Cogent Psychology

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Hijab and enclothed cognition: The effect of hijab

on interpersonal attitudes in a homogenous
Muslim-majority context

Sania Sohail, Gulnaz Anjum & Mudassar Aziz

To cite this article: Sania Sohail, Gulnaz Anjum & Mudassar Aziz (2023) Hijab and enclothed
cognition: The effect of hijab on interpersonal attitudes in a homogenous Muslim-majority
context, Cogent Psychology, 10:1, 2219084, DOI: 10.1080/23311908.2023.2219084

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2023.2219084

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Sohail et al., Cogent Psychology (2023), 10: 2219084
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2023.2219084
Received: 26 December 2022
Accepted: 19 May 2023
*Corresponding author: Gulnaz
Anjum, Department of Psychology
(PSI), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
E-mail: anjum@psykologi.uio.no
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Hijab and enclothed cognition: The effect of hijab
on interpersonal attitudes in a homogenous
Muslim-majority context
Sania Sohail1, Gulnaz Anjum2* and Mudassar Aziz3
Abstract: Stereotyping and discrimination against hijab-wearing women have been
studied extensively in many Western countries, which are home to Muslim dia­
sporas. However, there is a paucity of research on Muslim-majority countries. The
purpose of this study is to address this gap and explore interpersonal attitudes
toward both hijab-wearing and non-hijab-wearing women, in Pakistan, a Muslim
Majority country. In this paper, we used the presence or absence of hijab as the
independent variable, and measured competence and warmth using items from the
Stereotype Content Model (SCM), as well as social and task attraction using items
from the Interpersonal Attraction Scale (IAS) as dependent variables. Study 1
included 352 undergraduate students, while Study 2 involved 151 human resource
professionals. The findings from both studies were consistent in suggesting that
participants had a higher attribution of competence, warmth, and social and task
attraction toward the hijab-wearing women compared to the non-hijab-wearing
women. Conversely, participants in the non-hijab condition attributed lower levels of
warmth, competence, and social and task attraction. We interpret these findings
such that in a homogeneous society, individuals who strongly identify with and
internalize Muslim culture, and exhibit a preference for their own cultural and
religious values (cultural endogamy), attribute higher levels of competence,
warmth, social attraction, and task attraction to the protagonist who wears hijab.
This research has implications for employment opportunities and attitudes toward
women in the workplace in Muslim-majority countries, both for hijabis (women who
wear a headscarf) and non-hijabis (women who do not wear hijab).
Subjects: Applied Social Psychology; Cross Cultural Psychology; Work & Organizational
Psychology
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Sania Sohail is a psychology graduate from the Department of Social Sciences & Liberal Arts,
Institute of Business Administration Karachi (IBA Karachi), Karachi, Pakistan. She can be reached at
saniasohail118@gmail.com.
Gulnaz Anjum (Ph.D. Psychology) is an Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology (PSI),
University of Oslo (UiO), Oslo, Norway. She is the corresponding author of this manuscript; she can be
reached at Gulnaz.anjum@psykologi.uio.no.
Mudassar Aziz (Ph.D. Psychology) is a Psychology Instructor at the Department of Kwantlen
Polytechnic University (KPU), Surrey, Canada. He can be reached at Mudassar.aziz@kpu.ca.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu­
tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on
which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in
a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
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Keywords: Hijab; enclothed cognition; warmth; competence; social attraction, task

attraction; Stereotype Content Model (SCM); interpersonal attitudes; Muslim cultures

1. Introduction
The topic of women’s clothing has long captivated the attention of both media and academia.
However, it becomes problematic when we attribute significant communicative agency to a mere
piece of cloth, such as the hijab, a head cover or veil predominantly worn by Muslim women. The
hijab is an Arabic word that means “cover,” referring to the covering of the female body except for
the hands, feet, and face (Dunkel et al., 2010). Despite serving an instrumental use for women in
the pre-Islamic era, where affluent women wore it predominantly for public outings, the meaning
of veiling or hijab has been appropriated and mediated by sociopolitical discourse throughout
history (Woldesemait, 2013).

Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, there was a sharp rise in violence towards people perceived
to be Arabs or Muslims, with over 700 incidents reported within nine weeks. The Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received 500 complaints of religious discrimination in the work­
place from women who observed the headscarf (Moore, 2007). Critics argue that this rise in
Islamophobia legitimized negative attitudes towards the hijab, equating it with women’s oppres­
sion and otherness, thereby revealing growing fear about situating Islam in Western countries
(Abdurraqib, 2006). However, Muslim women who choose to observe the veil do so based on the
instrumentality that the meaning of the veil holds for them. Croucher’s research (Croucher, 2008)
shows that Muslim women in France feel that veiling helps them feel more comfortable with their
bodies, assert resistance against the government, and silently express identity.

The hijab’s instrumental meaning is influenced by how it is perceived by individuals and society.
It is a physical construct that can shape impressions and act as a visible marker of identity.
Anderson’s (1999) research shows that physical constructs can affect how people make inferences
based on appearance. The hijab’s nonverbal cues communicate a visual identity to the viewer,
impacting how people perceive and interact with women wearing it.

1.1. Hijab and enclothed cognition

Adam and Galinsky (2012) introduced the concept of “enclothed cognition” and explored how
clothing affects the psychological processes of the wearer. Clothing has implications for the
identity that the wearer adopts, based on two factors: firstly, the item of clothing must be worn
by an individual, and secondly, it must hold symbolic meaning. They found, when participants in
the study were instructed to wear a lab coat after defining it as a doctor’s coat, researchers
observed an increase in their span of attention. This suggests that there is an indirect connection
between the physical experience of wearing clothes and the symbolic meaning attributed to them.

