Chapter 6 Food and Beverages Section

History of the food and Beverage Service

In early history, there was much evidence that certain groups of people cooked
together in big groups and that the early inns provided a crude menu. In the Roman era,
there were some establishments that offered sausage or roast meat, bread and cup of
wine. The forerunner of the modern restaurant that provides hot food and drink
developed in Rome. Many of the early restaurants were in the cities, near temples and
government buildings. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the manors and castles
provided food to large numbers of people. The early inns provided bread and wine to
travelers.
In 1200, public cook shops were opened in London which offered precooked
takeout food. The royal families of Europe introduced cutlery, table linen, ‘crystal
glasses, new foods such as turkey and potato, and the roadside tavern. In the sixteenth
century, British inns and taverns began to serve one meal a day at a fixed time and
price and at a common table. The meal was known as ordinary and the dining rooms
were called ordinaries. The most famous ordinary in London was the castle and Lloyd's
which was the meeting place for merchants and ship owners. In the seventeenth
century, the ordinaries became fashionable clubs and gambling places as well as
centers for political activities. The word "restaurant" used in the late eighteenth century
for a Paris dining room serving light dishes.
In the United States, taverns and inns were very similar to those in England. A
famous tavern in New York was Fraunces Tavern In 1834, the famous Delmonico's was
opened in New York. In the early 1900s, several events that were significant to the food
industry occurred. The hamburger was first served in 1904 at the St. Louis World's Fair.
The first root beer stand was founded by Roy Allen and Frank Wright.
The Second World War brought many changes to the American public. People
became richer, the automobile made them more mobile, and they shifted to the
suburban areas of cities. In the 1960s, fast-food establishments emerged.
At present, modern popular cuisine including French, Chinese, Mexican, and
Japanese have become common in most cities. The role food plays in tourism may not
be a direct but an indirect attraction.
Types of Restaurants
1. Family or Commercial Restaurants

Family-style restaurants offer a wide menu of "meat and potato" selections

with a price range that appeals to an average family income. They serve beer
and wine if they have a liquor license. The decor is bright. A combination of
counters, tables, and booths is common. Parking is necessary since customers
usually arrive by car. Family restaurants are normally located near a residential
 area and a highway. The operating hours are usually from early evening to
midnight. The staff are friendly and efficient. The initial investment is medium to
high.

2. Coffee shop
Coffee shops are characterized by a decor is simple and prices are
relatively low. It is usually located in an office building or shopping mall. The rent
is high. The staff are often minimally trained. The peak periods of a coffee shop
are lunch and coffee breaks. Operating hours are from early morning to early
evening. A takeout service may be offered.

3. Cafeterias

Cafeterias are usually located in shopping centers and office buildings.

Self-service is typical with limited menus of soups, e trees, desserts, and
beverages.

Cafeterias often require a large preparation area. Their staff are minimally
trained. Beer and wine is necessary to handle the traffic volume. The operating
hours will depend on the location as school, office building, airport, or highway.

4. Gourmet Restaurants

Gourmet restaurants generally require a higher initial investment than

other types of restaurants because they require an expensive ambiance and
decor. They cater to those who want a willing to pay the price.

5. Ethnic Restaurants

Ethnic restaurants feature the food of a specific re ion or country. They

can be Chinese or classical French cuisine. The decor usually has ethnic motif.
In order to be successful, ethnic restaurants must serve authentic cuisine
of the region or country they are featuring and those who prepare the food must
be well-trained and knowledgeable. Prices range from budget to high. Beer,
wine, and liquor may or may not be served. The initial investment is high
because of the decor and staff training. The location is variable. Operating hours
are in the evening.

6. Fast-food Restaurants
Fast-food restaurants have increased in the years as people have become more
mobile. Franchising is a common in this type of restaurant. The menu is limited with low
prices. Because of low prices, many customers patronize fast-food restaurants.
 Fast-food restaurants operate for long hours and generally for seven days a
week. Alcoholic beverages are not offered. A well-trained staff is required for franchise
as - operation in which the franchisor sets standards of service and food quality that
must be maintained at all times.
7. Deli Shops
Deli shops provide delicatessen food service, combining traditional delicatessen
cold meats and cheese with takeout sandwiches, salads, and similar items. Some deli
shops have limited seating capacity. They are usually located in shopping areas or
office buildings and are open from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM or 9:00 PM. Capital investment
is low. Deli shops have low labor costs because only one or two owners and employees
are involved.
8. Buffet Restaurants
Buffet restaurants are established on a completely self-serve basis.
However, if liquor, beer, these beverages are provided.
The food buffet is usually an "all you can eat" hot and cold food for one
price. Food preparation and to a minimum. Buffet restaurants cater to the family
and therefore offer reasonable prices. They are open from 5:00 PM to 11:00 PM.

9. Transportation Restaurants
There is a natural link between transportation and food service. Several
restaurants are generally found along auto and bus transportation routes. They are also
found at bus, rail, and air transportation buildings, as well as on transportation vehicles
as trains and ships.
Some transportation restaurants cater to tour groups, particularly bus tour
groups. These restaurants can be quite profitable if the market can be maintained. They
require special cafeteria or buffet-type facilities so that arriving groups can be served
quickly and continue on their journey.

Franchising
Franchised restaurant are major component of the food service industry
particularly in the fast-food sector The reasons for the popularity of the restaurant
industry are very similar to those in the hotel industry. Franchises beneficial to the
franchisees because they provide operational, training, layout a design assistance,
location assistance, managerial expertise, group purchasing and most importantly, the
identification of a well-known brand supported by region national, and international
advertising and promotion. Franchised restaurants easily get financing from lending
institutions than independents
Restaurant Profitability
Food Cost Percentage
Food cost percentage is often used to measure a restaurant's marketing
success. It is determined by dividing the food cost for a period (a day, a week, a month)
by the sales for that same period and then multiplying it by 100. For example, if the cost
of food for one month is $40,000 and sales is $100,000, the food cost would be:
$40,000/$100,000 x 100 = 40%
Many restaurant operators strive for a 40% food cost to make the restaurant more
profitable.
Gross Profit
Gross profits is the selling price of an item less its food cost. Table 3 shows the
importance of gross profit in comparing two menu items.

