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Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Mgt.

AGR 302: Rainfed Agriculture and

Watershed Management (1+1)

Theory Study Material (2019-20)

Lec.No. 1: Significance and Scope of Dry farming in India and History of dry land Agriculture

Lec. No. 2: Dry farming and Rainfed farming: Definition and Characteristics

Lec. No. 3: Distribution of Arid and Semi arid regions in World, India and Tamil Nadu.

Lec. No. 4: Major crops of dry lands in India and Tamil Nadu

Lec. No. 5: Characteristics of dry land farming and major constraints for crop production

Lec. No. 6: Drought Definition, Classification and Effect on crops

Lec. No. 7: Drought Management Strategies and Contingency Crop Planning & Mid Season
Correction.

Lec. No. 8: Mulching, anti- transpirants, in-situ soil moisture conservation techniques and
Approaches.

Prepared by,
Dr.S.Anbumani,
Associate Professor (Agronomy)

Lecture No. 1: Significance and Scope of Dry farming in India and History of dry land

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Agriculture

Dryland agriculture is very important component of Indian agriculture by contributing

significantly towards food, fodder, fuel and fibre production. In irrigated agriculture area and
productivity has been declining, dry farming would inevitably have to be relied more in the future.

 The changes in agricultural production in dry lands will not be as dramatic and immediate as
happened in irrigated agriculture. This invite a greater role from scientists, extension officials
and the policy makers to give more attention on dry land agriculture, since it has greater scope
for increasing the food production.

 Rainfall in these areas is unevenly distributed, highly uncertain and erratic. In certain areas the
total annual rainfall does not exceed 500 mm. Dry lands contribute towards 42% of the total
food grain production of the country.

 Dry lands, being water deficient besides, are also characterized by high evaporation rates,
particularly high day temperature in summer, low humidity, high run off and soil erosion. The
soils of such areas are often found to be saline and low in fertility.

 Water is the most important factor of crop production, inadequacy and uncertainty of rainfall
often cause partial or complete failure of the crops which leads to food scarcities and famines.
Thus the life of both human beings and cattles in such areas becomes difficult and insecure.

Significance of Dry land Agriculture

 India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the World in terms of both
extent and value of the produce
 The total land area of India is 329 million hectares of which 143 million hectares is arable land and
of his 94 million hectares fall under dry lands.

 In India 128 districts have been recognized as dry land farming areas. Of these, 91 Districts are
spread in Central Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of Gujarat, rain shadow region of the Western
Ghats and in the states of Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

 Crops such as sorghum,pearl millet,finger millet among millets, oilseeds like mustard, rapeseed,
groundnut and pulse crops like pigeon pea, gram and lentil are the major crops of dry lands.

 Almost 80% of maize and jowar, 90% of bajra and approximately 95% of pulses and 75% of
oilseeds and 70% of cotton are obtained from dry land agriculture. Dry land farming holds greater
significance to meet the food grain demand for increase in population and fluctuating production.

 About 70% of rural population lives in dry farming areas and their livelihood depend on success or
failure of the crops. More than 75% of the farmers engaged in dry farming are small and marginal.
Therefore, improvement in dry farming would raise the economic status of farmers by helping for
poverty alleviation.

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 Although, India is blessed with average annual rainfall of about 1120 mm, slightly above the global
mean of 990 mm,The fate of dry land crops oscillates with the quantity, onset, progress, spatial
and temporal distribution of monsoon rains.
 Of the mean annual rainfall,
 30 per cent of the country gets less than 750 mm
 40 per cent between 750 and 1250 mm
 20 per cent area is blessed with rainfall between 1250 and 2000 mm and
 10 per cent area with annual rainfall over 2000 mm.

 A critical appraisal of the existing rain water availability shows that,

 India receives 400 million hectare meters (M ha m) of rain water annually
 About 160 M ha m falls on agricultural land
 Nearly 24 M ha m is available for harvesting in small scale water harvesting structures
 About 186 M ha m goes to rivers as runoff and
 Around one-fourth of the total annual rainfall is received before or after cropping season.
Scope of Dry land Agriculture
 Considering the large areas with more yield gaps, indicate the significant scope to enhance the
contribution from dry land agriculture to the Indian food basket. Feed and fodder production to
support livestock is yet another important contribution of dry land agriculture. Dry farming not
only contributes 40-42% of food grain production but also supports two-third of the livestock
population.
 Despite considerable progress in irrigation development over the five year plans, 85% of coarse
cereals, 95% in pulses, 42% in rice, 75% in oilseeds and 70% in cotton are still cultivated as
rainfed. Though, impressive gains were noted in some of the rainfed crops in recent times, the
gap between attainable and farmers' yields still remain high which shows more scope for
development.
 Small and marginal farmers who are the backbone of rainfed farming are resource poor and risk
averse. Moreover, both public and private investments in technology adoption and
infrastructure have been quite low in dry land agriculture

 Several resource management problems emerging in irrigated regions, rainfed agriculture offers
scope to contribute to the growing food needs of future particularly of pulses and edible oils.
 With the promised break-through in yields through genetic manipulation and large scale
adoption of water saving technologies through conservation agriculture, the yield gains can be
further enhanced in the medium to long term.

 The entire dry farming area is not uniform for resource base, opportunities and constraints.
There are areas receiving high rainfall and fertile deep soils where crop yields can be enhanced
significantly by double cropping combined with supplemental irrigation with water harvesting.

 At present, 3 ha of dry land crop produces cereal grain equivalent to that produced in 1 ha of
irrigated crop. There is scope for doubling the average yield of dry land crops.

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 Limited scope for increasing the area under farming, only option is to increase the productivity
with the modern technology and inputs, since the per capita land availability which was 0.28 ha
in 1990 has declined to 0.19 ha in 2010 and 0.15 ha in 2015. Crop productivity in dry lands must
increase from the present 0.8 to 2.0 tons ha-1 by 2025 to meet the future challenge.

 The target in food grain production cannot be realized from irrigated areas alone as we have
irrigation potential for 178 m ha only. Moreover the productivity of grains already showed a
plateau in irrigated agriculture due to problems related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up
and raising water table.

 Therefore, the challenges of the present millennium would be to produce more from dry lands
while ensuring Conservation of existing resources. Hence, new strategies would have to be
evolved which would make the fragile dry land ecosystems more productive and sustainable.
We shall have to make grey areas (dry lands) green through latest technological innovations to
achieve evergreen revolution in dry land agriculture.

 For the relatively lower rainfall regions, the overall system productivity needs to be enhanced by
integrating crops, trees and livestock. This agro-eco region based differential approach is the key
for realizing the full potential of dry land agriculture besides addressing the dimension of
regional equity.

 Dry land offers good scope for development of agroforestry, social forestry. horti- sylvi-pasture
and other such similar systems which will not only supply food, fuel to the people fodder to the
cattle and also forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological maintenance.
 Therefore, we can say that second 'green revolution' in Indian agriculture can be had in
rainfed/dry land agriculture. This is important to improve the standard of living of farmers
residing in these areas as well.

Global Status of Dry land Agriculture

 Dry land agriculture is the main stay of over 800 million inhabitants of the Semi Arid Tropics
(SAT) in 600 million hectares of land. These inhabitants rely on traditionally organized and fragile
agriculture systems for livelihood.

 The low and unpredictable rainfall that defines dry land agriculture is found on about 40 per
cent of the global land surface and 60 per cent of which is in the developing world.

 Local rainfall is the only source of water available for crop production in most parts of region. As
a consequence of low rainfall and its high variability of onset and distribution, prolonged dry
spells, which usually occur during the growing season crop growth and yields, are often affected.

 In this region, rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration for 2 to 4.5 months (dry semi arid) or 4.5 to 7
months (wet semi arid) in any particular year.
 Farmers in these regions produce more than 50 per cent of groundnut, 80 per cent pearl millet
and about 93 per cent of pulses and hence major share of world's food grains come from these
dry lands.

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 Rainfed farming systems occupy about 80% of the world's agricultural lands and contribute to
over two-thirds of the global food production.
 In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 95% of farm land is rainfed
 Latin America 90%;
 South Asia 60%;
 East Asia 65%; and
 West Asia and North Africa 75%
 Out of total world population, more than 1.5 billion people live in dry land areas. The bulk of this
population belongs to sub-Saharan, the region that is more or less inhabited by the world's
poorest people.
 Dry land areas are under increased pressure due to the prevalence of poor agricultural practices,
over-grazing and intensive cropping to meet food and fibre requirement of man and animal.
 Thus this land is unable to meet the pressure of people's need. A severe environmental
degradation is unavoidable due to this pressure. In addition, the poor development in the social
and economic front often creates serious disturbances.
 The ultimate result is the persistence of perennial poverty in the dry land areas. In some
countries the dry land covers more than 50 per cent of the total geographical area. Most of
these countries are economically very poor. This poor economic status leads to a poor social
consciousness, which is the major cause of excessive population growth in these countries.
 The final outcome of this situation is the low growth rate of gross domestic production (GDP).
Naturally per capita income, expenditure and food/nutrition availability is very low in these
countries.
National status
 Out of total landmass of 329 million hectares with an average annual rainfall of about 1120 mm,
224 million hectares are moderate to extreme dry. These areas alone provide home to some
40% of our total human population and two third of cattle population.

 These areas are generally mono-cropped and dependent on rainfall only.

 Instead of high value crops, these areas are compelled to produce 90% of coarse cereals, 95% of
pulses, 75% of oil seed and 70% of cotton obviously with low productivity.

 At the same time, in our country, 90% of people of dry areas depend only on agriculture for
their livelihood. Interestingly an estimated 42% of total food grains come from the dry areas.
Naturally, poverty is a constant companion of the people living in these areas.

 Out of a total 329 million hectare (m ha), 175 m ha are in various stages of degradation. About
50 percent of total cultivable land suffers from soil erosion and salinity problem. About 30 m ha
of fragile land now under cultivation is progressively degrading. Out of 450 million of cattle
population, there are 300 million heads of cattle present in dry land areas.

 The annual fodder requirement of India is about 932 million tonnes of green and 750 million
tonnes of dry fodder as against current availability of 250 and 414 million tonnes respectively.

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History of dry land Agricultural Research in India

The chronology of events in dry land agricultural research in India is as follows,
1920: Scarcity tract development given importance by the Royal Commission on Agriculture
1923: Establishing Dry land Research Station at Manjri (Pune) by Tamhane
1933: Research Stations established at Bijapur and Solapur
1934: Research Stations established at Hagari and Raichur
1935: Research Station established at Rohtak (Punjab)
1942: Bombay Land Development act passed
1944: Monograph on dry farming in India by N.V.Kanitkar (Bombay,Hyderabad,Madras Dry Farming
Practices)
1953: Establishing Central Soil Conservation Board
1954: Establishing Central Soil Conservation Centres
1970: Research Centres established under AICRPDA in 23 locations
1972: Establishment of International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) at
Hyderabad
1973-74: DPAP- Drought Prone Area Development Programme
1977-78: DDP- Desert Development Project
1976: Establishment of Dry land Operational Research Projects
1983: Starting of 47 model watersheds under ICAR
1984: Initiation of World Bank assisted Watershed Development Programmes in four states.
1985: Birth of Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture (CRIDA)at Hyderabad
1990-91: Launching of NWDPRA programmes by Government of India in 25 states.
1995: WDPSCA-Watershed Development project for shifting cultivation area
2006: NRAA-National rainfed Authority of India
2005-06: NHM- National Horticulture mission
2006: MNREGA- Mahathma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act
2008: NAPCC- National Action Plan on Climate Change
2011-12: Rainfed Area Development Programme
2011: RKVY- Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
2011: NICRA -. National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture
2014-15: NSMA- National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture ( Sub Mission on Agro forestry)
2015: PMKSY- Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (Watershed) by Department of land Resources
2019: Jal Sakthi Abhiyan for water conservation and water security.

