NewInsightsintoPhysicalScienceVol.13 - e Book

New Insights into Physical
Science
Vol. 13
New Insights into Physical
Science
Vol. 13
India . United Kingdom

Editor(s)
Dr. Mohd Rafatullah
Senior Lecturer,
Division of Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Malaysia.
Email: mrafatullah@usm.my;
FIRST EDITION 2021
ISBN 978-93-90768-98-1 (Print)

ISBN 978-93-90768-99-8 (eBook)
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13
_________________________________________________________________________________
© Copyright (2021): Authors. The licensee is the publisher (Book Publisher International).
Contents
Preface i
Chapter 1 1-18
Analysis of Entropy Associated with Information Storage and Its Retrieval
Abu Mohamed Alhasan
Chapter 2 19-38
Smar tLVGrid Platform - Converg ence of Legacy Low-Voltag e Circuits toward
Smar t Grid Paradigm
Raimundo C. S. Gomes, Carlos T. Da Costa Jr., Jose R. Silva and Jose R. Sicchar
Chapter 3 39-53
Monogamy Inequality in Terms of Higher Powers of a Correlation Measure: An
Analysis
A. R. Usha Devi, Sudha and P. J. Geetha
Chapter 4 54-61
An Overview in Disadvantages of the Modern Communications
Hasan Bakheet Jasim
Chapter 5 62-70
Recent Study on IoT Based Embedded Smart Lock Control System
Hasan Bakheet Jasim
Chapter 6 71-82
Joule-Lenz Energy of Quantum Electron Transitions Compared with the
Electromagnetic Emission of Energy: A Scientific Explanation
Stanislaw Olszewski
Chapter 7 83-115
Applications on Hybrid VIM Methods
Shruti S. Sheth and Twinkle R. Singh
Chapter 8 116-124
A Comparative Study on Calculated Work Function of Metals Using Metallic Plasma
Model with Stabilized Jellium, Ab-Initio Approach and Experimental Values
O. Olubosede, O. M. Afolabi, E. O. Oniya and A. C. Tomiwa
Chapter 9 125-138
Probing Non Unitarity of Neutrino Mixing Matrix on Lepton Flavour Violation,
Leptogenesis and Neutrino Oscillation Probability
Gayatri Ghosh
Chapter 10 139-151
Assessment of QRS Detection on Noisy ECG Signal Using Threshold-based
Method
M. A. Z. Fariha, R. Ikeura, S. Hayakawa and S. Tsutsumi
Chapter 11 152-162
A Frame Work for Decimal Floating Point Multiplier Using Vinculum Multipliers
G. Sreelakshmi, Kaleem Fatima and B. K. Madhavi
Chapter 12 163-214
Water Memory and Homeopathy Result from Trimmed Chains of Water-Crystallites
Auguste Meessen
Preface
This book covers key areas of physical science research. The contributions by the authors include
entropy, quantum interference, low-voltage distribution, grid automation, smart circuits, smart grid
convergence, monogamy inequality, shareability, quantum correlations, information technology, face
recognition, local binary pattern histogram, Joule-Lenz energy, quantum electron transitions,
electromagnetic energy emission, variational iteration adomian decomposition method, laplace variational
iteration method, modified variational iteration laplace transform method, new modified Kamal variational
iteration adomian decomposition method, metallic plasma model, stabilized Jellium model, Ab-initio
model, metallic surfaces, electron density parameter, neutrino mixing matrix, leptogenesis, probability,
QRS detection, floating point multiplier. This book contains various materials suitable for students,
researchers and academicians in the field of physical sciences.
i
ii
Chapter 1
Print ISBN: 978-93-90768-98-1, eBook ISBN: 978-93-90768-99-8
Analysis of Entropy Associated with Information

Storage and Its Retrieval
Abu Mohamed Alhasan1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6248D
ABSTRACT
We provide an entropy analysis for light storage and light retrieval. In this analysis, entropy extraction
and reduction in a typical light storage experiment are identified. The spatiotemporal behavior of
entropy is presented for D1 transition in cold sodium atoms. The governing equations are the reduced
Maxwell field equations and the Liouville–von Neumann equation for the density matrix of the dressed
atom.
Keywords: Information; entropy; quantum interference.
1. INTRODUCTION
The light storage effect (LSE) has become a powerful technique that offers storing and restoring
quantum information [1-7]. Quantum repeaters [8-11], as well as quantum-information networks [12-
25] have been facilitated through the LSE technique. According to electromagnetically-induced
transparency (EIT) [26-28], LSE is prominent when two fields that have a common excited state
interact on different transitions. Ground states of hyperfine and transitions in alkali atoms [29]
have long radiative decay and form memory nodes for quantum communication. In EIT experiments,
the coupling field is known as the write field. In order to reveal information about the mutual interaction
of EIT pulses, coupling and probe, a delayed pulse in the coupling channel is applied. It is known as
the read field. The read and write sequence have been exploited in remote quantum memories, as
well as in the Duan, Lukin, Cirac and Zoller scheme for a quantum repeater [12]. As the read field
propagates, the generated field in the probe channel, at the time section of the read field, gradually
grows. Recently, EIT-based four-wave mixing has been studied in a four-level system of a
−line transition with circularly-polarized fields [30]. The propagation in a duplicated two-level atom
using irreducible tensorial representation of the bases for fine structure transition in sodium atoms has
been reported for circularly-polarized fields [31].
The aim of this paper is to present an alternative view of the light restoring phenomenon. Our issue is
based on entropy. The notion of entropy seems to be useful, since it is a measure of the lack of
information about the so-called restoring field. Thus, entropy should be maximal at the entrance
boundary for probe and coupling fields. As the read field propagates, the generated restoring field in
the probe channel increases with entropy production. The entropy associated with light scattering is
discussed, as well.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 depicts the energy diagram for the line in sodium,
where the single-, as well as double-excitation are indicated. In addition, Section 2, presents the
atomic basis operators and relative units adopted in this work. Section 3 is devoted to entropy
associated with light scattering for single excitation. Section 4 is devoted to Shannon entropy
associated with light storage and its retrieval for the lower Λ excitation of the four-level atom
configuration. Section 5 presents conclusions. Finally, Appendix A presents the time evolution of the
density matrix components. The maximal density matrix components that are accessible to the
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Physics Department, Shaqra University, Shaqra, 11961, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: am.alhasan.sq@gmail.com;
New Insights into Physical Science Vol. 13
atomic configuration are given. Therefore, we can easily study triple-color,

triple four-color,
color, as well as
different V configurations
ions with the same set of equations. The first (second) V configuration
corresponds to the transitions between the excited hyperfine levels and lower (upper) ground
hyperfine level.
2. THE THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION

This paper is an attempt to analyze coherent
coher excitation of transition 3 2 S 1 / 2  3 2 P1 / 2 in sodium. The
field with Rabi frequency Ω couples the lower hyperfine (hf) state |1〉 = | = 1〉 to the upper hf states
|3〉 = | = 1〉 and |4〉 = | = 2〉.. In addition, the field Ω couples the second lower hf state |2〉 = | =
2〉 to upper hf states, where F stands for total angular momentum with ( ) indicating the lower
(upper) hf state. The coupling fields in a double-Λ
double excitation are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Excitation of the sodium line. The dashed arrow shows the excitation with one
beam, which is tuned to the fine structure transition. is the detuning. The solid arrows
show the double-Λ Λ configuration excitation with Ω and Ω fields. Δ and Δ are the detuning
of the fields with Ω and Ω from the transitions | 〉 → | 〉 and | 〉 → | 〉,, respectively. ,
and , are lower and upper hyperfine splitting, respectively
For one-color
color excitation, its frequency is tuned to the line center of the fine structure transition. In
arrival time distribution analysis, it is preferable to deal with the line in sodium atoms. This is
because sodium has a smaller upper hyperfine splitting Δ = − than that of rubidi
rubidium.
Therefore, the influence of phase modulations produced by upper hyperfine splitting will be smaller in
sodium. The propagation dynamics of linearly-polarized
linearly and co-propagating
propagating fields will be investigated.
The state of the atom is described by the Liouville–von
Liou von Neumann equation for the density matrix of
the dressed atom as − = ℒ = ( + Φ) , where ℒ, and Φ stand for the system Liouvillian,
Hamiltonian, and the relaxation superoperators, respectively [32-34].
[ ]. The relaxation superoperator
contains
ns both radiation and collisional contributions. In this paper, we have followed the notations of
Fiutak and Van Kranendonk for the representation of the density matrix components, the atom atom-laser
interaction and the radiation damping operator [32], [ where ℏ = 1.. The atomic basis operators using
( )
the irreducible set , have been presented in [35]. [ The indices i and k numerate hyperfine states
( )
from one to four. In this paper, the bases operators , are written in flattened form as and =
( )
1,2, . . . ,28 , instead of the tensor double and lower indices form , . The basis operators are
orthogonal in difference space; in a sense, the trace of the metric tensor vanishes: ( , ) =
{ } = , , where , = 1 for = and zero for ≠ . In terms of basis operators, the density
matrix ρ can be expanded as = ∑ . The density matrix is normalized as = 1 . The
normalization condition provides the completeness of the basis operators. The components of the
( )
density matrix operators are as follows. There are four components with zero rank tensors: ↔ , ,
2
( ) ( ) ( )
↔ , , ↔ , and ↔ , . The populations of hf levels are given by = √3 , = √5 ,
( ) ( ) ( )
= √3 and = √5 . There are eight complex coherences: ↔ , , ↔ , , ↔ ,
( )
and ↔ , and their adjoint. We have alignment components for lower and upper hyperfine states,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
such as: ↔ , , ↔ , , ↔ , and ↔ , . The lower and upper Raman coherences of
( ) ( ) ( )
the second rank are: ↔ , and ↔ , . The components that are of third rank are ↔ , ,
( ) ( ) ( )
↔ , and ↔ , . Finally, we have the hexadecapole moment components ↔ ,
( )
and ↔ , .
The present work describes, mainly, two cases for entropy considerations. The first one is to study the
stationary illumination of the line with hyperfine structure to reveal the associated spectral entropy.
The light is tuned to the fine structure transition as shown in Fig. 1. The second case is devoted to the
dual‐pulsed light excitation to investigate the entropy associated with the quantum interference within
the double-Λ excitation. Special attention is paid to the entropy associated with the light storage
effect. In what follows, and irrespective of the strength of the fields, we shall associate the fields Ω
and Ω with the transitions |1〉 → |3〉, |4〉 and |2〉 → |3〉, |4〉, respectively. To reduce absorption, the
pulses are detuned from the third level, as indicated in Fig. 1. The detuning of the pulses is within the
upper hyperfine splitting. In addition, the coupling pulses Ω and Ω also couple the fourth hyperfine
level with detuned coherences of the first and third rank. The second rank Raman coherence for the
lower hyperfine levels seems to be the most important in light storage principles, since it has a long
radiative decay. However, ignoring components of the same rank or higher will produce the reduction
of dissipation, and loss of the information will be revealed. Thus, we have considered the maximal
bases.
The flattened form of the density matrix components seems to be convenient in our description,
especially for numerical computations. In addition, as concerns the time evolution of the density
matrix, one can easily find the connection between the flattened form and the explicit form, which
shows the rank of the density matrix component and the levels. The connection can be made in terms
of the collisional relaxation rates. As an example in Equation (A5), one can see that the collisional
( )
relaxation rate of is γ , . The superscript (1) is the rank of the coherence , and the lower index 1,
3 indicates the connected levels by the field.
To reduce our computation, we use the same absorption coefficient ′ for the and channels as an
approximation. The atom‐field coupling constant is given as = /(2√3) , where is the reduced
value of the dipole moment and stands for the electric field amplitude [32]. The Rabi frequency is
related to the atom‐field coupling constant through the relation Ω = 2√2( /ℏ) by inspection of the
eigenvalues of the matrix [ ℒ]. The relation between Rabi frequency and the laser intensity is given
as Ω/γ = ( ) / where is the saturation intensity [29,36,37].
In our calculations, we make use of relative units, where detuning, relaxation rates and Rabi
frequencies are in γ units, and γ is the spontaneous decay rate of the / state. The time is
presented as normalized and retarded where ← γ( − / ) with is the velocity of light and is the
prolonged distance. The distance is normalized to the Beer’s length = 10 cm, as ← / or
← ′ .
3. SPECTRAL DEPENDENCE OF ENTROPIES ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT

SCATTERING FOR SINGLE COLOR EXCITATION OF LINE
In this section, we aim to describe steady‐state illumination of the line in the sodium atom. For
stationary illumination, we use a light with frequency . The detuning △ = − stands for light
detuning from the fine structure transition with frequency . When △ = 0 , we have four
off‐resonant transitions. Our main concern is basically for the entropy and its decomposition. Shannon
entropy [38] is denoted here by ( ), which is an entropy measure on the probability distribution
{ ( )} as:
3
(1)
where ( ) stands for the occupation probability densities of the respective levels at frequency .
We have constructed the occupation probability density ( ) in terms of subdividing the occupation
probability ( ) by the frequency window ( ), which covers the lower hyperfine splitting. This ensures
that:
(2)
Over the selected frequency window under consideration.
The former procedure is to be extended to produce spectral entropy analysis for other variables, such
as the dipole operator ( ) with emphasis on its real and imaginary parts. Its real part is important for
slow and fast light indications. The imaginary part gives the absorption profile. For simplicity, the case
of one‐color excitation in this section is considered. The dipole operator becomes:
(3)
with the trace metric normalization condition: { } = 1. In terms of the density matrix components,
the dipole operator is given as:
(4)
Let denotes the total mean number of photons scattered per unit time. The spectral dependence of
the total scattered light intensity is defined in terms of the dipole operator , and the left , as well as
right eigenvectors of the Liouvillian ℒ as:
(5)
and:
(6)
Where { , } and { , } are the right and left eigensystems. These eigensystems satisfy the
completeness relation ∑ | 〉〈 | = 1, with 1 the identity operator. If we retain the exponential time
ℜ
series dependence, such as , we clearly obtain a Lyapunov function for , that depends on
time. The case when = 0 is of special importance. In this case, = and ̅ = 1. The index
means the stationary value. Thereafter:
(7)
Generally, ( ) gives the spectral dependence of the coherent part of the scattered light. Turning to
the incoherent part of the spectrum, by removing the partition of unity in Equation (6), one obtains:
(8)
4
Using the expansions = ∑ Υ and =∑ Υ , one can operate on and uses the
orthogonality of the bases to obtain:
(9)
We set γ = 1 in our dimensionless analysis. The spectral entropy associated with the scattered light
over a frequency window can be investigated in terms of cross‐section as:
(10)
For the coherent (Rayleigh) part of the scattered photons, we have:
(11)
The Rayleigh scattered light and the redistribution of radiation have been studied in [32,39–41] and
the references therein. Let us construct the spectral entropy associated with the coherent part of the
scattered photons from:
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
In the same manner, we define the spectral entropy associated with the total polarized light in terms
of:
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
The remarkable features of spectrum are available in the treatment of entropy. It is to be noted that
Shannon entropy is composed of four terms that interfere with each other. We presented in Fig. 2 the
probability cross‐section associated with the Rayleigh scattered light (△ ) and the probability for
scattered light (△ ) at different atom‐field coupling values. In Fig. 3, we presented the relative
5
Shannon entropy ( ), the relative entropy due to Rayleigh ( ) and the relative entropy due to
the total scattered light ( ) . The relative entropy for ( ) and ( ) is an entropy that is
measured with respect to that entropy where all of the frequency window components are equally
probable. However, we choose relative entropy for Shannon entropy as an entropy that is
measured with respect to that entropy where all of the hyperfine levels are equally populated by one
fourth for all components of the frequency window. The frequency window: △ ∈ [−300, 300] with
discrete values at step △ = 0.1.
Fig. 2. Spectral dependence of the probability cross-sections for the Rayleigh and scattered
light at different atom-field couplings: weak, moderate and strong
Fig. 3. The dependence of relative entropy on the atom‐field coupling for: the scattered
polarized light ( ; ), Rayleigh scattering ( ; ) and Shannon entropy, based on
populations of the hyperfine levels ( ; )
In Fig. 2, the hyperfine structure is exposed, and (△ ) has a resemblance to the stationary
spectrum. The probability associated with Rayleigh light for negative frequency detuning does not
show the doublet structure, as shown by (△ ). In addition, (△ ) shows more peaks due to
the interference effect at nearby wings. The reduction of the total dipole moment is shown by the
6
positions (△ ) = 0 , which indicate slow light. The relative Shannon entropy shows the
minimum at moderate fields = 6 to = 8, in Fig. 3. The upper hf structure is destroyed at moderate
field excitation. The hf line structure reduces to two lines separated by the lower hf splitting, resulting
in a three‐level structure. For a stronger field, the structure reduces to the two‐level atom, where the
lower hf splitting is destroyed. We distinguish the last case by considering that approaches zero
and approaches unity at the upper‐ground hf level. For the three‐level case, and have values
less than unity and greater than zero. Therefore, a three‐level atom corresponds to the case when the
upper hf structure is smeared in width, but the height is not higher than that of the weak field case.
The presence of a structure for weak fields increases entropy. However, the wide broadening of
spectral line and the continuous distribution of populations increases the entropy for strong fields.
Our calculations of spectral entropy are good candidates for parallel processing, as we did, where the
time of the calculations was considerably reduced. By spectral, we mean that the probability
distribution depends on frequency, and the corresponding entropy depends on the chosen frequency
window. In this paper, we have considered the entropy associated with polarized light. For a
different polarization, the difference space can be constructed by spherically‐polarized fields [33,42],
and the corresponding spectral entropy can be obtained.
4. TIME-DEPENDENT ENTROPY ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT STORAGE AND LIGHT

