A THERMAL POWER ENGINEERING TERM PAPER

ON MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC POWER
GENERATION.

FOR THE ATTENTION OF

DR. OSAROBO IGHODARO

PREPARED BY

S/N NAME MAT. NUMBER

1 MUSA, ABDULAZEEZ SULEIMAN ENG1704311
2 AKPAIBOR, FAVOUR EMOSHORIEMHE ENG1704268
3 ABUAH, NGOZICHUKWUKA NEWTON ENG1805339
4 AGBONOGA, DAUDA OKHUMEDE ENG1704257
5 EDOH, JOSEPH ONOME ENG1704285
6 OSAGHAE, NELSON IWINOSA ENG1704339
7 EBUADE, PRINCEWILL PROMISE ENG1503890
8 EHIAMEN, KELVIN OSERIEMEN ENG1707716
9 SANNI, AMETU OLUWATOBI ENG1704351
10 OSEBOR JOSHUA ENG1704342
 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC POWER GENERATION

Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics

The study of the magnetic characteristics and behavior of electrically conducting fluids is known
as magnetohydrodynamics, or MHD for short. The word magnetohydrodynamics is derived from
the words magneto implies magnetic field, hydro meaning water and dynamics refer to movement.
Therefore, Magnetohydrodynamics can also be said to be a branch of fluid dynamics which studies
the movement of an electrically-conducting fluid in a magnetic field. Plasmas, liquid metals, salt
water, and electrolytes are a few examples of these electrically conducting fluids also known as
magnetofluids.

Magnetohydrodynamics power generation is a direct energy conversion system which converts

the heat energy directly into electrical energy by interaction between a magnetofluid (usually
plasma or ionized gas) and a magnetic field. Magnetohydrodynamic power generation provides a
way of generating electricity directly from fast moving stream of ionized gases without the need
for any moving mechanical parts, that is there is no turbines and no rotary generators. MHD power
generation has also been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors
and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems.

Origin of Magnetohydrodynamics

Countries have been doing MHD research with a focus on the use of coal as a fuel ever since the
year 1970. The discovery that the interaction of a plasma with a magnetic field could take place at
far greater temperatures than were feasible in a rotating mechanical turbine served as the initial
catalyst for interest in MHD power generation.

Several MHD projects were initiated in the 1960s but overcoming the technical challenges of
making a practical system proved very expensive. Interest consequently waned in favour of nuclear
power which since that time has seemed a more attractive option. The first practical MHD power
research was funded in 1938 in the U.S. by Westinghouse in its Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania laboratories, headed by Hungarian Bela Karlovitz. The initial patent on MHD is by
B. Karlovitz, U.S. Patent No. 2,210,918, "Process for the Conversion of Energy", August 13, 1940.
World War II interrupted development. In 1962, the First International Conference on MHD Power
was held in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK by Dr. Brian C. Lindley of the International Research and
Development Company Ltd. The group set up a steering committee to set up further conferences
and disseminate ideas. In 1964, the group set up a second conference in Paris, France, in
consultation with the European Nuclear Energy Agency.

Since membership in the ENEA was limited, the group persuaded the International Atomic Energy
Agency to sponsor a third conference, in Salzburg, Austria, July 1966. Negotiations at this meeting
converted the steering committee into a periodic reporting group, the ILG-MHD (international
liaison group, MHD), under the ENEA, and later in 1967, also under the International Atomic
Energy Agency. Further research in the 1960s by R. Rosa established the practicality of MHD for
fossil-fueled systems.

In the 1960s, AVCO Everett Aeronautical Research began a series of experiments, ending with
the Mk. V generator of 1965. This generated 35 MW, but used about 8 MW to drive its magnet.
In 1966, the ILG-MHD had its first formal meeting in Paris, France. It began issuing a periodic
status report in 1967. This pattern persisted, in this institutional form, up until 1976. Toward the
end of the 1960s, interest in MHD declined because nuclear power was becoming more widely
available.

In the late 1970s, as interest in nuclear power declined, interest in MHD increased. In
1975, UNESCO became persuaded the MHD might be the most efficient way to utilize world coal
reserves, and in 1976, sponsored the ILG-MHD. In 1976, it became clear that no nuclear reactor
in the next 25 years would use MHD, so the International Atomic Energy Agency and ENEA (both
nuclear agencies) withdrew support from the ILG-MHD, leaving UNESCO as the primary sponsor
of the ILG-MHD.

In the 1980s, the U.S. Department of Energy began a vigorous multiyear program, culminating in
a 1992 50 MW demonstration coal combustor at the Component Development and Integration
Facility (CDIF) in Butte, Montana. This program also had significant work at the Coal-Fired-In-
Flow-Facility (CFIFF) at University of Tennessee Space Institute.

In 1986, Professor Hugo Karl Messerle at The University of Sydney researched coal-fueled MHD.
This resulted in a 28 MWe topping facility that was operated outside Sydney. Messerle also wrote
one of the most recent reference works (see below), as part of a UNESCO education program.
 General working principles of a Magnetohydrodynamics power generation

The fundamental idea behind MHD power generation is extremely straightforward and based on
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (named for the 19th-century English physicist and
chemist Michael Faraday). The MHD system constitutes a heat engine, involving an expansion of
the gas from high to low pressure in a manner similar to that employed in a conventional gas
turbogenerator. The gas is produced at high pressure by combustion of a fossil fuel. The gas
becomes ionized causing it to become electrically conducting. The conducting gas is then directed
through a channel or duct where a strong magnetic field (usually a superconducting magnet with
high intensity) is applied resulting in an electromotive force within it. In a turbogenerator, the gas
produced interacts with blade surfaces to drive the turbine and the attached electric generator while
for the MHD system, the kinetic energy of the gas is converted directly to electric energy as it is
allowed to expand. Following its working principle, the MHD generator can be considered to be a
fluid dynamo. This is due to its similarity to a mechanical dynamo in which the motion of a metal
conductor through a magnetic field creates a current in the conductor except that in the MHD
generator the metal conductor is replaced by a conducting gas plasma. This is the principle as
discovered by Michael Faraday is behind the conventional rotary electricity generator. Dutch
physicist Antoon Lorentz provided the mathematical theory to quantify its effects.