First impressions often stem from quick judgments, forming the basis of interpersonal judg­
ments and stereotyping, which involve automatic categorization of people based on race, age, and
sex (Nelson, 2005). These impressions can be a barrier to forming perceptual schemas, social
contact, and interpersonal communication (Hughes & Baldwin, 2002). The visibility of these
categories facilitates the generalization of individuals or groups. Clothing is a visible form of
expression that acts as a non-verbal tool of communication for perceivers.

Interpersonal attraction is a measure of whether we “like” another person, defined as a positive

attitude or evaluation of that individual (McCroskey & McCain, 1974), while competence, according
to Susan Fiske’s SCM model (Fiske, 2018), indicates intelligence and skill. The concept of task
attraction and competence run parallel to each other, meaning that while a hijab-wearing
woman may be perceived and stereotyped as an individual who is competent and morally upright,
it is not necessary that people have a likable attitude towards them based on first impressions. The
opposite could be true for non-hijab-wearing women, meaning that, in contrast to the hijab

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condition, people are more likely to have a likable attitude towards them but perceive them as
lower on the competence and warmth attributes. First impressions or snap judgments hinder
interpersonal communication, shape the formation of perceptual schemas, and have a lasting
impact on the self-efficacy of women, particularly when it comes to employment opportunities.
Self-efficacy, therefore, becomes a predictor of organizational commitment as well.

Angerosa (2014) explored the concept of clothing as a means of communication, looking at

professional, casual, and trendy clothes and how they relate to social identity theory (Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Tajfel, 1974) and person perception theory (Smith & Collins, 2009). The study
suggests that individuals use clothing to express their group memberships and derive their self-
concept. The symbolic meaning of clothing is determined by the attitudes and perceptions of those
who interpret it, and these attitudes can hinder women’s equal opportunities and employability.
This study can be extended to how people perceive women wearing the hijab or not and shape
their attitudes accordingly.

1.2. Stereotyping and discrimination & research gaps

Steele and Aronson’s (1995) stereotype threat theory suggests that negative stereotypes asso­
ciated with social groups can lead to underperformance consistent with the stereotype. The “hijab
effect” is an extension of this phenomenon, as the expectation of certain character traits for hijab-
wearing women shapes social attitudes towards them, potentially limiting their employment
opportunities (Akhter et al., 2012). Social comparison is a prerequisite for social influences to
occur, and the context can affect responses, especially in in-group/out-group comparisons (Lewis
et al., 2010; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The hijab’s meaning varies widely within and between groups
(Jardim & Vorster, 2003; Moghadam, 1992), as it is influenced by socio-political and cultural
narratives (Anjum, Godil, et al., 2019; Frank, 2000).

Research on negative stereotyping, bias, and discrimination towards women who wear the hijab
has mainly been conducted in non-Muslim majority countries such as the UK and the US. However,
the few studies that exist in the Muslim majority context suggest that the negative perceptions
and stereotypes towards hijab-wearing women are consistent with those in non-Muslim majority
contexts. For instance, Everett et al. (2014) conducted a study on British students who were white
and non-Muslim and found negative responses towards hijab and even more so towards niqab. The
study revealed that the presence of the hijab resulted in a faster rejection in a job application or
hiring process, a phenomenon known as the “hijab effect” (Unkelbach et al., 2010).

Furthermore, research has indicated that wearing the hijab can have a negative impact on the
interpersonal judgments of women, particularly among Western, non-Muslim observers. Swami
(2013) found that hijab-wearing women were rated as less physically attractive, popular, sociable,
and competent by British men participants. Interestingly, non-Muslim men rated hijab-wearing
women as significantly less approachable than Muslim men. Similarly, Mahmud and Swami (2010)
showed that markers of Islamic identities, such as Islamic head-cover, result in more negative
perceptions among Western, non-Muslim observers.

The effect of hijab on physical attractiveness and employability is inconsistent across different
cultures. Pasha-Zaidi et al. (2013) research in the UAE found that hijab-wearing women were rated
higher in attractiveness and employability, but in the US, non-hijab-wearing women were rated
more employable (Pasha-Zaidi, 2014). Ghumman and Jackson (2009) found that hijab-wearing
Muslim women had lower expectations of job offers, and hijab-wearing women may experience
covert discrimination in job interviews. Studies by King and Ahmad (2010) and Ali et al. (2015)
found that hijab-wearing women experienced workplace discrimination and lower job satisfaction
compared to non-hijab-wearing women. Another interesting dynamic in this research is how
reference social groups can influence perceptions and attitudes. Pasha-Zaidi (2015) found that
within the Muslim-majority context of the UAE, non-hijabis felt a greater intensity of discrimination
in social spaces with Muslims. This suggests that perceived discrimination comes more from one’s

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own religious or cultural group rather than from a stranger. Converse to these findings, in a study
conducted by Sheen et al. (2018) in the United Arab Emirates, where the majority of the population
is Muslim, it was found that women who wore hijab perceived themselves as less attractive in both
fully and partially covered conditions. Similar findings were reported by Mahmud and Swami
(2010), who found that hijab-wearing women were viewed as less attractive and less intelligent
by both Muslim and non-Muslim men.