RESTORING
This section focuses on entropy associated with light storage and light retrieval within the traditional
framework of EIT. It is important to obtain an entropy signature about maximum correlations in some
parts of the total system. For this reason, the two‐fold excitation of the double-Λ system is considered.
The p‐field ( ) is tuned to the |1〉 ↔ |3〉 transition, whilst the c‐field ( ) is tuned to the |2〉 ↔ |3〉
transition. The time‐delayed pulse in the c‐channel is used to check the presence of the light
storage effect, while the pulses ( ) and ( ) form the EIT structure.
The time dependences of the coupling fields are:
(20)
(21)
(22)
where the amplitudes = 0.5 and = = 1. The initial and finial times are = 0 and = 100,
respectively. The positions of the fields maxima are = ′ = 20 and ′′ = 70 for the delayed
component of the field ( ) . The other parameters take the values as = 5, = 35 and = 45,
where Θ( ) is the Heaviside function. The initial pulses have dimensionless energies as ∫ ( ) =
{0.94, 7.5, 7.5}, where = { , , }, respectively. Thermal equilibrium among lower hf states is
assumed. Therefore, at the entrance boundary = 0 , the density matrix components satisfy
√3 (0, ) = 3/8, √5 (0, ) = 5/8 and (0, ) = 0, = 3,…, 28. It is also assumed that the fields
detuning are △ = − , = 1 and △ = − , = 1. The propagation of the radiation fields are
governed by the reduced Maxwell equations as:
(23)
(24)
7
The time evolution of the density matrix equations is listed in Appendix. The energies of the
propagated fields are defined by the following relations:
(25)
where = { , , , }. The time section of the fields is determined by . The and fields overlap
on the same period = . In addition, the restoring field has a time section = . Thus, ( )
gives the efficiency of restoring.
Shannon entropy at instant , over the whole time = ∪ , can be formulated with ( ) =
( )/ representing the weighed populations over the whole time section . It is instructive to look at
the probability for a specific transition as:
(26)
(27)
In terms of these weighed probabilities, one can obtain Shannon entropy with explicit dependence on
the transition probability branching. Decomposing the double-Λ system into and subsystems, the
first subsystem contains the pulses with the transitions |1〉 ↔ |3〉, |4〉. The second one contains the
pulses with the transitions |2〉 ↔ |3〉, |4〉. The population at instant within and subsystems are
given by combinations of ( ) ; therefore:
(28)
and:
(29)
Thus, the probability distribution within each subsystem has been constructed. The basic functions
associated with and subsystems read:
(30)
(31)
One can choose and ’s of different lengths, but the functions ( ) and ( ) should satisfy the
normalization condition:
(32)
8
Thus, one can define the entropy for the two V subsystems as:
(33)
It will be instructive to expose the interrelation between the entropies associated with the storage and
the retrieval periods. The constructed and corresponding to the storage and the retrieval periods
are formulated by ( )= ( )/ and ( )= ( )/ , where:
(34)
(35)
and ∪ = . In addition, and time sections are of equal lengths, i.e., subdivisions. The
constructed entropies for and systems to obtain differential entropy are given by:
(36)
(37)
The continuous and dashed lines in Fig. 4 represent ℎ ( ) and ℎ ( ) , respectively, where the inset
shows ℎ ( ) with a slight entropy reduction. At small and moderate distances, ℎ ( ) is bigger than
ℎ ( ) . This is because the first period includes the first coupling and probe fields. In addition, the
second period includes the second coupling and a small restoring field. Therefore, the reason
ℎ ( ) > ℎ ( ) is accounted for by the excitation done by the probe and first coupling pulses, lifting
populations ( ) and ( ) at a value that is slightly different from equality on the storage period and,
so, in the reading period. The entropy transfer (Fig. 4) is associated with population transfer among
the two sectional periods and , as well as due to the light storage effect. The drop of ℎ at = 55
is attributed to the drop in (55, ) leading to a storage level, after the excitation period, with higher
populations in ( , ) and ( , ) . The process is reversed in the reading period where ℎ is
increased.
Let the time‐dependent energy ( , ) = ‖ ( , ) + ( , )‖ be the energy distributed in time and

associated with the p‐transitions |1〉 ↔ |3〉, where is the generated restoring field in the ‐transition.
Similarly, the energy ( , ) = ‖ , ( , ) + , ( , )‖ is the energy contained in the ‐transition
|2〉 ↔ |3〉. The probability of finding energy in each transition can be obtained as ( , ) and ( , ) :
(38)
(39)
The entropy associated with the probability distribution of energy in each transition can be written as:
(40)
9
(41)
Fig. 4. Space dependence of the relative Shannon entropy associated with and
subsystems. The inset shows the space dependence of relative Shannon entropy for the
period = ∪
Fig. 5 shows an entropy exchange among the two transitions in the course of distance. The increase
of for a moderate distance manifests the generation of the restoring field and the depletion of the
coupling fields. For a big distance, the second coupling field entropy rises where the first coupling has
been diminished. In order to confirm that, let us consider the space‐dependent pulse entropy in what
follows. Let us construct the probability distribution at a fixed position from:
(42)
where is the space length, is the time period for every field and:
(43)
The cumulative sum ( ) of Shannon entropy associated with the probability distribution ( ) is
given as:
(44)
(45)
10
Fig. 5. The space dependence of the relative entropies and . The probability is defined as
the ratio of energy of the fields in the transitions | 〉 ↔ | 〉 and | 〉 ↔ | 〉 to the corresponding
total field energy in each transition, respectively
The cumulative sums ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ) are shown in Fig. 6. The light storage effect is
shown as an entropy production in the time section , revealed by the restoring field ( ) . Fig. 6
shows that the production of entropy is accounted for by the entropy reduction for the first coupling.
The first coupling approaches its asymptotic value of relative entropy quicker than that of other fields,
showing the high gradation flow [43] of its entropy.
Our aim is to study the entropy as an identifier for quantum interferences in multilevel systems. It
seems to us that one could use the maximum or the minimum entropy [44] value reached in the
atomic system as a critical value for the breakup of the local stabilization of short optical pulses in the
double-Λ system. This is important, since the area theorem [45-49] does not hold in multilevel
systems with soliton‐like solutions of the reduced Maxwell-Bloch equations [50]. In terms of entropy,
we would be able to find when the pulses in the multilevel system stabilize or collapse to fractional
pulses in area. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the entropy of a system of solitons has been
considered in [51,52].
Fig. 6. The space dependence of the cumulative sum ( ) of the relative Shannon entropy
associated with the probability distribution ( ) , where = { , , , } stand for the p‐field,
restoring field, the first coupling field and the second coupling field, respectively
11
5. CONCLUSIONS
A dynamical entropy approach is adopted to describe atomic entropy by irreducible tensor

components of the statistical operator. The constructed dynamical entropy for stationary illumination is
based on populations of hf levels, as well as the dipole operator. The projection of the dipole operator
on eigenvectors of the Liouvillian describes different processes. We introduced ( ) with zero
eigenvalue to obtain an entropy ( , ) associated with the Rayleigh scattered light. For a coherent
scattering process in ‐space, we have used the imaginary part of the dipole operator as the
generator for the entropy ( , ). In addition, we introduced , ( ) as a generator for entropy
associated with different eigenvalues in ‐space. Generally, we express entropy as a relative entropy,
i.e., with respect to the entropy where all of the frequency window ( ) components are equally
probable.
The notion of entropy and its probability distribution functions seems to be useful in describing light
scattering, as well as quantum interference generated within the hyperfine structure. For weak fields,
the probability cross‐section ( ) for ( , ) shows good resemblance to the stationary spectrum
with exposed peaks due to the four resonances. The relative Shannon entropy ( , ) shows the
minimum for moderate fields, indicating destructive interference where the upper hf is smeared out
(Fig. 3).
For two‐color excitation, we have shown that the system division into subsystems seems to be hard,
since the atomic populations are continuously distributed over the hyperfine levels at the same
instant. Therefore, we have constructed three types of partitions that are based on the probability
branching of upper hf levels. The first one of these partitions is defined on the population of the whole
interaction period with two probability distributions that are complementary to each other. Its
corresponding entropy is ℎ ( ) . It is shown to be reduced in the course of propagation (Fig. 4).
We have constructed entropy associated with and subsystems corresponding to the storage and
the retrieval periods, respectively as ℎ ( ) and ℎ ( ) . Both of them are less than unity, with
reduction up to moderate distances and enhancement at big distances. The two time sections and
clearly identify two two‐level atom equivalents for the four‐level system. The first of these two‐level
atoms is based on ( , ) and the mixing of ( , ) and ( , ). The second two‐level atom is based
on ( , ), as well as the mixing of hf upper levels.
In the forging analysis, the diversity function of entropy depended on the population. We have
constructed entropy with diversity functions depending on the local energy of the time-dependent
pulse. Fig. 5 shows an entropy exchange among the two optical transitions in the course of
propagation. Finally, we have considered the commutative sum of the Shannon entropy (Fig. 6) for
the energy distribution in space, which emphasizes the entropy flow and its attenuation, as well as its
generation.
In summary, we have described quantum correlations generated by or within the manifold of

sodium atoms. Multilevel structures result in information channelization, which is characterized by
entropy transfer within and out of the total system by relaxations.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Author has declared that no competing interests exist.
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14
APPENDIX: THE TIME EVOLUTION OF THE DENSITY MATRIX EQUATIONS
(A1)
(A2)
(A3)
(A4)
(A5)
(A6)
(A7)
(A8)
(A9)
15
(A10)
(A11)
(A12)
(A13)
(A14)
(A15)
(A16)
(A17)
16
(A18)
(A19)
Where for two‐fold excitation, we have used =△ − (△ −△ ) = 0, which implies the two‐photon
resonance condition. The collisional relaxation rates are discussed in [35].
For one‐beam excitation, the time of evolution of the density matrix equations can be obtained from
the previous equations by setting = = . In addition, the detuning for coherences , , and
are redefined as △ = − , , △ = − , , △ = − , and △ = − , , respectively. For
upper and lower Raman coherences, we have △ = , and △ = , , respectively. Where , = −
.
17
Biography of author(s)
Dr. Abu Mohamed Alhasan

Physics Department, Shaqra University, Shaqra, 11961, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
He has received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in theoretical physics at the Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut
University (Egypt). He pursued his doctoral studies and earned a PhD degree at the Institute of Theoretical Physics and
Astrophysics, University of Gdansk (Poland). Since 1992, he worked at the Physics Department at the Assiut University as an
Assistant Professor. In 1998, he became a member of the Theoretical Physics Department at the Pomeranian Academy in
Slupsk (Poland). He spent the academic year 2010-11 at the Department of Atomic Physics and Luminescence, Faculty of
Applied Physics and Mathematics, Gdansk University of Technology (Poland). Since Oct. 2011, he was employed at the
Shaqra University (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). He has contributed to several branches of physics and related disciplines,
including solar energy transfer, shock waves and detonations, signal data processing, and artificial neural networks. His book
"Density matrix approach to electromagnetically-induced emission, multiple light storage effects, and arrival time distributions of
pulsed light in cold atoms" (Slupsk, 2009, Poland) reflects his interests in quantum optics. His current research focuses on
graph entropy.
_________________________________________________________________________________
© Copyright (2021): Author(s). The licensee is the publisher (Book Publisher International).
DISCLAIMER
This chapter is an extended version of the article published by the same author(s) in the following journal.
Entropy, 17(8): 5920-5937, 2015.
18
Chapter 2
SmartLVGrid Platform - Convergence of Legacy

Low-Voltage Circuits toward Smart Grid Paradigm
∗
Raimundo C. S. Gomes1 , Carlos T. Da Costa Jr.2 , Jose R. Silva3
and Jose R. Sicchar1,4
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/5693D
ABSTRACT
The current electrical system is in the transition to a new technological model called the Smart Grid,
and the speed of this process will be so much faster if better adjusted to the available technical and
financial resources are the transition systems implemented. In this article, we present a method for
convergence of the traditional power distribution grid to the smart grid paradigm from the retrofitting of
the legacy circuits that compose this grid. Our results indicate that the application of such a method,
given through a distributed system platform with integrated technological resources added on overlaid
to the legacy infrastructure, converts these passive grids into intelligent circuits capable of supporting
the implementation of a broad scope of functionalities smart grid.
Keywords: Low-voltage distribution grid automation; smart circuits; smart grid convergence.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Electric Power System (EPS) is the largest industrial complex implanted globally among those
registered in the history of humanity. Existing less than two centuries ago, EPS has a basic structure
and operation that has been practically unchanged since its inception. However, this has been
changing, and a new type of EPS is emerging for the future. Called Smart Grid, it is the evolution
and the expected substitute of the EPS. It plays as a convergence platform of several technologies,
aggregating and applying to the EPS: communication resources, electronic control, automation and
distributed computational processing, to achieve excellence in its application purpose. Given the
size and value of the assets of the system still in use, it is unlikely that its transformation can take
place through a drastic overhaul. It is more likely to change gradually through strategic implants of
distributed control and monitoring systems within and adjacent to the existing electricity grid, aiming
that this organic growth will allow electric utilities to follow an evolutionary trajectory shifting more of
the old grid load and functions onto the new grid and thus enhance their critical services [1].
Technology, like science in general, is established from paradigms, so scientific and technological
advances only happen as a result of the breaking down, and paradigms shift. These advances
can happen intentionally, that is, through prior planning (design) or in an unintentional way, at the
1
Electrical Engineering Department, High School Technology, University of the Amazon State,
Manaus 69050-025, Brazil.
2
Electrical Engineering Faculty, Institute of Technology, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110,
Brazil.
3
Mechatronic Department, Polytechnic High School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900,
Brazil.
4
Control and Automation Engineering Department, High School Technology, University of the Amazon
State, Manaus 69050-025, Brazil.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: rsgomes@uea.edu.br;
SmartLVGrid Platform - Convergence of Legacy Low-Voltage Circuits Toward Smart Grid Paradigm
discretion of chance. Unlike unintended cases, in the intentional processes, the transition time
(deadline) is a relatively controlled dimensional variable, as much as the desired result (scope)
and the necessary cost for such, which be always positioned between the abrupt and gradual.
Convergence is a modern phenomenon that well exemplifies gradual processes of technological
transition, both in intentional and unintentional cases. Digital Convergence is one of the most outstand-
ing technological paradigms that emerged from the last four decades, being the matrix of new and
prominent technologies of the present time, like those that are referred to here as Smart Paradigm:
Industry 4.0, Smart Building, Smart Grid and Smart Cities. Without prior planning and the time
needed to complete its cycle of change, digital convergence is a typically unintended phenomenon
and the Smart technologies that derives from it, have inherited part of that same trait. However, for the
implementation of these technologies, it is possible to establish intentional convergence processes
that enable a technological transition of lower relative cost and impacts on pre-existing structures
(legacy) in the implementation of these technologies.
The transformation of the old and obsolete EPS toward a new and modern one is an inexorable
fact, but this transition, as mentioned before, certainly will not be through an abrupt process but by
gradual stages of restructuring [2]. Solutions that demand the radical change or replacement of the
legacy system impose high costs that often make it impossible to implement. Therefore, the study
and definition of solutions applicable to the technological transition from traditional EPS (Legacy)
to the smart grid paradigm, through strategies, methods, and systems (or models) that minimize
impacts and optimize costs can contribute decisively to accelerate the SG convergence process. The
retrofit strategy applied in the transformation of old and technologically outdated but still necessary
and functional (legacy) structures is already well known and for some time is used in (intentional)
convergence processes given by smart building technology. It also is a resource that has long been
used in the reuse of legacy machinery, equipment, and structures of a general way. However, even in
the face of the apparent relevance of this subject, there are few studies under this approach applied
to the implementation of the SG paradigm.
This work describes the SmartLVGrid platform and its strategy (method) applied to the convergence
of LV distribution grids toward smart grids paradigm, through the retrofitting of the legacy circuits
that compose them. It also presents the preliminary validation process, given from results of the
experimental analysis made with the functional assay in a simulated and reduced model of the
solution, using the SIMULINK. The validation carried out through the implementation of prototypes
applied to laboratory or field tests is a necessary and definitive step in cases like this; however, due
to the complexity, cost, and size involved, this is not a challenge to be overcome at once and in single
research work. Thus, the experimental demonstrations, through simulation, are well-appropriate as
an initial validation resource (step).
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SMARTLVGRID PLATFORM

2.1 Initial Definitions
Initially proposed by the same author in [3], the SmartLVGrid platform is a model that describes a
strategy (method), a structure (components and system architecture) and a set of protocols applied
to smart grid convergence of the LV distribution grid, from the retrofitting of the legacy circuits that
compose it (the tool used by the method). Thus, the retrofitting method is, in fact, an integral part of
this platform and corresponds to the strategy proposed by it, such that its description already includes
the method description, too. Based on a layered representation, Fig. 1 illustrates the SmartLVGrid
stack within the LV distribution system, so the illustration covers the layers provided in the model both
in the LV circuit itself, defined as local level (LL), and in the power utility’s Supervision and Control
Center (SCC), designed as center level (CL).
20
Given the geographical separation scale between CL and LL, the model provides for the use of
links and Metropolitan Area Network Interfaces (MANI) to ensure the connection and communication
between these sites. Interface modules installed at specific points make the connection between
the layers of the SmartLVGrid stack in the LL, enabling the exchange of messages such as request,
response, and flags, besides, other interactions between them. In the middleware layer, the Coupling
and Interaction Node (CIN) is connected on a Point of Interface (PoI) also named Coupling Point (CP)
carefully chosen within the legacy layer aiming to perform micro-processes (operational primitives)
classified as Domain Retrofitting Functions (DRFs), according to the listed in the Table 1. These
Operational Primitives (OPs) are processes that, in the legacy mode of operation, are typically
performed manually by a field operator, but with the retrofitting implemented through the CIN begin to
be executed by automatic control, hence the classification of DRFs.
Fig. 1. The SmartLVGrid stack in the context of the LV distribution system
Unlike CIN, the Service Nodes (SN) are logical units (virtual sockets) which make the interaction
between Interoperability and Middleware layers. They are not designed to run DRFs and therefore do
not even have the resources to do so. However, they play an important role in performing supportive
and complementary functions to DRFs. Table 1 lists the classes and their OPs respective, as well
as the description of the purpose of each one. The execution of a Computational Support Function
(CSF) is always restricted to a domain and internal to the layers of middleware or interoperability, and
can be requested or triggered within an automatic routine. It handles data received or required from
other POs. An Inter-Domain Support Function (ISF) differs from a CSF because its execution can
be external (extrapolate layers) and not restricted to a domain. Throughout this section, we will see
that through the coordinated and combined use of these eight OPs it is possible to implement a broad
scope of macro-processes compatible with the smart grid paradigm, that is, smart grid functionalities.
The typical configuration of a legacy distribution system encompasses only one Operation Center of
the Distribution (OCD) at the utility and the physical LV grid plant in the field. In this context, the
Operation is typically performed by field operators (manually) with little or no automation capability
available, under the asynchronous coordination of OCD. Operation corresponds to the set of processes
performed in the physical plant related to the operating compliance guarantee of LV grids and billing
support, based on the execution of primary functions equivalent or identical to those listed in Table 1.
Therefore, the primary purpose of the SmartLVGrid platform is to establish a model for the conversion
of this passive system to one endowed with communication and automation capabilities that allows
21
both the remote control and supervision of the distribution plant by Operation Center of the Distribution
(OCD) and, in some cases, the local and automatic operation (autonomous) of the same. Fig. 2, using
the layered representation, illustrates the system architecture that the SmartLVGrid model does in
composition with the LV distribution system. Note that in the legacy layer there is no indication of any
structural change, and in OCD, the Supervisory Layer indicates only the use of a font-end application
for supervision and control support of the retrofitted plant. Therefore, the model effectively adds
only two intermediary layers to the original system (Interoperability and Middleware), which, strictly
speaking, aim to replace, in large part (or totality), the functions of the field team, as well as provide
automation support to the Operation.
Table 1. The micro-processes, Operational Primitives (OPs), performed in the layers of

SmartLVGrid stack
OP Classes Description
1. Domain Retrofitting Functions (DRFs)
1.1. Sensing (Detection); Detection of faults, disturbances, threats, etc.
1.2. Measuring; Ability to read and quantify physical quantities,

for instance, temperature and electrical variables.
1.3. On/OFF Switching; Ability to connect or disconnect a circuit of the

feeder.
1.4. Phase Switching. Ability to change the source (or phase) of a load
connection.
2. Computational Support Functions (CSFs)
2.1. Recording (register); Sensing, measurement and configuration data
record. Some types should also store programs.
2.2. Data Processing. The processing required for the run the other OPs
(firmware), back-end services and applications.
3. Inter-Domain Support Functions (ISFs)
3.1. Data Send/Receive; The network interface used by the function is
LAN if the communication is only local (LL), and
MAN for communication between LL e CL (the
medias can be wireless or wired).
3.2. Synchronization. It allows the control of the start and ends time of
the participants’ tasks in the execution of a
process.
In the traditional system, OCD concentrates all the Business Intelligence (BI) of the distribution,
reporting it to the field operators. This condition is justified in the context of an entirely passive grid
(poor or devoid of automation resources) and therefore with a closed and limited scope operation.
However, from the retrofitting of the LV circuits (smart circuits), according to the SmartLVGrid model,
it is possible to decentralize the BI, sharing it with the retrofitted LV circuits, given the processing
capacity and autonomous automation of these systems that allows the implementation of a broad
and open scope of locally controlled functionalities. The need for autonomous operation becomes
evident when we consider the limitations that the fully centralized supervision and control of tens of
thousands or hundreds of thousands of LV circuits geographically scattered in one region., as are
the distribution systems in reality. In the SmartLVGrid model, while an smart circuits can control and
execute its operation autonomously and locally, it can be also subordinate to the Supervision and
22
Control Center (SCC). Thus, in some processes, it can cooperatively act with the other smart circuits
in a manner compatible with the configuration of a multi-agent system.
Fig. 2. The SmartLVGrid stack and the composing elements of the distribution system
Fig. 3. LVC electric scheme (single line diagram) describing the SmartLVGrid vision about
distribution system composition (Domains division)
2.2 The SmartLVGrid Stack

This subsection is dedicated to describing the structure, composition elements, and purpose of each
of the layers that make up the SmartLVGrid stack, referring only to the local level (LL).
2.2.1 The Legacy Layer