Applying Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule to the MHD generator, a conducting fluid is passed through
a magnetic field ‘B’. The conducting fluid has free charge particles moving with a velocity ‘v’.
The effects of a charged particle moving with a velocity ‘v’ in a constant magnetic field are given
by the Lorentz Force Law. Lorentz Law describing the effects of a charged particle moving in a
constant magnetic field can be stated as

F = QvB

Where;
F is the force acting on the charged particle.
Q is charge of particle.
v is velocity of particle.
B is magnetic field.

The MHD generator requires a high temperature gas source, which might be produced by burning
coal or other fossil fuels in a combustion chamber. It is also possible for the MHD generator to use
coolant from nuclear reactors. The potential system components are depicted in the diagram below.

The expansion nozzle reduces the gas pressure and consequently increases the plasma speed
(Bernoulli’s law) through the generator duct to increase the power output.
Unfortunately, at the same time, the pressure drop causes the plasma temperature to fall (Gay-
lussac’s law) which also increases the plasma resistance, so a compromise between Bernoulli and
Gay-Lussac must be found.
The working fluid's exhaust heat is used to power a compressor, which boosts the rate of fuel
combustion, but much of the heat will be lost unless it can be employed in another procedure.
 Important Parameters Involved in MHD Power Generation

Gas Conductivity

This is the most important parameter in the power generation & this is the parameter that has
impeded the progress of the MHD generation. A reasonable conductivity refers to a value between
about 10 to 100 mhos/m. Most metals have conductivities of the order of 10000000 mhos/m and
even transistor materials have conductivities exceeding 100 mhos/m. The gas has to be made
sufficiently conducting, in order that it may be utilized as a working fluid. In other words, it has to
be ionized – a process in which electrons are removed from an atom. Conduction is due to the free
electrons and positive ions which move under the effect of a magnetic field. Various methods for
ionizing the gas are available, all of which depend on imparting sufficient energy to the gas. It may
be accomplished by heating or irradiating the gas with X rays or Gamma rays. It has also been
proposed to use the coolant gases such as helium and carbon dioxide employed in some nuclear
reactors as the plasma fuel for direct MHD electricity generation rather than extracting the heat
energy of the gas through heat exchangers to raise steam to drive turbine generators. Seed materials
such as Potassium carbonate or Cesium are often added in small amounts, typically about 1% of
the total mass flow to increase the ionisation and improve the conductivity, particularly of
combustion gas plasmas. Some of the ionization techniques are listed as follows.

1. Thermal Ionization: This is the most important method of ionizing a plasma. Ionization is
obtained by imparting enough thermal energy to the gas. It depends upon the
Temperature.

2. Magnetically induced ionization: A D.C voltage is applied across a gas at reduced

pressure to create an electric field which will supply energy to electrons.

3. Radio frequency wave induced ionization: It is used to produce a low amount of

ionization in a gas. This is not effectively enough for MHD generation.
Others include radioactivity, photoionization and electron beam ionization. Since the plasma
temperature is typically over 1000 °C, the duct containing the plasma must be constructed from
non-conducting materials capable of withstanding these high temperatures. The electrodes must of
course be conducting as well as heat resistant.
Note: The plasmas used in nuclear fusion reactors have a different function and run at much higher
temperatures.

The Faraday Current

A powerful electromagnet provides the magnetic field through which the plasma flows, and
perpendicular to this field are installed the two electrodes on opposite sides of the plasma across
which the electrical output voltage is generated. The current flowing across the plasma between
these electrodes is called the Faraday current. This provides the main electrical output of the MHD
generator.

The Hall Effect Current

The very high Faraday output current which flows across the plasma duct into the load itself reacts
with the applied magnetic field creating a Hall Effect current perpendicular to the Faraday current,
in other words, a current along the axis of the plasma, resulting in lost energy. The total current
generated will be the vector sum of the transverse (Faraday) and axial (Hall effect) current
components. Unless it can be captured in some way, the Hall effect current will constitute an energy
loss.
Various configurations of electrodes have been devised to capture both the Faraday and Hall effect
components of the current in order to improve the overall MHD conversion efficiency.
One such method is to split the electrode pair into a series of segments physically side by side
(parallel) but insulated from each other, with the segmented electrode pairs connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage but with a lower current. Instead of the electrodes being directly opposite
each other, perpendicular to the plasma stream, they are skewed at a slight angle from
perpendicular to be in line with the vector sum of the Faraday and Hall effect currents, as shown
in the diagram below, thus allowing the maximum energy to be extracted from the plasma.
Magnetic Field

The voltage generation depends on the properties of the magnetic field [17] used in the MHD
system. The density of the magnetic field of a MHD generating system should be very high which
can be obtained ideally by a superconducting magnet [18]. A superconducting magnet is an
electromagnet which is developed with the current carrying conductor/coil made up of
superconducting wire. The superconducting wires can be considered as special electrical
conductors which are developed from superconducting materials. Superconducting materials are
the materials which exhibit no electrical resistance at their superconducting state and hence they
can conduct a considerably large amounts of electric currents than conventional electrical
conductors. Therefor the superconducting magnets can be supplied with a large amount of
electrical current producing a huge number of magnetic fields which can be very useful in many
applications where a large magnetic field is required such as MHD generating system, magnetic
resonance imaging system (MRI) etc.