Grine and Saeed (2017) conducted research on Muslim women in Malaysia to understand
whether wearing hijab was driven by religious obligation or fashion. They found that the majority
of women perceive hijab as a religious obligation rather than a fashion statement. The study
concludes that while there is room for modification in hijab design in Malaysia, the primary
motivation for wearing hijab is tied to religious obligation. Saeed et al. (2021) surveyed
Malaysian Muslim women in universities to understand the factors influencing their purchase
intention of hijabs. They found that religious commitment, satisfaction, dressing style, and knowl­
edge source significantly influence purchase intention. The study is relevant for hijab designers
seeking to capture a large segment in Kuala Lumpur and gain a competitive edge. However, the
study did not address the social or interpersonal implications of wearing hijab for women.
Simorangkir and Pamungkas (2022) conducted a study with Indonesian women to understand
why they wear the hijab. They found that the hijab holds cultural significance as a symbol of social
identity and is associated with proper Islamic behavior and fashion. Respondents viewed non-hijab
-wearing Muslim women differently, and media portrayal reinforces this social categorization. The
hijab serves as a self-reminder and offers protection from unwanted attention and the sun.
Although scholars have different views on the hijab’s necessity, the respondents unanimously
believed it was important. However, the findings are limited to the study’s specific respondents and
cannot be generalized.

Studies have also shown that Pakistani women face significant obstacles in accessing employ­
ment opportunities, especially in the formal sector, due to gender-based discrimination and
harassment, as well as gender-based violence (Anjum et al., 2021; Anjum, Godil, et al., 2019,
2019). Wearing or not wearing the hijab can also impact women’s participation and widen the
gender gap. Although positive developments, such as laws to safeguard women’s rights and
increase political participation, have been made in recent years, discriminatory laws, policies,
and patriarchal social norms still hinder women’s access to justice and political participation in
Pakistan. Addressing the root causes of discrimination and promoting gender equality require
concerted efforts from local and international actors (Anjum et al., 2021).

Discriminatory laws, policies, and patriarchal social norms hinder women’s access to justice and
political participation in Pakistan. A study on bank employees revealed that Muslim women who
viewed the hijab as an employability obstacle were less likely to apply for jobs, as first impressions
significantly impact how hijabi women are perceived, often seen as less attractive on the inter­
personal attraction scale. However, mixed findings on women’s perceived competence and inter­
personal skills raise questions about how hijabi women will be perceived as capable but
unattractive on social and task attraction, especially in Muslim-majority Pakistan (Akhter et al.,
2012).

Overall, this review provides insights into motivations and perceptions of hijab-wearing in
Muslim-majority contexts. While some studies suggest inconsistent results regarding the effect
of hijab on facial attractiveness and cultural endogamy. Overall, they demonstrate how religious
veiling regulates attitudes towards the hijab both within and outside the group. The majority of
hijab-wearing women perceive it as a religious obligation, and it affects perceptions of attractive­
ness and competence. Negative perceptions of hijab-wearing women in the workplace may lower
their employability. Further research is needed to explore the implications of these findings for
Muslim women living in a homogenous Muslim society.

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1.3. Current studies

The hijab is a symbol of Muslim identity that reflects the wearer’s devotion to Islam and belonging
to the Muslim community (Dunkel et al., 2010; Jardim & Vorster, 2003). Clothing is a manifestation
of self-understanding, and in the case of the hijab, it represents the wearer’s social identity (Den
Heyer & Schelling, 2006). The hijab has become a powerful tool for Muslim women to communicate
their identity and has transformed in recent times (Nurzihan, 2014).

Previous research on the hijab has mainly focused on measuring attitudes towards hijabi women
in Muslim-minority populations or perceptions of attractiveness or religiosity in the Middle East.
However, the current studies aim to measure the meaning associated with women wearing and
not wearing the hijab through quantitative experimental research that assesses interpersonal
attitudes of participants towards women in both conditions.

Given that Pakistan is a Muslim-majority country, the social attitudes towards the hijab may be
different in this context. Therefore, two experiments were conducted, one with undergraduate and
postgraduate students in two universities and another with HR professionals in Pakistan. The aim
was to measure the attitudes towards the hijab and the absence of the hijab through a social
experiment that limits confounding variables that may affect perceptions of group similarities or
dissimilarities concerning the hijab. Our specific research questions were as follows.

1.4. Research questions

● How do participants perceive the hijab, and what impact does this perception have on their
attitudes, specifically interpersonal attitudes in a Muslim majority country?

● What effect does hijab have on perceptions of warmth and competence in a Muslim majority
country?
● What effect does hijab have on perceptions of social and task attraction in a Muslim majority
country?

2. Study 1
Study 1 aimed to test our research questions using a relatively large sample of both undergraduate
and graduate students in Pakistan. We chose a student sample for two reasons. Firstly, most
literature on quantitative research has used undergraduate students as the sample population.
Secondly, social attitudes are more likely to change during young adulthood than late adulthood,
as older individuals tend to engage in stereotyping more frequently and unconsciously (Zenmore
et al., 2000). Additionally, we were interested in comparing the perceptual attitudes of educated
individuals with access to knowledge in Karachi to those observed in Swami’s study conducted in
Britain (Swami, 2013).

3. Method

3.1. Samples
Study 1 included a total of 352 university students who took part in the survey-based experiment
(men = 147, women = 198, Other = 7; ages ranged from 19 to 29, mean age = 22, SD = 1.87; the type
of universities recorded included public = 62, private = 93, Semi-private = 197. There was an equal
number of participants (176) in the experimental condition (Hijab) and control condition (No-Hijab).
Regarding the religious affiliation of participants, 347 (97.5%) self-identified as Muslims, 8 of them
self-identified as Christians, and one person did not report religion.

3.2. Experimental design and materials

Participants were sent a link to an online survey with a between-group design. They were randomly
assigned to either the control group (no-hijab condition) or the experimental group (hijab condi­
tion). The control group viewed a picture of a woman protagonist without a headscarf, defined as

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the no-hijab condition. In contrast, the experimental group viewed the same woman wearing
a hijab, defined as the hijab condition. Professional headshots of the woman were used to ensure
no impact of differences in facial features, body size, or shape on the participants’ perceptions.
Both pictures were presented in grayscale to minimize the effects of skin tone (see Appendix A,
Figures A1 and A2). Authors will share upon reasonable request. More details on material and data
availability can be found at OSF webpage: https://osf.io/xcwj5/?view_only=
f5d2adf6993a4991825fee9e1a8ec013.