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Lecture No. 2: Dry farming and Rainfed farming: Definition and Characteristics

Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dry land agriculture can be grouped into three
categories based on the amount of rainfall received and climate:

a) Dry farming: is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than 750 mm. Crop failure is
most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period. These are arid regions with a growing
season (period of adequate soil moisture) less than 75 days. Moisture conservation practices are
necessary for crop production.

b) Dry land farming: is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall more than 750 mm. In spite of
prolonged dry spells crop failure is relatively less frequent. These are semi arid tracts with a growing
period between 75 and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
However, adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols or black soils.

c) Rainfed farming: is crop production in regions with annual rainfall more than 1150 mm. Crops are not
subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period. Emphasis is often on disposal of excess water.
These are humid regions with growing period more than 120 days.

Constituent Dry farming Dry land farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) < 750 >750 >1150
Prolonged dry spell Occur Occur Does not occur
Crop failures Most common Least frequent Does not occur
Growing period (days) <75 75-120 >120
Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough Excess & Drainage
Growing regions Arid Semi Arid Humid and sub
humid regions
Constraints Wind erosion Wind and water erosion Water erosion

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific distinguished dry land
agriculture mainly into two categories: dry land and rainfed farming.

Constituent Dry land farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) <800 >800
Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough
Growing season (days) <200 >200
Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as Humid and sub humid regions
uplands of sub-humid and
humid regions
Cropping system Single crop or intercropping double cropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

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a) The area under dry land agriculture is more in India ( 60 per cent of total cultivable area)
b) Areas of low rainfall ( below 750 mm) constitute more than 30 per cent of total geographical area
c) About 84 districts in India fall in the category of low rainfall area
d) Providing irrigation to all the dry lands is expensive and takes long time.
Area under dry lands
Globally the area under dryl ands is about 6150 m.ha. In India out of the total cultivated area of 143
m.ha the area under dry lands is about 85 m.ha, which comes to 60% . It is estimated that even after
creating entire irrigation potential for irrigation about 55% of total cultivated area remain as rainfed.
Except in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Pondichery the percentage of area under drylands is high in
all other states. In Tami Nadu the area under dry lands is about 2.57 m.ha.

Defined by,
Hargreaves (1957) defined dry farming as agriculture without irrigation in regions of scanty
precipitation.

ICAR while establishing the dry land centers in different agro -climatic zones of the country in 1970, used
the simple formula of Thornthwaite (1955) for estimating the moisture deficit index.

Moisture deficit Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE]

Accordingly, climate has been divided into three types.
 Sub humid 0 to 33.3
 Semi arid - 33.3 to 66.6
 Arid > - 66.6
Steiner et al., (1988) After careful consideration of several definitions, Steiner et al. (1988) consider
aridity index concept of the United Nations Conference on Desertification based on the balance
between precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration (ET) to be appropriate for wide scale adoption.
According to this definition the areas with P/ET ratio between 0.03 and 0.20 are arid and areas with the
ratio between 0.2 and 0.5 are semi-arid.

FAO classification (2000)

This classification is based on 'growing period concept' of the FAO. Areas having a growing period
between 1 and 74 days are classified as arid and those with a growing period between 75 and 119 days
are semiarid. (Growing period is the number of days during a year when precipitation exceeds half the
potential evapotranspiration, plus a period to use an assumed 100 mm of water from excess
precipitation (or) less stored in the soil profile.

Characteristics of dry lands

 Low and unsuitable crop production due to an unfavourable crop-grown environment

 Limited choice of crops, limited crops especially those tolerant to water stress and aberrant
weather situations

 Low cropping intensity and wide variations in soil moisture status due to distribution and
amount of rainfall

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 Most or the crops and varieties grown in the dry lands are not efficient users of moisture and
are subsistence oriented with little emphasis on their suitability for the environment.

 Most of them are of longer duration, photosensitive and have a low harvest index with low
response to inputs such as fertilizer. Because of their longer duration they have to endure
lengthy periods of moisture stress, resulting in low yields or complete failures.

 These conditions are further aggravated by the high evaporative demands and by the limited
water holding capacity of soils due to shallow depths in many areas.

 Deforestation, overgrazing and unlimited cultivation on sloping lands have not only
increased the run-off but also reduced the recharge of the soil profile and groundwater
thereby resulting in severe soil erosion.

 These have contributed to soil deterioration, nutrient losses, lower yields of upland crops,
down-stream flooding of heavily cropped and populated areas, sedimentation of reservoirs and
increased flow of water to the seas.

 There is a need in the dry lands for improving resource management that would conserve and
utilize more effectively the rainfall and the soil, provide a new crop production system that can
maintain the productivity and assure dependable harvests.

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Lecture No. 3: Distribution of Arid and Semi arid regions in World, India and Tamil Nadu.
Classification of Dry Farming Regions
Arid or semiarid refers to moisture regimes whereas tropical or temperate refers to
thermal (temperature) regimes of an area. Dry farming areas are thus classified based on
thermal and moisture regimes. Based on moisture regimes they are classified as aríd and
semiarid; based on thermal regimes as tropical and temperate. Tropics have a mean annual
temperature of more than 18° C and temperate regions have a mean annual temperature of
less than 18°C.

i) Arid region: It is characterized by very low rainfall, usually less than 200 mm per year, occurring in a
very short period. Rainless dry spells may at times stretch for more than a year (Dry climate). The arid
regions are classified into,
a).Arid Tropics with mean annual temperature exceeding 18°C and
b.Arid Temperate regions with mean annual temperature less than 18°C.

ii) Semiarid region: It is characterized by a mixed climate in which a fairly moist or rainy season
alternates with a completely dry season. Hence the climate is described as alternating wet and dry
climate. Depending on distance from equator and temperature regimes, semiarid regions are
divided into Semiarid Tropics, usually termed as SAT regions and semiarid temperate
regions.

a) Semiarid Tropics (SAT): Rainfall occurs during 2 to 7 months of the year. When number of wet
months is 2.0 to 4.5, it is described as dry SAT and when rainy months ranges from 4.5 to 7.0 t is called
as wet SAT. Rainfall quantity ranges from 400 to 750 mm per year, with a variability of 20-
30%. But, the onset, closure and duration of rainy season exhibits wide variability between
years. Distribution of rainfall within the season also exhibits wide fluctuations between years.
A greater portion of rainfall is received in high intensity over a short duration, leading to run
off. Mean annual temperature is more than 18°C and during most months PET is higher than
precipitation. Soil moisture inadequacy is the major constraint for cropping.

b) Semiarid Temperate regions: Though annual rainfall is low, PET is also low during many months.
Mean annual temperature is less than 18°C. Maximum temperature during summer is 33°C while
minimum temperature may reach -26°C during winter months. Temperature is the
critical limiting factor for crop production rather than moisture.
All the dry farming areas are located in arid and semiarid regions only. But not all the
arid and semiarid regions come under dry farming areas. When irrigation facilities are
available, irrigated farming is practiced extensively in arid and semiarid regions also. Eg
Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Climate Moisture regime Thermal regime Constraints for cropping
Arid Tropics Dry Above 18 ºC Moisture
Arid Temperate Dry Below 18 ºC Moisture and Temperature
Semiarid tropics Wet-Dry Above 18 ºC Moisture

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Semiarid temperate Wet-Dry Below 18 ºC Temperature

Distribution of Dry Farming Regions
Arid regions of World: The following are the five arid zones in the world,
1. North African Eurasian – Sahara and Tar desert
2. North American desert – Arizona in USA
3. South American desert – Peru
4. South African desert – Namibia
5. Australian desert – Central Australia
Semi arid regions of world: Depending on distance from equator and temperature regimes, semi arid
regions are divided into Semi Arid Tropics, usually termed as SAT regions and semi arid temperate
regions.
a. Semi arid tropics: This region lies between 10º and 30º north and south latitudes. It is spread over 48
countries in four continents of Asia, Australia, America and Africa. It covers many parts in Africa, India,
Pakistan and North Eastern Burma in Asia, Northern Australia and Mexico, Paraguay, Bolivia and
Venezuela in South America. West Africa accounts for 24% of semi arid tropics, East Africa 18%, South
Africa 20%, Latin America 17%, Australia 10% and South Asia 11%.
b. Semi arid temperate region of the World: This occurs in Russia, North Western China, USA and
Canada.
Arid and Semi arid regions of India: Total area under arid and semiarid regions in India extends over
135.8 million hectares
Climate Area (m ha) Regions
Arid Tropics 31.7 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of Karnataka and
Andhra
Arid Temperate 7.0 Jammu and Kashmir
Semiarid Tropics 95.7 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Semiarid Temperate 1.4 Jammu and Kashmir
Distribution of arid and Semi arid regions of India
Arid Semiarid
State
Area (Sq km) Per cent to total area Area (Sq km) Per cent to total area
A. Tropics
Rajasthan 196150 61 121020 13
Gujarat 62180 20 90520 9
Punjab 14510 5 31770 3
Haryana 12840 4 26880 3
Uttarpradesh - - 64230 7
Madhyapradesh - - 59470 6
Maharastra 1290 0.4 189580 19
Karnataka 8570 3 139360 15
Andhrapradesh 21550 7 138670 15
Tamil Nadu - 95250 10
All India 317090 956750
b. Temperate

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Jammu & Kashmir 70300 13780

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Dry Farming Regions of India
Region States Places Rainfall Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/cropping systems
(mm)
Jhansi Uttar Jhansi, Hamirpur 930 Jun-Sep Semi arid Red black Sorghum-safflower / mustard
pradesh Banda Lalitpur, Jalaun cowpea / urd / moong,-gram
safflower rice-soybean-gram
safflower.
Rajkot Gujarat Rajkot 625 Jun-Sep Arid Medium Sorghum / bajra / cotton
Surendranagar; black green gram / black gram
Jamnagar, Junagadh redgram / cluster bean /
Bhavanagar, Amreli groundnut / sesamum /
castor-safflower / sunflower/
green gram / mustard.
Akola Maharasht Akola, Amravati, 830 Jun-Sep Semi arid Medium and Green gram / sorghum/
ra Wardha, Yeotmal deep black safflower / sunflower/ cotton
Parbhani, Buldana, + green gram / groundnut-
Khandesh, Adilabad, sorghum + green gram / black
Andhra Nizambad gram / redgram groundnut +
Pradesh sunflower.
Sholapur Maharasht Solapur, 722 May-Oct Semi arid Black Pear millet-Gram / Black
ra Ahmednagar, Nasik, gram-sorghum / Pearl millet +
Pune, Satara, Sangli, Redgram / Horsegram /
Dhule, Bhir, Redgram + setaria /
Osmanabad, Jalgaon, Groundnut / sunflower
Buldhana /Castor-Horsegram.
Indore Madhya Indore, Ratlan Ujjain 990 May-Sep Semi arid Medium Maize-gram / safflower
Pradesh Dewar, Dhar, deep black sorghum + soybean-gram
Khargaon Khandura, safflower-maize + groundnut
sorghum + redgram.

Rewa Madhya SidluRewa Satna 1080 Jun-Sep Sub humid Medium Sorghum
Pradesh Shadol Panna black mixed +Redgram-gram/rice-
Jabalpur Damoh red and wheat /gram Black grim Green
Chattarpur, black gram-wheat/ rice-lentil.
Tikamgarh
Bijapur Maharasht Bijapur, Gulbarga 680 May-Oct Semi arid Medium and Green gram-sorghum /
ra Belgraum, deep black safflower-groundnut/ pearl
millet + redgram. Bengal
Karnataka Raichur
gram+ safflower / cotton.
Udaipur Rajasthan Uddipur, Chittorgarh 635 Jun-Sep Semi arid Medium Sorghum maize-safflower
Bhilwara, Ajmer, black mustard / pearl millet / pearl
Banswara, Dungarpur millet +cowpea –mustard /
Sorghum-mustard. Redgram /
green gram / groundnut /
Sunflower-wheat / mustard.