Fluid Conductor

The conducting medium in MHD generation is produced either by heating a gas to its plasma state
or to add the salts of alkali metals which are other easily ionizable substances and hence they can
enhance the conductivity. The MHD power generation can be performed either using gas-plasma
or the liquid metal flow or else. The Plasma MHD is a MHD generator when the conducting fluid
used in it is plasma. Plasma, which is often called “the fourth state of matter”, is an ionized gas
comprising of electrons (negatively charged particles and the ions. Therefore, the plasma is
superheated gaseous matter in which all or most of the electrons are found freely moving as the
electrodes are ripped away from the atoms by applying extra energy to the atoms making them
ions and making the gas ionized. As a conducting fluid flow through a magnetic field can generate
electric voltage, in plasma MHD the plasma is passed through a channel kept in a magnetic field
and the motion of the conducting plasma through this magnetic field induces a voltage across the
plasma. The direction of the emf will be perpendicular to the direction of the plasma flow as well
as the direction of the magnetic field. Utilizing thermal ionization process gas-plasma is produced
for the MHD generators. In thermal ionization process the temperature of the gas is raised up to
the point at which the electrons are ripped away from the atoms by applying extra energy and can
move freely along with the ionized atoms (ionised after losing the electrodes) and hence the gas
becomes electrically conductive and makes the gas-plasma. Sometimes some seeding materials
are mixed with the gas to bring down the temperature at which the gas becomes ionized as a
considerable high temperature is required to convert the gas to gas-plasma applying the heat energy
only. If some chemical agents (like alkali metal, salts etc.) are mixed with the chemicals helps the
gas to get ionized easily even at the lower temperatures.

Power Output

The output power is proportional to the cross-sectional area and the flow rate of the ionised plasma.
The conductive substance is also cooled and slowed in this process. MHD generators typically
reduce the temperature of the conductive substance from plasma temperatures to just over 1000
°C. An MHD generator produces a direct current output which needs an expensive high-power
inverter to convert the output into alternating current for connection to the grid.

Efficiency

Typical efficiencies of MHD generators are around 10 to 20 percent mainly due to the heat lost
through the high temperature exhaust.
This limits the MHD's potential applications as a stand-alone device but they were originally
designed to be used in combination with other energy converters in hybrid applications where the
output gases (flames) are used as the energy source to raise steam in a steam turbine plant. Total
plant efficiencies of 65% could be possible in such arrangements.
 MHD GENERATOR AND ITS DESIGNS

What is MHD Generator?

A magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator is a device that generates power directly by interacting

with a rapidly moving stream of fluid, usually ionized gases/plasma. MHD devices transform heat
or kinetic energy into electrical energy. The typical setup of an MHD generator is that both turbine
and electric power generator coalesce into a single unit and has no moving parts, thus, eliminating
vibrations and noise, limiting wear and tear. MHDs have the highest thermodynamic efficiency as
it operates at higher temperatures than mechanical turbines.

DESIGNS OF MHD GENERATOR

In order to achieve a suitable operational efficiency of the MHD Generator, steps must be taken to
increase the electrical conductivity of the conductive substance. This brought about different
designs of the MHD generator. To design and implement an MHD generator, several conditions
must be considered such as economics, efficiency, contaminated hypo ducts are considered. Three
most common designs of MHD generators are: The Faraday MHD generator design, Hall MHD
generator design and the Disc MHD generator design.

FARADAY MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

The Faraday generator is named for Michael Faraday's experiments on moving charged particles
in the Thames river. A simple Faraday generator would consist of a wedge-shaped pipe or tube of
some non-conductive material. The powerful electromagnet produces a magnetic field and allows
the conductive fluid to pass through it perpendicularly, inducing the voltage. The electrodes are
placed at right angles to the magnetic field to extract the output electrical power.

This design offers limitations such as the kind of field used and density. Eventually, the amount
of power drawn using the Faraday design is directly proportional to the area of the tube and the
speed of the conductive fluid. The main practical problem of a Faraday generator is that differential
voltages and currents in the fluid short through the electrodes on the sides of the duct. The most
powerful waste is from the Hall effect current. This makes the Faraday duct very inefficient. Most
further refinements of MHD generators have tried to solve this problem. The optimal magnetic
field on duct-shaped MHD generators is a sort of saddle shape. To get this field, a large generator
requires an extremely powerful magnet.