Item Cost Price Selling Price Cost Gross Profit

percentage
1 $4 $8 50% $4

2 $1 $4 25% $3

Labor Costs
Labor costs are controlled by expressing them as a percentage of sales on daily,
weekly, or monthly basis and comparing the actual cost with the standard desired.
Instead of treating labor costs as separate from food costs, many successful
restaurants look at these two as a combined cost. For instance, they set a standard of
above in which food costs plus labor costs must not increase. As long as the operation
maintains the combined cost below this level, the restaurant will be profitable.

Breakeven Point
Breakeven is that point at which business will make neither a profit nor a loss. The
operation for determining the breakeven point is:
Fixed Cost / Contribution margin
Fixed costs that remain the same regardless of the volume business. Examples are
salaries, interest, depreciation, insurance rent, and the like. Contribution margin is
average check less variable costs. For example, if a restaurant has an annual fixed cost
of $125,000 and an average guest spending of $10.00 ant variable cost such as food,
labor, and others is 75% of revenue or $7.500/0 guest
Menus
The menu is the basic planning document for a successful restaurant. Several,
aspects of the restaurant's operation depend on the menu. The menu contains what the
restaurant offers, the range of offerings, as well as the selling prices. The menu- must
portray the style and theme of the restaurant. Thus, the menu's design, printing size,
and colors are important.
The menu also determines the equipment needed and the investment required In
general, the more extensive the menu is, the more varied the needed equipment will be.
If a restaurant sells only hamburgers, hotdogs, fries, and soft drinks, its required
equipment will be less compared to those of a restaurant With 20 or 30 menu items '
which require different cooking methods and more specialized equipment.
Airline Catering
Airline companies spend billions of dollar" every year for food purchases, The
average cost per airline is between $1 and $7 depending on the length of the journey,
The amount is less for shorter trips, since passengers may be offered only a non-
alcoholic beverage and a light snack. For longer trips in which two or three meals may
be offered including free alcoholic beverages, the amount is higher. Around 3 to 4% of
an airline's total costs is spent on food.
Food Quality
The main problem of airline companies is to cook the meal on the ground and
serve it several hours later in an extraordinary dry cabin atmosphere, seven miles high,
to different group of people with their own food preferences, and whose main motivation
is to travel rather than to eat.
In 1992, airline passengers were served a sandwich and coffee from a vacuum
flask on a flight from London to Paris. At present, particularly on long flights, passengers
expect hot meals.
Logistics
To produce hot meals, the airline companies have to prepare specifications for
recipes, ingredients, cooking methods and temperatures, and labor for each flight These
require a forecast using the actual passenger reservations for each flight including an
allowance for standbys and last-minute reservations in order to have the correct raw
materials, equipment, and food production staff for each shift. Preliminary meal counts
are usually prepared from 24 to 72 hours ahead so that food supplies can be bought.
Menus must be carefully selected for each flight to avoid serving the same meal
to a passenger on two succeeding segments of a trip or on a round trip. In addition,
trays and serving utensils and supplies must be in the kitchen when the meal is
prepared.
Airplane Galleys
The first airplane galley was designed in 1936 by Douglas for its DC-3. Meals
prepared on the ground were kept hot or cold in insulated containers on the aircraft.
After World War II, the introduction of larger airplanes enabled them to have ovens and
refrigerators onboard in their galleys. The removable ovens are filled with hot food in the
ground flight kitchen, moved to the aircraft, and then plugged into electrical outlets.
Flight Kitchens
The first airline flight kitchen was opened in the late 1930s near Washington D.C.
Hoover Field airport by a gentleman named Marriott. He had a restaurant near the
airport. He noticed that passengers would go to his restaurant to eat before boarding
their flights because no meals were served in the airplane. He approached Eastern Air
Transport, now known as Eastern Airlines, and offered to prepare lunch boxes in his
restaurant for Eastern's passengers. Eastern agreed, so the first flight kitchen was
established. At present, Marriott In-Flite Services has approximately 100 flight kitchens
around the world which cater to 150 different airlines and serve 100 million meals a
year.
There is an ongoing trend.at present in which Flight Kitchen operators lease their
dining equipment from other firms.
Some airline companies have their own flight kitchens while others contract with
other airline companies that are equipped with their own kitchens. Most of the airline
companies turn over their catering services to outside caterers because airline kitchens
are not large and efficient.
Difference between Airline Catering and Restaurant Catering
Airline catering is different from restaurant catering because in the latter the
cooks can make last-minute adjustments. For example, a steak might be prepared in
the flight kitchen to be accompanied by a sauce and vegetables to be served hours
later. During this time, it must be kept hot, If there is flight delay of one hour, the steak
will be stringy, the sauce will be congealed, and the vegetables will be mushy. In an
ordinary restaurant, a meal like this will not be served but on an airline, the serving crew
usually has no other choice but to serve it.
In airline catering, the logistics are very complex but airlines exert great efforts to
serve good meals to the passengers. They even respond to the needs of passengers on
special diets if given enough notice.
Restaurant Promotion
Many restaurants advertise their menu on newspapers. Local newspaper
advertisements are used by most restaurants as a major form of external promotion.
Several restaurants advertise in the yellow pages of the local telephone directory; some
use local radio or television stations. Most popular restaurants and national restaurant
chains advertise in airline in-flight magazines, consumer travel magazines, and travel
trade publications. Many restaurants try to foster good relations with nearby hotel
employees such as front office staff, bell desk personnel, and doormen because they
are often asked by hotel guests to recommend good nearby restaurants. Good public
relations and word-of-mouth advertising generate a lot of business.