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Bellary Karnataka Chellakere 500 Sep-Oct Semi arid Medium and Sorghum / safflower / gram
Chitradurga Bellary, deep black sorghum + lablab
Raichur,,
Andhra Anantapur, Kurnool,
Mahboobnagar
Kovilpatti Tamil Nadu Tiruneiveli, 730 Sep-Dec Semi arid Deep black Sorghum + cowpea / Pearl
Thoothukudi millet / Setaria / kudiraivali /
black gram / green gram /
Redgram / lablab/ cowpea /
cotton +black gram
Sunflower / Senna
Agra Uttar Agra Aligarh 710 Jun-Sep Semi arid Deep alluvial Pearl millet / black gram /
Pradesh Mathura, Etah sandy loam green gram / redgram /
Manipuri cluster bean / groundnut
safflower / mustard / pearl
millet+ redgram / black gram /
greengram / groundnut +
castor.
Anantapur Andhra Anantapur, Karnool, 570 May-Oct Arid Red loam Pearl millet / sorghum /
Chithoor setaria/ castor / Redgram /
gmundnut / mesta /
groundnut+ Redgram /
castor / pearl millet+ Redgram
/ castor.
Hyderabad Andhra Rangareddy 770 Jun-Oct Semi arid Shallow red Sorghum / pearl millet /
Nalgonda,, Medak sandy loam castor/ redgram / ragi /
Karimnagar,, setaria / niger / horsegram /
Mahboobnagar, sorghum / maize + red gram-
Warangal safflower.

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Regions of Tamil Nadu

Region Taluk / District Annual Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/ cropping

rainfall(mm) systems

Northwest Dharmapurii Dt., 844 Jun - Oct Semiarid Red Groundnut + Red gram / Castor
Taluks of Omalur, – Horse gram.
Attur, Rasipuram 842 Jun - Oct Semiarid Red Cowpea - sorghum / Sorghum +
Sankagiri in Salem Dt. lablab redgram.
Perambahu Taluk
Parts of Tirupattur 900 Jun - Oct Semiarid Red Ragi / pearl millet / Samai-
and Vellore Taluks horsegram.
Western Palladam, Kangeyam 711 Sep - Nov Semiarid Red Cotton/ sorghum/ pear millet /
Dharapuram bengal gram / coriander /
Udumalpet 717 black sorghum + lablab./ red gram.
Coimbatore taluks of
Coimbatore and
Periyar Districts
East Parts of Tiruchi, 840 Sep - Nov Semiarid Black Cotton / sorghum / pearl millet /
central Pudukkottai, Madurai sesamum sorghum / pulses /
918 Red
and Dindugul Dts. pearl millet / groundnut +red
876 Red gram/castor.
Southern Tirunelveli Dt. 940 Oct - Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut / cowpea / sesamum
sorghum / pearl millet / pulses
castor.
Thoothukudi Dt. 677 Oct- Dec Semiarid Black Cotton / chillies / coriander /
Red black gram / sorghum / pearl
millet / pulses.
Virudunagar Dt. 817 Oct - Dec Semiarid Black Cotton / sunflower / maize /
sorghum,/ pearl millet / pulses /
castor.
Ramanathapuram Dt. 819 Oct- Dec Semiarid Black Rice / cotton / sorghum/
pulses / chillies.
Sivagangai Dt. 910 Oct- Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut / pearl millet /
sesamum / cowpea /redgram /
castor.

15
Lecture No. 4: Major crops of dry lands in India and Tamil Nadu

Selection of suitable varieties: In most crops of dry farming regions, traditional local varieties still
dominate. The preference for these local varieties is based on their pronounced drought tolerance. But
they are usually longer in duration susceptible to moisture stress at maturity. They have low yield
potential even under favourable rainfall. They do not respond significantly to improved management
such as nutrient supply.

The criteria now adopted for selection of crop varieties for dry lands include drought tolerance, short or
medium duration, high yield potential, response to nutrient supply, high water use efficiency, moderate
resistance to pest and diseases. Suitable varieties for all dry land crops have been developed in all the
dry farming regions and have proved their high yield potential.

Choice of cropping system: Cropping system refers to the spatial and temporal association of crops in a
farming system. Choice of suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and sustainable use of
resources especially water and soil. Cropping systems depend on rainfall quantity, length of rainy
reason and soil storage capacity. The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands are
given below.

Potential cropping system based on rainfall and soil characters

Rainfall Soil type
(mm)
350-600 Alfisols,
shallow vertisols
350-600 Deep aridisols,
Entisols(alluvium)
350-600 Deep vertisols
600-750 Alfisols, vertisols,
entisols
750-900 Entisols, deep
vertisols, deep
alfisols, inceptisols
> 900 As above
Growing Profile storage Suggested cropping system
season (weeks) capacity (mm)
20 100 Single rainy season cropping sorghum
/ maize / soybean
20 100 Single cropping sorghum / maize /
soybean in kharif / rabi
20 100 Single post rainy season cropping
sorghum
20-30 150 Intercropping
1. Sorghum + Pigeon pea
2. Cotton + Black gram
30 200 Double cropping with monitoring
1. Maize – safflower
2. Soybean – chick pea
3. Groundnut – horsegram
> 30 > 200 Assured double cropping
Maize – chick pea
Soybean - safflower

Intercropping: Intercropping refers to growing two or more crops in the same field during the same
season. Intercropping is widely practiced in dry farming since it offers many advantages as outlined
below,

16
  Intercropping is a risk minimization strategy and provides an insurance against complete crop
failure due to rainfall abnormalities. This is made possible through the duration difference
between component crops
 It provides more yield and income per unit area per unit time than sole cropping
 Stability in production is achieved
 Multiple products for home consumption as well as for marketing are made available
 When legumes are included in intercropping, soil fertility is enriched
 Intercrop canopy suppresses weed growth
 Some intercrop combinations provide biological control of pests and diseases (eg) cotton +
cluster bean cropping system. Intercrop cluster bean reduces jassid incidence in cotton
 Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, water and nutrients are efficiently used.

However, for success in intercropping the competition between component crops must be
minimized and the complimentary effects must be maximized. This can be accomplished by the
following means
 Choice of suitable component crops differing in duration, rooting pattern, canopy
architecture nutrient requirement and occurrence of critical stages
 Selection of genotypes in each component crop
 Optimum population of component crops
 Suitable crop geometry to provide adequate space for intercrops
 Preference for leguminous crops as intercrops.

Inter cropping system suitable for drylands

Crops Geometry Base crop duration Intercrop duration
Sorghum + Lablab 6-8:2 100-120 150-180
Sorghum + Redgram 6-8:1 100-120 180
Sorghum + Cowpea 2:1 100-120 80
Cotton + Black gram 2:1 150-185 65-75
Groundnut + Redgram 6-8:1 105 180
Groundnut + Castor 6-8:1 105 150-180
Bengalgram + Coriander 4:1 100 80
Maize + Cowpea 2:1 100-110 75-80
Ragi+ Cowpea + Redgram 6:1:1 100 75 + 180

Double cropping in dry lands: Double cropping either by sequential cropping or relay cropping is
possible in places with high rainfall (> 900 mm) extended rainy season and high soil moisture storage
capacity.
Double cropping by relay cropping
Groundnut / Ragi + Redgram - Horsegram
(Jun-Sep) (Jun-Jan) (Sep-Jan)
Groundnut or ragi is sown with redgram as intercrop in 6:1 proportion in June. After harvest of
groundnut in September, horsegram is relay sown in the space between redgram rows.

17
Double cropping by sequential cropping
Pearl / ragi / samai (May – Sep) Horsegram (Sep – Jan)
Groundnut / sesamum (May – Sep) Horsegram (Sep – Jan)
Cowpea / greengram (Jun – Sep) Sorghum (Oct – Jan)
Sorghum (Jul – Oct) Chickpea (Oct – Feb)

Efficient double cropping system for dry lands of India

Soil type Region Water availability (days) Double cropping system

Vertisols MP 210-230 Maize – chickpea
Soybean – wheat
Maharastra 190-210 Sorghum – safflower
Karnataka 130-150 Cowpea – sorghum
Greengram – safflower
Inceptisols UP 200-230 Rice – Chickpea
180-200 Pearl millet – chickpea
Blackgram – mustard
Oxisols Bihar 160-180 Maize – chickpea
Groundnut – barley
Alfisols Karnataka 190-220 Cowpea – ragi
Soybean – ragi
Alfisols and < 120 No double cropping
aridisols

Crop substitution: It refers to the replacement of an existing low yielding crop with another crop which
is better adapted to the prevailing environment and is capable of giving higher yield under similar
climatic conditions. For many dry farming regions of India, more suitable crops than existing ones have
been identified. However, the acceptance and adoption of the practice of crop substitution by dry land
farmers is poor since in most instances the new crops replace food crops.
Region Traditional crop q/ha More suitable crop q/ha
Agra Wheat 10.3 Mustard 20.4
Bellary Cotton 2.0 Sorghum 26.7
Bijapur Wheat 9.4 Safflower 18.8
Varanasi Upland rice 28.0 Maize 33.8
In vertisols of Tamil Nadu, sunflower and maize are substituting millets and senna substituting
low value pulses.

18
CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR CROP PLANNING
Crops and varieties selected should match the length of growing season during which they are
not subjected to soil moisture stress. Climatological analysis helps to identify cultivars suitable for
different regions. Feasibility for intercropping, sequence cropping and double cropping can also be
known from such analysis. For regions with cropping season less than 20 weeks, single crop during
kharif or rabi is recommended. Regions with more than 30 weeks and above have no problem for
double cropping. In regions with 20-30 weeks cropping season, double cropping may be risky. Such
areas are ideal for intercropping.

Water balance for different agroclimatic regions has been calculated and water availability
periods worked out. Regions with 350-600 mm rainfall having 20 weeks effective growing season are
suitable for single cropping in kharif (red and shallow black soils) or rabi (deep black soils).
Intercropping is possible in regions receiving 600-750 mm rainfall and having 20-30 weeks of effective
growing season. Areas with more than 750 mm rainfall or with more than 30 weeks are suitable for
double cropping.

Suitable Cropping Systems Based On Rainfall and Water Availability Period

Rainfall Soils Water Potential cropping system

(MM) availability
period (weeks)
350-600 Alfisols & Shallow vertisols 20 Single kharif cropping
350-600 Aridisols & Entisols 20 Single cropping either in kharif or rabi
350-600 Deep Vertisols 20 Single rabi cropping
600-750 Alfisols, Vertisols &Entisols 20-30 Intercropping
750-900 Entisols, Deep Vertisols, Alfisols >30 Double cropping with monitoring
& Inceptisols
>900 Entisols, Deep vertisols, Alfisols >30 Assured double cropping
& Inceptisols

19
Lecture No. 5: Characteristics of dry land farming and major constraints for crop production

Most of the cropping in the arid and semi arid regions continues to be under rainfed conditions.
A majority of the farmers are small farmers with meager resources. The poor resources base permits
only low input subsistence farming with low and unstable crop yields. The low productivity of agriculture
in dry farming regions is due to the cumulative effect of many constraints for crop production. The
constraints can be broadly grouped in to,
A. Climatic constraints,
B.Soil related constraints,
C.Management constraints and
D.Socio economic & political constraints.

A. Climatic constraints
1. Vagaries of monsoon
(i) Variable Rainfall: Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year and naturally its coefficient of
variation. Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other words, crop
failures due to uncertain rains are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall.
(ii) Intensity and Distribution: In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually received in
3 to 5 rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to surface runoff.
This process also accelerates soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the crop growing season
is more important than total rainfall in dry land agriculture.
(iii) Late Onset of Monsoon: If the onset of monsoon is delayed crops/varieties recommended to
the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields.
(iv) Early Withdrawal of Monsoon: This situation is equally or more dangerous than late onset of
monsoon. Rainy season crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor yields.
Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to inadequate available soil moisture, especially
during reproductive and maturity phases.
(v) Prolonged Dry Spells: Breaks of monsoon for 7-10 days may not be a serious concern. Breaks of
more than 15 days duration especially at critical stages for soil moisture stress leads to
reduction in yield. Drought due to break in monsoon may adversely affect the crops in shallow
soils than in deep soils.