3.3. Measurement scales

Two scales were used to create the survey: the Interpersonal Attraction Scale (IAS) and the
adapted Competence versus Warmth scales suggested by the Stereotype Content Model (Fiske
et al., 2002). In addition to these scales, demographic questions about the participants were also
included to better understand the variation in our participants.

Competence was measured using items such as, “Nuha could manage to solve a tough calculus
integration problem” and “She published a short story in a literary magazine while at the uni­
versity.” Higher scores on the aggregate and means indicated higher attribution of competence.
Similarly, Warmth dimension was measured using items such as, “Nuha loves to be with other
people” and “Nuha enjoys having long conversations with friends.” (Appendix F)

The Interpersonal Attraction Scale, developed by McCroskey and McCain (1974), is a rating scale
that measures various dimensions. For this study, we used only two dimensions: task attraction
(respect dimension) and social attraction (liking dimension) (Appendix E). Social attraction was
measured using items such as, “Nuha seems like someone who I could befriend” and “I would like
to have a friendly chat with her.” Higher scores on the aggregate and means indicated higher
attribution of social attraction. Finally, Task attraction was measured using items such as, “She
seems like someone who has confidence in her ability to get any work done” and “She is probably
a poor problem solver” (this item was reverse scored).

All items are presented in the Appendix and were measured on a scale from 1 (very strongly
disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). Aggregate and mean scores were computed using all the
items on a given dimension, and higher scores on the aggregate and means indicated higher
attribution of a given attribute, i.e., competence, warmth, social attraction, and task attraction.

3.4. Procedure
The survey was conducted using Qualtrics software and participants were recruited from three
universities in Pakistan: one public, one private, and one semi-private. Participants were invited
through university mailing lists, and some were approached in computer labs. Participation was
completely voluntary, and participants were asked for their consent before being assigned to
a condition (either no-hijab or hijab) through random assignment. The survey then included scales
measuring attribution of competence, warmth, social attraction, and task attraction. To minimize
the impact of social desirability and participant bias, an online survey was deemed the most
reliable method. Additionally, as there is already a significant body of literature on the hijab effect,
primarily conducted in Muslim minority contexts, a quantitative online survey was the most
practical way to ensure the validity and reliability of responses in a Muslim majority context.

4. Results
IBM-SPSS 29 was used to compute and statistically analyze the data collected from the sample of
352 university students. Before testing our research questions, descriptive statistics, reliability, and
inter-correlations of all dependent variables were calculated. The research analysis was divided
into two studies, and similar reliability tests were run on both datasets, after which the research
questions of our studies were tested.

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Table 1. Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Correlations, and reliability analysis (N = 352)

Scales M SD α 1 2 3 4
Competence 4.29 0.69 .60 1
Warmth 4.42 0.70 .57 .49** 1
Social attraction 3.82 0.99 .62 .33** .23** 1
Task attraction 3.68 1.08 .61 .17** .13* .71** 1
Notes: α = Cronbach’s Alpha; **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 2. Multiple Linear Regressions for experimental and control group (N = 349)
Scales No Hijab Hijab F p Partial Eta Squared 95% of CI for
(n = 174) (n = 175) (2 tailed) Mean
Difference

M SD M SD Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Competence 4.10 0.69 4.47 0.63 26.81 <.001 .07 .22 .50
Warmth 4.27 0.75 4.57 0.61 16.12 <.001 .04 .15 .44
Social attraction 3.48 0.86 4.15 1.01 44.77 <.001 .11 .43 .86
Task attraction 3.28 0.85 4.09 1.06 1.49 <.001 .15 .60 1.01

The overall descriptive statistics, Alpha reliabilities (α) of all dependent variables (competence,
warmth, social attraction, and task attraction) are presented in Table 1. These include recorded
mean scores (M), Standard deviation (SD) and subscale reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s Alpha =
α), and Pearson correlations (r) of all the measured variables for the sample population of
university students. The correlations between all key variables were significant. The highest
correlations were recorded between competence and warmth (.49), social attraction and task

Figure 1. Response
Distributions for the Dependent
Variables in Study 1.

Note. The violin charts show

the response distributions. The
upper and lower horizontal
lines of the box plots show the
75th to 25th percentile of the
interquartile range. The med­
ian score is indicated by the
bolded horizontal line. The lar­
gest value within 1.5 times the
interquartile range above the
75th and below the 25th per­
centile is shown by the two
vertical lines. Each partici­
pant’s response is plotted as
a data point. The graphs indi­
cate that the Skewness and
Kurtosis were between -1 and
+ 1, suggesting normal distri­
bution of the competence
variable for the control
condition.

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attraction (.71), and competence. See Table 1 descriptive statistics; response distribution of data
on all scales can be seen in Figure 1 (see Appendix B, Figure 1).