Chapter 7 Recreation and Leisure

Meaning of Recreation and Leisure
The dictionary defines "recreation" as the process of giving new life to something, of
restoring something. "Leisure" is defined as the productive, creative, or contemplative use of
free time.
Recreational Activities
Recreational activities include all kinds of sports, both team and individual, such as
baseball, softball, football, basketball, volleyball, tennis, badminton, swimming, skiing' hiking,
jogging, aerobics, and rock climbing, which are active forms of recreation. Passive recreational
activities include reading, fishing, playing and listening to music, gardening, playing computer
games, and watching television shows or movies
Varied Views of Recreation and Leisure
For some, recreation means the network of public agencies that provide parks, playgrounds,
swimming pools, sports fields, and community centers in several cities, towns, counties, or park
districts. They may view these facilities as an outlet for the young people or a means of
achieving family togetherness or pursuing interesting hobbies, sports, or social activities.
For others, recreation may be found in a senior center, a sheltered workshop for
mentally challenged individuals, or a treatment center for physical rehabilitation.
Environmentalists may be principally concerned about the impact of outdoor forms of
recreation on our natural surroundings such as forests, mountains, rivers, and lakes which are
the national heritage of a nation.
Recreational Participation
The most common notion of recreation is that it is primarily a participation in sports and
games. Recreation actually includes an extremely broad range of leisure activities including
travel and tourism, cultural entertainment, participation in the arts, hobbies, membership in
social clubs, or interest groups, nature-related activities such as hunting and fishing, and
attendance at parties, special events, and fitness activities.
Motivations for Recreational Participation
 Many participants take part in recreation as a form of relaxation and release from the
pressures of work and other tensions. Another recreational motivation is the need to express
creativity, expose hidden talents, or pursue excellence in various forms of personal expression.
For some participants, active recreation offers a channel for releasing hostility and
aggression. It is also a way of struggling against the environment in adventurous and high-risk
pursuits. Others enjoy recreation because it provides them the opportunity to make new
friends or cooperate with others in group activities.
Factors Promoting the Growth of Recreation
1. Increase in discretionary time - A key factor underlying the growth of recreation has
been the growth of free or discretionary time in the 20th century. Due to advanced
mechanical equipment and automated processes in factories, agriculture, and the
service fields, productive capacity increased remarkably during the second half of the
19th century and the first half Of the 20th century. In addition, more holidays and
longer vacations are now enjoyed by most employees. Because of improved social
security benefits and pension plans, as well as medical advances which lead to a longer
life, many employees can now avail of 15 or more years of full-time leisure after
retirement. Another reason is that labor-saving devices such as automatic washing
machines, lawnmowers, microwave ovens. and vacuum cleaners have greatly simplified
the demands of life.
2. Influence of technology — sophisticated technology has provided new forms of
recreation for people. Outdoor recreation uses complex and expensive devices in
activities such as skydiving, hang gliding, scuba diving, boating, roller blading, skiing, and
snowboarding. Computer dating provides a new form of social contact for single adults.
Video games offer interactive competition or exposure to new varieties of play settings
and "virtual realities." The Internet has become an important part of travel and tourism
by providing information and facilitating reservations and vacation choices. Home-based
recreation has become dependent on varied forms of electronic entertainment.
3. Public interest in health and fitness — A key trend in the 20th century is the growth of
public interest in exercise and physical fitness programs. Many people are now
concerned about improving their health, vitality, and appearance through diet and
exercise. Those who exercise regularly look and feel better. Research showed that the
most successful fitness programs were those that provided recreational interest and
satisfaction.
4. Commodification of leisure — Various forms of recreation are being developed by
profit-seeking businesses. Giant corporations have taken control of music, television,
movie businesses, sports stadiums, cruise ships, theme parks, and other leisure
operations. Many elaborate new facilities which offer varied forms of recreation are
being developed as part of the trend toward commodification. In big cities, huge public
fitness centers which include pools, aerobics, dance rooms, and facilities for family play
 are being built and often charge membership fees that cost several hundred dollars a
year.
5. Therapeutic recreation service — An important aspect of the growth of recreation has
been the increased awareness of the recreation needs of persons with physical, mental,
or social disabilities. In recent years, there has been an increased recognition of the
need to provide recreational programs for special populations such as the mentally
challenged, mentally ill, and physically challenged. These programs use therapeutic
recreation as a form of treatment. One of the sports programs for people with
disabilities that has received much attention in recent years is the Special Olympics, an
international program of physical fitness, sports training, and athletic competition for
children and adults with mental retardation.
6. New leisure roles for women —at present, there is a strong drive by women to play a
more equal role in recreational opportunities. In the past, women were barred from a
variety of athletic, outdoor recreation, cultural, and social involvements. Women were
treated as second-class citizens in leisure opportunities. With the emergence of a strong
feminist movement, this inequality was corrected. There is now a growing interest in
women's tennis, golf, gymnastics, track and field, and similar events in every level of
competition. Outstanding women athletes have helped create a new image of feminine
strength, determination, and self-confidence.
Types of Organized Recreation
1. Government recreation agencies-These are the federal, state, provincial and local
departments that provide recreation and leisure services as a primary function. Also
included are other agencies that offer recreation programs secondary responsibility
such as those concerned with social service, education special populations, and the
armed forces.
2. Voluntary nonprofit organization - These are nongovernmental, nonprofit agencies, both
sectarian and nonsectarian, which serve the public at large with multiservice programs
that often include a substantial element of recreational opportunity. The most popular
voluntary organizations include the Boy scouts Girl Scouts, YMCA, YWCA, and MM-
YWHA.
3. Private membership organization—they provide recreational and social activities for
their own members and, in some cases, assist community recreation needs. Examples
are golf, tennis, yacht, athletic, and country clubs. Also included under this category are
the recreation sponsors connected to residence such as swimming pools, sports or
fitness complexes or clubs attached to leisure villages, and apartments or condominium
units or retirement communities.
4. Commercial recreation enterprises —These are privately owned businesses which
operate to make a profit such as ski centers, bowling alleys, nightclubs, movie houses,
theaters, health spas or fitness centers, dancing schools, and theme parks.
 5. Employee recreation programs — They serve those who work for companies or
employers by providing recreation as a part of a total personnel benefits package, linked
to other services concerned with employee health and fitness.
6. Armed forces recreation — Although it is obviously a form of government- sponsored
activity, it is unique in its setting and purpose. Each of the major branches of the armed