As mentioned in an of aprevious paragraph, the Legacy Layer is not effectively part of the SmartLVGrid
metasystem; but its mention as a layer in the stack composition of this model, derives from the
23
very strategy that it employs in the process of convergence of the distribution grid toward the smart
grid paradigm, that is, the retrofitting. Under the retrofitting strategy, the model provides for the
maintenance of the legacy plant and the identification of PoIs where retrofitting modules can be
installed, aiming the execution of DRFs (See Table 1).
Fig. 3 provides the representation of the Legacy Layer, i.e., the LV distribution grid, under the
perspective of SmartLVGrid model. In (a), the left side of the figure, a typical single line diagram
and, in (b), the right side of the figure, a less rigorous representation, but adding graphics details
regarding the structural characteristics of that grid. Notice that the legacy LV grid is subdivided into
three domains, which are indicated in part (a) of the figure: Transformation Post (TP), the feeder
of the LVC; the Secondary Powerline (SP), which is the means of connection; and the End User
(EU), which corresponds to the load or eventually an auxiliary source in the Prosumer case. A
fundamental premise of this work is that the SmartLVGrid platform applies to the convergence of
traditional LV circuits to thesmart grid paradigm without requiring (significant) changes in the legacy
plant, to provide a lower cost technological transition, as well as the systematization of this process.
Thus, it employs a strategy based on retrofitting at specific and carefully chosen points of this grid.
Table 2 lists such points in each domain and, their analysis, provides a glimpse of how relevant is the
decomposition of the legacy grid into domains, as established by the model, for the definition of PoIs
(or CPs) appropriate to the process in question.
Table 2. Identification of PoIs in each LVC domain and associated DRFs

****DRFs****
Domain ****************PoI (CP)************ [1] [2] [3] [4]
Transformer Output Connection (TOC) [x] [x] [..] [..]
TP Transformer Body [x] [x] [..] [..]
Ground Conductor [x] [..] [..] [..]
Drop Out Fuse Cutout (DOFC) [x] [..] [x] [..]
SP Powerline Branching Spot (PSB) [x] [x] [x] [..]
EU Service Entrance Panel (SEP) [x] [x] [x] [x]
It is possible that in addition to these, other PoIs can be indicated or identified, depending on the
specific functionality to implement. However, these were chosen based on recognized demand
processes, such as the detection of interruptions, and also in the operations typically performed
by the field operators, such as the meter reading or switching the connection phase of a single-phase
consumer unit. Similarly, it may be considered relevant that the DRF-3 should also be assigned
to PoI-TOC, considering that, under certain conditions, be possible to disconnect and reconnect,
automatically or remotely controlled, the entire secondary circuit; but this is not a usual process, for
this reason, in Table 2, it is not marked as a DRF applicable to TOC.
2.2.2 The Middleware Layer

As previously mentioned, the SmartLVGrid stack has two exclusive layers: Middleware and Interoper-
ability, since the Legacy Layer, as its name suggests, refers to the existing electrical infrastructure
in the local level (LL), i.e., the legacy LV circuit. On the other hand, the Supervisory Layer refers
to the front-end implementation (supervisory system) installed in the Management System of the
Operation (MSO) used by Operation Center of the Distribution (OCD) in the center level (CL), i.e., the
electric power utility. Middleware is the layer that operates at the lowest level of the platform, directly
interfacing with the electrical infrastructure (Legacy Layer) through CPs (or PoIs). The SmartLVGrid
model describes the Middleware Layer as a distributed composition of Coupling and Interaction Nodes
24
(CIN) that, installed on overlaid to the Legacy Layer (Coupling), they implement DRFs (Interaction);
that is, the Middleware Layer transforms processes executed by field operators, typically of manual
way, into automation variables to the external control, that can be either a supervisory system or an
autonomous application (See Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Set of DRF-Servers, made available by the Middleware Layer and distributed among
the LV circuit domains
It is worth mentioning that CIN, as well as the Middleware Layer itself, is an abstraction; in other words,
it is a model of part or all of a particular physical implementation. In this case, microprocessor units
(hardware), loaded with a compatible firmware, perform the CIN function (i.e., physically implement
the model) at the level of the interface between the Middleware and Legacy layers, through sensor
devices and actuators suitably installed on the CP. In another paper [3], this same author named
this microprocessor unit as ACU (Automation and Communication Unit), due to its composition and
functional characteristics. According to Middleware Layer (given in the SmartLVGrid model), CINs
are the performers model of DRFs on the PoIs, and ACUs are implementations of CINs, it follows that
the composition and resource specification of ACUs (internal components) depends of the domain
of their respective association, and the Middleware Layer reflects this by specifying distinct types of
ACUs for each of the Legacy Layer domain. Just as the word ’accelerate’, used equally for a car or a
bicycle, means very different implementations between the two cases, so does the DRFs concerning
the domains of implementation.
Fig. 5 gives a block diagram representation of the generic ACU model (structure and composition).
The definition of the number and characteristic of the ports: In/Out, Get and Run; as well as the
processing and storage capacity of an ACU (internal components) depends not only on its association
domain and control/monitoring desirable level but also on the role assigned to it in the Interoperability
Layer (described in the following subsection). From now on, the ACUs are named the following
designations, according to the site of their installation: ACU-TP for ACUs installed in the TP domain;
ACU-SP for ACUs installed in the SP domain, and ACU-EU for ACUs installed in the EU domain.
By definition of the model, the Middleware Layer gives the specification of the number and technical
characteristics of two port types that connect directly to the CPs: the ’Get’ and ’Run’ ports, that now
they are named Port-G and Port-R respectively. This specification includes associated hardware and
firmware, according to the domain, quantity, and type of variables to monitor and control. G-type ports
(Port-G) performs the reading of previously defined variables to quantify its values (measurement) and
25
detect the occurrence of operating limits violations or any non-conforming events (sensing), while R-
type ports (Port-R) are used for drives.
Based on the definition of PoIs given in Table 2, a total of 4 Ports-G and only one Port-R were specified
for the ACU-TP. Through a Port-G, it can to measure electrical quantities in the TOC (current, voltage,
energy, power, etc.) and thermal variables such as the temperature of the transformer body. In
addition to monitor the Drop Out Fuse Cutout (DOFC) status (active or non-active), ground conductor
status (present or absent), the occurrence of short circuits in the transformer secondary output, power
interruptions, and so on. In turn, The Port-R, in this case, is applied to the DOFC drive control, if this
key is controllable. By the same criterion above, since the SP domain of the Legacy Layer has only
one PoI (i.e., the Powerline Secondary Bus - PSB), an ACU-SP with only one Port-G and one Port-R
was defined for coupling and interaction with this PoI. Through the Port-G, this ACU monitors electrical
variables of the PSB branches (measuring and sensing), as in the previous case (ACU-TP). In turn,
through the Port-R, it can to implement automatic processes of disconnection and reclosing (run) of
branch circuits of the PSB.
Fig. 5. ACUs representation through ’black box’ and ’white box’ (external ports and internal
modules)
In the EU domain, such as in the SP, only one PoI (i.e., the Service Entrance Panel) was identified.
Then, under the same criteria used in the previous cases, the ACU-EU is designed with only one
Port-G and one Port-R. However, there is a particularity in this case that needs to be emphasized.
According to the retrofitting strategy given by the SmartLVGrid model, the ACU-EU coupling on the
SEP should aim at the retrofitting of the electric power meter in order to equip it with the same
functionalities of a smart meter. Therefore, the Port-G of this ACU must interact with the installed
meter to collect its measurement data. In turn, through its Port-R, the ACU must be able to perform
automatic processes of disconnection/reclosing of the user’s circuit and, in the case of single-phase
users, change the connection phase of their feeder branches.
It is notable, concerning ACU, that the Middleware Layer has priority attention to interface and
coupling specifications with the Legacy Layer, in this case, the ’Get’ and ’Run’ ports. From this
perspective, the internal dimensioning of the ACU, i.e., its processing capacity and memory, is given
according to the demand of the firmware applied to the control and operation of the G-type and R-
type ports. On the other hand, it is pertinent to the Middleware Layer to establish the specifications
necessary for the ACU to provide external access to its retrofitting functions, as services available to
the Interoperability Layer. With this role, the ACU’s internal resources, as well as its firmware, should
provide means to act as a micro-operations server applied to the retrofitting of the Legacy Layer on
CPs.
26
2.2.3 The Interoperability Layer
By specifying the Layer Middleware, ACUs are devices configured to operate as DRF Servers;
however, it is worth remembering that these units are scattered geographically throughout the LV
circuit. The Interoperability Layer defines the rules, criteria, and infrastructure necessary to connect
and organize these distributed objects in a hierarchical network that promotes access to such services
(functional features), as well as coordinated and cooperative interactions between these units.
Besides, the Interoperability Layer specifies a distributed computing system, using these devices, for
providing back-end support to the top logical level of the system, the level of the application running
the BI, either in a front-end solution in the MSO or processes autonomous running locally (LL).
As specified by the Middleware Layer, ACUs differ from each other according to the Legacy Layer
domain of their respective implementation. An intrinsic hierarchy, perceived when considering the
repercussion and comprehensiveness of the processes performed by each of these ACUs, justifies
such definition. See the example of the execution, via Port-R, of DRF-3 (On/Off switching) by the
respective ACUs. While ACU-EU can disconnect a user’s circuit, ACU-SP can disconnect a multi-
user branch, and ACU-TP can open the LV circuit and disconnect all users from this circuit. In another
example, consider the implementation, through the Port-G, of the DRF-2 (Measuring) also in each
of the ACUs. While ACU-EU measures the energy consumed by a user only, ACU-SP measures
the energy consumed in a branch with multiple users, and ACU-TP measures the energy consumed
by the entire LV circuit. These examples make it clear that the coverage universe of the ACU-TP
encompasses all others, followed by the ACU-SP and the ACU-EU, whose the coverage universe is
the most restricted (limited) of all.
Consistent with this observed natural hierarchy, the Interoperability Layer defines a new classification
and nomenclature to the ACUs, relative to the operational functions of each of them within the
hierarchical structure of the platform specified in this layer. The ACU-TP is now called Coordinator
(Cd), the ACU-SP, Sub-Coordinator (SCd) and the ACU-EU, Operator (Op). Thus, the model
establishes a type of network that is formed by Operators and its respective Sub-Coordinator. The
nature of this network type is purely operational, so it is called the Slave Net. The central Coordinator
forms another network together with the Sub-Coordinators. This network has a coordination-type
profile, so it is called the Master Net. As the names suggest, the Slave Net is a hierarchical level
below the Master Net, and subordinate to it. Fig. 6 well-illustrates the above statements.
Fig. 6. Description of the hierarchical architecture, systemic organization and ACU

interactions in the three levels of the SC model
27
Note that the established model has a multilevel top-down hierarchical architecture (See Fig. 6). In
it, only the Central Coordinator (at the top of the local level hierarchy) has the prerogative of external
connection and communication into out of the smart circuit (SC). Internally to the SC, the connection
between the ACUs is through Local Area Networks (LANs), in the case, the Slavers and Master
networks. These additional roles assigned to ACUs, as established by the Interoperability Layer,
imply the need to incorporate additional resources into such devices, in addition to those already
indicated in the Middleware Layer. Therefore, to meet these requirements, we verified that an ACU of
the type Operator requires a communication module (transceiver) with a single LAN port for access
to the Net Slave. ACUs of the type Sub-Coordinator require two LAN ports, one for access to Slaver
Net and the other for connection to Master Net. The ACU of the Central Coordinator type requires two
transceivers different type, one of Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) type, with one port, for access to
the Intercommunication Bus (See Fig. 7) and another of LAN type, also with a port, for connection to
the Master Net. Notice that in this way, the Central Coordinator naturally takes on another additional
role, that of a gateway.
Fig. 7. The configuration scheme of SmartLVGrid platform in the distribution system
The SmartLVGrid model subdivides the distribution system into two primary levels: the Local Level
(LL) and the Central Level (CL). However, in another perspective, illustrated in Fig. 8, it proposes the
decomposition into three sub-levels that still have relation with the first proposition, where the Sub
Level 1 (SL-1) consists of the Control Center (CC), also called the Supervision and Control Center
(SCC), in composition with the smart circuits (SCs), connected through the Intercommunication Bus.
Note that SL-1, the highest in the hierarchy given by the model, is not an internal level of the CL, but
rather a composition of this (CL) with the LL.
Fig. 8. provides an overview of three-level hierarchical architecture proposed in this model, where
the Sub-Level 3 (SL-3) is internal to Sub-Level 2 (SL-2), and both are contained by Sub-Level 1
(SL-1). The Middleware layer specifies the SL-2 and SL-3, corresponding to the internal structure
of an SC and which we now describe. Each SC has a Central Coordinator (Cd), which coordinates
hierarchically smaller-circuits or µCircuits (µCs), belonging to the SC. In the SL-3, each µC has
a single Sub-Coordinator (SCd), which coordinates the Operators under its coverage hierarchical.
Remembering that, each Operator is associated with an EU respective and this can either be a
typical Consumer or a Prosumer. Notice that this composition is analogous to that of an onion (i.e.,
layer within a layer), and if we persist in this approach, we enter the internal grid of the Customer
Domain (CD), corresponding to Sub-Level 4 (SL-4), which is not in the descriptive scope of this work.
28
Fig. 8. Description of the three-tiered hierarchical architecture of the SmartLVGrid model

(Gomes, 2017)
3 EXPERIMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

According to previous definitions, the SmartLVGrid platform is a model that describes a strategy
(method), a structure (components and system architecture) and a set of protocols applied to SG
convergence of the LV distribution grid, from the retrofitting of the legacy circuits that compose this
grid. Also as previously mentioned, the SmartLVGrid stack has two exclusive layers: Middleware and
Interoperability, since the Legacy Layer refers to the legacy LV circuit and the Supervisory Layer refers
to the application installed in the Management System of the Operation (MSO) used by Operation
Center of the Distribution (OCD) of the electric power utility. In the following subsections we describe
the procedures for testing and validating the solution.
3.1 Retrofitting Method Description

In this subsection, we present a synthesis of the SG convergence process, as proposed in the
SmartLVGrid platform (conversion of legacy LV circuit into Smart Circuits, through retrofitting) that
for this, it establishes the method with the following steps and procedures:
1. Definition of PoIs (CPs) in the Legacy Layer - It corresponds to the process of identifying,
between the three domains of the legacy plant (LV circuit), points that allow automatic control
and monitoring of variables and processes of interest (DRFs);
2. Middleware Layer Implementation - It corresponds to the process of specifying the hardware
and firmware resources of the devices (ACUs) to be installed in the legacy plant, in order to
provide externally, whenever requested, the service of execution, under automatic control,
DRFS in their associated CPs (defined in step 1);
3. Implementation of the Interoperability Layer - It complements the previous step by scaling
the software and hardware resources required to support the implementation of the protocols
and all the necessary logical infrastructure for the interconnection of the DRF Servers (ACUs)
provided by the Middleware Layer and the client applications dedicated to the implementation
of functionalities Detection and Correction of Phase Imbalance Detection and Correction of
Phase Imbalance
29
3.2 Simulation and Test

In this work, we evaluated an simplified experimental model of SmartLVGrid platform, implementing
the reduced version of an LV circuit in simulated-environment (using SIMULINK), consisting of a
distribution transformer (PT) that feeds only three single-phase consumer units (EU), through
secondary power bus (SP), as showed in Fig. 9. In this circuit, obeying the script given in the previous
subsection (retrofitting method), a device Coordinator-type (ACU-TP), coupled to the transformer,
monitors (GET) the SP entrance, while devices of the Operator-type individually monitor
the consumption (GET), as well as they control (RUN) the connection of each of their respective
consumer unit (UE) to the power grid.
Fig. 9. Test circuit implemented with SIMULINK
For a better analysis, we divide the experiment into an individual essays sequence, where we demon-
strate the validity of the execution of Operational Primitives (OPs) listed in Table 1 and at the same
time validate compliance with the requirement specified by the Middleware Layer that gives ACUs
the ability to operate as ’DRF servers’. Besides, we tested the structural and systemic effectiveness
established by the Interoperability Layer in meeting the support requirements to the implementation
and execution of SG functionalities. Table 3 list four basic functionalities performed, by simulation, in
this SmartLVGrid platform test model.
Within each of the following sub-items, we will make a descriptive summary of these functionalities
in the context of the smart grid paradigm, the typical form of its implementation with adaptation to
the SmartLVGrid platform, closing with the description of the experiment performed and the data
obtained in the experiment. For each of these respective tests, one or more figures present the data
obtained in the execution of the experiment, together with a flow diagram describing a summary of
the procedures of its implementation. The routine described in the flow diagram is all based on the
activities developed in the GET, RUN, LAN and MAN ports of the ACUs, either the Coordinator-type
30
or the Operator-type, whose data goes through the internal processing of these devices. Thus, the
execution of the Operational Primitives (OPs) foreseen in the model occurs.
Table 3. Smart Grid functionalities list performed in the experiment and their respective
descriptions
Smart Grid Operational Sub-Level DRF CSF ISF

Functionalities Mode [1][2][3] [1][2][3][4] [1][2] [1][2]
1. Telemetry Supervisory [x][x][x] [..][x][..][..] [x][x] [x][..]
2. Outage Detection Supervisory [x][..][..] [x][..][..][..] [x][x] [x][..]
3. Control of EU Connection Supervisory [x][x][x] [x][..][x][..] [x][x] [x][..]
4. Phase Unbalance Correction Autonomous [..][x][x] [x][x][..][x] [x][x] [x][x]
3.2.1 Assay of the Telemetry Functionality

Telemetry is a standard functionality of the smart grid paradigm and typical of supervisory mode. In
this assay, the simulated implementation routine of this functionality is summarized in the flow diagram
given in Fig. 10 (the light-colored boxes represent processes not performed in this experiment).
Notice that, upon receiving a measurement data request from SCC via the MAN port, the Coordinator
checks whether it is relative to the TP (TP-Data) or the EU (s).
Fig. 10. Flow diagram describing the test algorithm for Telemetry functionality
If it is a TP-Data request, it picks up the data record obtained by the GET port and sends it to the
SCC via its MAN port. However, when it is an EU-Data request, it forwards it to the respective US, via
the LAN port. After receiving the request (via LAN port), each Operator requested, packages its data
records, already obtained by the GET port, and sends them to the Coordinate which, in turn, sends
them to the SCC.
31
Fig. 11. Presentation screen of the data concerning the result of the execution of the assay
procedures (test algorithm) of Telemetry functionality
In Fig. 11, we have the supervisory screen of the Coordinate and Operators, next to each other.
The Coordinator screen shows the voltage and current signals of each of the three phases of the
secondary output of the transformer (TP-Data), as well as the individual power measurements in
each of them and a regular power supply indicator (blue-light circle). On the other side, the Operators
screen shows the phase of the secondary bus (SP) in which their respective EUs are connected and
how much power they are consuming (indicated in a graph and numerical value).
3.2.2 Assay of the Outage Detection Functionality

Outage Detection is also a standard functionality of the smart grid paradigm and typical of supervisory
mode. In this assay, the simulated implementation routine of this functionality summarized in the flow
diagram given in Fig. 12 that also includes the Restore Detection Process. Notice that in this case,
does not need to receive an SCC request for the start process, but initially a setup is performed to
set Outage (or Restore) detection thresholds. The Coordinator receives the detection parameters
(thresholds) and is responsible for initiating the process through the continuous execution of a DRF-1
via GET-port. Case it detects the absence of voltage and current in the secondary of the distribution
transformer as soon as an interruption occurs. Then, by internal configuration (CFS-1/CFS-2), it
sends an Outage alarm (flag) to the SCC (ISF-1), and a OFF Switching command (DRF-3), in
broadcast, to Operators. Also, after the service has been restored, a ’Restore’ flag is sent, together
with the recording of the times and the interruption duration, as well as a ON Switching command
(DRF-3), in broadcast, to Operators.
Fig. 13 shows the supervisory screens of the Coordinate and Operators, next to each other, with one
pair for the case of an Outage detection and similarly Restore detection case showed in Fig. 14. In
the first case, the Coordinator screen shows the presence of voltage and current until the instant that
the outage occurs. Then the power indicators are zeroed, and the visual indicator (circle) changes to
red, indicating Outage detection as expected. The Operator screen shows the power signal dropping
to zero because of power interruption, and then the Operator disconnects of the grid their respective
EUs (It performs DRF-3 requested). The pair of screens given in Fig. 14 shows the behavior of
the simulated model in case of energy restoration. Note that although the visual indicator is already
light blue and the Restore signal is displayed, the power indicators are still zeroed because the loads
are still disconnected due to the delay related to the time of sending and executing the EU reclosing
command by their respective Operators. Fact indicated in the graphics signal of the power in the
loads (see the power signal on the Operator’s screen).
32
Fig. 12. Flow diagram describing the test algorithm for Outage/Restore Detection
functionality
procedures (test algorithm) of Outage Detection functionality
33
3.2.3 Assay of the Control of EU Connection Functionality