The violin graphs above provide a visual representation of the response distributions and
statistical characteristics for each variable. Competence: the median for the control condition
was 4, with an interquartile range of 1.12 and a standard deviation of 0.81. The Skewness and
Kurtosis were 0.62 and 0.50, respectively. In the experimental condition, the median was 4.56, with
an interquartile range of 0.88 and a standard deviation of 0.66. The Skewness and Kurtosis were
0.56 and 0.34, respectively. Warmth: in the control condition, the median was 4, with an inter­
quartile range of 0.88 and a standard deviation of 0.75. The Skewness and Kurtosis were 0.22 and
0.48, respectively. In the experimental condition, the median was 4.75, with an interquartile range
of 0.88 and a standard deviation of 0.67. The Skewness and Kurtosis were 0.65 and 0.50, respec­
tively. In terms of Social Attraction, the control condition had a median of 3.5, an interquartile
range of 1.33, and a standard deviation of 0.88. The Skewness and Kurtosis were -0.11 and -0.27,
respectively. The experimental condition had a median of 4.50, an interquartile range of 1.79, and
a standard deviation of 1.05. The Skewness and Kurtosis were 0.20 and -0.90, respectively. For Task
Attraction, the control condition had a median of 3.4, an interquartile range of 1.2, and a standard
deviation of 0.89. The Skewness and Kurtosis were -0.44 and 0.55, respectively. In the experi­
mental condition, the median was 4, with an interquartile range of 2.0 and a standard deviation of
1.12. The Skewness and Kurtosis were 0.20 and -0.92, respectively.

To explore our research questions of this paper, we conducted the General Linear Model (Multiple
Regression with the condition as a between-subjects factor, whereas competence, warmth, social
attraction, task attraction and tiring support as dependent factors). The first research question was
supported because there was a significant difference in the two conditions, the hijab condition (n =
175) was rated significantly higher on competence (M = 4.47, SD = 0.63, F (1, 347) = 26.81, p < .001,
Partial Eta Squared = .07) compared to the no Hijab condition (M = 4.10, SD = 0.69). This indicates
that subjects wearing Hijab might be attributed with higher competence compared to those who
do not wear Hijab.

The second research question was not supported in this study. It was found that there was
a significant difference between the two conditions, where the hijab condition was rated signifi­
cantly higher on the attribute of warmth (M = 4.57, SD = 0.61, F (1, 347) = 16.12, p < .001, Partial Eta
Squared = .04) compared to the no Hijab condition (M = 4.27, SD = 0.75). This means that women
wearing Hijab are more likely to be attributed with higher levels of warmth compared to those who
do not wear Hijab.

The third research question focused on testing whether the hijab condition will be rated higher in
terms of social and task attraction, meaning that wearing hijab will be negatively associated with
interpersonal attraction. The average mean for social attraction was significantly higher for the
Hijab condition (M = 4.15, SD = 1.00, F (1, 347) = 44.77, p < .001, Partial Eta Squared = .11) compared
to no Hijab condition (M = 3.48, SD = 0.99). Similarly, the average mean for task attraction was
significantly higher for the hijab condition (M = 4.09, SD = 1.06, F (1, 347) = 66.49, p < .001, Partial
Eta Squared = .15) compared to the no Hijab condition (M = 3.28, SD = 0.85).

5. Study 2
Study 2 was performed with the same materials and measures as Study 1. The only difference was
that now we asked HR professionals to participate in our study.

6. Method

6.1. Samples
Study 2 included a total sample of 151 HR professionals who took part in the survey-based
experiment (men = 68, and women = 83); ages ranged from 20 to 88, mean age = 37.38, SD =

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11.84; the type of institutions in which these people worked included public = 26, private = 57,
Semi-private = 68. There were 75 participants in the control condition (no-Hijab), and there were 76
participants in the experimental condition (Hijab). Most participants self-identified as Muslims
(147), 2 self-identified as Christians, and 2 persons did not report religion.

6.2. Procedure
The Qualtrics survey link was shared with various HR departments, academic and research orga­
nizations, and institutes (including public, private, and semi-private organizations) in Pakistan.
Participants were invited to participate through university and company mailing lists, and their
participation was completely voluntary. After providing their consent to participate, they were
randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions (no-Hijab or Hijab condition) and then
completed our scales measuring competence, warmth, social attraction, and task attraction.
Demographic questions were asked before every survey (Appendix D).

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Correlations, and reliability analysis (N = 151)

Scales M SD α 1 2 3 4
Competence 4.38 0.77 .60 1
Warmth 4.45 0.79 .55 .58** 1
Social attraction 4.03 1.08 .65 .17* .21** 1
Task attraction 3.88 1.13 .68 .10 .12 .77** 1
Notes: α = Cronbach’s Alpha; **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

Figure 2. Response
Distributions for the Dependent
Variables in Study 2.

Note. The violin charts show

the response distributions. The
upper and lower horizontal
lines of the box plots show the
75th to 25th percentile of the
interquartile range. The med­
ian score is indicated by the
bolded horizontal line. The lar­
gest value within 1.5 times the
interquartile range above the
75th and below the 25th per­
centile is shown by the two
vertical lines. Each partici­
pant’s response is plotted as
a data point. All graphs
showed Skewness and Kurtosis
values between -1 and + 1,
indicating the approximate
normalcy of the competence
variable for the control
condition.

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Table 4. Multiple Linear Regressions for experimental and control group (N = 151)
Scales No Hijab Hijab F p Partial Eta Squared 95% of CI for
(n = 75) (n = 76) (2 tailed) Mean
Difference

M SD M SD Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Competence 4.15 0.80 4.60 0.66 14.49 <.001 .09 .22 .69
Warmth 4.14 0.75 4.75 0.67 26.07 <.001 .15 .37 .83
Social attraction 3.55 0.88 4.49 1.08 35.10 <.001 .19 .62 1.25
Task attraction 3.43 0.89 4.32 1.18 27.45 <.001 .16 .55 1.23

7. Results
Data computation and statistical analysis were carried out using IBM-SPSS 29. Table 3 presents the
mean scores (M), standard deviation (SD), Cronbach’s alpha (α), and Pearson correlations (r) for all
dependent variables, namely competence, warmth, p seen in Table 3; response distribution of data
on all scales can be seen in Figure 1 (see Appendix B, Figure 2).