FARADAY MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

HALL MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

In regards to the problems involved in the faraday generator design; the hall generator design
concept was introduced. This design has arrays of short, segmented electrodes on the sides of the
duct. The first and last electrodes in the duct power the load. Each other electrode is shorted to an
electrode on the opposite side of the duct. The very high output current produced through the
Faraday flows along with the fluid duct and reacts with the applied magnetic field resulting in Hall
Effect. This secondary, induced field makes current flow in a rainbow shape between the first and
last electrodes. The total current produced is equal to the vector sum of the components of traverse
(Faraday) and axial current. Losses are less than a Faraday generator, and voltages are higher
because there is less shorting of the final induced current. As the load varies, the fluid flow speed
varies, misaligning the Faraday current with its intended electrodes, and making the generator
efficiency very sensitive to its load.
 HALL MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

DISC MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

The Hall Effect disc MHD generator design is highly efficient and is the most commonly used
design. A disc generator has fluid flowing between the center of a disc, and a duct wrapped around
the edge. The magnetic excitation field is made by a pair of circular Helmholtz coils above and
below the disk. The Faraday currents flow in a perfect dead short around the periphery of the disk.
The Hall effect currents flow between ring electrodes near the center duct and ring electrodes near
the periphery duct. The wide flat gas flow reduced the distance, hence the resistance of the moving
fluid. This increases efficiency. The generator is compact for its power, so the magnet is also
smaller. The resulting magnet uses a much smaller percentage of the generated power.
 DISK MHD GENERATOR DESIGN

MHD CYCLES

MHD cycles are a type of thermodynamic cycle that involves the interaction of a conducting fluid,
such as a plasma or a liquid metal, with a magnetic field to generate electricity. MHD cycles are
used as a method of converting thermal energy from a heat source, such as a nuclear reactor or a
fossil fuel combustion chamber, into electrical power.

In an MHD cycle, the conducting fluid is passed through a magnetic field, which induces an
electric current in the fluid due to the electromagnetic force. This electric current can then be
extracted to generate electricity. MHD cycles have the potential to be highly efficient, as they can
directly convert the kinetic energy of the fluid into electrical power without the need for
mechanical components, such as turbines or generators, which can introduce energy losses.

MHD cycles have been studied for various applications, including power generation from coal
combustion, nuclear power plants, and space propulsion. However, practical implementation of
MHD cycles has been challenging due to issues such as fluid conductivity, stability, and efficiency.
Nonetheless, MHD cycles continue to be an active area of research and development in the field
of energy conversion and power generation.
 TYPES OF MHD CYCLES
Having numerous types of configurations for MHD cycles, it was deduced that there are two (2)
major types of MHD cycles that other cycles build upon. These are;

1. Open-Cycle MHD: In an open-cycle MHD system, a high-temperature plasma is formed

by heating a working fluid, typically a noble gas, to extremely high temperatures using a
combustion or nuclear heat source. The hot plasma is then accelerated through a magnetic
field, generating electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction. The
plasma is then expanded and ejected from the system, making it an open cycle.

The system shown below uses an MHD generator in conjunction with conventional steam
power plant. The fuel used may be coal, oil or natural gas.

The surrounding air is compressed to a high pressure in the air compressor. The gases are
then heated in the low temperature and high temperature air preheaters before supplied to
the combustion chamber up to a temperature of about 1100°C.
The fuel is burnt in presence of hot air in combustor. The hot gases so produced are seeded
with 1% alkaline potassium to increase the electrical conductivity of the gases. These hot
gases expand in the nozzle to high velocity and enter into MHD duct at about 2300°C to
2700°C temperature. Some part of the internal energy of the gas (plasma) is directly
converted into DC power. Then DC-AC inverter converts the DC power into AC power.
The hot gases leaving the MHD duct is used in high temperature air preheater to heat the
air. Then these gases are used in a heat exchanger (steam generator) to generate steam from
feed water. The steam so generated is used in a conventional steam power plant to generate
power as shown in Figure A. The remainder of heat of gas is utilized for heating the
compressed air in low temperature air preheater. Hot gases then pass through a seed
recovering unit (electrostatic precipitator). The clean hot gases are either exhausted to the
surroundings through the chimney as shown or these gases can be recycled by compressing
again, heating and repeating the cycle. It is decided by the type of MHD plant. Below is a
condition where the air is recycled by compressing again.
2. Closed-Cycle MHD: In a closed-cycle MHD system, a working fluid is heated by an
external heat source, such as a combustion or nuclear heat source, to produce a high-
temperature plasma. The plasma is then passed through a magnetic field, generating
electricity through electromagnetic induction. The plasma is then cooled and re-circulated
back into the system, making it a closed cycle.
Closed cycle MHD generators can either operate on seeded inert gas (helium or argon)
system or liquid metal system. These systems are being discussed below.

i). Seeded Inert gas MHD generator: In this system an inert gas is seeded and heated to
a high temperature in a nuclear reactor and passed to a nozzle for its velocity to be increased
and further sent to the MHD generator which in turn creates DC power. The distinguishing
factor between this closed cycle and an open cycle is that the gas passes through a heat
exchanger (when in conjunction with a steam power generator) and then cooler before it is
sent again into the compressor (and not discarded) for the process to be restated. The
diagram below shows the working cycle of a Seeded Inert gas MHD generator in a power
plant.
ii). Liquid metal MHD system: It is similar to inert gas system except that it uses liquid
metal (potassium) instead of helium gas as the working fluid. Liquid potassium or sodium
is heated in the nuclear reactor is passed through the nozzles to increase its velocity. The
carrier gas is pressurized and heated by passage through a heat exchanger within
combustion chamber. The hot gas is then incorporated into the liquid metal usually hot
sodium to form the working fluid. The latter then consists of gas bubbles uniformly
dispersed in an approximately equal volume of liquid sodium.  The working fluid is
introduced into the MHD generator through a nozzle in the usual ways. The carrier gas
then provides the required high direct velocity of the electrical conductor. After passage
through the generator, the liquid metal is separated from the carrier gas. Part of the heat
exchanger to produce steam for operating a turbine generator. Finally, the carrier gas is
cooled, compressed and returned to the combustion chamber for reheating and mixing with
the recovered liquid metal. The working fluid temperature is usually around 800’C as the
boiling point of sodium even under moderate pressure is below 900’C.  At lower operating
temp, the other MHD conversion systems may be advantageous from the material
standpoint, but the maximum thermal efficiency is lower. A possible compromise might
be to use liquid lithium, with a boiling point near 1300’C as the electrical conductor lithium
is much more expensive than sodium but losses in the closed system are less.
 COMPONENTS OF MHD CYCLE

1. Natural gas source: This could be a containing vessel or the atmosphere that supplies natural
gas to the compressor.

2. Compressor: Compressor takes the hot air from the heat exchanger and supplies it to the
combustion chamber for producing plasma.