Like the previous cases two, the Control of EU Connection is also a standard functionality of the smart
grid paradigm and typical of supervisory mode. In this assay, this simulated implementation routine
of this functionality is in the same flow diagram given in Fig. 12 together with the Outage and Restore
Detection Process. Specifically, it refers to the sending by Coordinator to the corresponding Operators
of a request to change the connection status of the EUs by executing a DRF-3 (Corresponds to the
block last in the Coordinator process). The connection indicators (colored circles) of the Operator
screen on the right side of Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 shows the connection status of each US. When in red,
indicating that the Operator has successfully performed a DRF-3 for disconnection (OFF Switching)
from the electrical network of its respective EU. When in blue, indicating that the Operator has
successfully performed a DRF-3 for ON Switching to the power grid of its respective EU. Therefore,
the signaling expressed in the cited figures indicates that the simulated system had behavior following
the automatic procedures of the algorithm given in Fig. 12, that is, for Outages, the DRF-3 is an OFF-
Switching, and for Restores, it is an ON-Switching.
procedures (test algorithm) of Restore Detection functionality
3.2.4 Assay of the Phase Unbalance Correction Functionality

Load balancing occurs under the command of the algorithm and pre-configuration established in
Coordinator. This ACU monitors the secondary output continuously and verifies, at the sweep, if
imbalance among phases has exceeded a preset threshold. When this level is exceeded (for a stable
time), Coordinator sends broadcast messages to all Operators subordinated, requesting the sending
of connection-phase (indicator) of their EUs respective, and the average loading of they by established
time interval. Based on this data and in the load’s historical behavior, Coordinator runs the algorithm
for calculates a new connection arrangement of these single-phase circuits among the three phases
of Secondary Bus (SB), and thus take the deviation into the tolerance range.
In this experiment, there is no a sophisticated algorithm running in Coordinator, but a simple procedure
for proof-of-concept given through a forced unbalance simulation case, with EU-1 and EU-3 connected
in phase A, EU-2 in the phase B and no load in the phase C (see Fig. 11). Then, upon detecting such
an unbalance (DRF-1, DRF-2, CSF-1 and CSF-2), the Coordinator sends a broadcast message to
the three Operators requesting that they send them the connection status of their respective EUs, i.e.,
in which phase of the SP they are connected (ISF-1,DRF-2, CSF-1 and ISF-2). Thus, the Coordinator
identifies that the cause of the imbalance arises from the absence of load in phase C and overload
in phase A (CFS-1 and CFS-2), so it sends a command to Operator-3 to switch its EU from phase A
34
(where it is connected) to the phase C (ISF-1 and DRF-4). Fig. 16 shows the result after completion
of this operation.
Unlike all other test cases described previously, the Phase Unbalance Correction is a functionality
that can be performed in the autonomous mode (see Table 3), using only internal the processes of an
Smart Circuit (SC), i.e., the Interoperability Layer specifications applied to ACUs (DRFs-Servers), the
Coordinator and Operators definitions (this is a typical example of autonomous mode). Fig. 15 shows
the flow diagram with the implementation routine of this functionality simulated in this assay. This
one indicates that the Operators perform basely two Operational Primitives (OPs): DRF-4 and ISF-1,
while the Coordinator gives the processing support for the analysis and control software applied to
the load balancing process.
Fig. 15. Flow diagram describing the test algorithm for Phase Unbalance Correction
functionality
procedures (test algorithm) of Phase Unbalance Correction functionality
3.3 Analysis of Results and Discussion

We recall that, by prior definition, the execution of the assays occurred all in a reduced but complete
model of the SmartLVGrid platform. It is also worth noting that the test base already includes the
35
implementation of retrofitting procedures, according to the proposed method (subsection 3.1), applied
to the simplified model of an LV circuit. In other words, the ACUs used in the experiment were
defined and installed according to the specifications given in the SmartLVGrid metasystem. Thus,
the conformity of the results to the predicted by the model is evidence that supports its validation.
Notice that in all the tests performed, the ’DRF-Server’ role, given to the ACUs (Middleware Layer
specification), is well-evident. Similarly, the validation of the operation according to the protocol
established by the Interoperability Layer was also evidenced in the execution of the inter-network
processes, through the Operational Primitives (OPs) ISF-1 and ISF-2, under the hierarchy of ACUs,
according to the roles predefined of Coordinator and Operator in this protocol.
The telemetry, the connection remote control of users to the power grid and Outages Detection
are functionalities of recognized importance for any supervisory system applied to power grids and
considered as a typical smart grid functionality [4, 5]. The first two are implemented since the first
versions of systems smart grid, evolving from the solutions in the AMR (Automatic Meter Reading)
model to the present ones based on AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure) model [6]. The results
indicate a complete adaptation of the SmartLVGrid platform to the execution of this type of functionality,
with the advantage of the Coordinator operating as a gateway that does the interface among the
Operators and the SCC, requiring only a MAN link for this. Remembering that the Operator is a
module that retrofits the installed power meter without requiring, therefore, the replacement of this
one. These two aspects establish a substantial difference concerning the AMI solution based on
the installation of smart meters that replacing the already installed power meters and operate by
establishing individual links with the SCC. In this way, it is notorious that the costs of implementation
and operation of the AMI are higher when compared to the one proposed by the SmartLVGrid model.
Although load balancing has been discussed in several studies for decades, as seen in [7, 8], the
approach based on the dynamic switching of single-phase loads between the three phases of the
secondary powerline (SP) is still under-explored, possibly due to the absence of an automation
infrastructure suitable for the implementation of such a process. The Smart Circuit (SC) model
provides this infrastructure, offering support for the execution of algorithms as proposed in works
given in the bibliographic reference [9, 10]. On the other hand, works like [11], give evidence of
the necessity of an automation infrastructure endowed with particular functional characteristics for
the support to the implementation of dynamic load balancing in a low voltage circuit. Notice that
the architecture of this system is well aligned with that specified in the SmartLVGrid platform, which
evidences the validity of the solution proposed here in the implementation of this functionality-type as
well.
It is notorious in our results that the SmartLVGrid platform establishes a reference model (metamodel),
having the properties and sufficient characteristics not only for the implementation of the functionalities
tested in this paper but also for new ones to be demonstrated in future works. In the object orientation
view (OO), we can define a Smart Circuit (SC) as an instance of the SmartLVGrid Metamodel, that
is, this structure is the Class that generates the SC Object. In turn, composing an SC, we have
instances of Classes: Coordinator, Sub-Coordinator and Operator. These instances (Objects) are
devices designed with the Attributes and Methods of these respective Classes. Then, just as the use
of OO programming allows the continuous development of new applications in computer systems,
new smart grid functionalities can be implemented in SCs.
4 CONCLUSIONS
As [12] states, the only viable way to realize an extensive Smart Grid is to develop a vision for the
ultimate design of a Smart Grid and then make short term decisions that incrementally transform
existing distribution systems into this future vision. Current smart grid reference models, such as
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) and SCADA have for some
36
time provided for supervisory operations (i.e., conducted under the supervision of a Center of
Operation that concentrates the BI) in the traditional electrical system. However, these solutions
typically present prohibitive costs for application to the LV distribution grid. On the other hand,
numerous works add to state of the art with specific implementations (unifunctional solutions) of
this same nature (supervisory) or autonomous (decentralized BI), proposing radical changes in the
existing infrastructures and particular adaptations to their solutions. The method that makes up the
SmartLVGrid platform does not impose changes to the legacy infrastructure of LV circuits and, in a
customized, optimized and scalable way converts these grids into intelligent circuits.
The results obtained in this work indicate the veracity of these statements, confirming the possibility
of implementing smart grid functionalities both in supervisory mode and autonomous mode, using
a single support system based on the SmartLVGrid model. Therefore, unlike the currently available
solutions, the SmartLVGrid platform can be considered as an open model and design pattern capable
of conducting the transformation of legacy LV circuits into intelligent circuits, through a retrofitting
process that does not impose critical changes or the legacy infrastructure, giving them the resources
to implement an open scope of smart grid functionalities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank to UEA, UFPA, USP and FAPEAM, for allowing scientific achievement of this
proposal.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
REFERENCES
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of the art, benefits and research plans. Energy and Power Engineering. 2013;5:36-42.
[3] Gomes RCS, Silva JR, Jr. da Costa CT, da Silva PRN. Automation meta-system applied to smart
grid convergence of low voltage distribution legacy grids. Proc.in 2017 the 5th IEEE International
Conference on Smart Energy Grid Engineering. 2017;1:400-413.
[4] Krishnamurti T, Schwartz D, Davis A, Fischhoff B, de Bruin WB, Lave L, Wang J. Preparing for
smart grid technologies: A behavioral decision research approach to understanding consumer
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[5] Kumpulainen L, Pettissalo S, Trygg P, Malmberg K, Loukkalahti M, Hyvärinen M. Improved
monitoring and control of distribution network by smart MV/LV substations. Proc. in the
Innovative Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT Europe), 2011 2nd IEEE PES International
Conference and Exhibition on. 2011;1-6.
[6] Mohassel RR, Fung A, Mohammadi F, Raahemifa K. A survey on advanced metering
infrastructure. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems. 2014;63:473-484.
[7] Kashem MA, Ganapathy V, Jasmon GB. Network reconfiguration for load balancing
in distribution networks. IEEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution.
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[8] Ghosh A, Joshi A. A new approach to load balancing and power factor correction in power
distribution system. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2000;15:417-422.
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[9] Sicchar JR, da Costa Jr. CT, Silva JR, Oliveira RC, Oliveira WD. A load-balance system design
of microgrid cluster based on hierarchical petri nets. Energies. 2018;11:1-30.
[10] Ballesteros Horta RL, Gomes RCS. Balance de cargas en circuitos secundarios de distribucion.
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[11] Shahnia F, Wolfs PJ, Ghosh A. Voltage unbalance reduction in low voltage feeders by dynamic
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⃝
c Copyright (2021): Authors. The licensee is the publisher (Book Publisher International).
DISCLAIMER
Energies, 12, 2590, 2019.
38
Chapter 3
Monogamy Inequality in Terms of Higher Powers of

a Correlation Measure: An Analysis
A. R. Usha Devi1,2, Sudha2,3* and P. J. Geetha3
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6643D
ABSTRACT
We begin with the basic notions of limited shareability of quantum correlations, the so-called
monogamous nature of quantum states and outline how this feature is manifested through a
monogamy inequality. Not all measures of quantum correlations are suitable for bringing out the
restricted shareability of correlations in a quantum state. While measures of bipartite correlations such
as concurrence, quantum discord do not satisfy monogamy inequality for all categories of correlated
quantum states, their second powers are found to do. There has also been a proposition that all
multiparty quantum states can be made monogamous by considering positive integral powers of any
quantum correlation measure (Ann. Phys. 348, 297 (2014)). We focus on this proposition and analyze
whether satisfying monogamy inequality in terms of higher powers of a correlation measure implies
limited shareability of correlations.
Keywords: Monogamy inequality; higher powers; shareability; quantum correlations.
1. INTRODUCTION
Quantum correlations are an important resource for several quantum information processing tasks
which are impossible in information processing using classically correlated states. One among the
distinct properties of quantum correlations that separates it from classical correlations, is its restricted
shareability. While classical correlations are infinitely shareable among the subsystems of a
multipartite state having classical correlations, there is a limitation on the manner in which quantum
correlations are distributed between the subsystems of a multipartite state possessing quantum
correlations. For instance, in a multipartite system, entanglement of one subsystem with another limits
its entanglement with the remaining part of the system. This unique feature of quantum entanglement
is termed monogamy of entanglement [1] and has evoked a lot of interest [1-56] in the quantum
information community. The importance of multipartite quantum states exhibiting monogamous nature
is due to their applicability in quantum communication tasks such as secure quantum key distribution
[4,24] and reliable quantum teleportation [55].
Monogamy relations [1,4,5] capture the trade-off between quantum correlations in the subsystems of
a composite state and that in the whole state. The monogamy inequality with respect to a bipartite
measure, say , of quantum correlations is given by
(1)
for a tripartite state . Here A:B, A:C, A:BC denote the correlations in the subsystems
, respectively and A:BC gives the correlation between the
subsystems A, BC of . Notice that Eq. (1) with the subsystem A replaced with subsystems B or
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Department of Physics, Bangalore University, Bangalore 560 056, India.
2
Inspire Institute Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 22303, USA.
3
Department of Physics, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga-577 451, India.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: arss@rediffmail.com;
Monogamy Inequality in Terms of Higher Powers of a Correlation Measure: An Analysis
C equivalently express the restricted shareability aspect of a quantum correlated state . The
monogamy inequality (1) indicates that the sum of pairwise correlations in a tripartite state can never
exceed the entanglement between one party and the remaining parties. It can be readily seen from (1)
that maximum correlation A:B between subsystems A, B implies there is no correlation between
subsystem A, C and the correlation between the subsystems A, BC has no contribution from the
correlation between A and C. This is the reasoning behind the nomenclature monogamy of
correlations with its physical meaning being restrictred shareability of quantum correlations. A tripartite
quantum state is considered monogamous with respect to the correlation measure iff it
satisfies the monogamy inequality (1). Similarly a multipartite quantum state is
monogamous with respect to a correlation measure when the inequality
(2)
holds.
While some measures capture the monogamous nature of quantum correlated states, some others
may not. For instance, the well-known measures of two-qubit entanglement such as entanglement of
formation E [57,58], concurrence C [57,58], negativity of partial transpose N [59-61], fail to satisfy
monogamy inequality for some classes of entangled states. Similarly, quantum discord [63], quantum
deficit [62] and such other measures of quantum correlations do not satisfy monogamy inequality (1)
for some category of states [27,28]. Such correlation measures can be termed non-monogamous or
`polygamous and they do not capture the limited shareability of correlations inherent in all quantum
correlated states.
Eventhough concurrence (C), negativity of partial transpose (N), entanglement of formation (E) are
2 2 2
non-monogamous measures of entanglement, C , N , E are shown to capture limited shareability of
entanglement among multiqubit quantum states. In fact, using any monogamous measure of
2
entanglement such as C one can quantify the so-called residual entanglement present in multiqubit
states. Residual entanglement is defined as the entanglement in a multiparty state which is not
accounted for by its two-party entanglement. From the monogamy inequality (1), one can define a
non-negative quantity
(3)
2
called tangle and it is a measure of residual entanglement. Choosing squared concurrence C [57,58]
as a measure of pairwise entanglement, Coffman, Kundu and Wootters [1] proposed
(4)
the so-called three-tangle or concurrence-tangle as a measure of residual entanglement in three qubit

pure states. Monogamy inequality in terms of different measures of entanglement such as squared
negativity of partial trans-pose [59-61] and square of entanglement of formation [57,58] are proposed
in Refs. [9] and [34]. It is shown that [41] W-class of states have vanishing concurrence-tangle [1] but
non-zero negativity tangle [9,41]. Choosing a particular measure of residual entanglement, amongst
the several available choices, is a non-trivial task. Despite this difficulty, the choice of a single
convenient measure for an entire class of states serves to quantify the residual entanglement, with
respect to the chosen measure.
The non-monogamous nature of some of the correlation measures has initiated discussions on the
properties to be satisfied by a correlation measure to be monogamous [29] and it is shown that a
measure of correlations is in general non-monogamous if it does not vanish on the set of all separable
states [29]. While it has been shown that [33] square of the quantum discord [63] obeys monogamy
inequality for 3-qubit pure states, there has been an attempt [38] to show that all multiparty states can
be made monogamous by considering higher integral powers of a non-monogamous quantum
40
correlation measure. It is shown that (See Theorem 1 of Ref. [38]) if is a non-monogamous

correlation measure and is monotonically decreasing under discarding systems then n, n = 2; 3;….
n
any tripartite state obeys monogamy inequality in , n = 2; 3;….. [38]. With quantum work-deficit Qwd
as a correlation measure, it is numerically shown that almost all 3-qubit pure states satisfy monogamy
inequality in fifth power of Qwd [38]. This result gains importance due to the observation that first
powers of entanglement measures such as concurrence are non-monogamous whereas their second
powers (squared concurrence) are monogamous. With , being any measure of quantum
r
entanglement/correlation, it would be of interest to analyze the physical meaning of the result that
r-1
satisfies monogamy inequality even when Q , r = 2; 3; …. is not a monogamous measure.
With this perspective, we analyze the implications of the proposition [38] that higher integral powers of
a quantum correlation measure reveal monogamy in all multiparty quantum states. Towards this end
we first verify the above proposition by adopting Rajagopal-Rendell quantum deficit [62], an
operational measure of quantum correlations for our analysis. Rajagopal-Rendell Quantum deficit
(RRQD) has been shown to be, in general, a non-monogamous measure of correlations for 3-qubit
pure states [28]. In Ref. [28], the monogamy properties (with respect to RRQD) of symmetric 3-qubit
pure states belonging to 2-, 3- distinct Majorana spinor classes [64-67] has been examined and it has
been shown that all states belonging to the 2-distinct spinor class (including W-states) are
polygamous. It has also been shown [28] that the superposition of W, obverse W states, belonging to
the SLOCC class of 3-distinct Majorana spinors [64-67], are polygamous with respect to RRQD. Here
we consider both these classes of states and illustrate that they satisfy monogamy inequality with
respect to higher powers of RRQD [36]. We examine the possibility of quantification of tripartite
correlations using monogamy relation in higher powers of a quantum correlation measure and
illustrate that such an exercise is unlikely to yield fruitful results [36].
In order to analyze the relevance of monogamy with respect to higher integral powers of a quantum
correlation measure, we bring forth a monogamy-kind-of-an-inequality in higher powers of classical
mutual information [68]. The possibility of a monogamy relation in higher powers of a classical
correlation measure even in the arena of classical probability theory raises questions regarding the
meaning attributed to such an inequality. We discuss this aspect and bring out the fact that
monogamy in higher powers of a quantum correlation measure need not necessarily imply limited
shareability of correlations.
2. MONOGAMY OF SYMMETRIC 3-QUBIT PURE STATES WITH RESPECT TO HIGHER

POWERS OF RRQD
Quantum deficit, a useful measure of quantum correlations was proposed by Rajagopal and Rendell
[62] while enquiring into the circumstances in which entropic methods can distinguish the quantum
separability and classical correlations of a composite state. It is defined as the relative entropy [68] of
the state with its classically decohered counterpart . That is,
(5)
is the Rajagopal-Rendell quantum deficit (RRQD) of the state and it determines the quantum
excess of correlations in with reference to its classically decohered counterpart . As
is diagonal in the eigenbasis , of the subsystems (common to both , ),
we have
(6)
41
where denote the diagonal elements of . Also, as,

with being the eigenvalues of the state , one can readily evaluate
DAB in Eq. (5) as [28]
(7)
The monogamy relation in RRQD for any tripartite state is given by
(8)
where
(9)
is the RRQD of the state in its bipartition A with BC.
Through an explicit evaluation of DAB, DAC, DA:BC the non-monogamous nature (with respect to RRQD)
of two SLOCC inequivalent classes of symmetric 3-qubit pure states has been illustrated in Ref. [28].
In particular, it is shown in Ref. [28] that the monogamy relation
(10)
is not satisfied for symmetric 3-qubit states with 2-distinct Majorana spinors [64-67]. Amongst the 3-
qubit GHZ and superposition of W, obverse W states, the monogamy inequality (10) is satisfied by the
GHZ states while the state corresponding to an equal superposition of W and obverse W states does
not obey it [28] inspite of the fact that both states belong to the SLOCC family of 3-distinct spinors [64-
67].
In the following we illustrate that symmetric 3- qubit pure states obey monogamy relation in higher
powers of RRQD DAB. We consider the 3-qubit W state , an equal superposition of W
and obverse W states:
(11)
Here is the obverse W state. While belongs to the SLOCC family of 3-qubit
pure states with 2 distinct spinors, is a member of the family of 3-qubit pure states with 3
distinct spinors [64-67].
A. Monogamous nature of 3-qubit W state with respect to Rajagopal-Rendell quantum deficit

(RRQD):
The 2-qubit subsystems , of the W state, obtained by tracing out a

single qubit from are explicitly given by
(12)
42
Similarly the single qubit subsystems of

the W state , obtained by tracing out two of its qubits, are seen to be
(13)
In fact, the exchange symmetry of the W state ensures that all the subsystem density matrices are
equal as can be readily seen through Eqs. (12), (13).
With being the eigenvectors of belonging to the respective eigenvalues

the decohered counterpart of is obtained as [28]
(14)
The non-zero eigenvalues of the 2-qubit subsystem are and hence the RRQD
DAB, evaluated using Eqs. (5), (14) has the value
(15)
An evaluation of the eigenvectors nj, j = 1; 2; 3; 4 of the bipartite subsystems = of the state

allows us to find the decohered counterpart of the state and we have
(16)
As being a pure state, its entropy is zero i.e., .

