

• The average water velocity for a flow

WEM01 Water Resource Management

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• Such a current meter uses the Faraday Principle to measure

• The water velocity is proportional to the voltage measured

• The average water velocity for a flow distribution may be

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Using an Ott-type or electromagnetic

The discharge in one segment is equal

The discharge for the whole channel

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Calculating Discharge Exercise

Velocity (m s-1) 0.02 0.20 0.40 0.85 0.45 0.35 0.25

Each section has equal width of 0.30 m

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• An ADCP uses sound waves to determine the water velocity,

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• A GPS is used to track the progress

• The velocity-area method is then

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• This method can be used for discharges up to about 10 m3 s-1.

WEM01 Water Resource Management

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Adapted from original comprehensive list of values

Streams and Rivers: Physics of Motion