The violin graphs presented above depict the response distributions and statistical descriptions
for each variable as follows. Competence: In the control condition, the median was 4, with an
interquartile range of 2 and a standard deviation of 1.55. Skewness and Kurtosis were .27 and -.32,
respectively. In the experimental condition, the median was 5, with an interquartile range of 1 and
a standard deviation of 1.23. Skewness and Kurtosis were -.21 and .61, respectively. Warmth: In
the control condition, the median was 4, with an interquartile range of 3 and a standard deviation
of 1.65. Skewness and Kurtosis were -.08 and -.82, respectively. In the experimental condition, the
median was 5, with an interquartile range of 2 and a standard deviation of 1.5. Skewness and
Kurtosis were -.51 and -.54, respectively. Social attraction: In the control condition, the median was
5, with an interquartile range of 2 and a standard deviation of 1.56. Skewness and Kurtosis were
-.12 and -.77, respectively, indicating normalcy. In the experimental condition, the median was 5,
with an interquartile range of 2 and a standard deviation of 1.35. Skewness and Kurtosis were -.01
and -.50, respectively. Task attraction: In the control condition, the median was 4, with an inter­
quartile range of 3 and a standard deviation of 1.70. Skewness and Kurtosis were -.10 and -.70,
respectively. In the experimental condition, the median was 4, with an interquartile range of 2 and
a standard deviation of 1.62. Skewness and Kurtosis were -.29 and -.58, respectively.

Following the same analysis procedure as Study 1, Table 2 showsthe results of General Linear
Model (Multiple Regression with condition as a between-subjects factor, and Competence, Warmth,
Social attraction, and Task attraction as dependent factors). Study 2 with HR professionals repli­
cated the first research question. There was a significant difference in the two conditions such that
the hijab condition was rated significantly higher on competence (n = 75; M = 4.60, SD = 0.66, F (1,
149) = 14.49, p < .001, Partial Eta Squared = .09) compared to the no Hijab condition (n = 76; M =
4.15, SD = 0.80). This indicates that subjects wearing Hijab are more likely to be attributed with
higher competence compared to those who do not wear Hijab.

The results on the second research question were also replicated in Study 2. There was
a significant difference between the two conditions, i.e., the hijab condition was rated significantly
higher on the attribute of warmth (M = 4.75, SD = 0.67, F (1, 149) = 26.07, p < .001, Partial Eta
Squared = .15) compared to the no Hijab condition (M = 4.14, SD = 0.75). This defies the assumption
that subjects wearing Hijab are more likely to be attributed with higher levels of warmth compared
to those who do not wear Hijab.

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The third research question was also replicated in Study 2 indicating that wearing hijab will be
negatively associated with interpersonal attraction. Similar to study 1, the Table 4 shows that the
average mean for social attraction was significantly higher for the Hijab condition (M = 4.49, SD =
1.08, F (1, 149) = 35.10, p < .001, Partial Eta Squared = .19) compared to no Hijab condition (M =
3.55, SD = 0.88). Similarly, the average mean for task attraction was significantly higher for the
Hijab condition (M = 4.32, SD = 1.18, F (1, 149) = 27.45, p < .001, Partial Eta Squared = .16) compared
to the no Hijab condition (M = 3.43, SD = 0.89). It should also be noted that the most sizable effect
in this analysis was for variation in social attraction.

8. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore how hijab can affect perception about women’s compe­
tence, warmth, and attributions of social and task attraction in a Muslim majority country.

Study 1 examined a sample of university students and found that all three research questions
were answered and supported by data. Women wearing hijab were perceived as higher on
competence and warmth compared to those not wearing hijab. Additionally, the hijab condition
was perceived as higher on social and task attraction compared to the non-hijab condition. Study 2
aimed to replicate the findings of Study 1 and focused on HR professionals. The results were
statistically significant and suggest that women wearing hijab are perceived more positively than
those who do not wear hijab. These findings were completely comparable to those of student
sample.

The findings of Study 1 and Study 2 indicate that hijab-wearing women are positively associated
with competence and warmth, while non-hijab-wearing women are associated with low compe­
tence and low warmth. This aligns with the SCM model, which maps intergroup arrays onto the
warmth x competence space. The hijab acts as a visual cue for Islam, the dominant religion in
Pakistan, and is associated with the default stereotype of hijabi women being perceived as
intelligent and trustworthy. As per the defaults set by society for these groups, a certain level of
pride and admiration is reported (Fiske, 2018). Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1974) explains why
individuals show affinity for the visual representation of religious clothing, such as wearing hijab.

Research conducted in the Middle East on the hijab effect (Pasha-Zaidi, 2014) supports the
tested research questions of Study 1 and Study 2 due to the similarity of context, as both Pakistan
and the Middle East are Muslim-majority countries Research conducted in the Middle East on the
hijab effect supports the hypotheses of our studies, as Muslim-majority countries like Pakistan and
the Middle East share similar contexts. Muslim communities tend to evaluate hijab-wearing
women more positively, potentially due to a sense of belonging to their religious group and the
need to protect its self-esteem. Symbolic threat theory and situational cues may explain the in-
group othering observed in both students and HR professionals in our studies, where hijab condi­
tion influenced perceptions of competence, warmth, and social/task attraction.