3. Air preheater: An air preheater is any device designed to heat air before another process (for
example, combustion in a boiler with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency
of the process. This is necessary to achieve a desired high flame temperature and electrical
conductivity of the plasma. The air preheaters operate in two modes: (i) Recuperators where
the heat transfer is continuous from one fluid to another which are separated through solid
walls, and (ii) Regenerators in which the heat transfer takes place in a cyclic fashion.

4. Combustion Chamber: A Combustion Chamber is the area within the Cylinder where the
fuel/air mix is ignited. The hot gases produced by the combustion process are directed through
the nozzle into the MHD generator.

5. MHD generator: This is the heart of the MHD cycle. An energy conversion system
because converts thermal energy into electrical energy without mechanically moving parts. It
 is typically made of a ceramic or refractory material that can withstand high temperatures and
corrosive gases.

6. Seeding system: The gas stream is "seeded" with potassium (or any highly ionizable material),
to increase its electrical conductivity

7. Superconducting magnet system: This is used to produces the magnetic field necessary for
ionization of the gas in the duct or channel and to convert the kinetic energy of the moving gas
into electrical energy.

8. Flow Channel: The plasma flows through a channel that is designed to facilitate the interaction
between the magnetic field and the charged particles. The channel is typically made of a non-
conductive material that can withstand the high temperatures and pressures of the flowing
plasma. The shape and size of the channel are optimized to achieve efficient energy extraction
from the plasma.

9. Heat Exchanger: The heat exchanger is used to transfer the heat from the hot gas exiting the
MHD generator to a coolant that can be used to generate steam or other forms of energy. The
heat exchanger is important because it helps to improve the overall efficiency of the process.

HEATING SOURCES FOR MHD CYCLES

1. Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, or oil, can be burned in a
combustion chamber to release heat energy, which is then used to raise the temperature of the
working medium. The combustion products, such as hot gases, are directed through a heat
exchanger to transfer the heat energy to the working medium and increase its temperature.
2. Nuclear Heat: Nuclear heat from a nuclear reactor can be used as a heating source for MHD
cycles. In a nuclear reactor, the heat is generated through nuclear fission or fusion reactions,
and the high-temperature heat is used to raise the temperature of the working medium and
ionize it to form a conducting plasma.
3. Solar Thermal Energy: Concentrated solar thermal energy can be used as a heating source
for MHD cycles. Solar collectors or mirrors are used to focus sunlight onto a target, which
absorbs the heat energy and raises the temperature of the working medium. This can be
particularly useful in solar power plants where the heat from the sun is concentrated and used
to drive an MHD cycle.
4. Plasma Heating: In some cases, external energy can be directly injected into the plasma to
heat it and raise its temperature. This can be achieved using techniques such as radiofrequency
(RF) heating, microwave heating, or laser heating, where energy is transferred to the plasma
through electromagnetic waves or laser beams to increase its temperature and ionization level.
5. Geothermal Heat: Geothermal heat, which is the heat from the Earth's interior, can be used
as a heating source for MHD cycles. Geothermal energy can be extracted from hot water or
steam reservoirs found deep underground and used to raise the temperature of the working
medium in an MHD cycle.

It's important to note that the choice of heating source for an MHD cycle depends on various
factors such as availability, cost, environmental considerations, and the specific application of
the MHD system. The heating source should provide sufficient thermal energy to raise the
temperature of the working medium to the desired level for effective interaction with the
magnetic field and generation of electricity.

WORKING FLUIDS IN MHD CYCLES

1. Plasma: Plasma is a high-temperature, ionized gas that consists of charged particles, including
ions and free electrons. Plasma is an excellent conductor of electricity and is commonly used
as the working fluid in MHD cycles. Plasma can be generated from various gases, such as
hydrogen, helium, argon, or a combination of gases, by heating them to high temperatures and
ionizing them using external energy sources.
2. Liquid Metals: Liquid metals, such as sodium, potassium, and lithium, can also be used as
working fluids in MHD cycles. Liquid metals are good conductors of electricity and can
operate at high temperatures, making them suitable for high-temperature MHD applications.
 Liquid metal MHD cycles are often used in nuclear power plants, where the liquid metal serves
as both the coolant and the working fluid in the MHD cycle.
3. Molten Salts: Molten salts, which are ionic liquids that become liquid at high temperatures,
can also be used as working fluids in MHD cycles. Molten salts have high electrical
conductivity and can operate at high temperatures, making them suitable for certain MHD
applications. They are commonly used in some advanced or specialized MHD systems, such
as in some types of high-temperature solar power plants.
4. Other Working Fluids: Depending on the specific application, other types of working fluids
may also be used in MHD cycles. For example, in some specialized applications, liquid
electrolytes or suspensions of conducting particles in a fluid may be used as working fluids.
The choice of working fluid depends on factors such as thermal properties, electrical
conductivity, availability, and compatibility with the overall system design.