2. High atmospheric temperature

High temperature above 40° Celsius is a common phenomenon is dry land areas. It affects the
growth of crops and animal production. Hot summers with little or no rains, while winter temperatures
are relatively mild. There are often significant diurnal fluctuations in temperatures that restrict the
growth of plants. Plant growth takes place between species-specific maximum and minimum
temperatures.
Extremely high can be damaging to plants. It affects adversely the reproductive stage that decreases the
yield.

20
3. Low relative humidity: Atmospheric humidity is generally low in dry land
environments. In hot humid areas it is up to 4 percent by volume. In the dry land areas, in general, the
humidity is very low due to very low moisture. The humidity of a locality depends entirely on the
continuous evaporation of moisture from that area.

4.High evaporation and transpiration: In arid regions, loss of water due to evaporation from the soil is
relatively low due to low moisture content, potential evapo-transpiration is high under dry lands and
often exceeds precipitation during most part of the year. This is because the water holding capacity of
the atmosphere increases with higher temperatures, but relative humidity does not change markedly.
As a result water vapor deficit increases in the atmosphere.
4.

5. Hot dry winds: Dry land environments are typically windy, largely because of the scarcity of
vegetation and other obstacles. Wind moves the moist air that surrounds plants and soil bodies and, as a
consequence, decreases atmospheric moisture and increases evapotranspiration rates. Some plants
inherently transpire less than other plants and therefore, are adapted to dry environments.

B.Soil related Constraints

Alfisols and Vertisols of peninsular India and Aridisols of extremely dry climates are the principal
soil orders in dry areas. About 30% of dryland area is covered by Alfisols and associated soils while 35%
by Vertisols and associated soils having vertic properties and 10% by Entisols of the alluvial soil regions.

 These soils are extremely prone to rainwater induced erosion, 73.3 M ha of arable land affected
by water erosion resulting in soil loss of more than 10t/ha/annum .
 Apart from soil and nutrient losses, poor nutrient management is leading to multi'
nutrient deficiency of essential nutrients, which is posing a threat to rainfed agriculture.
 Due to increased rainfall intensities, land degradation is likely to increase in future.
 The availability of chemical fertilizers may become increasingly difficult.
 Biomass recycling and legumes in crop rotation are to be encouraged in order to sustain soil
fertility in rainfed areas.

1. Inadequate soil moisture availability

 Availability of soil moisture to crops is affected by rainfall behavior and various soil properties.
 Shallow soils, degraded soils, eroded soils, gravelly soils and coarse textured soils have poor
water holding capacity and hence cannot store much of rainfall.
 .Wind and water erosion remove the finer soil particles and expose the hard, impermeable
subsoil causing less infiltration and less water storage.
 Crusting of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run
off.
 Compaction in surface and sub soil hardpans and poor soil structure affect infiltration and water
storage.
 Poor organic matter content adversely affects soil physical properties related to moisture
storage.

21
2. Poor soil fertility
It is often said "Dry land soils are not only thirsty but also hungry". Crops growing in dry farming regions
are subjected to moisture stress as well as nutrient stress due to the poor fertility status.
 Soil survey on fertility status of dry land soils showed that
 N deficiency is uniformly prevalent P deficiency in red and laterite soils K deficiency in red sandy
loam soil
 Zn, Mn deficiency in specific crops like groundnut, sorghum.
 Fe deficiency in calcareous soils
 Organic matter content is very low in most places

Reasons for the poor fertility status:

 Inadequate water supply affects weathering of minerals and release of nutrients.

 Low organic matter content is due to less addition of crop residues due to poor growth and less
intensive cropping, rapid decomposition due to high temperature and less addition of organic
manures.

 Reduced microbial activity due to high temperature and low moisture which affects nutrient
release.

 Erosion removes nutrients rich top soil.

 Nutrient removal by crops is not compensated by fertilizer addition which is almost nil or
limited.

 Development of salinity due to insufficiency of rains to leach out salts.

 Reduced mobility of nutrients due to poor moisture content in soils. Fixation of nutrients,
especially P, into unavailable form due to soil dryness.
3. Soil deterioration due to erosion
Out of a total 329 m. ha, 175 m ha are in various stages of degradation. About 50 percent of
total cultivable land suffers from soil erosion and salinity problem. About 30 m ha of are progressively
degrading. Detachment and transport of soil and soil material caused by water and wind are widely
prevalent in dry farming region. Erosion takes place in both red soils and black soils.

C.Management Constraints

Technological constraint is the lack of genotypes capable of giving high and

stable yields even under adverse conditions in rainfed areas, either without or with little
reduction in yields. Though a number of new cropping varieties and systems have been
identified, their adoption rate is very low because of variations in the weather conditions
within a small area and also in management practices due to changes in the resources mix of
dry land farmers.
 Lack of in-situ moisture conservation

22
  Poor weed management
 Poor drought management
 Inadequate/imbalanced input fertilizer use
 Poor plant protection measures
 Inadequate water harvesting structures
 Absence/low level of farm mechanization
1. Improved management practices

 Soil and water are two naturally available resources which need to be managed efficiently
in dry land agriculture. Effective utilization of stored soil moisture is important and hence crops
and variety having higher moisture efficiency to be chosen for cultivation.

 Crop planning at proper based on length of growing season: Select the crop of proper duration
causes fluctuation in productivity from year to year having to match the length of growing
season for stability in crop production.
 Instead of separating kharif and rabi season, kharif-rabi to be more effective with high yield
crops with varied duration to use the available resources efficiently and contributes for fertility
maintenance. For example in the Deccan dry farming tract, bajra+pigeonpea performed better
compared to cereal or keeping land fallow in Kharif.

 Fertilizer application contributed to 43 to 81% increased yield for cereals. Plant density and
spacing and change of variety can also bring substantial increase in production.
 Under alley cropping for fertility maintenance, subabul green matter incorporation increased
sorghum yield by 73%.
 Contingent crop planning for weather aberration will help to avoid total crop failure.

Salvation not from technology alone and a concentrated multidisciplinary multi-agency

approach is necessary.

2. Management components for getting high yield

 Timely operation to conserve maximum amount of moisture in the top soil profile.
 Timely sowing of crops within a span of 2 or 3 days after the rains to enable the seeds
to germinate better and to utilize the available moisture to the maximum extent their growth.
 Proper choice of crops to suit the particular environment, such as mono-cropping areas with
rainfall less than 500 mm, intercropping in areas with a rainfall between500 and 800 mm and
possible double cropping in areas with a rainfall more than 800 mm and in soils of fairly high
water storage capacity.
 Maintenance of the optimum plant stand
 Moderate use of fertilizer
 Timely weeding and control of pests

23
D.Socio Economic Constraints

The social and economic conditions of the farmers have tended to create an indifferent
attitude towards co-operation or resource management and many a time even an attitude
distrust. Further, as their level of education and training is low, their inner motivation and attitudes are
often rooted in religious beliefs and traditions. Also, many of them have long
on Subsistence farmers. In View of this background, the dryland farmers in their decision-
making are generally guided by their experience of a hostile, unpredictable and undependable
environment and poor resource base. These have made them feel that they cannot afford the
involved in adopting the newer technologies. Lack of capital, lack of price incentives for
production of dry land crops, profitable marketing facilities and lack of credit at the proper
time have made them averse to taking the risks. Most of the dryland farmers are poor and
have very little cash reserve available. Essentially the total operation is of the subsistence type
with seeds coming from the previous harvest, manures from locally available manurial
resources, and the labour force from family labour.

Less employment opportunities and higher population of agricultural labour force reduced land
productivity; poverty and poor infrastructure are the social developmental indices of dry lands.

A major concern is the continuous decline in land holding size which is a major hindrance in
mechanization. Though significant proportion of the rural population is expected to move to cities by
2030, still substantial numbers will remain in rural areas.

Socio economic constraints can be summarized as:

 occurrence of extensive and large holdings

 practice of extensive agriculture i.e. prevalence of mono-cropping

 relatively small size of fields

 Similarity in types of crops raised by all the farmers of a particular region

24
Lecture No. 6: Drought Definition, Classification and Effect on crops

The word “Drought” generally denotes scarcity of water in a region, whether for drinking,
agriculture, industry etc. Though aridity and drought are due to insufficient water, aridity is a permanent
climatic feature, but drought is temporary condition that occurs for short period of time due to deficient
precipitation essentially required for vegetation, agriculture, river flow, water supply and human
consumption.

Definition of drought,
There is no universally accepted definition for drought.
a. Early workers defined drought as prolonged period without rainfall.
b. According to Ramdas (1960) drought is a situation when the actual seasonal rainfall is deficient
by more than twice the mean deviation.
c. American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of abnormally dry weather
sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe hydrological imbalance in the area
affected.
d. Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely affect crop growth indicating incidence of
agricultural drought. It is the result of imbalance between soil moisture and evapo-transpiration
needs of an area over a fairly long period as to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce
the yields.
e. The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation occurring in any area where the
annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
Classification of drought
Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some
specific terms. Demarcation between the classifications is not well defined and many a time overlapping
of the cause and effect of one on the rest is seen.
1. Based on duration
a. Permanent drought: This is characteristic of the desert climate (Arid climate) where sparse vegetation
growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is possible only by irrigation during entire crop
season.
b. Seasonal drought: This is found in climates with well defined rainy and dry seasons. Most of the arid
and semiarid zones fall in this category. Duration of the crop varieties and planting dates should be
such that the growing season should fall within rainy season.
c. Contingent drought: This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur almost anywhere
especially in most parts of humid or sub humid climates. It is usually, brief, irregular and generally
affects only a small area.

d. Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area. When rainfall is
inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses, the result is borderline water deficiency in soil
resulting in less than optimum yield. This occurs usually in humid regions.

25
2. Based on their relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976)

a. Meteorological drought: It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than the
normal over an area for prolonged period (month, season or year).The Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD) defines as a condition in which the area affected by drought receives < 75 % of the
total normal SWM rainfall.
This is further classified based on the deviation of seasonal rainfall.
i) Moderate : 26 to 50% δ
ii) Severe : > 50% δ

b. Atmospheric drought: It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may
occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition when plants
show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day when transpiration exceeds absorption
temporarily for a short period. When decreases absorption keeps pace with transpiration and plants
revive. (Mid day wilt).
c. Hydrological drought: Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological drought with
depletion of surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc. It results in deficiency of
water for all sectors using water. This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole
for bringing crops to maturity.
d. Agricultural drought: It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available soil
moisture and evapo-transpiration of a crop. It is usually gradual and progressive. Plants can therefore,
adjust at least partly, to the increased soil moisture stress. This situation arises as a consequence of
scanty precipitation or its uneven distribution both in space and time. It is also usually referred as soil
drought.

Relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of dryness during the crop
season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the yield. The extent of yield loss depends on the crop
growth stage and the degree of stress. It does not begin when the rain ceases, but actually commences
only when the plant roots are not able to obtain the soil moisture rapidly enough to replace evapo-
transpiration losses. Important causes for agricultural drought are,
 Inadequate precipitation
 Erratic distribution
 Long dry spells in the monsoon
 Late onset of monsoon
 Early withdrawal of monsoon
 Lack of proper soil and crop management
In India, 68% of the Country prone for drought in varying degrees,35 % area receive rainfall between
750-1125 mm considered as drought prone area, while 33% area receives <750 mm rainfall are classified
as chronically drought prone area
3. Based on time of occurrence
a. Early season drought: It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells after early
sowing

26
b. Mid season drought: Occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored moisture
becoming insufficient during this long dry spell.
c. Late season drought: Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water stress at maturity stage.
4. Based on intensity of drought
Is the relationship between actual evapotranspiration (AET) potential evapotranspiration (PET) during
growing season at various stages of crop growth.
Intensity of drought (AET/PET) Severity of drought
0.00-0.24 Severe
0.25-0.49 Moderate
0.50-0.74 Mild
0.75-0.99 Low
1.00 Nil

5. Periodicity of drought
The Indian Meteorological Department examined the incidence of drought for the period from
1871 to 1967, utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stations in the country. It was seen that during 1877,
1899, 1918 and 1972 more than 40 per cent of the total area experienced drought. General observation
on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India is given below.
Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of drought
Assam Very rare, once in 15 years
W Bengal, MP, Konkan, Coastal AP, Kerala, Bihar, Orissa Once in 5 years
South interior Karnataka, Eastern UP, Gujarat, Vidharbha, Once in 3 years
Rajasthan, Western UP, TN, Kashmir, Rayalaseema and Telangana
Western Rajasthan Once in 2.5 years

6. Other terms to describe drought

a. Apparent drought: What is drought for one crop may not be drought for another crop; what is
drought in red soil may not be drought in black soil.

b. Physiological drought: Refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil even
when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil
concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils. It is not due to deficit of water supply.

c. Socio economic drought: reflects reduction in availability of food and income loss on account of crop
failure endangering food and social security of the people in the affected area.
d. Famine drought: Famine occurs when large scale collapse of access to food occur which leads to more
starvation and Government intervention manage the situations.

e. Ecological drought: take place when the productivity of natural ecosystem fails significantly as a
consequence of distress induced environment damage.

27
Drought years: An analysis of the data on drought and famine in India from 1800 to 1996 by Appa Rao
(1988) indicated that “Drought” recurred at every quinquennium till 1923-24. After 1924, famines
occurred after 4 decade’s i.e.
1965 - Severe drought.
1972 – 73 - Severe drought.
1979 - Severe drought.
1987 - Severe drought
The effects of droughts were severe because most of the farmers held small-size, uneconomical
holdings, which could not withstand the scarcity conditions even for a month or two. The country has
faced 26 droughts since 1975.Sometimes consecutive years of drought have occurred, (1904-1905),
(1965-1966) and (1985-1986-1987 & 2014-15-16). The last one of three consecutive years is a rare
phenomenon. The year 1987 was a bad drought year, which affected nearly 47% of the country. Drought
year in India recorded during 2002, 2009, 2018 also.
Effect of drought on crop production
 Water relations: Alters the water status by its influence on absorption, translocation and
transpiration. The lag in absorption behind transpiration results in loss of turgor as a result of
increase in the atmospheric dryness.
 Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to reduction in
Photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in assimilates saturation in
leaves (due to lack of translocation).
 Respiration: Increase with mild drought but more serve drought lowers water content and
respiration.
 Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and inter cellular spaces, thicker cell wall
greater development of mechanical tissue. Stomata per unit leaf tend to increase.
 Metabolic reaction: All most all metabolic reactions are affected by water deficits.
 Hormonal Relationships altered: The activity of growth promoting hormones like cytokinin,
gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid decreases and growth regulating hormone like abscisic acid,
ethylene, betain etc. increases.
 Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of nitrogen is affected. Since dry matter
production is considerably reduced the uptake of NPK is reduced.
 Growth and Development: Decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits. Maturity is delayed if
drought occurs before flowering while it advances if drought occurs after flowering.
 Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain development determines the
number of fruits and individual grain weight, respectively. Panicle initiation in cereals is critical
while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen. Drought at grain development reduces
yield while vegetative and grain filling stages are less sensitive to moisture stress.
 Yield: The effect on yield depends on proportion of the total dry matter is considered as useful
material to be harvested. When the yield consists of seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at

28
 flowering is detrimental. When the yield is fibre or chemicals where economic product is a small
fraction of total dry matter moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.
PHYSIOLOGY OF DROUGHT RESISTANCE IN CROP PLANTS

ADAPTATIONS TO MOISTURE STRESS

Escaping drought Drought resistance

Drought avoidance Drought tolerance

Conserving water Improving water uptake Mitigating stress High tolerance

(Water savers) (Water spenders)

Resistance to Prevention of Cell

Dehydration Collapse

A. Escaping Drought: Ability of crop plants to complete its life cycle before the soil & plant water
deficits develop in dry conditions. e.g. Ephemerals
 Very short life period (5 - 6 weeks)
 Germinate at the beginning of the rainy season
 Confined to rainy period
 No mechanism to overcome moisture stress
 Hence not drought resistant
Example: Pearl millets, pulses (cowpea, blackgram, green gram) - matures within 60 days
B. Drought Resistant: Plants can adopt either by avoiding stress or by tolerating stress due to different
mechanisms.
1. Drought avoidance: Ability of plants to maintain a favourable water balance & turgidity even when
exposed to drought conditions with high tissue water potential. By Two ways:
1 a. Conserving water (Water savers): By restricting transpiration
1 b. Improving water uptake (Water spenders): Accelerating water uptake sufficiently to replenish loss
of water.
1 a) Mechanisms to conserve water
i. Stomatal control: Close at day and open at night, Efficient in succulents
e.g. Stomata close at LWP ranging from -8 bars (field beans) to -28 bars (cotton).
ii. Entry of CO2 restricted: Reduced photosynthetic efficiency
But C4 plants shows higher photosynthetic efficiency (carboxylating enzyme) due to phosphoenolpyruvic
acid carboxylase - very high affinity to CO2 and high potential activity.

29
 E.g. C4 plants : Sorghum, maize, pearl millet, sugarcane (CO2 conc. 100 ppm)
CAM plants : Pineapple, agave
Crassulacean acid metabolism
 Highly drought resistant
 Open stomata only in night
 Stores CO2 and stores as organic acid
 During day stored organic acid is utilized for photosynthesis
 Conserves moisture without reduction of photosynthetic efficiency.
iii. Cuticular resistance is high.
iv. Lipid deposits on leaves (soybean, sorghum) reduces water loss.
v. Reduction in leaf area reduces transpiration loss.
vi. Foliar movement reduces leaf area exposure to solar radiation (legumes).
vii. Leaves roll or curl reduces transpiration (grasses).
viii. Parahelionastic movements (parallel orientation of leaves to sun rays) reduces load of solar
radiation.
ix. Folding of leaves reduces load of solar radiation at midday (Groundnut).
x. Senescence or drooping of leaves reduces leaf area to solar radiation.
xi. Leaf surface (Thick cuticle, waxy surface, spines etc.,) reduces transpiration.
xii. Pubescence increases leaf reflectance reduces solar radiation.
xiii. Awned varieties increases yield under drought condition (Contributes 12% photosynthates to grain).
xiv. Water storage in plants - an adaptive mechanism.
e.g. Pineapple - Leaves stores water in non-chlorophyllus tissue is utilized during drought.

1 b) Mechanisms to improve water uptake

i. Efficient root system
 Desert species
 Deeper root system
 High water potential
 Drought resistance.
ii. Root - Shoot ratio
 Higher density
 Greater depth of roots
 Lesser transpiring shoots.
iii. Low resistance to water flow
 Between root and shoot
 Achieved by increasing diameter or number of xylem vessels
 Increasing liquid phase conductance.
iv. Osmotic adjustment
 Maintains turgor
 Increases translocation
 Increasing grain yield
 Reduces production of abscisic acid

30
  Plants able to withstand low water potential.

2. Drought Tolerance: Drought tolerance is defined as tolerance of the plants to a level of stress at
which 50% of cells die. Plants can adopt either by,
2 a. Mitigating stress 2 b. High tolerance

2a. Mitigating stress: Achieved by:

 Resisting dehydration by maintenance of osmotic pressure
(by accumulation of higher amounts of solutes)
 Thick cuticle resists cell collapse.
2b. High tolerance
Death of plants can be avoided by,
 Reducing metabolic strains
 Reducing plastic strains.

Metabolic strain: Adverse influence of drought on metabolism of plants is known as metabolic strain.
Death of cells occur either due to reduction metabolism (Photosynthesis)or nitrogen metabolism
(Protein synthesis).
e.g. In drought resistance plants, due to partial opening of stomata, plants can photosynthesize and
survive.
Likewise, net loss of RNA is prevented and plants are capable of continuous protein synthesis,
Young leaves are more resistant to drought than older leaves due to higher protein content,

Plastic strain: Irrevocable loss of plant tissues due to severe stress is known as plastic strain. Plastic
strains show that transpiring portions are killed while propagation portions remain alive but dormant
(Rhizomes, bulbs, tubers).

Role of Hormones and Nutrients in Drought Tolerance

1. Cytokinins: The effects of cytokinins and ABA (Absisic Acid) seen in general, to be mutually
antagonistic. As a consequence of drought cytokinin activity is reduced and ABA activity is increased.
Cytokinins stimulate cell division and bud growth opens stomata and inhibits senescence, while the ABA
reverses the processes. Some of the effects produced by stress may be partly attributed to a lack of
cytokinins produced in the roots and transported to the shoot.

2. Ethylene: Ethylene production is also enhanced and this blocks the auxin transport. In cotton, during
drought stress, ethylene is induced by drought, which blocks auxin transport across the petioles in bolls
and square of cotton, thus resulting in shedding of bolls. Similar effect is petioles noted in the case of
button shedding in coconut.

3. Cycocel (CCC): Certain growth retardants have been found to reduce the plant susceptibility to water
stress. The growth retardants might be related to interference of these compounds with biosynthesis of
gibberellic acid. A reduced level of gibberellic acid in the treated plants could result in reduced stomatal

31
opening and hence lowered transpiration. CCC was found to increase root growth at all depths,
facilitating the absorption of water and minerals from the lower surface. Another effect of growth
retardants is a considerable delay in the senescence. This delay in senescence may explain the increased
ability to withstand drought.

Potassium nutrition: Potassium helps to improve crop growth by increasing root penetration, regulating
transpiration and improving water use efficiency and thereby can increase and stabilize yields under
drought conditions. Nutrient content in the leaf cell contribute to osmo regulation and is important in
drought tolerance. A high rate of potassium application and its uptake induces water uptake and
depresses the osmotic potential of root cells. The uptake of water by roots and the ability of the plants
to exploit soil water depend on potassium status of the plant. Potassium is main important osmoticum
which drives the water flux from the surrounding cells into the Xylem vessels. The root pressure which
can be important for the upward movement of organic and inorganic solutes is much controlled by the
plants K nutritional statues.

32
Lecture No. 7: Drought Management Strategies and Contingency Crop Planning & Mid Season
Correction.
[

Rainfed areas are characterized by uncertainty of rainfall both in quantity and arrival and
distribution. The rainfall may be delayed, or may cease early or may be inadequate during and particular
stage of crop growth or long gaps may occur between rains. Also, in most rainfed areas, given the poor
economic conditions of dry land farmers, implements and power availability for land preparation and
sowing at the proper time pose a serious constraint. Consequently, sowing operations are delayed and if
the rainfall is not adequate, the sowing of a particular crop cannot be taken up. Hence the farmers have
to give thought to an alternative.

Every soil has a capacity to hold rainfall received and supply water to plants. The water
availability in the soil depends upon the water holding capacity of the soil. Deep black soils have a
capacity to store as much as 300 mm of water in one meter depth while the desert soils can store only
as little as 100 mm for one meter depth. Therefore, the impact of the drought will be more pronounced
in the shallow soils compared to deep soils. While deciding the drought management options, the soil
factor has to be adequately considered. Fertilizer use helps the crop to guard against drought by
encouraging development of root system which will utilize soil water more efficiently.