forces operates an extensive network of recreation facilities and programs.
7. Campus recreation — It includes intramural athletics or sports clubs, social activities,
travel programs, performing arts groups, entertainment, lounges, film series, and other
forms of recreation on college and university campuses.
8. Therapeutic recreation services — These include any type Of program designed to meet
the needs of persons with physical or mental disabilities, individuals with poor health,
dependent aging persons, social deviant persons in correctional facilities, and similar
special groups.
Two Major Recreation Service Components
In addition to the eight types of organized recreation, sports and tourism represent
major areas of recreational programming and constitute powerful economic forces through
their attraction for people of every age and background. Uniquely, they have strong links to
each other through the growing field of sports tourism and also overlap heavily with outdoor
recreation attractions.
Sports as Popular Recreation
Sports are major areas of recreational involvement. Of all the types of recreational
involvement, sports command the highest degree of personal interest and emotional
involvement both for those who participate actively in them and those who are part of a big
number of fans of school, college, and professional teams.
Sports are generally defined as physical activities demanding exertion and skill, involving
competition, carried on with both formal rules and general standards of etiquette and fair play.
Sports activities, in terms of both participation and spectator involvement, represent key
recreation interests for most youth and adults. Aside from amateur, school, and college sports,
there are professional sports which have become big businesses.
Tourism — A Major Recreation Service Component
Tourism is a second major area of diversified recreational involvement. Several major
elements in the tourism enterprise which are closely linked to the growth of tourism as a form
of recreation are the theme parks, water parks, fun centers, and sports tourism.
Theme Parks
Theme parks usually concentrate on one dominant theme which may be historical,
cultural, or geographical. An example of a theme park with a single theme is the marine
zoological Sea World Park. Other parks focus on multiple themes like the Great America in
California, a hundred-acre family entertainment center divided into five themes: Home Town
Square, Yukon Territory, Yankee Harbor, County Fair, and Orleans Place. The most popular
theme park is Disneyland in Anaheim, California which was built by the late Walt Disney around
the theme of Disney characters.
Theme parks create an atmosphere in which the visitor is likely to experience fantasy,
glamour, escapism, prestige, and excitement. Once inside the gate, the visitor is completely
shut off from the outside world and immersed in an enjoyable recreational experience.
Water Parks
A specialized type of theme park are the water parks. They feature wave slides, chutes,
shows, and other forms of water-based play and entertainment. Water parks are usually part of
larger theme park operations. For example, Universal's of Adventure, the Jurassic park River
Adventure, Bilge Rat Barges, and Poseidon's offer either whirling and steep white-water rides
and sluice falls or swirling that spray riders thoroughly. Each year, dozens of new water parks
have been opened with the latest technology.
Fun Centers
In heavily populated metropolitan areas, entrepreneurs have developed variety of
indoor fun centers, ranging from children's play, gymnastics, to family party; centers, video
game arcades, and big restaurants with game area.
New children's and family play centers have been established in many suburban
neighborhoods and shopping malls. They offer a combination of computer and video games,
billiards, miniature golf, entertainment by clowns and magicians, music, and popular fast-food
refreshments. They also offer packaged birthday parties and attractive family play activities.
Sports Tourism
The purpose of sports tourism is to participate directly in a form of sport or attend
sports events as a spectator. In the past, only the team traveled; the spectators remained
behind to read about their favorite game or to experience the game through radio and
television. Today, both the team and the spectators travel to the game especially where
championship games are involved. Major college and professional tournaments and
championships attract huge audiences along with major boxing matches, golf, and tennis events
,and even sports like softball, soccer, rugby, volleyball, and roller skating. The World Olympics is
the biggest sports event. It attracts millions of spectators and generates millions of dollars in
revenue.
The Need for Professional Leadership
At present, there 'is a growing need for qualified professional leadership in the
recreation field. Very often, people assume that the tasks of organizing and conducting
recreation programs are relatively simple and that anyone can do it without specialized
training. However, the professional's assignment in the organized recreation field tends to be
more complex and difficult than that of the volunteer leader or coach. It must involve carefully
studied goals and objectives and sophisticated planning techniques.
Recreation professionals should possess the skills needed for direct leadership and
supervision, group dynamics, and client assessment. They must have the ability to carry out
basic research and write meaningful reports.
Emerging Professional Identity
As employment in recreation agencies grew over the past several decades, recreation
gained public recognition as a flourishing career field. Millions of men and women became
employed in various specialized sectors of recreation and leisure services. Many hold
professional-level lobs as recreation leaders, supervisors, planners, managers, and resource
specialists, Through the efforts of national, state, and provincial societies, higher standards for
practice were developed and the first steps of certification and accreditation were undertaken.
Challenges Facing the Recreation and Leisure Service Field in the Twenty-First Century
1. Serve diverse society (race, age, gender)
2. Emphasize key social purposes of recreation in working with at-risk youth, serving
persons with disabilities, and promoting community development;
3. Achieve fuller public understanding of the value of recreation and parks, and of the
leisure-service profession;
4. Upgrade recreation and park programs and facilities, particularly in inner cities and for
minority populations;
5. Adopt a benefits-based management approach; researching, proving and publicizing
positive outcomes of recreation;
6. Promote recreation's identity as health-related field;
7. Develop partnerships with environmental organizations to protect and restore wild
lands, waterways;
8. Employ marketing approach to achieve fiscal sufficiency and gain public respect and
support;
9. Expand and improve family-centered programs and facilities;
10. Promote higher values and ethical practices in youth sports competition;
11. Strive for fuller mainstreaming of persons with disabilities in community recreation
programs;
12. Plan for long-term role of recreation and leisure in potentially job-scarce economy;
13. Develop higher levels of professionalism through accreditation, certification, continuing
education, or program standards;
14. Unify separate branches of recreation and leisure service fields (public, nonprofit,
commercial, therapeutic) in common programs and projects.
 Chapter 8 Tourist Attractions and Theme Parks
Nature and Scope of Tourist Attractions
Tourist attractions are major components of the tourism Industry that function as main
motivators for travel. Without attractions that draw tourists to destinations, there will be little
need for other tourist services such as transportation, lodging, food distribution, and others.
The natural attractions, entertainment attractions, events, and recreation are included in the
extensive list of attractions that brings the tourists to a destination area.
Natural attractions are the chief reasons why people travel. Examples of these are the
botanical, zoological, mountain and seaside parks, national forests, and national parks of the
United States, Canada, India, Australia, and Japan. The natural beauty of these attractions
entices and inspires the travelers.