An explanation for this line of response could stem from the overarching discourse around
“stereotyping” and “othering.” Stephan et al. (2002) suggest that symbolic threat theory increases
group conformity, while Murphy et al. (2007) suggest that situational cues may activate social
identity threat. Both students and HR professionals, 97% of whom self-report as being Muslim,
seem to have become part of an active process of in-group othering of the women within each
condition based on the hijab condition. By attempting to increase religious group conformity and
affinity, it is also possible that both groups were trying to protect their religious self-esteem, and in
the process, stereotyped the non-hijabi women as less competent and less warm, as well as less
suitable for social and task attraction. One could question whether this stereotyping also takes
form in the hiring of women based on hijab status, considering that non-verbal behavior and
impression formation can impact these recruitment processes at an organizational level.

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Our findings suggest that snap judgments, interpersonal attraction concerns, and SCM-based
skills are positively evaluated for women who wear hijab. However, our results contradict Akhter
et al. (2012) findings, where women perceived hijab as an obstacle to their employability and
might even have negative effects on their desire to work despite being qualified. Although our
study’s findings might have negative implications for women in terms of controlling their bodies
through hijab, since many women in Pakistan wear hijab, it is likely that they will be less
discriminated against in their local cultural context. It is possible that the pattern of belonging
and affiliation with their religion through wearing hijab has a positive effect on attribution of
competence and warmth, as well as social and task attraction. Furthermore, since most of our
sample reported as Muslim, to protect their association with their religion, they rated hijab more
favorably on all dimensions.

This explanation is in line with the notion of cultural and religious endogamy. Our study’s results
contrast with Mahmud and Swami’s (2010) study, where non-Muslim and Muslim men rated the
hijab-wearing condition as less attractive and less intelligent. In the case of our study, where most
people are from a Muslim background, cultural endogamy shaped the opinions of both students
and human resource professionals to some extent, if not entirely. However, in Sheen et al. (2018)
study, even though it was conducted in a Muslim majority context of UAE, women wearing hijab
were not perceived as attractive as those who did not wear hijab.

The responses of people are influenced by the social context they are in, as noted by Pasha-Zaidi
(2015). Participants in both of our studies may have felt a need to avoid feeling like outsiders and
may have also internalized feelings of self-preserving deference, which is reflected in the results.
These findings also suggest that positive social attitudes are directed towards the religious and
collective identities of Muslim women, as communicated externally by their hijab. When individuals
receive positive feedback about their identities, they tend to treat these attitudes as affirmations
of their self-worth (Anjum, Godil, et al., 2019; Frank, 2000; Mahabir, 2004). These social expecta­
tions also lead to thought processes of showing more affinity and representation for their religious
values and honorific norms of religion and culture. The clothes that individuals wear in the public
sphere signify their group membership, and this influences their social performance, employment
opportunities, and communication.

8.1. Implications, limitations, and future research directions

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commissions (EEOCs) aim to prevent discrimination based on
religious beliefs, including visible expression. Employers are expected to reasonably accommodate
their employees’ religious beliefs and practices (Reeves et al., 2012). However, in places where
Hijab is strongly promoted, women who do not wear it can face discrimination. Pakistan should
create local policies and enforce them in workplaces, particularly in the corporate sector, to
prevent discrimination against women who do not wear the Hijab. Enforcing policies against
religious discrimination may help minimize the impact of personal biases towards non-hijabi and
hijabi women’s assessment. This would also support diversity initiatives in organizations for every
woman. Predicting whether a woman will be a good resource for an organization could become
a process free from subjective biases. Doing so would limit the chances of incidents such as one
that occurred in 2018 when a newly recruited woman at a software house was asked to either take
off her Hijab or resign from work (Sohail, 2018). There are also several other incidents where
women are forced to wear the Hijab through social pressure or fear for their safety (Anjum, Godil,
et al., 2019). Moreover, organizational diversity not only helps attract talent but also empowers
employees by creating a working environment that fosters open dialogue about differences. An
example of this is giving increments or promotions to any employee irrespective of their religious
affiliation and basing decisions on meeting competencies.

Future research should assess the workplace experiences of hijabi and non-hijabi women to
understand the impact of discriminatory attitudes and internalized stereotypes. It should also
explore industry-specific preferences and challenges, as norms around hijab may vary.

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Additionally, investigating women’s fears of discrimination based on hijab status is recommended.

In both studies, study design included random assignment of participants, but lacked a wide range
of measurement scales, leaving room for alternative explanations. Including measures of hijab
identification and perceived cultural threat would have provided more nuanced insights. Using
consistent methods across experiments was another limitation, suggesting the inclusion of qua­
litative and open-ended questions for deeper understanding. Participants in Study 1 viewed the
hijab as a personal statement but were uncomfortable with stereotyping unfamiliar women. Future
research could use immersive and elaborate priming methods. Some participants criticized the
question about observing/recommending hijab, emphasizing women’s autonomy in deciding. It is
suggested to separate these questions to avoid confusion.

The HR professional sample expressed confusion about certain statements, particularly male
professionals regarding befriending female colleagues. Statements should be reviewed and mod­
ified to fit the socio-cultural context of Karachi for clarity. Addressing this limitation is important in
future studies. Despite limitations such as small sample size and the need for nuanced measures,
this study highlights the impact of hijab on perceived competence and interpersonal skills in the
workplace, emphasizing the importance of policies to prevent religious discrimination and promote
diversity and inclusion.

9. Conclusion
This research investigated how wearing hijab affects first impressions and social perceptions towards
women in Karachi, Pakistan. The research showed that clothing such as the hijab can influence cognitive
processes and interpersonal attitudes towards women, creating both positive effects on their perceived
competence and interpersonal skills. However, negative attitudes and discrimination can be an obstacle
to women’s employability, opportunity, and growth in the workplace. The findings suggest that even the
absence of hijab could lead to a change in opinions on competence and warmth, indicating the potential
influence of religious stereotypes on first impressions. The study raises concerns about inclusiveness and
organizational diversity, and it is essential for workplaces to take proactive steps towards promoting
diversity and inclusivity. The study recommends further research exploring more immersive methods of
priming and the effects of clothing on attitudes towards men of different religious backgrounds. Overall,
this study contributes to our understanding of the effects of hijab-wearing on social perceptions and
provides insights into the complex nature of first impressions in a multicultural society. Further research
in this area can help to improve our understanding of the complex relationships between identity, culture,
and social perceptions.