The RRQD DA:BC (See Eq. (9)) of the W state is thus seen to have the value,
It is easy to see that
(17)
and the monogamy inequality (10) is not obeyed [28].
B. Monogamous nature of 3-qubit state with respect to Rajagopal-Rendell quantum

deficit:
For the state , the reduced density matrices are
43
(18)
and their common non-zero eigenvalues are . The decohered density matrices ,
are respectively given by [28]
(19)
The RRQD DAB(= DAC) is therefore obtained as
(20)
The RRQD DA:BC (See Eq. (9)), is evaluated to be
(21)
It is readily seen, from Eqs. (20), (21) that
(22)
and the monogamy inequality (10) is not obeyed [28].
Having illustrated the non-monogamous nature of the states , with respect to RRQD, we
wish to see whether higher powers of RRQD indicate monogamy in these and if so for what powers.
In Table 1, we have tabulated and the value of for both ,
Table 1. Monogamy w.r.t integral powers of Rajagopal-Rendell Quantum Deficit for 3 qubit pure
symmetric states
State Powers (n) RR Quantum Deficit

(= ) : : −
1 0:462 0:636 -0:287
3 qubit 2 0:213 0:405 -0:022
W 3 0:098 0:257 0:060
4 0:045 0:164 0:072
5 0:021 0:104 0:062
1 0:386 0:450 -0:322
3 qubit 2 0:149 0:203 -0:095
W 3 0:057 0:091 -0:023
4 0:022 0:041 -0:003
5 0:008 0:018 0:0013
44
It can be readily seen from the table that though the 3-qubit states and donot satisfy
monogamy inequality with respect to RRQD and square of RRQD, in its third power monogamy
inequality for is satisfied whereas fifth power of RRQD is required for to satisfy its
monogamy inequality.
We have also examined monogamy with respect to for an arbitrary symmetric

3-qubit pure state belonging to the family of 2-distinct spinors [64-67]. An arbitrary state of this one
parameter family is given by [28]
(23)
with . When , we get the state. An explicit evaluation of DAB, DA:BC, as a function
of , has been done in Ref. [28] and all states in the family of pure 3-qubit symmetric states with 2
distinct spinors are shown to be non-monogamous for all values . But as we go on increasing the
power r of DAB(= DAC), DA:BC, monogamy inequality is satisfied for states belonging to larger range of
. Fig. 1 illustrates this feature.
At this juncture, it would be of interest to analyse whether quantification of non-classical correlations in

tripartite states is possible through the monogamy inequality in higher powers of the correlation
measure. Notice that monogamy inequalities in squared concurrence [1], squared negativity [9] have
been useful in quantifying the tripartite correlation through concurrence tangle [1] and negativity tangle
[9]. A systematic attempt to quantify quantum correlations in 3-qubit pure states using square of
quantum discord as the measure of quantum correlations has been done in Ref. [33]. We observe
here that in order to quantify the tripartite correlations using monogamy inequality in Qn, one has to
consider the non-negative quantity , where r ≥ 1 is the minimum degree
at which the monogamy relation of the state is satisfied. But there immediately arise questions
regarding whether the minimum degree r of Q has any bearing on the amount of non-classical
tripartite correlations in the state. In fact, every correlation measure requires a different integral power
r
r for monogamy inequaltiy in terms of D to safisfy in 3-qubit states [38]. It has been shown in Ref. [38]
that fifth power of quantum discord satisfies monogamy inequality for all 3-qubit pure states [38]. We
have seen here that one requires still higher powers in RRQD (r ≥ 10) (See Fig. 1) for some pure
symmetric 3-qubit states. As such there does not appear to be any relation between the non-classical
correlations in a multiparty state and the minimum power r needed for a correlation measure to satisfy
the monogamy inequality of the state. For instance, we have (See Table 1)
We recall here that DA:BC - DAB - DAC = 1 for 3-qubit GHZ state [28] owing to the fact DAB = DAC = 0 (no
two-qubit correlations in GHZ state) and DA:BC = 1. This implies one need not go beyond r = 1 for
establishing monogamous nature of GHZ state with respect to RRQD. Also, = 1 implies GHZ state
possesses maximum tripartite correlations, when measured using RR quantum deficit. For other
states which do not satisfy monogamy inequality with respect to first power of RRQD (or any other
valid correlation measure), it is not apparent whether states having lesser correlations among its
subsystems possess larger r with smaller value of or vice versa. Whichever be the case, the way
in which r can be accommodated in finding the tripartite correlations is not evident even in the
simplest examples considered here. Also, the monogamy relation in higher powers of a correlation
r
measure Q will not have the physical meaning of restricted shareability of correlations if Q is not
established as a proper correlation measure satisfying essential properties such as local unitary
invariance. It is worth recalling here that square of quantum discord is shown to satisfy all properties
of a bipartite correlation measure in Ref. [33] thus qualifying the corresponding tangle to be a valid
r
tripartite correlation measure. A multipartite state satisfying monogamy inequality in Q , Q being
45
bipartite correlation measure, cannot be considered to have limited shareability of correlations and it is
not possible to use the corresponding tangle to quantify residual entanglement in the state.
Fig. 1. The plot of (DA:BC)n - 2(DAB)n versus for 3-qubit pure states with 2-distinct spinors. It
can be readily seen that when n = 1, none of the states obey monogamy inequality with DA:BC -
2(DAB) ≤ 0 in the whole range of (blue line); when n = 5, states in a small range of satisfy
5 5 10
(DA:BC) - 2(DAB) > 0 (black line); when n = 10, states in a larger range of satisfy (DA:BC) -
10
2(DAB) > 0 (red line)
3. MONOGAMY-KIND-OF RELATION IN HIGHER POWERS OF MUTUAL INFORMATION
We now go about exploring the meaning associated with monogamy inequality in positive integral
powers of any correlation measure. Towards this end, we prove a monogamy-kind-of relation in
higher powers of classical mutual information and investigate its consequences.
It is well known that [68] classical mutual information H(X : Y) is a measure of classical correlations
between the random variables X, Y. It is defined in terms of Shannon entropies H(X), H(Y), H(X, Y)
(Shannon entropy of joint probability distribution P(X, Y)) as [68]
H(X : Y) = H(X) + H(Y) - H(X, Y ) (24)
for any arbitrary pair of random variables X, Y. From the strong subadditivity property of Shannon
entropy [68], we have,
H(X, Y, Z) + H(Y) ≤ H(X, Y) + H(Y, Z) (25)
Casting Eq. (25) in terms of the mutual information [68] H(X : Y), H(Y : Z) where
H(X : Y) = H(X) + H(Y) - H(X, Y);

H(Y : Z) = H(Y ) + H(Z) - H(Y, Z);
we obtain
H(X, Y, Z) + H(X : Y) - H(X) ≤ H(Y) + H(Z) - H(Y : Z) (26)
This implies
H(X : Y) + H(Y : Z) ≤ H(X) + H(Y) + H(Z) - H(X, Y, Z) (27)
Denoting the mutual information between the random variables Y, XZ as H(Y : XZ), we make use of
the identity [68]
H(X, Y, Z) = H(Y) + H(X, Z) - H(Y : XZ) (28)
46
On substituting Eq. (28) in Eq. (27), to obtain
H(X : Y) + H(Y : Z) ≤ H(X) + H(Y ) + H(Z) - [H(Y) + H(X, Z) - H(Y : XZ)]

≤ H(X) + H(Z) - H(X, Z) + H(Y : XZ) (29)
Using H(X : Z) = H(X) + H(Z) - H(X, Z) and H(X : Y) = H(Y : X) in Eq. (29) we obtain the relation
H(Y : X) + H(Y : Z) ≤ H(Y : XZ) + H(X : Z) (30)
obeyed by the trivariate joint probability distribution P(X, Y, Z) indexed by the random variable X Y Z.
Notice that the relation
H(Y : X) + H(Y : Z) ≤ H(Y : XZ) (31)
represents a monogamy relation with respect to classical mutual information, a measure of classical
correlation between the random variables X, Y and Z. But this inequality is not true due to the
existence of the non-negative term H(X : Z) on the right hand side of Eq. (30). In fact there does not
exist a monogamy relation for classical correlations existing either among classical random variables
or among multipartite quantum states. That is we have,
H(Y : X) + H(Y : Z) > H(Y : XZ) (32)
According to Theorem 1 of Ref. [38], a non-monogamous measure of correlations satisfies monogamy

inequality in higher integral powers when the measure is decreasing under removal of a subsystem.
Thus, in order to prove the monogamy relation in higher powers of mutual information, we need to
establish that
H(Y : X) ≤ H(Y : XZ), H(Y : Z) ≤ H(Y : XZ) (33)
We show in the following that mutual information indeed is non-increasing under removal of a random
variable and thus satisfies Eq. (33).
A. Non-increasing behaviour of classical mutual information under removal of a random

variable
We make use of the relations [68]
H(X : Y) = H(X) + H(Y) - H(X, Y),

H(Y : XZ) = H(Y) + H(X, Z) - H(X, Y, Z)
to obtain
(34)
As denote the respective conditional

entropies, Eq. (34) simplifies to
(35)
Using the fact that conditioning reduces entropy, i.e., , the right hand side of Eq.
(35) is non-negative and hence
H(Y : X) ≤ H(Y : XZ) (36)
One can similarly show that
47
H(Y : Z) ≤ H(Y : XZ) (37)
B. Monogamy inequality in terms of higher integral powers of classical mutual information
Having proved that classical mutual information is a measure of correlations that does not increase
under removal of a random variable, we proceed to examine whether the monogamy-kind-of-a
relation
(38)
holds. Here r > 1 is the lowest integer for which the above inequality is satisfied. We follow the
technique used in proving Theorem 1 of Ref. [38] for this purpose.
Denoting
(39)
we have x < y + z, x > y > 0, x > z > 0 and hence
0 < y/x < 1, 0 < z/x < 1
which follow from the non-negativity of mutual information and from Eqs.(32), (36), (37). This implies
and hence there exist positive integers
such that,
(40)
With a choice of we get positive integers

, where we readily obtain the inequality
(41)
which is essentially the monogamy relation Eq. (38)
Having established the monogamy relation in higher powers of classical mutual information (See Eq.
(38)), we now examine its implications. In fact, we are interested in knowing whether the monogamy
relation in higher powers of a correlation measure (classical/quantum) reflects restricted shareability
of correlations. The possibility of Eq. (38) and the unlimited shareability of classical correlations
prompts one to raise the following questions.
(a) Does Eq. (38) imply that the distribution of bipartite correlations between X, Y and Y, Z are
restrictively shared among the random variables X, Y, Z in the trivariate probability distribution
P(X, Y, Z)?
(b) If a classical correlation measure satisfies monogamy inequality in its higher powers, does it
mean limited shareability of classical correlations in a classically correlated cquantum state?
(c) What does the monogamy relation satisfied by higher power of a non-monogamous measure
of quantum correlations mean?
An affirmative answer to (a) and (b) negates the unrestricted shareability of classical correlations. But
it is well known that classical correlations in a multiparty quantum state can be distributed at will
amongst its parties. This implies we need to negate both the statements (a) and (b). Now it is not
difficult to see that negation of (a) and (b) immediately provides an answer to (c):
48
Satisfying a monogamy-kind-of a relation in higher powers of any bipartite correlation measure

(classical or quantum) does not necessarily mean restricted shareability of correlations in a multiparty
state.
4. CONCLUSION
In this work, we have analyzed the proposition that all multiparty quantum states can be made
monogamous by considering higher integral powers of any quantum correlation measure. With
Rajagopal-Rendell quantum deficit as the measure of quantum correlations for symmetric 3-qubit pure
states, we illustrate that monogamy inequality is satisfied for higher powers of quantum deficit
(RRQD). We discuss the drawbacks of this inequality in quantification of correlations in the state.
Using the properties of classical mutual information, a measure of classical correlations, we have
shown that its positive integral powers satisfy an inequality which is similar in form to the monogamy
inequality. As classical correlations can be shared, without any restriction, among its subsystems, we
reason that the existence of a monogamy kind of inequality in higher powers of classical mutual
information cannot imply their restricted shareability. Thus, a monogamy-kind-of inequality does not
always capture the restricted shareability of correlations in a multiparty quantum state. One can at
best conjecture that satisfying such a relation implies monogamous nature of quantum states only
when the corresponding higher power of the chosen non-monogamous measure is a valid bipartite
measure of correlations. We thus put forth the conclusion that multiparty quantum states satisfying a
monogamy-kind-of a relation in higher integral powers of a non-monogamous measure of bipartite
correlations are not necessarily monogamous.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sudha and ARU are supported by the Department of Science and Technology, India (Project No.
DST/ICPS/QUST/2018/107). P. J. Geetha acknowledges the support of Department of Science and
Technology (DST), Govt. of India through the award of INSPIRE fellowship.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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W class: Concurrence and negativity tangle. Chin. Phys. B. 2015;24:110302.
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entanglement classes for symmetric N-qubit states. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2009;103:070503.
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N-qubit symmetric states. Phys. Rev. A. 2010;81:052315.
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University Press, Cambridge; 2002.
51
Prof. A. R. Usha Devi

Department of Physics, Bangalore University, Bangalore 560 056, India and Inspire Institute Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 22303,
USA.
She has been teaching in the Department of Physics, Bangalore University, Bangalore for around 22 years. Her research
interests are in quantum information processing, open quantum systems and mathematical physics (theoretical). She is a M.Sc
gold medallist and she had won the Indian Physical Society (IPS) Young Physicist Award during the year 1997. During 2008,
she was awarded the Commonwealth Fellowship and worked with the research group of Professor Sandu Popescu at Bristol
University, Bristol. She is presently a member of the Editorial Board of Resonance, journal of science education published
monthly by Indian Academy of Sciences. She has published more than 60 research papers in reputed international journals and
serves as a Referee of national and international journals. More than five research students have obtained their doctoral degree
under her guidance.
Dr. Sudha
Inspire Institute Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 22303, USA and Department of Physics, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta,
Shimoga-577 451, India.
She has been teaching in the Department of Physics, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta for around 15 years. Her research
interests are in quantum information science, open quantum systems and Polarization Optics (theoretical). She has guided six
research students for their doctoral degree and four students for their M.Phil degree. During 2010, she was awarded the D.C.
Pavate Memorial Visiting Fellowship and carried out post-doctoral research work in Department of Applied Mathematics and
Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, U. K. She has published nearly 40 research papers in reputed international
journals and serves as a Referee of national and international journals.
Dr. P. J. Geetha
Department of Physics, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga-577 451, India.
Research and Academic Experience:
5 years of teaching and 5 years of research experience:
1. S.R.N.M. National College of applied sciences, Shivamogga- B.Sc., Physics and Electronics and BCA electronics –
July 2009 to Nov 2012.
52
2. Department of Physics, Kuvempu University- Research Scholar- Feb 2012 to Nov 2017
3. J.N.N. College of Engineering, Shivamogga- BE, Engineering physics- Nov 2018 to till date
Research Area: Theoretical Physics: Quantum Information
Number of Published papers: 5 (in refereed journals of repute)
Any other remarkable point(s): First Ranker and gold medallist in M.Sc., Physics (2009)
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Journal of Modern Physics, 5: 1294-1301, 2014.
53
Chapter 4
An Overview in Disadvantages of the Modern

Communications
Hasan Bakheet Jasim1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6773D
ABSTRACT
In modern societies, social networking and many more, are making human life easier. Communication
and technology are created many changes in all fields of life. High speed in, translations, transport,
shorten the time, exchange the information between the people, and others cases. Communication
can be define as a process in which individuals share their opinion, ideas and various information by
means of several such as writing, reading, symbols, signs, speech and communication. We review
and discussed the reasons and results for bad (disadvantage) for the communications in Iraq. Most of
the companies for communications and networks in Iraq are using the old and worst methods to
connectedness in communications. After the year 2003, all people are looking forward or willing to use
and live the modern life, by using the information technology (IT), but they are not thought or (forget),
what happened to them, when they are used worst connectedness the networks. The goal for this
study to investigation all aspects of life, where more important for people life as, (health, economy
side, the cost, security, maintenance, manufacture high-quality, services network, week internet
(wobbling), banks, kid card cards or master card, stack the internet pack, laser planning for life, power
outages and irregularity during the day, the environmental pollution). All these are affected on the life.
We found increase in, more diseases are founded, Cancer disease, Congenital malformations,
Abnormal birth(giving birth before her time), Hair loss, increased respiratory infections, increased skin
allergies, skin spots, the drawer dose is high because near the radiation source. In additional to the
problem of the age is the environmental pollution is not controlled in all the developed and
undeveloped countries of the world and it directly affects people lives. So the IT revolution has
become more affected than the useful. Emphasizing the inevitability and security of the information
sent and how they stolen it by the hackers through the development of programs.
Keywords: Health; cost; IT; wobbling; pollution.
1. INTRODUCTION
Communication can be define as a process in which individuals share their opinion, ideas and various
information by means of several such as writing, reading, symbols, signs, speech and
communication. This is an old phenomenon that has existed since humanity existed. And the
language was developed to develop with it the means of communication between individuals and the
person turns the symbols and signs into alphabets to move from the stage transparency to the written
language stage, and began human using bone, wood and stones to write them, and use other
methods of communication, such as pigeons, drums reflective fire and mirrors, as man discovered
papyrus for writing it, making the communication process easier [1]. According to Ellis and McClintock
[2] communication is described as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits
a message to a receiver, which should be guided by the intent to ensure comprehension [3].
Fundamental and vital to all administrative functions, communication is a means of transmitting
information and making oneself understood by another or others [4,5].
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Department of The Computer Techniques Engineering, Imam al-Kadhum College (IKC), Baghdad, Iraq.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: Hassanbakheet66@yahoo.com;
In addition, the third revolution began in the field of human communication, and then the stage of
telecommunications, which invented many means of communication technology, such as: telephone,
radio and telegraph, has emerged. This technology has had a significant impact on meeting the
human need to reach and connect with remote parts of the world. With the advent of other modern
communication technologies such as camera, cinema, wireless and cassette tapes, World War II The
means of communication developed significantly, where television became more visible, as satellite
emerged, and invented computer and this was the fifth revolution in the field of communications [1].
1.1 Means of Communications
Communication means are the devices or tools used to send a message from one person to another,
or the tools used by people to communicate with each other in general, and is one of the most
important and most necessary in the modern era because of their great impact in pue facilitate
Communication has evolved dramatically over the ages [6] People have their communication,
bringing people closer long lived with each other through ancient means of communication such as
pigeons and drums, as they send signals to each other through the smoke of fire. These devices
were slow and difficult, Modern means of communication have emerged to find a solution and not
infinite to those difficulties, since the message sent by the person only parts of the second to reach
the owner [7].
Modern communication techniques are wired and wireless, both of which are ways of transmitting
data of all kinds (audio, video, etc.). [8]. as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. (1): Types of Telecommunications [8]
1.2 Disadvantages of Modern Communication Means
As the modern means of communication positives, they also involve many of the negatives which,
although small but have had a significant impact on people's lives, including [9].
Modem means of communication are very distracting to individuals, which leads to the loss of their
time to follow the news of some of them or participate in the various conversations that are intended
for entertainment only, and it can lead to many incidents, especially during driving It distracts one's
attention from the road, a way of distracting people from work whether in the workplace or at home if
they are not used properly and at the right time.
Modern means of communication, especially the Internet, can be used to impersonate individuals or
hide their personalities and identity, which leads to their attitudes toward immoral behavior or
behavior different from their real behaviour if they face each other face to face. Anonymous
55
individuals can commit multiple cybercrime. It is worth noting that the most vulnerable groups are the
children.
Modern means of communication have helped in the so-called social isolation of many people,
especially those who addicted to them. The less time they spend with family or friends, the more
feelings of depression, sadness and loneliness Modern communication means that there are many
personal privacy problems. Private messages, conversations, or e-mail can be read by another party,
in addition to the emergence of so-called espionage and the appearance of programs that breach
personal privacy of individuals and institutions, resulting in poor communication security.
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES
2.1 Telephone
In 1875, the telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher of the deaf. The telephone
made real-time transmission of speech by electrical encoding and replication of sound a practical
reality. The first version of the telephone was crude and weak, enabling people to talk over short
distances only. When telephone service was only a few years old, interest developed in automating it.
Notably, in 1897, A. B. Strowger, an undertaker from Kansas City, Missouri, devised the automatic
step-by-step switch that bears his name. Of all the electromechanical switches devised over the
years, the Strowger switch was the most popular and widely used [10,11,12].
2.2 Electronics
In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming invented the vacuum-tube diode, which paved the way for the
invention of the vacuum-tube triode by Lee de Forest in 1906. The discovery of the triode was
instrumental in the development of transcontinental telephony in 1913 and signalled the dawn of
wireless voice communications. Indeed, until the invention and perfection of the transistor, the triode
was the supreme device for the design of electronic amplifiers. The transistor was invented in 1948
by Walter H. Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories. The first silicon
integrated circuit (IC) was produced by Robert Noyce in 1958. These landmark innovations in solid-
state devices and integrated circuits led to the development of very-large-scale integrated (VLSI)
circuits and single chip microprocessors, and with them the nature of signal processing and the
telecommunications industry changed forever [10,11,12].
2.3 Digital Communication