The Evolution of Tourist Attractions

Tourist attractions are considered a modern creation. The evolution of tourism
depended on the existence and development of attractions. As far back as the Roman Empire,
travelers went to Egypt to see the pyramids. Later on, the Grand Tour routes were around the
major cultural attractions of Europe.
Definition of Attractions
 According to Pearce (2001), a tourist attraction is a named site with a specific human or
natural feature which is the focus of visitor and management attention. On the other hand,
Swarbrooke (2001) defines attractions as single units; individual sites or very small, delimited
geographical units based on a single feature. Destinations are different from attractions
because destinations are large areas that include several individual attractions together with
the support services required by tourists.
Classification of Attractions
Attractions may be classified according to its features such as its core product. Attractions can
be grouped as:
1. Historic houses;
2. Museums and galleries;
3. Wildlife attractions;
4. Castles;
5. Botanical gardens;
6. Steam railways;
7. Visitor centers;
8. Country parks; and
9. Leisure parks.
Physical Environment
Attractions may be located in the
1. Natural environments such as forests, mountains, and national parks;
2. Built environments which are not originally designed for visitors but adapted as attractions
due to its increasing popularity among people, such as historic houses, workplaces, steam
railways, and castles; and
3. Built environment and designed for visitor purposes such as visitor centers and leisure parks.
In addition, attractions may be located in indoor or outdoor environments.
Ownership
Attractions are owned and managed by organizations, trusts, and individuals working in
the public, private, and not-for-profit-sectors. State involvement in attractions funding is shown
in Europe, Canada, and Singapore. In the United States of America, many attractions are
subsidized by charitable donations as well as the voluntary sector. The voluntary sector includes
organizations that own and manage attractions on a nonprofit basis.
Admission Policy
 Some attractions charge admission fees while others are free to the public. Attractions
operated by membership subscription organizations allow members free entry. Voluntary
donations are requested in other attractions such as churches and cathedrals.
Appeal
Attractions may appeal to a local market, regionally, nationally, or internationally.
Domestic tourists usually dominate the market for tourist attractions. However, there are
different types of attraction that appeal to different types of tourists. Foreign tourists make a
large percentage of visits to distilleries and castles. Visits to steam railways and country parks
are prevailed by domestic tourists. Historic houses and garden attracts mature visitors.
Size and Capacity
Attractions differ in land coverage. Some are housed in small buildings while others
occupy several hectares, Attractions designed for mass tourists are able to receive a large
number of visitors. Moreover, such attractions may incorporate services and facilities that
enable visitors to prolong their stay. Understanding the capacity of sites is important in terms of
management and marketing.
Composition
Many attractions are located in or around a specific point such as a capital city. Some
follows line or route. Events may also be found in one venue or may occur in a variety of
locations as part of the festival.
Degree of Performance
Built tourist attractions are usually designed with a high degree of performance. Events
and festivals have a short duration. Hence, temporary sites and mobile infrastructure are often
used.
Number of Visitors
Tourist attractions receive varying visitor numbers. Some attractions regularly record
approximately more than 500,000 visitors while others attract smaller number of travelers.
Amusement Parks and Theme Parks
"Amusement park" and "theme park" are terms for a group of entertainment attractions and
rides and other events in a specific location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. An
amusement park is more elaborate than a simple city park or playground because it provides
attractions to people of all ages.
Amusement parks evolved in Europe from fairs and pleasure gardens which were
established for the people's recreations. The oldest amusement park in the world is Bakken
which was opened in 1583 at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark.

"Theme park" is often used as a synonym for "amusement park." A theme park is a
distinct type of amusement park which promotes a specific theme or exclusive set of themes.
Disneyland in Anaheim, California is considered as the first theme park. Theme park trips are
ideal for family vacations, including children below of age. Theme park travelers usually fly to
their destinations and rent a car once arrive. They engage in various activities such as shopping
and visiting historical museums, and beaches.
Main Issues in the Management of Tourist Attractions
Attractions face several threats from the external and internal environments which
affect the product quality, operational capability, and visitor experience. Thus, it is important
for managers of attractions to develop a strategy that recognizes threats and focuses on
managing potential impacts to attain long-term capabilities.
Management Planning
In a study of Australian tourist attractions, Benckendoff and Pearce (2003) found that
attractions with the highest level of management planning perform best and are more
profitable. The following are the effects of higher levels of planning:
1. Higher visitor numbers;
2. Increased revenue;
3. Longer asset value;
4. Greater local profit;
5. Lengthened visitor stay;
6. Better growth; and
7. Greater confidence.
Managers of attractions must plan ahead, decide what actions will be taken, and identify
objectives, time scales, funding, and implementation of projects. Planning is necessary for the
long-term survival of attractions based on renewal and innovation.
Environmental Impacts
Environmental impacts caused by visitors raise a number of issues for managers of
natural, built, and event attractions. While natural attractions and those that charge admission
fees are highly susceptible to seasonality, places of worship and country parks are less
susceptible. In addition, attractions in cities suffer less from seasonality than those located in
the external areas.
Visitor Numbers
 There are several factors that affect Visitor numbers. These are promotions, global
issues, and the weather. Mechanisms for recording Visitor numbers include admission tickets,
car parking receipts, and manual or mechanical tools. However, recording visitor numbers at
some sites is a problem particularly when the entry is free, when the site has multiple entry
points, and when the installation of mechanical counting is not feasible.
Destination PIanning
Gunn (1988) found out in his study that attractions function more effectively when they
are clustered together. Several areas have adopted the strategy of clustering attractions and
events which provide more activities to tourists. The rationale for clustering attractions is
greater tourist mobility, competition among tourist areas, stronger marketing mechanisms, and
higher investment in development. Managers of attractions are able to collaborate with one
another to attract visitors to an area rather than to a simple attraction together With the
motivation to visit all attractions by means of big discounts and visitor passes. Collaboration
enables attractions to become more receptive to changes in the market place, and helps in the
formation of strong regional identities through destination marketing rather than specific
attractions. Investment in popular attractions can be a tool for regeneration. The development
of attractions in urban areas is undertaken not only to attract more visitors but also to stimulate
urban renewal.
Diversification
Many attractions have developed from an existing business such as farm attractions to a
diversified agricultural business. Industry attractions have developed through a similar process
where company identifies an opportunity to promote its products and create brand awareness
through the visitor market. Globally, there are examples of companies that operate visitor
centers that are linked to a product offering such as nuclear energy production and chocolate.
On Alaska, even oil installations are considered tourist attractions.
Renewal and Innovation
Innovation is a principal concept in tourism business. Many attraction managers find it
necessary to incorporate technology and innovation to their featured attractions to retain and
stimulate the interest of the visitors. An example is the virtual reality ride through New York
called New York Skyride at the Empire State Building.