Disclosure statement f5d2adf6993a4991825fee9e1a8ec013. Supplement data

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. can be provided upon request. Address all correspondence
to Gulnaz Anjum (Gulnaz.anjum@psykologi.uio.no).
Acknowledgements
We are also grateful for the financial support the grant Citation information
Tildeling av kvalifiseringsstipend 2022 (#102603241) Cite this article as: Hijab and enclothed cognition: The
awarded to Gulnaz Anjum. effect of hijab on interpersonal attitudes in a homogenous
Muslim-majority context, Sania Sohail & Gulnaz Anjum,
Author details Cogent Psychology (2023), 10: 2219084.
Sania Sohail1
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1177/1948550610378381
Woldesemait, M. (2013). Unfolding the Modern Hijab: From
the Colonial Veil to Pious Fashion. Duke University
Durham. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/han
dle/10161/7554
Zenmore, S. E., Fiske, S. T., & Kim, H. J. (2000). Gender
stereotypes and the dynamics of social interaction.
In T. Eckes & H. M. Traunter (Eds.), The developmental
social psychology of gender (pp. 207–241). Erlbaum.
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Appendix A

Figure A1. Non- Hijab condition.

This image will be shown to the
control group before they fill
out the survey.

Figure A2. Non- Hijab condition.

This image will be shown to the
control group before they fill
out the survey.

Appendix B
Survey for Undergraduate Students

Consent Form – Perceptions and attitudes towards women (hijab and non-hijab condition)

You are invited to join a research study to look at the perceptions of the woman in the picture
presented. If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to take the survey and this
will take you approximately 7 minutes. This study is not intended to cause any physical or non-
physical harm to you. No social, psychological or economic harm should be caused as a result of
participating in this study.
Your answers to the survey will remain anonymous and confidential. They will not be shared
with any parties besides the researcher and partnering professors apart of this research study.

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YOUR RIGHTS

Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave the
study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result in any
penalty and it will not harm your relationship with any researchers apart of this survey.

CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS

Please email Sania Sohail (saniasohail118@gmail.com) if you have questions about the study, any
problems, unexpected psychological discomforts or think that something unusual or unexpected is
happening.

Do you agree to participate in the research study?

Yes

No

Appendix C
They say that life happens in between the struggle to achieve our goals. At age 22, Nuha, the
girl whose picture you just saw, had similar thoughts going through her mind. She wondered
whether her life was passing by while she tried to achieve what seemed distant and vague.
Her time was distributed in two primary roles: being an undergraduate student and working
as a part-time employee at a startup called ‘Energizer’. However, she did not feel like she was
fully utilizing her potential in these two roles and often felt as though she missed out on
opportunities in terms of exploring her personality. Was she missing out on most things in her
life and missing out on the university experience? Had she grown comfortable, and resistant
to change? These thoughts rushed through her mind as she sipped on a cup of tea sitting
alone in a cafe’.

Appendix D
Demographic Questionnaire
Age:

Gender: (1) Female (2) Male (3) Other _____

Religion: ______

University:

Major:

Socio-economic status (SES): Upper SES, Middle SES, Lower Middle SES

Appendix E
Social and Task Attraction Survey
Please rate the following statements based on your perception of the picture shown above. (1)
being strongly disagree to (7) being strongly agree.

● She could be a friend of mine.

● She seems like someone who has confidence in her ability to get any work done.

● It would be difficult to meet and talk with her.

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● I know that she will be prejudiced towards me.

● She is probably a typical goof-off when assigned a job to do.

● She just wouldn’t fit into my circle of friends.

● She is probably a poor problem solver.

● We could never establish a personal friendship with each other.

● She seems like a reliable and dependable person.

● I would like to have a friendly chat with her.

● It would be hard for her to accomplish things.

Appendix F
Competence and Warmth Survey
Imagine that the person showed in the picture is “person X”. Please rate the following statements
based on your perception of Nuha from (1) being strongly disagree to (7) being strongly agree.

HIGH COMPETENCE

● X worked hard on the extra-credit assignment in linear algebra

● X organized a student group to give feedback to the university Administration.

● X published a short story in a literary magazine while at university.

● X managed solved a tough calculus integration problem.

LOW COMPETENCE

● When called upon by the professor, X was confused and unable to answer the question in a coherent
way.

● X considered dropping out of school because of failing Introductory psychology.

● X did poorly on the exam because of mixing up the chapters that needed to be studied.

● Peers have learned not to ask X to organize projects since he/she rarely gets things done on time.

HIGH WARMTH

● X loves to be with other people.

● X always smiles at strangers on the street just to make their day better.

● X enjoys having long conversations with friends.

● X gave up his/her seat on the crowded bus when an elderly woman got on.

LOW WARMTH

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● X decided that everyone at the party was pretty shallow and left early.

● X did not want to congratulate the winner of the competition.

● X often doesn’t respond when his/her peers say hello at university.

● X couldn’t be bothered to give directions to a stranger.

NEUTRAL

● X enjoys reading a good novel.

● X occasionally likes to go to a good restaurant.

● On most days, X stops to get coffee on his/her way to work.

● Sometimes X goes to the gym for a workout.

Do you observe the hijab?

Yes | No

To what degree does your social circle consist of hijab wearing women?

All of them | Some of them | Only a few | None of them

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