Weather Aberrations in Dry lands

Weather aberrations are normal features of dry land and one has to keep prepared to face these
situations. These are inseparable part of life. There are atleast four important aberrations in the rainfall
behavior.
(i) Commencement of rains quite early or delayed
(ii) Prolonged "breaks during the cropping season
(iii) Spatial and/or temporal aberrations.
(iv) Early withdrawal of monsoon

1. Commencement of rains early or delayed: Commencement of rains quite early is rare as it happened
in Central Maharashtra in 1925, when rains commenced as early as 28 th May as against normal
commencement of 10th June.
1.

Delayed onset of monsoon is great concern. This type of aberration is very frequent in Central
Maharashtra comprising the drought prone area. Rains may be delayed as late as by 35-40 days as in
1974-75. This causes large scale dislocation in production programmes.
 Usual crops and their varieties sometimes need replacement due to two situations, viz due to
late arrival of monsoon the length of growing season is considerably shortened requiring
crops/varieties of shorter duration and
 Secondly some crops get affected due to pests and disease complex. For example in
Maharashtra bajra is likely to be affected by ergot (Claviceps microcepata) disease. Sorghum
shoot fly incidence more under delayed sowing.

33
2. Break in monsoon rains: Breaks in the monsoon rains can be of different durations whereas, breaks
of shorter duration like 5-7 days may not be serious concern, breaks of more than 15 days duration
create situation of plant water stress leading to reduction of agricultural production. The stage of the
crop growth at which break occurs decides the severity of damage. Breaks, usually during grain
formation cause considerable reduction in crop production. However, crops interact differently to the
situations. Crops like pigeonpea and castor modify their growth pattern. Several flushes are noticed
during flowering. Therefore, indeterminate habit of crop growth is desired under dryland conditions.
Further, drought may be more pronounced on soils with limited water holing capacity (usually shallow
to medium deep soils) than with more water holding capacity (Deep soils). A break of 15 days duration
would affect the same crop differently on shallow and deep soils.

3. Spatial and/or temporal aberrations: Such situations are comes almost every year in one or the other
part of the country during south-west monsoon leading to drought and flood situations. This situation
affects the agricultural production giving instability to it. A combination of perennial crop component in
agriculture can absorb shocks because of this situation. As such approach of agro forestry is
Important to impart stability.
4. Early withdrawal of monsoon: lf monsoon terminates earlier than usual it cuts the length of growing
season. Normally crops in their maturity and those growing on shallow soils suffer heavily. Sowing of
rabi crops also affected therefore, advisable to use short duration and early maturing varieties to face
these situation.

Contingency Planning

Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncertain. The deviations in rainfall
behaviour commonly met with in dry areas include delayed onset, early withdrawal, and intermediary
dry spells during rainy season. The adverse effect of this rainfall aberrations crop growth varies with the
degree of deviation and the crop growth stage at which deviations occur. Suitable manipulations in crop
management practices are needed to minimize such adverse effects of abnormal rainfall behaviour.
These management decision constitute contingency planning. Such management practices done after
crop establishment and in the middle of growth are called midterm corrections or mid season
corrections

Contingent crop plan is the change over cropping in place of normally sown crop which
have been highly suitable and profitable crop of the tract, but for aberration of
weather situations needs change in planned crop. The contingent crop plan is highly location specific
due to variation in the amount and distribution of rainfall. The choice of crops should be such that the
duration of crop coincides withlength of the growing season. Management practices are also extremely
important in contingent crop planning. Adoption of suitable planting geometry, plant density, time, dose
fertilizer application is crucial. Similarly, the population is reduced by 33 to 50 per cent based on the
rainfall. Since the moisture would be a limiting factor under delayed planting, the response to added

34
fertilizer would be less and hence fertilizer level has to be necessarily slashed down. To prevent
desiccation of soil moisture repeated inter cultivation has to be practiced.

Rainfall aberration Effect on crops

Delay in onset of rainfall
Early withdrawal or cessation of rainfall
Intermediate dry spells
a. Immediately after sowing
b. At vegetative phase
c. At flowering
d. At ripening
Length of cropping season or cropping duration is reduced -
crop sowing is delayed
Moisture stress at maturity grain filling is affected (terminal
stress)
Germination affected, population reduced
Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion, branching or
tillering
Affects anthesis and pollination grain / pod number reduced
Grain filling and size reduced

Mid season correction: Mid season correction is a contingent management practice to overcome
unexpected or unfavorable weather condition such as early cessation of monsoon rains or a long
drought in between two rains, The drought may extend over a period of three to 4 to 5 to 6 weeks.

1. Thinning of crop stands particularly the more sensitive component in a crop mixture such as sorghum-
redgram intercropping.

2. If adequate rains are received after a near killing drought and there is yet long enough season,
ratooning of sorghum and bajra helped greatly.

3. Other practices like spraying cycocel in barley and wheat to reduce plant growth and encourage root
growth in rainfed conditions and nipping in chickpea to reduce vegetative growth are also followed.

Thinning or population adjustment can be done either by removing every third row on alternate row or
every third plant or alternate plant in a population to reduce the population to 25 or 1/2 according to
the availability of moisture in the soil during dry spell.

Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of rainfall
observation

Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction

1. Delayed onset of rainfall
a) Delay exceeding3-4 weeks Alternate crops of short duration to be sown
Delay in South west monsoon
Normal - June Groundnut
Delay - July Ragi / pearl millet
Delay - August Samai / Cowpea

35
 Delay in South west monsoon
Normal - October
Delay- Early November
Delay - Late November
b) Delay of 1-2 weeks
2. Early withdrawal of rainfall
3. Intermediary dry spell
a. Immediately after sowing
b. At vegetative phase
c. At flowering
d. At ripening
Cotton / Sorghum
Sunflower / Pearl millet / Ragi
Coriander / Senna
Alternate varieties of short duration of same crop Eg. Sorghum Co
19 (150 days) Co 25 (110 days) Red gram local (180 days) Co 5 (130
days)
Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder (millets) harvesting at
physiological maturity
Gap filling with subsequent rains if stand reduction is less than
20%. Re-sowing if stand reduction is more than 20%, mulching
between crop rows. Stirring soil surface to create dust mulch to
reduce evaporation
Mulching, antitranspirant spray, spraying potassium chloride,
thinning of 33-50% population
Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder and ratooning with
subsequent rains in millets (e.g) sorghum
Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder, harvesting at
physiological maturity

Crop Management Practices

Aberrant weather is a common feature of rainfed agriculture. Crop production in any area is mainly
dependent on rainwater, a major portion of which is received during the southwest monsoon. The
rainfall is seasonal, erratic and highly variable with space and time. Vagaries of monsoon rains are
perennial in India, 'breaks' of varying duration being most common.
1. Late onset of monsoon: During some of the years the onset of the southwest monsoon gets delayed
so that the crops/varieties which are regularly grown in the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed
sowing of the crops can lead to reduced and even uneconomical crop yields. Under these circumstances,
two management options are available.
i.Transplantation: Transplanting have been found to be advantageous, especially under delayed sown
conditions. The transplanted crop of pearl millet gave significantly more grain yield than the direct
seeded crop. In case of finger millet 20 to 25 days old seedlings of medium duration variety are ideal for
transplanting.
Under delayed condition transplanting of pearl millet has been found to be advantages as the
transplanted crop give significantly more grain yield than the direct seeded crop.

ii) Alternate crops/varieties: Certain crops are more efficient either due to the shorter duration or
capacity to produce better yields even under relatively unfavorable moisture regimes when sown late in
the seasons. Therefore, crops/ varieties have to be chosen depending upon the date of occurrence of

36
sowing rains. For example, it is now well established that castor (var: Aruna) produces more yield in the
red soils of Telangana region compared to pigeonpea under late sown conditions. In western Rajasthan,
short duration crops like greengram and cowpea were found to perform better than pearl millet under
late sown conditions.

2. Dry spell immediately after sowing: During some of the years, a dry spell may occur immediately
after sowing the crop. This may result in poor germination due to soil crusting, withering of seedlings
and poor establishment of crop stand. It is always necessary to maintain proper plant stand to ensure
better yields. Therefore, if a severe dry spell occurs immediately after sowing, it is better to
resow the crop than to continue with inadequate plant stand (<80%).

3. Break in monsoon - mid or late season drought: Sowing of alternate crops/varieties as the monsoon
progresses is an established approach to minimize the risk of total crop failure of traditional
crops/varieties. But once the crop is growing, there could be moisture stress leading to mid-season
drought. The water requirement of the crop depends upon the solar radiation intercepted by the crop
canopy. If the drought conditions occur 40 to 50 days after sowing, the leaf area development will be
maximum leading to fast depletion of soil moisture reserve. Therefore, reduction in leaf area
Index thinning of the crop mitigates the ill effects of drought to a certain extent . Ratooning of
a drought affected sorghum crop with a subsequent rain gave 8 q/ha with ratooning, while
non-ratooned crop gave 15 q/ha, For indeterminate crops like castor, pigeonpea etc., if the drought
affected plants were seen to recoup, 2 per cent urea spray after the foliage was wetted with the rains.
 Futher,ratooning of drought affected crop may be useful.
 Usually weed control and dust mulching are useful.
 Mid season drought creates moisture stress which can be relieved by life saving irrigation. In
areas where water harvesting is already done the same recycled to remove the water stress.
 Opening dead furrows at regular interval in standing crop to conserve more water in
expectation of rains is also a useful practice.

i).Mulching to extend period of water availability: lf the break in monsoon is very brief, soil mulching
was found to be a tool in extending the period of storage of water in the soil profile due to reduced heat
load on the soil profile and hence the evaporation losses which, in turn, leads to extended periods of
water availability.

ii) Intercropping: Systems of intercropping are age old practices and in a way cover the principle of
distribution with particular reference to droughts. Areas with a growing season of 20 to 30 weeks are
generally most suited for intercropping systems. These areas receive 625 to 800 mm rainfall with stored
watering 15 to 20 cm in the root profile
For areas with uncertain rains in the early part of the season (e.g Bangalore region) early
planting of deep rooted drought tolerant crops like pigeonpea might be useful followed by
planting of other component crop. Then the high yielding systems of suitable crops need be compared
to the modified intercropping system..

37
4. Permanent drought: Drought is a recurring feature in the arid regions with variation in its intensity
only from year to year. In these regions, the average rainfall may exceed potential evapo-transpiration
for a period of not more than four weeks. Even the drought resistant crops grown in these regions are
likely to be subjected to moisture stress even during the years with above normal rainfall, alternate land
use systems have to be introduced in these regions for sustainability of production and stability of
income. In the black soil regions of Deccan Plateau, the farmers generally sow rabi crops like sorghum,
safflower, chickpea etc., after the cessation of the rainy season during the month of October. These soils
start cracking up by the middle of December and as such the yield of rabi crops are likely to be adversely
affected. It is now established that early sowing of rabi crops can improve the yield substantially in black
soil regions of peninsular India.

The choice of the crop has to be decided based on the available soil moisture in the soil profile. In the
black soil region of Maharashtra and Karnataka wherever wheat is grown under conserved moisture
conditions, crops like chickpea and safflower can bring manifold returns to the farmers. Rabi sorghum
was found to be- advantageous over cotton in the black soils of Bellary region.

Other drought management strategies

 Seed hardening
 Pre monsoon sowing
 Anti transpirants
 Mulching

i).Seed hardening: It is done to induce drought tolerance in emerging seedlings. It is the process of
soaking seeds in chemical solution and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Seed hardening enables
seedlings to survive this early moisture stress.