In 1937, Alex Reeves invented pulse-code modulation (PCM) for the digital encoding of speech
signals. The technique was developed during World War II to enable the encryption of speech
signals; indeed, a full-scale, 24-channel system was used in the field by the United States military at
the end the war. However, PCM had to await the discovery of the transistor and the subsequent
development of large-scale integration of circuits for its commercial exploitation. The invention of the
transistor in 1948 spurred the application of electronics to switching and digital communications. The
motivation was to improve reliability, increase capacity, and reduce cost. The first call through a
stored-program system was placed in March 1958 at Bell Laboratories, and the first commercial
telephone service with digital switching began in Morris, Illinois, in June 1960 [10,11,12,13].
2.4 Introduction to Digital Communication

Guided media:
It is also referred to as wired or bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed
and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
 Features: high speed

 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
56
Fig. 2. Types of Transmission Media [14]
There are 3 major types of guided media:
A. Twisted Pair Cabie
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
B. Coaxial Cable
It has an outer covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separated insulated protection
cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and
analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables [14,15].
Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
C. Optical Fiber Cable
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of
large volumes of data.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth Light weight

 Less signal attention
 Immunity to electromagnetic interface Resistance to corrosive materials
57
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain High cost

 Fragile
 Unidirectional, i.e., will need another fiber, if we need bidirectional communication
Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as wireless or unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required

for the transmission of electromagnetic signals [14, 15].
Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air

 Less secure
 Used for larger distances
There are three types of Unguided Media:
(i) Radio waves

(ii) Microwaves
(iii) Infrared
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We review and investigation all aspects of life, where more important for people life as, (health,
economy side, the cost, , security, maintenance, manufacture high-quality, services network, week
internet (wobbling),banks, kid card cards or master card, stack the internet pack, laser planning for
life, power outages and irregularity during the day, environmental pollution).
The first reason of the bad connectedness in the networks, most the towers of the networks are
building in lower high out of the limits conditions (less distances), from the nearest points to generates
the waves (signals) to operation the circuit and, among the homes . That means the high frequencies
are generated by the all circuits in the networks and the sources radiation, are affected on the life of
the people. More than one tower is bullied in area less than (1 km²), and the length of the tower is
less than 60 meter. The second reason, the security of the information, not security for the
information are send, why? many people are learn more about the (IT), that means the huggers are
increases then, they can by training may inter the codes of the networks and lost the information, for
example, many banks were stole. The third reason, the maintenance in network is very difficult and
more expensive were happened broken in it, comparable with the older communications. That mean
the time for the maintenance is far from time to time, and cheap. The forth reason, about the
economy side, the cards charges is very expensive (in dollar), while the all people are below the
poverty line. And the time used is very short comparable with the price card.
The five reason, week internet on all day (wobbling), and theft from the company. That means, the
company that equips the client and according to the agreement between them to send the designated
data package, find that the package does not reach the customer in the same amount agreed upon,
and this may not.
The six reason, the environmental pollution is very important and affected on life, many power supply
are used in work to operation the networks and communications. These power supply are used for
long time (all day long) that means the amount of engine exhaust is very high. Then the ration of the
environmental pollution is increase in the area comparable with limited conditions. Furthermore it the
engine exhaust is (CO, CO2 and Pb), were know that highly toxic.
58
The seven reason, if you do not use the phone line (semi-card), for a certain duration of some reason
you find that the number of this (semi-card), confirms by the company without the author of the Shan
owned or to be offered to the least appreciation and in this way the privacy of the information and the
security of the information would be used to have the latest of the other. In this case, if you have
important information or pictures of a nature that matters to your life and work and become accessible
to others with weak souls, you will be subject to blackmail by them. Despite all these reasons, the
benefit of using the network for citizens is very bad in addition to the cost of shipping, which is very
expensive compared to the countries of the region or the world at lager. The results by using the new
technology, more diseases are founded, Cancer disease , Congenital malformations, Abnormal
birth(giving birth before her time), Hair loss, increased respiratory infections, increased skin allergies,
skin spots, the drawer dose is high because near the radiation source. All the reasons and others,
when compared with services networks before year 2003, are very good, why, no sources radiation,
no high voltages, no diseases, very low cost, and very good services communications. That means
the health for people is good.
3.1 Discussion
We review the results are listed we found the life is affected and more difficult for the people. That
means the standard of living of the individual must improve so that it can continue in life and keep the
information technology revolution. But we found increase in all kinds of diseases as well as number of
walkers. In addition to the low level of safety of people. So the IT revolution has become more
affected than the useful. Emphasizing the inevitability and security of the information sent and how
they stolen it by the hackers through the development of programs.
4. CONCLUSION
By reviewing the results of the research and the necessities of addressing each negative case, which
would increase the disadvantages of improving communications at all levels, it was necessary to
study everything new before applying it in the areas of life or at the very least to make the cause of
the least effect in the case of use. For example, making the percentage of environmental pollution at
its lowest level through the use of clean energy sources, taking into account the material side of the
plant requirements and the citizen's standard of living. This is what every researcher should take into
account.
COMPETING INTERESTS
REFERENCES
1. Haider Yousef A, Brahma Nassira. Modern communication technology and penetration of the
cultural privacy of the Algerian Urban family. Behavingly. 260-263.
2. Ellis R, McClintock A. You take my meaning: Theory into practice in human communication.
London: Edward Arnold; 1990.
3. Obi-keguna C, Agbawodikeizu U, Uche I. Communication in Social Work. In Okoye U, Chukwu
N, Agwu P. (Eds.). Social work in Nigeria: Book of readings. Nsukka: University of Nigeria
Press Ltd. 2017;60–69.
4. Sanchez Y, Guo KL. Workplace communication. Boston, MA: Pearson; 2005.
5. Adu-Oppong AA, Agyin-Birikorang E. Communication in the workplace: Guidelines for
improving effectiveness. Global Journal of Commerce & Management Perspective. 2014;208-
213.
6. Sushil Kumar Saini. Importance of means of communication.
Available:www.studyvillage.com
(Retrieved Edited. 2012-1-29)
7. Andrew Donnelly. Smoke signals to smartphones: The evolution of communication [FREE
INFOGRAPHIC]; 2013.
59
Available:www.mikogo.com
(Retrieved 2018-3-4. Edited)
8. Steve Evans. Wired wireless in the enterprise. VS Computer.
Available:Weekly.com
(Retrieved 19-1-2017. Edited)
9. Milton Kazmeyer. Negative Effects of technology. Communication.
Available:www.techwalla. com (Retrieved 2018-3-4 Edited)
10. This historical background is adapted from Haykin’s book; 2001.
11. Simon Haykin, Michael Moher. Introduction to analog and digital communications. Second
Edition.
12. Freeman RL. Telecommunication system engineering. 3rd ed., Wiley, New York; 1996.
13. Roger L, Freeman, Roger L. Freeman. Fundamentals of telecommunications. Published by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1999;22416-2. (Hardback); (Electronic).
ISBNs: 0-471-0-471-29699-6
14. Sebastian Nixon J, Francis Saviour Devaraj A. A study on guided and unguided transmission
medias and a proposed idea to extend the limit of Gi-Fi. Sebastian Nixon J, Int. Journal of
Engineering Research and Application. 2016;6(7):(part-1)11-16.
ISSN: 2248-9622
15. Govind Agarwal P. Fiber-optic communication systems. Wiley; 1997.
60
Hasan Bakheet Jasim

Department of The Computer Techniques Engineering, Imam al-Kadhum College (IKC), Baghdad, Iraq.
He completed B.Sc. from University of Basra ,College of science, Department of physics in 1987, M.Sc. from University of
Technology ,AL-Rasheed College of Engineering & science in 2004 and PH.D degree from University of Baghdad, College of
science ,Department of physics , Laser & Electro- optic (2014-2015). He worked in several fields: Iraqi Atomic Energy
Organization, The Ministry of Industry and Minerals, Imam Jafar Al- Sadiq University. Presently, He is working at College of
Imam Al- Kadhum. He started working in the field of physics in 1988, and began working in the field of science and training in
the field of various work in the field of physical measurements in addition to responsibilities, as well as the beginning of
educational workshops in the field of communication and others. A book has been published titled “Theoretical and
Experimental Study for CdSe nanoparticles on scholar’s press "in the field of nanoscale and its chemically prepared method,
as well as supervising a large number of graduation projects for students in the field of physics and computers . He is currently
continuing as a teacher in the field of physics and its branches in the theoretical and practical fields.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1530(1): 012043, 2020.
61
Chapter 5
Recent Study on IoT Based Embedded Smart Lock

Control System
Hasan Bakheet Jasim1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6774D
ABSTRACT
Smart home security and remote monitoring have become vital and indispensable in recent times, and
with the advent of new concepts like Internet of Things and development of advanced authentication
and security technologies, the need for smarter security systems has only been growing. . In recent
times the need for security and surveillance has become vital in many areas such as homes, offices,
banks, etc. The design and development of an intelligent web-based door lock control system using
face recognition technology, for authentication, remote monitoring of visitors and remote control of
smart door lock has been reported in this paper. This system uses Haar-like features for face
detection and Local Binary Pattern Histogram (LBPH) for face recognition. The system also includes a
web-based remote monitoring, an authentication module, and a bare-bones embedded IoT server,
which transmits the live pictures of the visitors via email along with an SMS notification, and the owner
can then remotely control the lock by responding to the email with predefined security codes to unlock
the door. This system finds wide applications in smart homes where the physical presence of the
owner at all times is not possible, and where a remote authentication and control is desired. The
system has been implemented and tested using the Raspberry Pi 2 board, Python along with OpenCV
are used to program the various face recognition and control modules. This paper also explores the
immense potential of computer vision in general and face recognition, in particular, the possibilities of
IoT in home security and automation. The versatility and prowess of Linux operating system, the
Python programming language, and the OpenCV library have also been explored, in depth.
Keywords: Raspberry pi; face recognition; python; open CV; PHP.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the advent of various smart technologies, the need for better and more intelligent security and
monitoring has been growing. In recent times the need for security and surveillance has become vital
in many areas such as homes, offices, banks, etc. In the recent past, various authentication
techniques have been designed and implemented, passwords, patterns, RFID to name a few, these
technologies have their advantages and disadvantages, the passwords and patterns once traced may
compromise the security, the fingerprint-based systems are regularly prone errors arising due to
external factors and mismatches. Currently RFID authentication systems rely only on matching tag ID
with the one kept in database. Additionally, an alphanumerical password might be matched as extra
security. However, tag ID and information inside can be compromised. Therefore, a more secure
scheme is required in order to enhance safety of access control through RFID tags in particularly
highly secure environments such as secure virtual meetings or authentication and access control to
access high security locals [1,2]
Hence, arises a need for more efficient and effective way of authentication. The authentication based
on Face Recognition has played a pivotal role over the years providing unmatched levels of efficiency
and accuracy but was limited to a few high-security establishments and large corporations as the
design, and implementation costs are high. Various techniques are being developed including local,
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Imam Kadhim College for Isalmic Science University, Iraq.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: hassanbakheet71@yahoo.com, hassanbakheet66@yahoo.com;
holistic, and hybrid approaches, which provide a face image description using only a few face image
features or the whole facial features. Owing to the huge volume of data generated and rapid
advancement in artificial intelligence techniques, traditional computing models have become
inadequate to process data, especially for complex applications like those related to feature extraction
[3,4]. Today, thanks to ongoing research and development, the algorithms have become more
accessible and find a broad range of applications.
Also, the present day home security systems have not been updated since years, the physical
presence of the owner/ key is mandatory to gain access to the house, the proposed system hence
includes an intelligent web-based embedded server aimed at providing remote authentication and
control of the door lock using email and basic IoT concepts.
1.1 Face Recognition
In the proposed system, we introduce a low-cost extendable framework for embedded smart home
security system, which consists of a face recognition module. This system uses Haar-like features for
face detection and Local Binary Pattern Histogram (LBPH) for face recognition. The system a
cascade classifier in face detection and face recognition is carried out in three stages, namely feature
extraction, matching, and classification [5,6]. The distinctive and at the most important options are
extracted, and the face image is compared with pictures in information throughout the last stage
(classification).This native binary pattern for person's face recognition takes into account each form
and texture information for analysis [7,8].
The image given is segregated into little elements from which the Local Binary Patterns are adopted
and clubbed into one vector feature. This feature vector helps in measuring similarities between
pictures by forming an associate in nursing economical illustration of a face. The algorithms are
implemented using the OpenCV library of Python programming language running on the Raspberry Pi
2.
1.2 Remote Monitoring & Control
In addition to the face recognition-based authentication, the proposed system also includes an
intelligent web-based embedded server for remote authentication and control of the door lock.
This technology plays a crucial role in enabling remote access to a person/ persons if required and if
deemed necessary by the owner, who is not required to be present in-person. When an unauthorized
person is detected by the system, it emails the owner a live picture of the individual along with as
SMS notification and waits for his command.
If the owner recognizes the person and would like to provide them with access, he can do so by
sending a predefined security code to the server via email, the server, in turn, checks the authenticity
of the code and unlocks the door accordingly [9,10]. The server also maintains a web page which can
only be accessed by the owner to bypass the face recognition system in case of error. This
subsystem is implemented using Python programming language along with the Linux server and
PHP scripts running on the Raspberry Pi 2.
2. SYSTEM DESIGN & ARCHITECTURE
As with any system, the initial stage is to visualize the core modules, inputs, outputs and
interrelations among them; this can be effectively done using a flow chart, above is a graphical
representation of the proposed system.
2.1 System Architecture
The proposed system is a combination of various modules namely, imaging module, core module and
the door lock module. The figure below represents the block diagram. The imaging module is
63
responsible for capturing the images of visitor/ visitors and forwarding it to the core module for further
processing; this is realized using a USB web camera.
The door lock module is a combination of driver circuitry and a DC motor to drive a lock, responsible
for locking and unlocking the door as required.
Fig. 1. Flow chart
The heart of this system is the core module which is realized using the Raspberry Pi 2, its
responsibilities include, acquiring images from the camera, processing the acquired image as
required, maintaining the facial image database, comparing the acquired image with the database,
sending commands to the door lock module, etc. The core module also acts as an embedded web
server responsible for sending and receiving emails, sending out SMS notifications and backend
access.
64
Fig. 2. Block diagram
3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
This section gives an overview of the various concepts, components and modules of the proposed
system.
3.1 Imaging Module
The imaging module in the proposed system is realized using a USB web Camera, the main reason
behind choosing USB Camera over the Pi camera is the cost effectiveness. The camera features a
high-quality CMOS sensor, with an image resolution of 25 MP (Interpolated), an adjustable lens for
focus adjustment, a frame rate of 30 fps and f2.0 lens.
The USB camera also is equipped with night vision for low light photography. The camera interfaces
with the Raspberry Pi via the USB 2.0 port and is responsible for capturing images when requested,
the pictures are captured by using the command fswebcam.
Fig. 3. USB camera
3.2 Raspberry Pi Core Module
The core module of the system is realized using a Raspberry Pi 2 board; it’s a $ 35 bare-bones
computer designed and developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation, the Pi 2 features a BCM 2836
System-on-Chip which includes a Quad-Core 32-Bit ARM Cortex A7 CPU clocked at 900 MHz paired
with 1 GB of RAM. It also has VideoCore IV GPU for graphical processing applications, it also
65
includes four USB ports for peripherals and 40 Pin General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins for
interfacing the Pi with external electronic circuits, these GPIO pins are used to interface the Pi to the
door lock module. The Raspberry Pi is designed to run various Linux based operating systems and
has Raspbian as its official operating system and Python as its official programming language.
Fig. 4. Raspberry Pi 2 module
In this system the core module plays a highly pivotal role and is responsible for various functions, the
core module is responsible for acquiring the images from the camera, processing and storing. It’s also
responsible for maintaining the facial database which consists of pictures of all the authorized persons
for reference. It is in charge of employing the face detection and recognition algorithms and has to
decide whether is a person is authorized or not. It’s responsible for controlling the door lock module by
sending lock/ unlock commands using Python code via GPIO to the motor driver.
3.3 Embedded Server & IoT
Another crucial function of the core module is to act as an embedded web server, the primary
responsibilities of this server include, transmitting the visitor/ visitors images via email to the owner,
SMS notifications, look for emails from the owner and find the security code from the emails for
authorization.
This system employs an embedded server approach for communicating with the user and with the
internet/ intranet. Python code is used to program certain aspects of this system such as sending and
receiving emails and text messages. Standard Python libraries corresponding to the web such as
urlib2, cookielib for online SMS service; imaplib, poplib, email, smtp, etc. for sending and receiving
emails are imported and used accordingly.
This system uses web-based SMS client way2sms to send SMS alerts to the owner; it’s also
configured with a dedicated gmail id to send and receive emails.
The system is also configured using Apache to act as a server, which is useful to remotely monitor the
conditions. The owner can log in to the server using a dedicated static IP assigned to the Raspberry
Pi, another important function of this server is to provide a secure back door to lock/ unlock the door
by bypassing the face recognition feature in case of a failure or emergency. This is a secret feature
and is only accessible by the owner.
3.4 Face Detection and Recognition
Many kinds of face detection algorithms are used in many appliances, surveillance systems, gaming,
human-computer interaction, etc. Paul Viola and Michael Jones devised a formula for object detection
using Haar-feature based cascade classifiers. It’s a machine learning based algorithm in which some
positive and negative images are employed to train the cascade classifier. Once the classifier is
trained, features are extracted which is in turn used for object/ face detection.
66
The OpenCV library of Python provides support for using the Haar cascade classifiers for face
detection, and it’s equipped with both trainer and classifier. Thus the required XML classifiers are
loaded using Python.
For face recognition to be carried out, various face recognition algorithms such as Eigenfaces,
Fisherfaces, LBPH Algorithm, etc. are available. This system uses Lower Binary Pattern Histograms
method to perform face recognition [11,12]. The Eigenfaces and Fisherfaces methods employ a
holistic approach to recognitions, the data in these techniques are treated as a vector in high
dimensional space which is not always ideal, hence in the LBPH algorithm the idea is to look at the
lower dimensional subspace for useful information.
In this method, the local structure in an image is summarized by comparing the pixels with their
corresponding neighbors. Consider a pixel. It’s surrounded by eight other pixels as neighbors. Now
comparing the intensity of the center pixel with that of the neighbors if the intensity of the center pixel
is higher than or equal to that of the neighbor under consideration then it’s denoted by 1, else with 0.
Thus, for each pixel a binary representation is formed, which leads to a total of 2^8 possible
combinations, these combinations are termed as Local Binary Patterns.
The Open CV library of Python features a rich variety of face recognition algorithms through its
FaceRecognizer class. The LBP algorithm is enabled by using the command create LBPH Face
Recognizer(). This system uses the LBP algorithm paired with the Yale Facedatabase or Yalefaces.
3.5 Door Lock Module