The Future of Tourist Attractions

Pearce, Benckendoff, and Johnstone (2000) identified four areas that affects the future of
tourist attractions. These are:
1. management;
2. marketing;
 3. product development; and
4. interpretation and communication,
Management: Revenue Generation
Other than ticket sales, attractions can generate revenue through several means.
Efficient management is necessary for the success of attractions. Table 5 shows the alternative
mechanisms for revenue generation in attractions.
Table 5. Alternative Mechanisms for Revenue Generation in Attraction
1. Encouraging educated visits.
2. Providing a venue for corporate hospitality, meetings, and product launches,
3. Hosting weddings and birthday parties.
4. Generating rental income from alternative usage of infrastructures, such as retail
outlets, clubs, and offices which utilize redundant building or space on-site.
5. Introducing car parking charges or leasing of the car park to a management company.
6. Improving retail and catering initiatives that offer unique and distinctive products and
experiences that reflect the ethos of the attraction.
7. Attracting more visitors and more frequent repeat visit.
8. Increasing length of stay by offering more activities (such as children's sleepovers at the
Boston Children's Museum).
9. Extending opening hours to expand experiences on offer (such as nighttime visiting (as
in the case of Singapore Zoo).
10. Introducing members or friends schemes giving privileges and discounts.
11. Hosting high-profile events.
12. Attracting corporate sponsorship.
Marketing
Marketing is significant in the success of attractions. Marketing is not only concerned
with promotion and advertising but also with pricing, products, and distribution channel.
Several attraction managements produce a promotional leaflet which contains either a
single attraction or a collection of attractions in a region. These leaflets may be displayed in
tourist information centers or in leaflet racks maintained by distribution companies in principal
tourist locations. Some attraction managements have websites that show important
information to lure visitors. Other means of promotion are tourist brochures, magazines,
newspapers, and television. Among the channels of advertisement, word-of-mouth (WOM)
remains as the most powerful and cheapest tool for many attractions.
Product Development: Creating World-Class Destinations
`Product development is a process in which managers of attractions engage in
innovations that tend to develop a new concept and use new technology such as virtual reality
and animations which enliven the product offering through tours, re- enactment, and personal
forms of interpretation.
The main factor in creating a world-class destination is the establishment of a superior
product. The product must be centered on a clear understanding of the visitor experience, the
principles of human resource management, and a commitment to product development. In
addition, other important factors are understanding and anticipating consumer needs and
expectations, understanding the wider market and the supply of competitive products, and the
ability to innovate.
Interpretation and Communication
There are two brand themes that are significant in interpretation and communication. These
are:
1. The role of technology known as "high tech"; and
2. The role of personal interaction known as "high touch."
There are several reasons why operators of attractions invest and develop technology-based
elements. These are:
1. To create a unique product;
2. To enhance visitor experience through entertainment, education, and interaction;
3. To be competitive
4. To manage visitors by means of technology driven transport such as the one found in York
Museum New York
5. To improve systems with the of computerized online booking, customer feedback, and client
databases.
International Association of Amusement parks and Attractions
The world's lamest amusement parks and attractions association is the International
Association of Amusement parks and Attractions (IAAPA) in Alexandria Virginia, USA. The
association was founded in 1918 and has more than 4,500 members in 90 countries. It
represents and serves as operators of amusement parks, tourist attractions, water parks,
miniature golf courses, family entertainment centers, and manufacturers and supplies of
amusement equipment and services. The association conducts research, compiles statistics, and
publishes Fun World and an annual International Directory and Buyer's Guide. In addition, it
holds an annual convention and trade show.