During seed hardening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration followed by dehydration before
sowing. Seeds are soaked for specified time in chemical solutions of prescribed concentration. Soaked
seeds are then dried in shade back to original moisture content. During soaking, seeds imbibe water and
germination process is started but not completed. When sown in moist soils, seeds germinate
immediately. Such early germination helps in seedling emergence before surface soil dries up.

ii) Pre-monsoon sowing: In some regions, where heavy clay soils dominate, sowing after rains is
impossible due to high stickiness of soil. Here sowing is done in dry soil, 2-3 weeks before the onset of
monsoon (pre-monsoon). Seeds will remain in soil and germinate only on receipt of optimum rainfall.
The advantages of pre-monsoon dry seeding are
i) Early sowing
ii) Uniform germination and good establishment
iii) Utilization of first rainfall itself for germination instead of for land preparation in post
monsoon sowing
iv) Early maturity before closure of monsoon and avoidance of stress at maturity.

iii). Anti transpirants: Any material applied to the transpiring plant surface with the aim of reducing
water loss from the plant is called as antitranspirants.

38
iv).Mulching: It is a practice of spreading any covering material on soil surface to reduce evaporation
losses. The mulches will prolong the moisture availability in the soil and save the crop during drought
conditions.

Dry land horticulture

Fruit trees with drought tolerance potential can substitute annual crops in many dry land tracts.
The criteria for selection of fruit trees for dry lands are listed below
 Drought tolerance
 Adaptability to varying soil conditions
 Flowering and fruiting during period of adequate moisture availability
 Quick regeneration after pruning
 Rapid recovery after stress is removed
Rainfall (mm) Fruit trees suitable
560 – 700 Ber, pomegranate, cashew sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla
700-900 Mango, cashew, custard apple, guava, fig,

Soil type Fruit trees suitable

Black soils Ber, sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla, wood apple
Red soils Mango, cashew, custard apple (Annona), pomegranate, sapota, amla.

Successful dry land horticulture depends on many cultural requirements as listed below
 Selection of trees suitable for rainfall and soil
 Planting during monsoon season in one cubic metro pits
 Pot watering during hot months in the early establishment period of 2-3 years
 Pruning to reduce canopy during dry season
 Moisture conservation through vegetative barriers, large basins sloping towards tree trunk,
crescent or saucer shape basins, mulching with dry leaves, straw or crop waste.
Inclusion of fruit trees in dry land farming systems can be done through,
a) Pure horticulture: Plantations of mango, cashew, guava etc.
b) Agri horticulture: Annual crops intercropped in between fruit trees. Eg: Mango + Groundnut / samai /
horsegram, ber + cowpea / green gram
c) Hortipasture: growing pasture grasses and legumes between fruit trees. Eg: Ber / guava + Cenchrus
cilliaris + Stylosanthes

39
Lecture No. 8: Mulching, anti- transpirants, in-situ soil moisture conservation techniques and
approaches.
Mulching: Mulch is any covering material applied on the soil surface to reduce evaporation losses. This
material may be grown and maintained in place, or any material grown and modified before placement
or any material processed or manufactured and transported before placement.
Types of mulches

a. Soil mulch or dust mulch: soil mulch is a thin layer of loose soil surface that can be created by
frequently stirring the soil with surface tillage implements like danthis, guntakas (blade harrows) etc.,
Soil mulch of surface 5-8 cm dry soil effectively reduces the evaporation losses by obstructing the raise
of soil moisture through capillary action. The soil mulch also prevents deep cracks in soils (especially
black soils) by reducing the direct action of atmosphere and hence evaporation is also reduced. Among
the different mulches soil mulch is the cheapest.

b. Straw and stubble mulch: Straw and other crop residues like stubbles, groundnut shells, cotton stalks
etc; can be used as mulches on soil surface for moisture conservation. Straw mulches reduce both the
amount of energy absorbed by the soil and its movement above the soil and hence reduce evaporation.
However, the availability of adequate crop residues is a problem for use as mulches. Eg. Straw mulch in
mango.

c. Plastic mulches: Plastic mulches are very effective as mulches for evaporationcontrol provided cost is
not a limiting factor. The plastic mulches may be either white or black. Black plastic mulches will absorb
the solar radiation and enhance the soil temperature for hastening the germination of winter crops like
wheat; barley etc., White plastic mulches will reflect the incident radiation and reduce evaporation of
soil moisture.

d. Chemical mulches: Chemicals like hexadeconol, a long chain alcohol when mixed with surface 5 mm
of soil can reduce evaporation by about 40%. The surface layer of a treated soil dries out more rapidly
than that of untreated soil, creating a diffusional layer to evaporation.

e. Vertical mulching: It is a technique wherein trenches of 40 cm wide, 15 cm deep are dug at 2 to 4 m

interval across slope and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10 cm above soil surface.
Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers and
infiltration is increased in black soils.

f. Live mulching: Is the term used to describe the covering of soil surface through the plant canopy in
intercropping system. Eg. Sorghum + forage cowpea, sorghum + sword bean

g. Pebble mulch: Where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface .This mulching will be
successful in dry land fruit tree culture. The pebbles placed on the basins of trees not only reduce
evaporation but also facilitate infiltration of rain water into the basin.
Advantages of mulching
 Mulch breaks the fall of the rain drops and dissipates their energy
 Leaves, stems and roots within the mulch impede surface flow which controls sheet erosion

40
  Promotes infiltration rate of soil
 Preserves physical structure of soil
 Reduction in velocity of wind
 Conserves moisture effectively leading proper growth and development of crops
 Protects soil against blasting action of falling rain drops and helps absorption of rainwater
 Loss of organic matter and plant nutrients from soil by erosion are brought to a minimum
 Preserves the moisture already held by the soil

Role of Anti-transpirants in Drought Tolerance

Any material applied to the transpiring plant surface with the aim of reducing water loss from the plant
is called as antitranspirants. Two most important points in the use of antitranspirants are:
i).The application of antitranpirants should restrict the water loss from the leaf surface without reducing
for photosynthesis, as carbon-dioxide diffuses through stomata and is necessary for photosynthesis,

(ii) Transpiration causes cooling of the leaf surface and the use of antitranpirants should not completely
stop transpiration and thus raise the leaf temperature.

Antitranspirants can be effective in two ways (Davenport et al., 1972), viz., (i) through films that coat the
leaf surface, and (ii) chemicals that close the stomata. Based on their mechanism of action, anti-
transpirants are classified into various types,

Types of antl-transpirants

1.Stomatal closing type: Antitranspirants such as phenyl mercuric acetate and certain alkenyl succinic
acids act by inhibiting stomatal opening.They cause partial or complete closure of stomata by inducing
the guard cells to close. But complete closure of stomata adversely affects gas
and photosynthesis. These chemicals may also cause phytotoxicity and are very sensitive too. Stomatal
resistance slows down simultaneously both process i.e the loss of water to the atmosphere and entry of
CO2 into the plants. Eg. Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA), alkenyl succinic acid (ASA).

2.Film forming type: Synthetic films that are sprayed on the leaf surface should ideally be resistant to
water and completely permeable to carbon-dioxide. This is, however, very difficult to achieve. Film
forming antitranspirants (waxy or plastic emulsions) produce an external physical barrier to retard the
escape of water vapour from plants . Plastics and wax materíals that cover the stomata with a film which
has more resistance to the passage of water than to that of CO 2. The characteristics required in addition
to selective gas permeability, are easy application, inexpensiveness and non-phytotoxicity and also the
ability to form a continuous film on the leaf surface, to resist degradation and retain elasticity.
Eg.paraffin and wax emulsions of cetyl alcohol.

Thin film forming type: Hexadeconol

Thick film forming type: Mobileaf, Polythene S-60.

41
3. Reflecting type: Reflective materials, which reduce the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the
leaves, could therefore reduce the transpiration rate considerable more than photosynthesis. Silicones
penetrate the leaf and may act directly on the wet cell walls and white reflecting materials wite wash or
kaolinite) lower leaf temperature and reduce the vapour pressure gradient level to atmosphere, It was
found that application of Kaolinite at 3-6% concentration to leaves of different plant species induced a
reduction in leaf temperature of 3-4°C and a decrease in transpiration of 22-28 %. When sprayed on leaf
surface reflecting type anti-transpirants increase the leaf albedo or leaf reflectanee of sunlight. These
are less expensive, non phytotoxic and do not interfere with photosynthesis since stomatal closure
deosnot take place. Spraying kaolin to cotton at grand growth stage is very successful . Eg.Celite and
hydrated lime

4. Growth retardant type: Chemicals like cycocel (ccc-chloro choline chloride, chlormequat ,Phosphon–
D & Maleic Hydrazide (MH)) when sprayed on foliage, reduce leaf area and thereby reduce the
transpiring area and transpiration.

[ In-situ Soil Moisture Conservation Techniques

 Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls is termed as "in-situ" soil moisture conservation.
 It aims at increasing infiltration of rainfall into the soil and reducing runoff loss of rainwater.
 In situ soil moisture conservation can be accomplished through.
 Cultural /agronomic methods
 Mechanical methods
 Agrostological / biological methods
Extent of soil moisture storage from rainfall is influenced quantity and intensity of rainfall, slope, soil
properties such as texture, structure, depth, surface characters, presence of sub soil hard pans, rate of
infiltration and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc.

In-situ Moisture Conservation

Cultural/ agronomical Mechanical Agrostological
Addition of organic matter Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping with
Summer ploughing, mulching furrows, Tie ridging, Random tied grasses, Ley farming,
cultivation, strip cropping ridging, Broad bed furrow, Dead Vegetative barriers
furrow, Furrows after crop
establishment.
I.Agronomic measures
1.Off season/summer tillage: Plough furrows can hold water in the depressions and thereby increase
the infiltration. When done across the slope, the plough furrows check runoff, reduce the velocity of
runoff water and improve storage. Summer tillage is a traditional practice helps in the storage of pre-
sowing rainfall. When ploughing is done along contour it is termed as contour ploughing and is more
helpful for in situ moisture conservation. Summer ploughing also helps in control of perennial weeds,
pest control and enables early sowing with onset of rains.

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2.Mulch tillage / Mulch farming: Mulching covers the soil with materials that reduce soil moisture
evaporation and inhibit weed growth (Conservation tillage/zero tillage).

3. Contour ploughing and cultivation: Ploughing is carried out in contour. At every 3 meters, deep
contour furrows are opened and a small section bund is formed every 10 meters to check the flow of
rain water. These types of ridges and furrows formed along the contour at intervals of 3 to 6 meters
help to form plots for moisture conservation during rainfall and to reduce loss of soil. The primary effect
of contour ploughing and cultivation is to create a large volume of rain water storage on the soil surface
thus reducing runoff. These practices ensure moisture conservation during normal rains. But during
heavy rains, after the soil is saturated, the water starts moving faster. To arrest this momentum, bunds
are constructed which are stabilized with a vegetative cover. In India, contour cultivation on 2 per cent
slopes reduced soil loss by 28 per cent and runoff by 61 per cent, compared to traditional up-and-down
ploughing. It is most effective on 3 per cent to 8 per cent slopes.

4.Strip cropping: This consists of growing erosion permitting and resisting crops in alternate strips. The
soil, which flows from the strips growing erosion permitting crops (row crops), is caught by the
alternating strips of erosion resisting crops (close growing crops). In between rows of crops, the erosion
resisting crops like grasses and legumes with rapid canopy development should be grown. e.g Maize +
cowpea, Cotton + blackgram, Ber + Cenchrus glaucus + Stylosanthes hamata.
There are four types of strip cropping system viz., contour strip cropping, field strip cropping, buffer strip
cropping and wind strip cropping.

Depending upon the topography, the widths of the strips will vary. In general, the steeper the
slope the greater is the width of the erosion resisting crop and smaller the width of erosion permitting
crop.
Crop widths for strip cropping:
Slope Width of erosion Width of erosion
(Per cent) permitting crop resisting crop
1 50 m 10 m
2 30 m 6m
3 15 m 5m

a.Contour strip cropping : Erosion resisting and erosion permitting crops are planted in strips along the
contour at right angles to the direction of natural slope.

b.Field strip cropping : Field strip cropping consists of strips of uniform width running generally
perpendicular to the direction of the erosive force. These strips run across the slope, but not always
exactly on the contour. This is useful on regular slopes and with the soils possessing high infiltration
rates.

c.Buffer strip cropping: The strips of grass or legume crops laid out between contour strips of crops in
regular rotations. These buffer strips may be wide or narrow and of even or variable widths. In buffer
strip cropping, permanent strips of grasses are planted either in badly eroded areas or in areas that do
not fit into a regular rotation.