It's important to note that the choice of working fluid in an MHD cycle depends on various
considerations, including electrical conductivity, thermal properties, availability, system
efficiency, and safety. The working fluid needs to be carefully selected to ensure effective
interaction with the magnetic field and efficient generation of electricity in the MHD cycle.

COMPARISON OF MHD CYCLE TO OTHER THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES.

Interest in MHD power generation was originally stimulated by the observation that the interaction
of a plasma with a magnetic field could occur at much higher temperatures than were possible in
a rotating mechanical turbine. MHD (Magneto Hydro Dynamics) power generation is a unique
method of producing electricity that differs from traditional thermodynamic cycles such as the
Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle. Here are some key differences between the MHD cycle and other
thermodynamic cycles:

1. Working fluid: The MHD cycle uses a high-temperature plasma or ionized gas as its working
fluid, while traditional thermodynamic cycles use a liquid or gas. This difference affects the
overall efficiency and performance of the system.
2. Energy conversion mechanism: In the MHD cycle, energy is converted directly from the
kinetic energy of the flowing plasma to electrical energy through the interaction of the plasma
with a magnetic field. In contrast, traditional thermodynamic cycles convert energy through
the expansion and compression of a working fluid.
3. Efficiency: The efficiency of the MHD cycle is typically higher than that of traditional
thermodynamic cycles, especially at high temperatures. This is because the MHD cycle does
not rely on heat exchange between different fluids, which can result in energy loss.

4. Operating temperature: The MHD cycle operates at much higher temperatures than
traditional thermodynamic cycles, often in the range of thousands of degrees Celsius. This
allows for higher energy densities and more efficient energy conversion.

5. Complexity: The MHD cycle is generally more complex and difficult to implement than
traditional thermodynamic cycles, due to the need for high-temperature plasma generation and
precise control of the magnetic field.

ADVANTAGES OF THE MHD GENERATOR.

• Conventional coal-fired thermal power plants can achieve a maximum efficiency of about
35% whereas this efficiency can be enhanced up to 50% - 60% by implementing the MHD
generators which utilize the energy from the hot gas-plasma prior to send it to standard
steam turbines.
• For Liquid metal based MHD generators, the separator cycle works at almost constant
temperature expansion of the working fluid and thus enables higher thermal efficiency.
This cycle is when the liquid is separated from the vapour-fluid-carrier VFC before it
passes through the MHD generator.
• The MHD generator generates electrical energy by recycling the heat energy from the hot
plasma which remains sufficiently hot to boil water to drive the steam turbines to produce
additional power.
 • In MHD generators there are no solid moving parts and hence frictional or mechanical
losses are very less and wear and tear is almost negligible.
• Any heat source can be used for Liquid metal based MHD generators as liquid metal
exhibits a high heat transfer and electrical conduction properties. Power sources like solar,
geothermal, nuclear, exhaust gas etc.
• Running cost is less compared to the conventional thermal power plant.
• Compared to the conventional thermal power plants MHD generators contribute less in
pollution in the atmosphere as it is not generating any waste or pollutants. CO2 emission
is negligible and could be avoided in the MHD power generation schemes.
• Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate the turbine (compared with a
gas turbine power plant) or both the boiler and the turbine (compared with a steam power
plant) elimination reduces losses of energy.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE MHD GENERATOR

• The higher cost of the required for the construction of MHD systems is one of the major hurdles
in applications of MHD systems. Huge amount of magnetic field is required which needs a
special design, higher cost and magnetic shielding in some case.
• Plasma or ionized fluid velocity must be high for large amount of energy generation. This
causes need for high pressure pumping of the liquid metal to achieve such accelerations for
MHD conversion.
• For MHD generators to operate competitively with good performance and reasonable physical
dimensions, the electrical conductivity of the plasma must be in a temperature range above
about 1,800 K (about 1,500 °C, or 2,800 °F). The turbine blades of a gas-turbine power system
are unable to operate at such temperatures.
• Losses due to mixer losses, pressure drops, slip loss and poor mixing because of partly
vaporization of liquid occur as a result of the mixer nozzle being an open chamber where
vapour-fluid-carrier VFC and MHD-Fluid get mixed together, this mixture is then transported
at high velocity to the separator before the fluids get separated and the MDH-Fluid moves into
the MHD generator.
 MODIFICATIONS MADE TO MHD POWER GENERATION

Over the years, there have been several modifications and improvements made to MHD power
generation technology, including:

1. High-temperature materials: The use of high-temperature materials in MHD power

generation has allowed for higher operating temperatures and greater efficiency. Materials such
as ceramics and refractory metals can withstand the high temperatures required in MHD
generators.
2. Improved Electrode design: The electrodes used in MHD generators have been improved to
increase their durability and reduce wear and tear. New materials such as tungsten and rhenium
have been used to create electrodes that can withstand the high temperatures and corrosive
environments found in MHD generators.
3. Advanced magnetic systems: Advances in magnetic systems have allowed for greater control
over the magnetic fields used in MHD generators. New designs for magnets and magnetic coils
have been developed that allow for more precise control of the flow of charged particles.
4. Plasma stabilization: Plasma stabilization techniques have been developed to improve the
stability of the plasma in MHD generators. These techniques involve the use of feedback
control systems to maintain a stable plasma flow and prevent instabilities that can reduce
efficiency.
5. Combustion enhancement: MHD generators can be coupled with combustion systems to
increase their efficiency. Techniques such as staged combustion and fuel injection have been
used to improve the combustion process and increase the amount of energy that can be
extracted from the system.
6. Integration with renewable energy sources: MHD generators has been integrated with
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power to create hybrid power systems. This
allows for the generation of electricity even when renewable energy sources are not available,
and can help to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