Chapter 9 The Mice Industry: Meaning and Importance

The MICE Industry: Meaning and Importance
The meetings, incentives, conventions, and exhibitions (MICE) industry is one of the
fastest-growing and lucrative area of the tourism and hospitality industry. It includes different
areas such as conferences, meetings, incentives, exhibitions, and trade shows. The MICE
industry has been traditionally regarded as part of the tourism and hospitality industry with
activities that involve both tourists and non-tourists.
One of the significant features of the MICE industry is its potential to attract national
and international visitors. Visitors to MICE events are considered participants, delegates, or
attendees. MICE events provide additional benefits to the country in the form of business
opportunities, education, and training. Many of these events are related to business and
professional activities. MICE activities usually occur outside the peak season of leisure travel.
Hence, they are advantageous to hotels, resorts, and restaurants in offsetting the low and off-
peak business periods.
The MICE industry today is recognized as an important business activity for corporations
and associations. It is also an important market segment for suppliers of services to these
customers. At present, the convention attendee spends appropriately more than the leisure
traveler. It is for this reason that great emphasis has been placed on attracting meetings and
conventions to cities all over the world. More than one million meetings, conferences, and
conventions are attended by 81 million people every year, contributing more than $50 billion
annually to the economy. Even in a slow economy, companies continue to meet. The demand
and spending by corporations does not decrease.
The Evolution of the Meetings, Incentives, Convention and Exhibition (MICE) Industry
The meetings, incentives, conventions, and exhibitions industry (MICE) is young, relative
to the tourism and hospitality industry as a whole. Before 1960, persons traveling to
conventions either drove or traveled by train. With the introduction of the Boeing 707 in 1958,
the airplane provided am affordable and fast alternative to cars and trains. The "jet age"
stimulated business and leisure travel.
The intense construction of hotels and convention centers began in the 1970s. The
features added to attract the convention participants were the removal of interior posts,
barrier-free space, flexible walls, and improved lighting.
In the 1980s, cities began to build convention centers to host large conventions and
expositions. The largest convention center was built in 1989 with approximately one million
square feet of flexible meeting space.
Meetings, Incentives, Conventions, and Exhibitions
1. Clinic - a workshop where attendees learn by doing. It involves small who interact with
each other individually.
 2. Forum - an assembly for a discussion of the group's common concerns featuring a panel
Of experts Who take opposite Sides Of an issue.
3. Seminar - a gathering of professionals who work together under the guidance of a
discussion leader.
4. Symposium - a meeting where a subject is discussed by experts and a consensus of the
group is gathered.
5. Workshop -a small group led by a trainer concentrating on skill enhancement
6. Conference — a formal meeting of professionals for exchange of opinions and
information.
7. Convention — a large meeting of people assembled for a common purpose.
8. Colloquium — an informal discussion on group-selected topics.
9. Panel — consists of two more speakers stating their viewpoints.
10. Lecture — a meeting in which an expert speaker addresses an audience.
Meetings are usually organized by corporations, associations, or social, military, educational,
religious, and fraternal groups (SMERF). The reasons for holding a meeting can range from the
presentation of a new sales plan to a total quality management workshop. The number of
people attending a meeting can vary. Successful meetings require a great deal of careful
planning and organization.
Meetings are set up according to the wishes of the client. The three types of meeting setups are
theater style, classroom style, and boardroom style. Theater style is intended for a large
audience that does not need plenty of notes or documents. Classroom setups are used when
the participants need to take notes or refer to documents. The boardroom setup is intended for
a small number of people.
Expositions or exhibitions are events designed to bring together suppliers Of products and
services who will demonstrate their products and services to the attendees in order to make
sales or establish contacts. Expositions need several hundred thousand square feet of space,
divided into booths for individual manufacturers or their representatives.
Conventions are usually larger meetings which include some form of exposition or trade show.
Several associations have one or more conventions per year. These conventions raise a large
part of the association's budget.

A typical convention has the following format:

1. Welcome registration
2. Introduction of the president of the association
3. President's welcome speech
4. First keynote address by a speaker
5. Exposition booths open
 6. Several workshops or presentation on specific topics
7. Luncheon
8. More workshops and presentations
9. Demonstration of special topics
10. Vendors' private receptions
11. Dinner
12. Convention center closes
Conventions are not always held in convention centers. Majority are held in large hotels for a
three- to five-day period.
Incentives are rewards for achievement used by corporations to motivate employee to higher
sales efforts. It may be in the form of goods or trips to glamorous and exotic places.
Incentive managers devise programs which involve employee competition and gives rewards to
the highest achiever. Travel rewards are one of the best incentives. Merchandise is another
incentive. Creativity is very important in the incentives business. Incentive managers must
continuously come up with new ideas to motivate employees to improve their performances.
Planning an incentive involves the following:
1. Setting specific goals
2. Measuring performance
3. Communicating standards to participants
4. Choosing rewards appropriate to the participants
5. Celebrating achievements
Key Players in the MICE Industry
The major players in the MICE industry are the convention and visitor’s bureau (CVBs),
meeting planners and their clients, convention centers, specialized services, and exhibitions.
Meeting Planners
Meeting planners independent contractors who offer their associations and corporations as the
need arises or they may be full-time the professional meeting planner makes hotel and meeting
bookings, and of corporations or associations. That the services contracted have been
delivered. The following are the activities of the meeting planner:
1. Plan meeting agenda

2. Establish meeting objectives

3. Predict attendance
 4. Set meeting budget

5. Select meeting site

6. Select meeting facility

7. Select hotel(s)

8. Negotiate contacts

9. Plan exhibitions

10. Prepare exhibitor correspondence and packet

11. Create marketing plan

12. Plan travel to and from site

13. Arrange ground transportation

14. Organize shipping

15. Organize audiovisual needs

On-site Activities
1. Conduct pre-event briefing

2. Prepare executive plan

3. Move people in/out

4. Troubleshoot

5. Approve invoices
Post-meeting Activities
1. Debrief

2. Evaluate

3. Provide recognition and appreciation

 4. Arrange shipping

5. Plan for next year

The meeting Planner has several interactions with hotels. These include negotiating the room
blocks and rates. Escorting client’s onsite inspections gives the hotel an opportunity to show
their facilities and services. The most important interaction is with the catering/
bouquet/conference department associates especially the services manager and captains
because these frontline associates can make or break a meeting.

Convention and Visitors Bureau (CVB)

The convention and visitors bureau (CVBs) is a major player in the MICE market. The
CVB is a nonprofit organization that represents an urban area that tries to solicit business to
pleasure-seeking visitors. It represents the various industry sectors— transportation, hotels and
motels, restaurants, attractions, and suppliers. It has the following responsibilities:
1. To encourage groups to hold meetings, conventions, and trade shows in the area it
represents;

2. To assist groups with meeting preparations and give support throughout the meeting;

3. To encourage tourists to participate in historical, cultural, and recreational opportunities

offered by the city; and

4. To develop and promote the image of the community it represents.

Convention Centers
Convention centers are large facilities where meetings and expositions are held. Parking,
information services, business centers, and food and beverage facilities are included in the
centers. Convention centers are usually corporations owned by the city or state governments
and operated by a board of appointed representatives from several groups who have a vested
interest in the successful operation of the center. The board appoints a president or general
manager to run the center according to its mission, goals, and objectives.
Event Management
The events in large convention centers are planned many years in advance. Convention and
visitors bureau is responsible for the booking of conventions more than 18 months ahead. The
marketing and sales teams of the convention and visitors bureau and the convention centers
work closely with each other. As soon as the booking becomes definite, the senior event
manager assigns an event manager to work with the client throughout the pre-event, event,
and post-event.