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d.Wind strip cropping: In wind strip cropping, the crop strips are laid out at right angles to the direction
of the prevailing winds irrespective of the direction of the land slope. The objective is to control wind
erosion rather than water erosion.

5.Cropping system: Changes in the cropping system that will help reduce soil movement include
intercropping, alley farming, use of grass strips, and pasture improvement. Conversion of cultivated
land into grassland can reduce erosion by at least 10 per cent.
6.Crop rotation: Crops like groundnut, soybean, greengram ,blackgram etc should be included in crop
rotation as these crops are having high soil binding capacity with more canopy and act as erosion
resisting crops. This helps to conserve soil fertility. Eg. Maize/sorghum - groundnut
7.Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping is the system of growing more than one crop together on the same
land without any distinct row arrangement. Erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops are grown in
the same land for effective soil and water conservation. This system helps in utilizing the nutrients in the
soil profile effectively as they possess varied rooting system. Eg. Fodder maize + fodder cowpea.

8.Cover crops: Cover crops such as Pueraria phaseoloides, Centrosema pubescens, Setaria spp. and
Stylosanthes spp. provide another technique of achieving in situ mulch. These crops conserve soil
water, improve water use efficiency, weed control and soil organic matter.

9.Vegetative hedges: Grasses prevent soil erosion and improve soil structure. Growing of several
grasses and legumes on bunds helps in stabilizing bunds by their maximum root growth and canopy
coverage. e.g. Anjan, marvel, rhodes, napier, blue panic,Vetiver and Cenchrus are found suitable as
vegetative hedges under rainfed conditions.
10.Wind breaks and shelter belts: Wind influences plants physiologically and mechanically. It is
necessary to have wind breaks in areas where the land is silted up due to wind erosion. A wind break
consists of five rows of species planted at an interval of 500 meters. Wind breaks act as a barrier against
the wind speed and make the land in between the wind breaks suitable for cultivation by averting
evaporation of soil moisture.

Shelter belts consist of several rows of trees planted at right angles to the prevailing wind around the
periphery of crops. This is to avoid high wind speed during the flowering season and to prevent the
dropping of fruits. The species for a shelter belts is selected in such a way that it would not affect the
crops by infecting them with pests.

11.Addition of organic matter: By improving soil physical properties and WHC

II.Mechanical measures
Mechanical measures require engineering techniques and structures. These measures are adopted
 To divide a long slope of land into a series of shorter ones in order to reduce the velocity of run
off water
 To retain the water in the land for long period so as to allow maximum water to be absorbed
and held in the soil and less water flows down the slope of the land at non-erosive velocity
 To protect the soil against erosion by water

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1.Contour bunding: Earthen bunds of 1m basal width, 0.5m top width and 0.5 m height along contours
at a lateral distance of every 60 m, or a fall of 1 to 1.5m are constructed. The slope of land is thus broken
into smaller and more level compartments which hold soil as well as rain water. It is suitable for light
and medium textured soils. Contour bunding is made on land where the slope is not very steep and the
soil is fairly permeable (alluvial, red, laterite brown soil, shallow and medium black soil). Clayey or deep
black cotton soils are not suitable for this type of bunding. Contour bunds are also called level terraces,
absorption type terraces or ridge type terraces..
Main functions
1. It reduces the length of slope, which in turn reduce soil erosion.
2. Permits more water to recharge into the soils
Limitations
1. It is suitable for areas, which receive the annual rainfall up to 600 mm and
2.Soils of greater permeability.
3. Not suitable for clay soils.
4. Not suitable for land slopes greater than 6%.

2.Graded bunding: When a grade is provided to a contour bund then it is called as graded bund (channel
terraces). This bunding is suitable for high rainfall areas as the bunds are slightly graded longitudinally
which helps in draining surplus water. For safe removal of excess runoff water, it is essential to provide
suitable outlet structures at proper places so that no damage is done to bunds e.g. Stone outlets,
channel weirs or pipe outlets in low rainfall areas and grass outlets in heavy soils.
Main functions
1. It reduces length of slope, which decreases erosion.
2. It disposes the excess water safely to a suitable point.
Limitations
1. It is not recommended on the land slopes less than 2% or > 8%.
2. Suitable only in medium and high rainfall areas (> 600 mm)
3. It requires establishment of grassed waterway as an outlet for the disposal of surplus water.

Suitability of contour bund and graded bund

Sl.No Parameters Contour bund Graded bund
1 Land slope 2-6% 2-6%
2 Rain fall Low rainfall Medium and high rainfall
(< 600 mm) (> 600 mm)
3 Soil Light textured Heavy textured
(permeable ) (poor permeable)
4 Slope along bund Nil 0.1-0.4%
3.Terracing: A terrace is an embankment or ridge of earth constructed across the slope to control runoff
and minimize soil erosion. A terrace reduces the length of the hill side slope, thereby reducing sheet and
rill erosion and prevents formation of gullies. These terraces are made in the lands having slope of 6 to
10%. Two major types of terraces viz., Broad based terrace and Bench terrace.

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a. Broad based terrace: A broad based terrace is defined as a surface channel or embankment, which is
formed across the land slope. This terrace is classified into two types viz., graded terrace (or) channel
terrace and level terrace (or) ridge terrace

i. Graded terrace: This type of terrace is also known as channel type terrace which is constructed to
drain runoff water from the land. This terrace reduces length of slope thus reducing soil erosion.
Sometimes, the graded terrace is also used as drainage channel and hence referred as drainage terrace.

ii. Level terrace: Level terraces are constructed for conserving moisture and controlling soil erosion.
They are suitable for low to moderate rainfall regions as they trap and hold the rain water on their top,
which get infiltrated into the lower soil profile. This type of terrace is called as conservation terrace.

b. Bench terracing: Bench terracing consists of construction of series of platforms along contours cut
into hill slope in a step like formation. These platforms are separated at regular intervals by vertical
drops or by steep sides and protected by vegetation and sometimes by packed stone retaining walls.
These types of terraces are generally constructed on the land of 16 to 33% slope. Bench terraces convert
the long uninterrupted slope into several small strips and make protected platforms, which are suitable
for farming. Bench terraces are classified into three types viz., level bench terraces, bench terrace
sloping outward and bench terrace sloping inward n the basis of slope, rainfall and soil permeability.

i. Level bench terraces: This type of bench terraces consists of level top surface which are adopted in
medium rainfall areas with highly permeable soils. This terrace is also known as irrigated bench terrace /
table top or paddy terraces because they have level top surface that can easily impound rain water.
Most of the rainfall is absorbed by the soil and less quantity of water is lost as surface drainage as no
slope is given to the benches. These types of terraces are also used where irrigation facilities are
available.

ii. Bench terraces sloping outwards: These are adopted in low rainfall areas with permeable soils. A
shoulder bund is essential which provides stability to the outer edge of the terrace. It helps in retaining
the surface runoff. These are called as orchard type bench terraces. In these terraces, the rainfall coming
over the area is to be conserved by retaining the shoulder bund and the rainfall thus conserved will have
more time for soaking into the soil.

iii. Bench terraces sloping inward: These terraces are adopted in areas of heavy rainfall with less
permeable soils, where large portion of rain water is drained as surface runoff. A drainage channel is
provided on the inner side to drain excess runoff. These drains ultimately lead to a suitable outlet. This is
known as hill type bench terrace. Potato is cultivated widely in these terraces in Nilgiri hills of Tamilnadu
and North Eastern hill regions.

c. Zingg terracing or conservation bench terracing: These are developed by A.W.Zingg, in USA. Zingg
terracing is practiced in low to medium rainfall areas in black soils with contour bunds. It is a method of
land shaping where lower one third portion of the land adjacent to the contour is leveled to spread to
the runoff water coming from the remaining two third portion of the field .This rainfall multiplication
technique ensures at least one good crop in one third area even in low rainfall years. Usually during

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medium rainfall years water intensive crops (like paddy) are cultivated in the levelled portion (receiving
area) while dry crops are cultivated in the unlevelled (donor) area.

4. Compartmental bunding: Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both the
directions (along and across slope) to divide the field into small compartments of 40 sq m size (8 x 5 m).
It is suitable for red soils and black soils with a slope of 0.5 to 1%. The bunds can be formed before
planting or immediately after planting with wooden plough for effective soil and moisture conservation.

5.Ridges and furrows: Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The
furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect
and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable for medium deep to deep black soils and
deep red soils. It can be practiced in wide row spaced crops like cotton, maize, etc.
Tie ridging is a modification of the above system of ridges and furrows wherein the ridges are
connected or tied by a small bund at 2-3 m interval along the furrows. Random tie ridging is another
modification where discontinuous furrows of 20-25 cm width, 45-60 cm length and 15 cm depth are
formed between clumps or hills of crops at the time of weeding.

6.Broad bed furrow (BBF): Beds of 1.5 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed,
separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at required
intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%.
Advantages
 It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry
 It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.
 Furrows help to drain runoff water in the early part of rainy season and store rain water in the
later stages.
 Bed former cum seed drill enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reduces the
delay between rainfall receipt and sowing.

7. Micro catchments: Cultivation of fruit crops in the dry land areas requires appropriate soil and
moisture conservation techniques as these areas receive low rainfall and the soils possess high
infiltration rate. Therefore, it is essential to develop catchments area for each tree for proper soil and
moisture conservation. The size of catchments depends on the slope of land, water requirement, runoff
coefficient and canopy of fruit tree.

a. Basin listing: Small basins of 10-15 cm depth and 10-15 cm width at regular intervals are formed by
using basin lister. These basins conserve rain water, which can be utilized for fruit production.

b. Trench planting: Deep trenches of 0.5 to 1.0 m are formed across the contours and the fruit trees are
planted. These trenches conserve soil and moisture thus promoting the growth of fruit trees.
c.Half Moon/Semi saucer Basin: Semi circle bund are firmed against the slope in around the tree crops
10. Dead furrow: At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth are
formed at intervals of 6-8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow. Sowing and furrowing are
done across slope. It can be done with wooden plough in both black and red soils.

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III. Agrostological methods
The use of grasses to control soil erosion, reduce run off and improve soil moisture storage
constitutes the agrostological method. Grasses with their close canopy cover over soil surface and
profuse root system which binds soil particles provide excellent protection against runoff and erosion.
The following are the various agrostological methods of insitu moisture conservation.

1) Pastures / grass lands: Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended
for shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces splash erosion,
checks runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.
2) Strip cropping with grasses: Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops arranged across slope
check runoff and erosion and help in increasing moisture storage in soil.
3) Ley farming: It is the practice of growing fodder grasses and legumes and annual crops in rotation.
Grasses and legumes like Cenchrus, stylo are grown for 3-5 years and followed by annual crops like
sorghum for 2 year. When the field is under grasses or legumes, soil moisture conservation is improved.
4) Vegetative barriers: Vegetative barrier consists of one or two rows of perennial grasses established
at suitable interval across the slope and along the contour. It serves as a block to free runoff and soil
transport. Vettiver, Cenchrus etc are suitable grasses for this purpose.

 It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant stand thus
increasing yield of a crop by 10-15%
 Facilitates better storage of soil moisture
 If fodder grasses like Cenchrus glaucus or marvel grass are used, fodder can also be harvested
and given to the animal
 Vegetative barriers are best suited for black soil. Unlike contour bunding which give way due to
development of crack in summer in black soils vegetative barriers do not allow such
phenomenon in black soil. Hence the vegetative barriers can be effectively maintained in black
soil for 4-5 years.

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