The door lock module of this system is simulated using a DC motor to demonstrate the locking and
unlocking function. This module is a combination of a relay driver circuit and a DC motor; this system
uses an HFD27 Series 5V 1A 125 Ω (DPDT) Through Hole SubMiniature DIP Relay to control the DC
motor. The driver circuit is also provided with leads for a 9V battery to drive the motor when triggered.
The driver is triggered by the core module through the GPIO pins.
Fig. 5. Door lock module
4. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
This section emphasizes on the actual hardware implementation of the proposed system, the various
modules, components, peripherals and the interconnections between them are discussed here.
The first stage of the implementation is to prepare the Raspberry Pi 2 module for its first boot; this is
done by downloading the latest version of the Raspbian operating system from the official Raspberry
Pi website. A microSD card is the formatted using SD Formatter; it’s then flashed with the Raspbian
OS using Win32 Disk Imager. The first boot is then completed on the Raspberry Pi connecting the
required peripherals, such as power supply, keyboard, mouse, Ethernet cable, etc.
The Raspberry Pi for optimal operation requires a quality power supply; the Pi can be driven by using
any Micro USB based mobile phone chargers with a good current rating, and this system is powered
by a 5V 2A power bank for uninterrupted operation. Since the Raspberry Pi doesn’t natively support
67
wireless internet a USB WiFi dongle is used for connectivity; the Pi also has an Ethernet port which
can be used to gain wired internet access.
Using Python programming language preinstalled on Raspbian the source code of the system is
provided and tested appropriately. The USB Camera is interfaced, the GPIO pins are programmed
using commands in Linux and Python in this stage. The camera is interfaced to the Pi via the USB
port and the door lock module is interfaced via the GPIO pins on the Pi.
Fig .6. Initial setup
Fig. 7. GPIO and peripherals
5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This section emphasizes on the final results of the proposed system, the system has been configured
to recognize one of the author’s face, and thus some face images are taken in varying light conditions
and are added to the database which is already populated with faces from Yale database.
The system correctly recognizes the face and unlocks the door which is simulated by the DC Motor
along with an SMS alert. In the case of an unauthorized person, the algorithm reports non-availability
of the face in the database to the core module, which in turn forwards the live snapshot to the owner’s
email address for manual authentication along with an SMS alert.
Fig. 8. Final setup
68
The owner now has to manually provide access to the person if he/ she recognizes the person, this is
done by replying to the Pi’s email with a secure code as its subject, this code can be changed by the
owner. Once the Pi receives this code, it validates it and unlocks the door.
6. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the design and implementation of an intelligent home security system using a
robust, low-cost, low power single chip approach with the Internet as its backbone. This paper also
explores the immense potential of computer vision in general and face recognition, in particular, the
possibilities of IoT in home security and automation. The versatility and prowess of Linux operating
system, the Python programming language, and the OpenCV library have also been explored, in
depth.
COMPETING INTERESTS
REFERENCES
1. Rahnama B, Elci A, Celik S. Securing RFID-based authentication systems using ParseKey+. In

Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Security of Information and Networks.
2010;212-217.
2. Chen JWA. Ubiquitous information technology framework using RFID to support students'
learning. In Advanced Learning Technologies, 2005. ICALT. Fifth IEEE International
Conference on (Tainan 2005), IEEE. 2005;95–97
3. Zhao W, Chellappa R, Phillips PJ, Rosenfeld A. Face recognition: A literature survey. ACM
Computing Surveys (CSUR). 2003;35(4):399-458.
4. Vinay A, Hebbar D, Shekhar VS, Murthy KB, Natarajan S. Two novel detector-descriptor based
approaches for face recognition using sift and surf. Procedia Comput. Sci. 2015;70:185–197.
5. Rodriguez Y. Face detection and verication using local binary patterns, Ph.D. Thesis, ~Acole
Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne; 2006.
6. Nosaka R, Ohkawa Y, Fukui K. Feature extraction based on co-occurrence of adjacent local
binary patterns. in Proceedings of the 5th Pacic Rimconference on Advances in Image and
Video Technology - Volume Part II, PSIVT2011. 2012;82-91.
7. Ahonen T, Pietikäinen M, Hadid M, Mäenpaä T. Face recognition based on the appearance
of local regions. Machine Vision Group, InfoTech. University of Oulu, Finland, IEEE; 2004.
8. Ahonen T, Hadid A, Pietikäinen M. Face description with local binary patterns: Application to
face recognition. Draft; 2006.
9. Hadid A, Heikkilä M, Ahonen T, Pietikäinen M. A novel approach to access control based on
face recognition. Machine Vision Group, InfoTech Oulu and Department of Electrical and
Information Engineering. University of Oulu, Finland; 2004.
10. Zhang C, Zhang Z. A survey of recent advances in face detection. 2010. Unsang Park, Face
Recognition: Face in video, age invariance, and facial marks. Michigan State University; 2009.
11. Faizi A. Robust face detection using template matching algorithm. University of Toronto,
Canada; 2008.
12. Feng P. Face recognition based on elastic template. Beijing University of Technology, China,
Yang MH, Kriegman DJ, Ahuja N. Detecting faces in images: A survey. IEEE Trans. on PAMI,
2002; 2004.
69
Hasan Bakheet Jasim

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Imam Kadhim College for Isalmic Science University, Iraq.
He completed B.Sc. from University of Basra, College of science, Department of physics in 1987, M.Sc. from University of
Technology, AL-Rasheed College of Engineering & science in 2004 and PH.D degree from University of Baghdad , College of
science, Department of physics, Laser & Electro- optic (2014-2015). He worked in several fields: Iraqi Atomic Energy
Organization, The Ministry of Industry and Minerals, Imam Jafar Al- Sadiq University. Presently, He is working at College of
Imam Al-Kadhum. He started working in the field of physics in 1988, and began working in the field of science and training in
the field of various work in the field of physical measurements in addition to responsibilities, as well as the beginning of
educational workshops in the field of communication and others. A book has been published titled “Theoretical and
Experimental Study for CdSe nanoparticles on scholar’s press " in the field of nanoscale and its chemically prepared method,
as well as supervising a large number of graduation projects for students in the field of physics and computers. He is currently
continuing as a teacher in the field of physics and its branches in the theoretical and practical fields.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
International Journal of Research In Electronics and Computer Engineering, 6(3): 2028- 2032, 2028.
70
Chapter 6
Joule-Lenz Energy of Quantum Electron

Transitions Compared with the Electromagnetic
Emission of Energy: A Scientific Explanation
Stanislaw Olszewski1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/5467D
ABSTRACT
In the first step, the Joule-Lenz dissipation energy specified for the electron transitions between two
neighbouring quantum levels in the hydrogen atom has been compared with the electromagnetic
energy of emission from a single level. Both the electric and magnetic vectors entering the Pointing
vector of the electromagnetic field are referred to the one-electron motion performed along an orbit in
the atom. In the next step, a similar comparison of emission rates is performed for the harmonic
oscillator. Formally a full agreement of the Joule-Lenz and electromagnetic expressions for the energy
emission rates has been attained. The case of the electron oscillator allowed us to perform a more
direct comparison of the quantum approach to the emission rate with the classical electromagnetic
theory.
Keywords: Joule-Lenz energy; quantum electron transitions; hydrogen atom; electromagnetic energy
emission.
1. INTRODUCTION
Usually any calculation of the emission rate of energy in the atom has as its background a rather
complicated statistical-and-probabilistic theory. This situation seems to be not changed much since
the very end of the nineteenth and beginning of twenteeth century [1-3]. In practice an individual
atomic system has been never considered, but instead of it an ensemble of the oscillating atoms
known as the black body was examined. Rather automatically the temperature parameter—important
for comparing the theoretical results with experiment—has been involved in such many-atomic
calculations. Next the probabilistic approach to the emission intensity found its justification, and a
rather extended though complicated application, in quantum mechanics [4,5].
More recently an approach to the treatment of the energy emission in a single atomic object could be
based on the Joule-Lenz law [6-10]. For, when the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom is taken as an
example, any atom has its electron placed on a definite orbit which can be approximated by a circle.
Electrically such a circular motion can be represented by a current having a known intensity. For
example, for the quantum states n and n+ 1 the current intensity is respectively
(1)
where and are the time periods of the electron circulation about the proton nucleus. In the
next step, the energy difference between levels n 1 and n, namely
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Kasprzaka, Warsaw, Poland.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: solszewski@ichf.edu.pl;
Joule-Lenz Energy of Quantum Electron Transitions Compared with the Electromagnetic Emission of Energy: A Scientific
Explanation
(2)
provides us with the electric potential
= . (3)
This leads to the electric resistance
= ≈ ≈ (4)
where the approximate relations in (4) hold in virtue of
(5)
valid for large n. The validity of (5) becomes evident if we apply Formula (7) in (1).
For such large n we have [11] the energy change
(6)
in the last step of (6) the approximation of large n is considered.
Since [11]
(7)
we obtain
ℏ ℏ
= = = ≈ = = ; (8)
ℏ
this is a constant independent of n. The same value of R can be calculated also for other quantum
systems than the hydrogen atom, see [6,7,10]. A characteristic point is that R is equal to a well-known
result of experiments done on the integer quantum Hall effect [12].
The Joule-Lenz law is represented by the well-known relation
(9)
where is the time interval necessary to produce the emitted energy In fact (9) implies that for
we have
(10)
Moreover from (6) and (10) we obtain

ℏ
Δ Δ = = 2πℏ = ℎ (11)
ℏ
72
Explanation
or
(12)
Therefore the ratio (9) becomes
(13)
Results similar to (10)-(12) can be obtained also for other quantum systems than the hydrogen atom
[6,7,10].
The principal aim of the paper is, in the first step, to compare the ratio calculated in (13) with the rate
of energy emission obtained in terms of the electromagnetic theory. Next, in order to compare the
quantum emission with the classical emission rate, the properties of the harmonic oscillator emission
are also studied.
2. FIELDS INDUCED BY THE ELECTRON MOTION IN THE HYDROGEN ATOM
The electric field value acting on the electron in the Bohr atom is well known:
| |=| |= = ℏ
. (14)
The last step in (14) is attained because of the radius of the orbit n which is [11]
ℏ
= . (15)
A less-known magnetic field omitted in the Bohr atomic model [10] is induced in the hydrogen atom
due to the circular electron motion done with the frequency
(16)
Because of the formula (see e.g. [13])
(17)
the identity between (16) and (17) combined with (7) gives
(18)
A characteristic point is that when expressions for and are substituted to the Lorentz force
(19)
we obtain for the electric component of (19)
73
Explanation
(20)
and the same value is obtained for the magnetic component of (19)
| × |= = ℏ ℏ
= ℏ
, (21)
on condition the vector of the electron velocity having the value [11]
(22)
is normal to vector of .
3. FIELD VALUES SPECIFIC FOR THE ONE-ELECTRON CURRENT PRESENT IN THE

ATOM AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC RATE OF THE ENERGY EMISSION
Our aim is to construct the Poynting vector which provides us with the electromagnetic dispense of
energy. The Vectors E and H become slightly diffferent than in Section 2 because they refer to the
current behaviour of the electron which is circulating along its orbit. With the potential V given in (3)
and (8) and equal to
(23)
the electric field on the orbit having the length
(24)
attains the value [14]
(25)
This gives an electric vector directed along the current.
On the other hand the magnetic field directed normally to the current attains the value [15,14]
(26)
This field differs from that given in (18) solely by the factor equal to
It should be noted that parameter entering (26) is the radius of the circular cross-section area of
the orbit assumed to be equal to the cross-section of the electron microparticle considered as a
sphere [16,17]:
(27)
74
Explanation
The value of the Poynting vector emanating the energy from the orbit is calculated according to the
formula [15]
(28)
where
(29)
is the toroidal surface of the orbit having the length (24) and the length of the cross-section
circumference of the orbit is equal to
(30)
In effect we obtain from (23), (26) and (28) the result precisely equal to Formula (13) calculated from
the Joule-Lenz theory. Since (13) assumed the electron transitions solely between the levels
(31)
the identity between (13) and (28) implies that the limitation to transition (31) applies also to the
electromagnetic result calculated in (28).
A problem may arise to what extent the energy rate (13), or (28), can be radiated as an
electromagnetic wave. An altenative behaviour is that the energy is spent for a mechanical
rearrangement of the electron position due to the transition process. An argument for that is the
presence of the electric force
| |= (32)
ℏ
along the orbit. The force (32) multiplied by the orbit length calculated in (24) gives
(33)
which is precisely the energy of the electron transition obtained in (6).
4. QUANTUM AND CLASSICAL EMISSION RATE CALCULATED FOR THE HARMONIC

OSCILLATOR
A natural tendency is to compare the quantum rate of the energy emission with the classical emission
rate. To this purpose the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator has been chosen as a suitable object of
examination.
The classical energy of the oscillator is
= , (34)
a is the oscillator amplitude; m is the oscillator mass which together with the force constant k refers to
the circular frequency of the oscillator
75
Explanation
(35)
T is the oscillation period [18].
The quantum oscillator energy is
(36)
(the last step holds for large n) and the change of energy due to transition between the levels n+1 and
n is
(37)
According to the Joule-Lenz approach to the quanta [6-10] the emission rate between the levels n+1
and
n is
(38)
This gives
(39)
so
(40)
because the reference between and frequency v is
(41)
The potential V connected with the energy change is
(42)
If we note that a maximal distance travelled by the electron oscillator in one direction is
(43)
the electric field connected with the oscillator parallel to its motion is
ℏ
| |= = = . (44)
The electric current let be considered as remaining approximately constant in course of the oscillation.
In this case the magnetic field which is normal to the current [see (26)] is
| |= = = = = , (45)
76
Explanation
since the cross-section of the electron current is assumed to be identical with the cross-section area
of the electron microparticle, see (27).
The surface area of the sample containing the oscillator is
(46)
on condition the contribution of the end areas of the sample surface equal to
(47)
has been neglected because (47) is a small number in comparison with S in (46).
In consequence, for the vector H normal to vector E the value of the Poynting vector becomes
ℏ ℏ
| |= | ‖ | = 4π = = . (48)
This is a result identical with (38) on condition Formula (39) is taken into account.
According to the classical electrodynamics [19] the emission rate of energy from a classical oscillator
is
(49)
since
(50)
is the dipole moment of the classical harmonic oscillator. Formula (49) can be compared with the
quantum approach to the Joule-Lenz emission rate of energy [see (38)]:
(ℏ )
= = = . (51)
In the case of very small quantum systems the amplitude a in (49) can be close to its minimal length
[10]
(52)
and the time period T can approach its minimal size [10]
(53)
The equality required between (49) and (51) leads to the relation
(54)
77
Explanation
When a and T are taken respectively from (52) and (53), Formula (54) becomes
(55)
from which we have the relation
ℏ
(2π) ≈ 165 = = . (56)
The result obtained in (56) differs by only 20 percent from the reciprocal value of the atomic constant
equal to 137.
5. RATIO OF THE CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM EMISSION RATE DEFINED BY THE

DAMPING COEFFICIENT OF THE CLASSICAL RADIATION
An attempt of this Section is to demonstrate that the classical emission can be considered as a
damped quantum emission rate. The classical damping coefficient of the oscillator is [19]
(57)
On the other hand, the classical emission rate given in (49) can be modified when the amplitude a
entering (49) is expressed in terms of the oscillator energy E [18]:
(58)
Here, at the end of (58), the energy E is replaced by the approximate quantum formula for the
oscillator energy given in (36). In effect the classical emission rate in (49) becomes
(59)
Another transformation may concern the quantum emission rate in (51):
(60)
As a result of (59) and (60) we obtain the ratio
(61)
which is proportional to in (57). A multiple of the oscillation time period T is the proportionality
coefficient representing (61) in terms of . Therefore another way to write (61) can be
(62)
Let us note that entering (36) and (58) in place of E is proportional to n.
78
Explanation
It is worth to note that the Einstein coefficient of the emission probability can be coupled with
by the relation [20]
(63)
so
(64)
According to Heisenberg [20,21] we have
(65)
where a (n, n - 1) is the quantum-theoretical amplitude of the expansion of the coordinate of

an anharmonic oscillator; is the circular frequency of the harmonic oscillator.
For small perturbation of the oscillator we have [21]
(66)
so Formula (65) gives
(67)
or
(68)
In effect for = 1 taken in (63) we obtain from (64) and (68):
(69)
If is presented, according to (61), in terms of the ratio of and we obtain
(70)
where T is the oscillation time period of the harmonic oscillator.
6. RECIPROCAL VALUE OF THE ATOMIC CONSTANT AND THE ELECTRON SPIN
The reciprocal value of the atomic constant (~137) approached in (56) is important in the
treatment of the electron spin [10,22,23]. We show below that the magnetic field intensity necessary
to produce the electron spin can be obtained approximately as a result of a coupling of with the
radius of the electron microparticle, see (27).
79
Explanation
According to the classical electrodynamics [15] the magnetic field H at a distant r from the center of
the linear wire carrying a current i is coupled with i and r by the formula
(71)
If the current i is flowing on a surface of the conductor which is the electron orbit, we can assume that
= which is both the radius of the electron microparticle and cross-section of the orbit. The field H
becomes in this case [15]
(72)
where the time period T of the electron circulation along the orbit is taken from Formula (7) for n=1:
(73)
The essence of the spin effect is that the path of the spinning electron circumvents the electron orbit
about
(74)
times during the time period T indicated in (73). In classical electrodynamics this means that the
magnetic field produced in this way is times stronger than that obtained in (72):
(75)
The result in (75) differs solely by the factor of from the magnetic field assumed to produce a
spinning electron particle in [10,22,23]:
(76)
A discrepancy between (75) and (76) can be ascribed to some uncertainty connected with the
calculation of the radius see [24].
7. CONCLUSIONS
The aim of the paper was to get more insight into a non-probabilistic description of the transfer of
energy between two quantum levels. A suitable situation for discussion is the case when the levels
are neighbouring in their mutual position of the energy states. Then the energy change between
the levels, and the time interval necessary to attain satisfy a very simple formula
(77)
see [6-10].
In the paper, Formula (77) finds its counterparts supplied by the electromagnetic theory of emission.
Two physical objects, namely the hydrogen atom and electron harmonic oscillator, were studied. The
80
Explanation
case of the electron oscillator allowed us to perform a more direct comparison of the quantum
approach to the emission rate with the classical electromagnetic theory. It occurs that the classical
rate is equal to the quantum rate multiplied by the Born damping coefficient and an interval of time,
see (62).
COMPETING INTERESTS
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Russian); 1964.
17. Landau LD, Lifshits EM. Mechanics. Electrodynamics. Izd. Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian); 1969.
18. Sommerfeld A. Mechanik. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig; 1943.
19. Born M. Optik. Springer, Berlin; 1933.
Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-99599-6
20. Van der Waerden BL. Introduction. In: Van der Waerden, B.L., Ed., Sources of Quantum
Mechanics, Dover Publications, New York; 1967.
Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-42424-7_1
21. Heisenberg W. Zeitschrift fuer Physik. 1925;33:879-893.
Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01328377
81
Explanation
Stanislaw Olszewski
Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Kasprzaka, Warsaw, Poland.
He worked in the Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland (retired professor of physics).
OLSZEWSKI Stanislaw Marian’s academic experience includes, research work on the quantum theory (since 1955 till the
present time) : lectures on physics at the Academy of the Catholic Theology in Warsaw in 1964 - 1969; research stays at the
University of Paris and University in Grenoble in France, Imperial College of Science and Technology in London (GB),
University of Antwerp (Belgium). OLSZEWSKI Stanislaw Marian’s research areas are research in quantum theory, first mainly
applied to solids and molecules, now foundations of the quantum theory: like scale of time and its circular character, uncertainly
principle for energy and time, a non-probabilistic approach to the time of electron transitions in atoms, mainly the hydrogen
atom. Has published 195 papers and is the member of the European Academy of Sciences (Salzburg, Austria) elected in 1991.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Journal of Modern Physics, 7: 1440-1448, 2016.
82
Chapter 7