ADVANCEMENT OF MHD POWER GENERATION OVER THE YEARS

The development of commercial MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) power plants has come a long
way, from the first MHD experiment by Michael Faraday at the River Thames in 1832 to the
present-day efforts towards early commercialization. Various scientists and engineers performed
various research on MHD over the years which contributed greatly to the advancement of MHD
power generation to the present world. In 1942, Hannes Alfvén developed the theoretical
foundation for MHD, which laid the groundwork for the field. From the 1950s to 1960s, MHD
was applied to the study of plasma physics and fusion energy, which became a major focus of
research in the field and develop magnetohydrodynamic generators, which convert the energy of
a flowing conductive fluid into electrical energy without the use of moving parts. This technology
was used in Soviet submarines, power plants and also the development of magnetoplasmadynamic
(MPD) thrusters, which use MHD to ionize gas and produce thrust. MPD thrusters have been used
in several space missions, including the NASA Dawn mission to the asteroid belt.

MHD has also been applied in plasma physics research, particularly in the study of fusion energy.
In the 1990s, the Joint European Torus (JET) project used MHD to confine high-temperature
plasmas in a tokamak, a device used for magnetic confinement fusion research. More recently, the
ITER project, an international collaboration to build a large tokamak in France, is also using MHD
to achieve plasma confinement and stability. While from the 2000s and 2010s, MHD was used to
develop novel propulsion systems for spacecraft, including ion thrusters and plasma engines.

Although the concept of MHD has been around for over a century, it wasn't until the mid-20th
century that significant progress was made in this field. However, MHD power generation has
shown great potential and is continually advancing into the modern technological age.

APPLICATION OF MHD POWER GENERATION

MHD power generation is no doubt a promising technology with variety of applications in the
industry. It has found numerous applications in various areas of science and engineering, including
plasma physics, astrophysics, geophysics, materials science, and engineering. Those applications
include:

1. Space propulsion: MHD power generation is a promising technology for space propulsion,
where it can be used to power spacecraft engines. In space, the use of traditional combustion-
based propulsion systems is not feasible due to the absence of an atmosphere. MHD power
 generation provides a highly efficient and lightweight power source for space exploration. In
an MHD thruster, the conducting fluid is accelerated by a magnetic field, producing a plasma
that generates thrust. MHD thrusters can provide high specific impulse and high exhaust
velocities, making them ideal for long-duration space missions.

MHD POWER GENERATION IN SPACE PROPULSION

2. Electric power generation: MHD power generation can be used to generate electricity from
a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear reactors, and renewable energy sources.
In fossil fuel power plants, MHD generators are used to convert the thermal energy produced
by the combustion of fossil fuels into electrical energy. In nuclear power plants, MHD
generators can be used to generate electricity from the heat produced by a nuclear reactor.
MHD generators can also be used to generate electricity from renewable sources such as wind
and solar. In these applications, MHD generators provide a highly efficient and reliable power
source.
 MHD POWER GENERATION IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION

3. Water desalination: MHD power generation can be used to generate electricity for water
desalination plants, which convert seawater into potable water. In a desalination plant, the
MHD generator provides the power to run the pumps and other equipment needed to remove
salt and other impurities from seawater. MHD generators are particularly useful for
desalination plants located in areas with limited access to electricity, as they provide a reliable
and efficient power source.

4. Industrial applications: MHD power generation has several industrial applications, including
steel production and chemical manufacturing. In steel production, MHD generators are used
to produce the high temperatures needed to melt steel. In chemical manufacturing, MHD
generators can be used to produce the high temperatures and pressures needed to produce
chemicals. MHD power generation provides a reliable and efficient power source for these
industrial processes.

5. Environmental remediation: MHD power generation can be used to clean up environmental

pollution, such as by ionizing and removing pollutants from wastewater. MHD generators
produce a strong magnetic field that can be used to remove pollutants from wastewater by
ionizing them and then attracting them to a collection electrode. MHD generators can also be
 used to clean up contaminated soils by removing pollutants through the same ionization
process. MHD power generation provides a cost-effective and efficient solution for
environmental cleanup.

CURRENT STATE OF MHD POWER GENERATION IN NIGERIA

Currently, Magento Hydrodynamic (MHD) power has not been utilized in Nigeria. Nigeria
currently uses hydro-electric power generation in plants like Kainji, Shiroro and Jebba; and
thermal (gas) power generation in plants such as Afam, Egbin, Sapele and Ughelli power plants.

The continual decline in supply of conventional energy in Nigeria due to the depletion of fossil
fuel reserves as the demand for power continues to increase has resulted to an energy crisis with
epileptic power supply, rising cost of production and food prices and threat to poverty reduction
as its effects. There is therefore the need for an alternative energy source for a stable energy supply
and sustainable development to be achieved.

While there has been some interest in renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, MHD
power generation has not been a focus of research or development in Nigeria. The country has
limited research and development capacity in energy technologies, and the government has not
prioritized the development of MHD power generation. The Federal Government of Nigeria has
made efforts to diversify the country's energy mix and explore new technologies such as MHD
power generation. For instance, the government has established the Energy Commission of Nigeria
(ECN), which is responsible for promoting and coordinating research and development activities
in the energy sector. The ECN has conducted research on MHD power generation and has
identified it as a potential technology for generating clean and efficient electricity in Nigeria.