Specialized Services
Several companies offer specialized services such as transportation; entertainment,
audiovisual, escorts and tour guides, convention setup, and destination management.
Professional Associations
Since the MICE industry has grown, several professional associations have emerged.
These are the following:
Convention Industry Council
The Convention Industry Council (CIC) was founded in 1949 as an umbrella organization
for four professional associations which represent hotels, convention centers, and association
executives. Their purpose was to address the professional concerns of all industry groups and
offer certification of meeting professionals or CMP. At present, the CIC members consist of 30
national and international organizations representing 81,000individuals, as well as 13,000
companies and properties.
European Meetings Industry Liaison Group
It is also called the European Alliance of the CIC. It is composed of five groups, namely:
International Association of Conference Interpreters, the International Congress and
Convention Association, the International Association of Professional Congress Organizers,
Meeting Professionals International, and the European Federation of Conference Towns.
International Association of Professional Congress Organizers (IACPCO)
The IAPCO was founded in 1968. Its headquarters is in Belgium. It has members from 52
companies as well as individual members. Majority of the members are from Europe but there
are members from Australia, the USA, Canada, Latin America, and Middle East.
International congress and Convention Association (ICCA)
ICCA was founded in 1963. Its headquarters is in the Netherlands. The ICCA has very
strict guidelines which require members to conduct meetings in at least four different
continents. It has members from 100 countries which include convention centers, travel agents,
airlines, and other industry- related services companies.
International Federation of Conference Towns
Like the ICCA, it has very specific membership guidelines which require cities to have:
1. Conference facilities that can accommodate at least 300 participants;
2. Proper equipment;
3. Traditional meeting services;
4. Satisfactory hotel accommodations for at least 300 participants;
5. Necessary transportation;
6. Team of experts in conference organizations; and
7. Proof that it has hosted at least five international conferences for the past three years
International Association of Convention and Visitors Bureaus (IACVB)
The IACVB originated in the United States. It has several international members. Their
most common services are destination information services, supplies networks, and housing
assistance programs.
Professional Convention Management Association and Meeting Professionals International
(PCMA and MPI)
The PCMA and MPI are professional associations for industry professionals. They
provide education programs and have excellent publications and resources.
Foundation for International Meeting (FIM)
The FIM was established in 1983. It is focused on MICE industry organizations which
conduct international meetings. FIM offers several educational travel opportunities and a
unique trade mission program that links members with their counterparts in other countries.
American Society of Association Executives (ASAE)
The ASAE was established in 1920. The headquarters is in Washington, D.C. It has more
than 35,000 individual members who manage professional, trade, and philanthropic
associations which serve more than 287 million people and companies worldwide.
Convention and Special Events Management Companies
There are several types of companies or organizations that provide special events management
services. The following are companies which provide convention and special events
management services:
1. Destination management companies
2. Independent meeting management companies
3. Travel management companies
4. Special events professionals, public relation firms
5. Government entities and tourism offices
Destination Management Companies (DMCs)
Destination management companies are private companies that offer services primarily
for inbound customers. The corresponding European service provider is known as professional
Convention Organizer (PCO). The primary responsibility of DMCs is to expose their clients to
opportunities available in the surrounding area, and prepare a proposal describing the
preferred events and costs, selecting and organizing the special events for the convention
attendees. As soon as they are selected as the DMC for the inbound group, they will organize
the event, secure the site, obtain permits, and hire suppliers such as the caterer, decorators,
bands, and entertainment.

Independent Meeting Management Companies

These companies provide services to outbound groups. When the independent meeting
planner conducts a meeting away from the home city, he or she will hire the DMC in the host
city because destination management requires experts from the local area. When the
independent meeting planner is in his or her home territory, he or she will provide services to
inbound groups to maximize profits.
Travel Management Companies
Large travel management companies organize destination management companies as
part of their larger travel services product offerings. Large travel management companies are
similar to the national chain operations.
Major Event Producers
Major event producers are another type of destination management company. These
companies produce sophisticated and highly technical events such as the Super Bowl and
Olympics, and political events such as the Democrat and Republican National Conventions and
presidential inaugurations. These are usually high tech, high visibility, and many have
components that are dangerous without proper precautions. A high level of technical
knowledge is required to organize these type of extravagant events.
Special Events Market
Special events are very important to the attendees of meetings, conventions, and
incentive programs. They encourage networking among attendees, build camaraderie within
the group, and provide memories that last for years, Special events during a convention are the
most memorable part of the program. It gives status to the sponsoring organization. Companies
that provide destination services are very creative and imaginative. They focus on festivity and
amusement.
Types of Events in the Special Events Market
The following are the types of events included in the special events market:
1. Corporate events — incentive programs, product introductions, building openings,
recognition events, anniversaries, retirement, groundbreaking, and ribbon cuttings.
2. Meeting, conventions, expositions — opening ceremonies, gala dinner, dances, opening
receptions, awards ceremonies, theme events, trade shows, and expositions.
3. Public events — parades, fireworks, displays, festivals, fairs, inaugurations/ swearing in
ceremonies, holiday observances, military ceremonies, and sporting events.
4. Retail events — grand openings, promotions, celebrity appearances, and seasonal
promotions.
5. Social/private events — weddings, anniversaries, graduations, reunions, funerals, memorials,
births, christening, charity balls, runs, and auctions.

Emerging Trends
There are many developments that will shape the MICE industry. Two of the leading
factors are changes in communication systems, specifically the Internet and its diverse
applications, and the changing character of nations into a global community. The Internet
provides an accessible format for virtual meetings and exhibitions, video conferencing, and
online education. This connection to the cyber world from the home or office makes Europe
Asia, and America accessible to the local tourist office. Many corporations have already started
the process of globalization. At present, smaller Organizations and individuals can equally
participate in global integration.
Employment Opportunities in the MICE Industry
There are many employment opportunities in the meetings, incentives, conventions,
and exhibitions industry. The main qualifications are education and Practical experience.
Persons who possess these qualifications will have no trouble finding a job in the MICE industry.
The following are the job opportunities in the MICE industry:
1. Director of convention Services
2. Convention Service Manager
3. Director of Group Sales
4. Director of Food and Beverage
5. Director of Catering Operations/Sales
6. Director of Marketing
7. Hospitality Coordinator (Room Service)
8. Director of Human Resources
9. Resident Manager
10. Director of National Accounts