In addition, some universities in Nigeria have carried out research on MHD power generation. For
instance, the University of Lagos has conducted research on the use of MHD generators for power
generation from coal-fired power plants. Similarly, the Federal University of Technology, Akure,
has conducted research on MHD power generation from renewable energy sources such as wind
and solar.
Due to the abundance of salt water in the coastal areas close to the Atlantic we can use MHD
generators whose fluid conductor is salt water. Some of the advantages of MHD power generation
as against the fossil fuels currently employed

• It is a renewable source of power

• It can meet high sort term demands
• It requires no external energy input to facilitate its operation
• It doesn't have moving parts which can contribute to aquatic life mortality
• It doesn't lead to air pollution by Fossil fuels usage
• It improves power supply to rural communities.

However, the practicality of this is still in question because MHD power generation has been
achieved so far using only plasma and not salt water and the lack of technical no how required to
install and operate an MHD plant.

POSSIBILITY OF INTEGRATION OF MHD POWER GENERATION IN NIGERIAN

ENERGY SECTOR.

The generation of electricity using Magnetohydrodynamic generators is theoretically feasible in

Nigeria, as it is in any other country. However, several critical factors must be taken into
consideration before MHD power generation can be considered as practical in Nigeria.

One of the most important factors is the availability of the essential resources. MHD generators
require high-temperature plasmas, which require significant amounts of energy (which can range
from several thousand to tens of thousands of degrees Celsius) and specialized equipment for their
creation. Nigeria faces a range of challenges related to its energy infrastructure, including
insufficient investment in the power sector, limited transmission and distribution capabilities, and
a reliance on fossil fuels. In order for us to produce the amount of energy needed for MHD
generation, significant investments would be required in our energy infrastructure, including the
construction of new power plants and the upgrading of transmission and distribution networks.

Another factor is that MHD power plants need robust magnetic fields and precision engineering
for optimal operation. The Nigerian engineering sector currently faces a lot of challenges,
including a shortage of skilled workers, obsolete equipment, and limited funding. To handle the
precision engineering required for MHD generation, Nigeria would need to invest a lot in research,
development, as well as the training of skilled workers in the required areas of engineering and
manufacturing. This also implies a putting a lot of money into education and training, as well as
in the development of new facilities and equipment.

While MHD power generation can be highly efficient, it remains an experimental technology that
is still in the early stages of development. There are several technical challenges associated with
MHD power generation which Nigeria is currently not able to face. For example, the process of
using high-temperature plasma or gas to generate an electric current directly without a separate
turbine or other mechanical device is a complex one, and requires pin point control of the plasma
and magnetic fields to achieve efficient energy conversion. Another technical challenge associated
with this form of power generation is the minimization of plasma instabilities that can reduce
efficiency. The plasma in an MHD generator can be subject to a range of instabilities, such as
turbulence and magneto-hydrodynamic waves, which can disrupt the flow of the plasma and
reduce energy conversion efficiency. Researchers are working to develop techniques for
controlling and minimizing these instabilities. Some of these techniques involve the use of
advanced diagnostic tools and sophisticated control algorithms.

There is also need for additional government research on MHD if it is ever going to be considered
as a commercial option for energy propagation in Nigeria, given the higher temperature and more
corrosive and abrasive environment present in MHD channels. Electrical companies are facing
challenges in the development of better insulators and electrode materials capable of withstanding
electrical, thermal, mechanical, and thermo-chemical stresses, as well as resisting corrosion and
abrasion, since MHD channels operate under extreme temperature, magnetic, and electric fields.
These challenges require significant research and development efforts to address.

Another issue is that of the safety of the environment. MHD power generation may have some
negative environmental impacts. The process of MHD electricity generation using high-
temperature plasmas or gases releases some pollutants into the atmosphere, such as NOx, SOx,
and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution and associated health problems. Moreover,
MHD power generation plants require significant amounts of land, which can cause destruction of
natural habitats, displacement of local communities, and wildlife. Some MHD generators consume
water as a coolant, which may lead to considerable water usage and potential water scarcity in
areas where water resources are limited.

It is important to note that Nigeria possesses significant renewable energy resources, such as solar,
wind, and hydro power. These resources could be a more practical and cost-effective solution for
electricity generation. Utilizing these resources could help meet the country's energy needs while
also reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving energy security.

CONCLUSION

Electrical energy generation is essential for the survival of the modern society. Fossil fuels are
limited and create pollution. Also, the conventional power generation systems using fossil fuel
have lesser efficiency due to a higher amount of losses in different sections of the plants. MHD is
found as a nonconventional energy generation system which has the capability to enhance the
thermal power plant efficiency significantly. Also, the MHD systems can be utilized alone to
harvest the electrical energy from hot plasma in many industrial applications. The channel
geometry, electrode geometry, fluid properties and the other design parameters are extremely
crustal for the performance and efficiency of the MHD system. As the velocity and magnetic field
strength are two major parameters for electric power generation the superconducting magnets are
promising to enhance the system performance. Also, plasma generation needs seeding elements to
reduce the heat energy requirement in MHD systems. Though the liquid metals can provide a
highly conductive paths in MHD systems but its velocity is reduced compared to the gas-plasma.
MHD generation is very promising in the multimodal power generation systems when coupled
with the thermal power plant. With the development of the computational fluid dynamics and other
computer simulation tools the opportunities to explore the MHD technique and the systems are
open in recent time. More research investigation are required in various parts of the MHD systems
such as fluid, electrodes, magnetic field and the system geometry.
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