Shruti S. Sheth1* and Twinkle R. Singh2
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/7418D
ABSTRACT
This research examines the Analytical Approximate Solutions of the Non Linear Partial Differential
Equations such as Non Linear Wave Equations, In viscid and Viscid Burgers’ Equations etc. using
Variational Iteration Method (VIM) and hybrid VIM methods such as Variational Iteration Adomian
Decomposition Method (VIADM), New Modified Kamal Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition
Method (New MKVIADM), Laplace Variational Iteration Method (LVIM), Modified Variational Iteration
Laplace Transform Method (MVILTM) etc.
VIM is a powerful tool to solve the differential equations which gives fast consecutive approximations
without using any conditional assumptions or any further transformations which may change the
physical behavior of the problem. Adomian Decomposition method is also an efficient method which
handles the linear and non linear differential and integral equations with Initial and Boundary
Conditions. It provides an efficient numerical solution in the form of an infinite series which is obtained
iteratively. It usually converges to the exact solution using Adomian polynomials. Laplace Transform is
a very popular and powerful integral transform to solve the linear initial value problems. Kamal
Transform is a recent new arrival of an integral transform which is commanding to solve the linear
initial value problems. To solve the equations the combination of the methods has been used and
tried to implement it to solve the Non Linear Partial Differential Equations.
Aim of this research is to check the influence and accurateness of hybrid VIM methods. To exemplify
the reliability of the methods, we made the comparison of the solutions with different methods. The
obtained results declare that this alternative approach converges rapidly, helps for getting the
accuracy, and handles the ones with discontinuities.
Keywords: Non Linear PDE; variational iteration method; variational iteration adomian decomposition
method; new modified kamal variational iteration adomian decomposition method; laplace
variational iteration method; modified variational iteration laplace transform method.
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last some decades, important hard work has been oriented towards the development of
vigorous computational schemes to handle non-linear PDEs found in fluid mechanics and heat
transfer. One of the most notable equation involving both non-linear propagation effects and diffusive
effects is the Burgers’ equation. Burgers’ equation is a partial differential equation occurring in traffic
flow, fluid dynamics, gas dynamics, non linear acoustics etc. The general form of the Burgers’
equation is,
(1)
It is also famed as convection diffusion equation. Where C is the concentration, x is the distance, t
is the time and  is the diffusive coefficient.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Dr. R. K. Desai Marg, Opp. Mission Hospital, Athwalines, Suart-395001,
Gujarat, India.
2
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchanath, Surat-Dumas Road, Suart-395007, Gujarat, India.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: shruti.sheth@scet.ac.in;
When diffusion term  is absent then Burger’s equation is known as, In viscid Burgers’ equation
which is a model for non linear wave propagation. The unsteady heat equation without internal heat
generation arises in the mathematical modeling of many physical phenomena occurring in nature. If
is present then it is known as Viscid Burgers’ equation.
Waves occur in most scientific and engineering disciplines, like fluid mechanics, optics,
electromagnetism, solid mechanics, structural mechanics, quantum mechanics, etc. The waves for all
these applications are described by solutions to either linear or nonlinear PDEs.
To solve these equations we have used the recent analytical approximate methods of Hybrid VIM
Methods such as VIM, VIADM, New MKVIADM, LVIM, MVILTM.
1.1 Variational Iteration Method
In 1998, Variational Iteration Method has been developed and used by J. Huen He, to study and to
solve the Non linear Partial Differential Equations. VIM is used to handle the both differential and
Integral equations. It gives very swiftly convergent consecutive approximations to the exact solution, if
such a solution exists, in the given domain for the given initial conditions, otherwise only some
approximations can be used for numerical purposes only [1-4]. VIM effectively and accurately has
been used by many authors herein and elsewhere.
1.2 Adomian Decomposition Method
In the 1980's, George Adomian introduced a new powerful method for solving nonlinear functional
equations. Since then, this method has been known as the Adomian decomposition method (ADM)
[5,6]. ADM is based on a decomposition of a solution of a nonlinear operator equation in a series
of functions. Each term of the series is obtained from a polynomial, generated from an expansion of
an analytic function into a power series. The non linear part is expressed in terms of the Adomian
polynomials. The initial or boundary condition and the terms that contain the independent variables
will be considered as the initial approximation.
1.3 Kamal Transform
Kamal transform is introduced by Abdelilah Kamal in 2016 [7,8], for soft growth of the process of
solving linear ordinary and partial differential equations in the time domain. It is derived from the
traditional Fourier integral. Kamal transform is based on its elementary properties for mathematical
straightforwardness same as like Fourier, Laplace, Sumudu, Elzaki, Aboodh, Mahgoub transforms
etc. are the expedient mathematical tools for solving differential equations. Kamal transform defined
for function of exponential order we consider functions in the set defined by: [7,8]
For a given function in the set A, the constant M must be finite number, m1, m2 may be finite or
infinite.
Kamal Transform is denoted and defined as, [7,8]
The reason of this study is to show the applicability of this attractive new transform and its
competence in solving the partial differential equations combined with the methods VIM & ADM.
84
Table 1. Kamal transform and inverse Kamal transform of some basic functions
f t  K  f  t    T (u ) K 1 T  u    f (t )
1 K [1]  u K 1 u   1
t K t   u 2 K 1 u 2   t
t2 K t 2   2u 3 t2
K 1 u 3  
2!
tn K t n   n !u n 1 t n 1
K 1 u n  
(n  1)!
ea t u  u 
K  e at   K 1    e at
1  au  1  au 
ea t u  u 
K  e  at   K 1    e  at
1  au 1  au 
sinat au 2  u 2  sinat
K  sinat   K 1  2 2 

1  a2u 2 1  a u  a
cosat u  u 
K  cosat   K 1  2 2 
 cosat
1  a2u2 1  a u 
sinhat au 2  u 2  sinhat
K  sinhat   K 1  2 2 

1  a2u 2 1  a u  a
coshat u  u 
K  coshat   K 1   coshat
1  a2u 2 1  a u 
2 2
e at sin bt bu 2  bu 2 
K e at sin bt   2 K 1    eat sin bt
1  au   b2u 2 2 2 2
 1  au   b u 
e a t cos bt K  e at cos bt  
u (1  au )  u (1  au ) 
2
1  au   b2 u 2 K 1  2 2 2
  eat cos bt
 1  au   b u 
e at sinh bt K  e at sinh bt  
bu  bu 
2
1  au   b 2 u 2 K 1  2 2 2
  eat sinh bt
 1  au   b u 
e a t cosh bt K  e at cosh bt  
u  u 
1  au 
2 2
b u 2 K 1  2 2 2
  eat cosh bt
 1  au   b u 
85
1.3.1 Kamal Transform of Derivatives of the functions
86
1.3.2 Kamal Transform of Partial Derivatives of the functions
1.3.3 Kamal Transform of Integration:
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Variational Iteration Method (VIM) [1-4]
In 1978, Inokuti et al. [9] has proposed a general Lagrange Multiplier method to solve problems arise
in quantum mechanics. In 1998, Chinese Mathematician, J.Huan He [1-4], has modified the Lagrange
Multiplier Method into an Iteration Method, known as the Variational Iteration Method. VIM gives
successive approximations of the solution that may converge rapidly to the exact solution if such a
solution exists. For concrete problems, obtained approximations can be used for numerical purpose
only.
To illustrate the equation consider, (2)
Where L is Linear Operator, N is a Non Linear Operator and is given continuous source
function. VIM gives the possibility to write the solution of eq. (2) with the support of the correctional
function in t- direction,
(3)
Here is a general Lagrange Multiplier can be identified optimally via variational theory. is
restricted variation. i.e.
Making the correctional function stationary, we obtained,
(4)
The solution of the differential equation is considered as the fixed point of the following functional
under the suitable choice of the initial term . So, the given equation (3) will be reduces to,
87
(5)
Using the selective initial value and the obtained Lagrange multiplier the solution
will be readily obtained. The solution will be obtained by taking the limit of the successive
approximations as, are the nth consecutive approximations
[5,6,1,2].
2.2 Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition Method (VIADM) [10]
For the Non Linear term in eq.(4), we can use Adomian Polynomials
And so on.
So, Iteration formula eq.(5) reduces to;
(6)
This is the Iteration formula for the Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition Method.
2.3 New Modified Kamal Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition Method (New
MKVIADM)
Taking Kamal Transform on both the sides of eq.(6) as the integration is basically the single
convolution with respect to ' t ' and hence Kamal Transform is appropriate to use.
(7)
Where * is the single convolution with respect to To find the optimal value of
we first take the variation w.r.t Thus,
88
2.4 Laplace Variational Iteration Method (LVIM): [11]
To illustrate the idea of Laplace Variational Iteration Method, take Laplace Transform on both the
sides of (5). The correctional function will be constructed in the form as,
(8)
(9)
Where * is the single convolution with respect to't'. To find the optimal value of we first
take the variation w.r.t. Thus,
(10)
(11)
In this study we assume that L is a linear partial differential operator given by then,
(12)
The extreme condition of requires that
i.e. right hand side of (12) should set to be zero.
(13)
∴ We have the iteration formula from (8);
(14)
2.5 Modified Variational Iteration Laplace Transform Method (MVILTM): [10,12,8,11]
Consider the differential equation;
(15)
89
Where L is the Linear first order operator, R is the linear operator, N is the non linear operator and N
*
is the non linear convolution term defined by,
According to the VIM, we can construct a correctional function as;
(16)
where are considered as restricted variations
then the variational iteration formula can be obtained as,
(17)
Eq.(17) can be solved iteratively using as initial approximation, then the solution is,
Now assume that, in (15).
Take the Laplace transform on both the sides of (15),
(18)
(19)
By using the initial conditions and taking the inverse Laplace transform, we obtain;
(20)
Where represents the terms arising from the source term and prescribed initial conditions.
Now first derivative of (20) is;
(21)
Making correctional function we obtain,
90
Then the correctional function for New modified Variational iteration Laplace transform method is
given by;
(22)
Finally we obtain the answer in the strain, if inverse Laplace transform exist, Laplace transform exist.
3. TRIAL PROBLEMS ON VIM, VIADM, NEW MKVIADM
Problem 1 Consider the Non Linear Wave Equation:
[11] (23)
Solution: Method 1 VIM
Using VIM, the correctional function in t- direction will be,
(24)
Making correctional function stationary we get,
Here is a general Lagrange Multiplier that can be identified optimally via variational theory. is
restricted variation. That is there is no variation in that direction. i.e. Taking integration by
parts on both the sides and simplifying the equations, we obtain,
So, from (24), Iteration formula will be,
(25)
Now, Initial condition is,
91
And so on. Neglecting the higher order and noise terms and taking we get the
solution in closed form as;
Method 02 VIADM
In iteration formula (25), using Adomian polynomials for non linear terms, eq.(25) will become;
(26)
Adomian polynomials are,
And so on.
And so on. Neglecting the noise terms and taking we get the solution in closed
form as;
Method 03 New MKVIADM
Applying Kamal Transform on both the sides of (25) to obtain Lagrange Multiplier,
Using Convolution theorem,
92
(27)
Making correctional function eq. (27) stationary,
(28)
Now for non linear term, applying the Adomian polynomials,
(29)
This is the iteration formula for the New Modified Kamal Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition
Method.
Now,
Similarly,
93
And so on. Neglecting the noise terms and taking we get the solution in closed
form as;
Table 2. Comparison between Exact Solution, VIM, VIADM & New MKVIADM at t=1
X -  2 -VIM 2 - 2 -  Exact   2 VIM  Exact   2 VIAADM or

Exact  Exact   2 New MKVIADM
VIADM MKVIADM
0. 1 1.01111 1.04444 1.04444 0.01111 0.04444
0.1 1.01 1.02056 1.05438 1.05438 0.01056 0.04438
0.2 1.04 1.04891 1.08358 1.08358 0.00891 0.04358
0.3 1.09 1.09617 1.1302 1.13020 0.00617 0.0402
0.4 1.16 1.16232 1.19117 1.19117 0.00232 0.03117
0.5 1.25 1.24737 1.2622 1.26220 0.00263 0.0122
0.6 1.36 1.35132 1.33778 1.33778 0.00868 0.02222
0.7 1.49 1.47416 1.41114 1.41114 0.01584 0.07886
0.8 1.64 1.61588 1.47433 1.47433 0.02412 0.16567
0.9 1.81 1.77648 1.51814 1.51814 0.03352 0.29186
1.0 2.0 1.95595 1.53214 1.53214 0.04405 0.46786
Graphical Representation
Fig. 1. Blue Line-Exact, Purple Line-VIM, Green Line-VIADM
Problem 2 Consider the Non Linear Wave Equation:
[11] (30)
94
Using VIM, the correctional function in t- direction will be,
(31)
restricted variation. Taking integration by parts on both the sides and simplifying the equations, we
obtain,
(32)
And so on. Taking we get the solution in closed form as;
Method 02 VIADM
(33)
95
And so on.
And so on. Neglecting the higher order terms, noise terms and taking we get the
Applying Kamal Transform on both the sides of (32),
Using Convolution theorem,
(34)
Making correctional function eq. (34) stationary,
96
(35)
Now for non linear term, applying the Adomian polynomials,
(36)
This is the iteration formula of the New Modified Kamal Variational Iteration Adomian Decomposition
Method.
Now,
Similarly,
And so on. Neglecting the higher order terms, noise terms and taking we get the
97
X - 2 - 2 - 2 -  Exact   2 VIM  Exact   2 VIADM or

Exact VIM VIADM MKVIADM  Exact   2 New MKVIADM
0. 1.0 1.0 0.083333 0.083333 0.00 0.916667
0.1 1.1 1.1 0.102782 0.102782 0.00 0.997218
0.2 1.2 1.2 0.119476 0.119476 0.00 1.080524
0.3 1.3 1.3 0.13344 0.13344 0.00 1.16656
0.4 1.4 1.4 0.144698 0.144698 0.00 1.255302
0.5 1.5 1.5 0.153274 0.153274 0.00 1.346726
0.6 1.6 1.6 0.15919 0.15919 0.00 1.44081
0.7 1.7 1.7 0.162472 0.162472 0.00 1.537528
0.8 1.8 1.8 0.163143 0.163143 0.00 1.636857
0.9 1.9 1.9 0.161226 0.161226 0.00 1.738774
1.0 2.0 2.0 0.156746 0.156746 0.00 1.843254
Fig. 2. Blue Line & Purple Line –same line for Exact & VIM, Green Line-VIADM
Problem 3 Consider the Homogeneous In Viscid Burgers’ Equation:
[11] (37)
Using VIM, the correctional function in t-direction will be,
98
(38)
restricted variation. Taking integration by parts on both the sides and simplifying the equations, we
obtain,
So, from (38), Iteration equation will be,
(39)
And so on. Continuing in this manner, we can say that, and taking
we get the solution as;
Method 02 VIADM
(40)
And so on.
99
So, the new correction functional is,
(41)
Now, for Non Linear Terms, Adomian polynomials are,
And so on.
So, the correction functional for New Modified Variational iteration Adomian Decomposition Kamal
Transform will be,
100
Table 4. Comparison between Exact Solution, VIM, VIADM & New MKVIADM at t=1.
X  -Exact  2 -VIM 2 - 2 -  Exact   2 VIM  Exact  2 VIADM or

VIADM MKVIADM  Exact  2 NewMKVIADM
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.00 0.00
0.1 0.0666667 0.0666667 0.2 0.2 0.00 0.133333
0.2 0.133333 0.133333 0.4 0.4 0.00 0.266667
0.3 0.200000 0.200000 0.6 0.6 0.00 0.400000
0.4 0.266667 0.266667 0.8 0.8 0.00 0.533333
0.5 0.333333 0.333333 1.0 1.0 0.00 0.666667
0.6 0.400000 0.400000 1.2 1.2 0.00 0.800000
0.7 0.466667 0.466667 1.4 1.4 0.00 1.066667
0.8 0.533333 0.533333 1.6 1.6 0.00 1.066667
0.9 0.600000 0.600000 1.8 1.8 0.00 1.200000
1.0 0.666667 0.666667 2.0 2.0 0.00 1.333333
Fig. 3. Blue Line & Green Line –same line for Exact & VIM, Purple Line-VIADM
Problem 4 Consider the Equation of Non Homogeneous In Viscid Burgers’ Equation :
[11] (42)
101
Using VIM, the correctional function in t-direction will be,
(43)
restricted variation. Here we are getting,
(44)
From (44),
And so on.
Continuing in this manner and neglecting the noise and higher terms, and taking
Method 02 VIADM
(45)
And so on.
102
And so on. Continuing in this manner, and neglecting the higher and noise terms and
, we get the solution as;
Now, for Non Linear Terms, Adomian polynomials are,
And so on.
So, the correctional function for New MKVIADM,
(46)
And so on. Continuing in this manner, and neglecting the higher and noise terms and
, we get the solution as;
103
X -  2 -VIM 2 - 2 -  Exact   2 VIM  Exact   2 VIADM or

Exact VIADM MKVIADM  Exact   2 New MKVIADM
0. 1. 1. 1.17 1.17 0.0000 0.17
0.1 1.09983 1.11897 1.16711 1.16711 0.01914 0.067
0.2 1.19867 1.23995 1.16054 1.16054 0.04128 0.038
0.3 1.29552 1.36142 1.15351 1.15351 0.06590 0.142
0.4 1.38942 1.48181 1.14918 1.14918 0.09239 0.240
0.5 1.47943 1.59946 1.15054 1.15054 0.12003 0.328
0.6 1.56464 1.71272 1.16022 1.16022 0.14808 0.404
0.7 1.64422 1.81993 1.18039 1.18039 0.17571 0.463
0.8 1.71736 1.9195 1.21261 1.21261 0.20214 0.504
0.9 1.78333 2.0099 1.25778 1.25778 0.22657 0.525
1.0 1.84147 2.08976 1.31608 1.31608 0.24829 0.525
Fig. 4. Purple Line-Exact, Blue Line–x2-VIM, Green Line- x2 –VIADM
4. CONCLUSION ON VIM, VIADM, NEW MKVIADM
Our aim in this research is to check the accuracy of VIM, the combination of two methods VIM and
ADM that is VIADM which is greatly fulfilled and the combination of three methods VIM, ADM & Kamal
Transform-New Modified KVIADM. Here we have introduced the New Modified KVIADM, which is in
addition successfully employed and verified. Introducing New Modified KVIADM is just utilize for
getting joy and satisfied for doing somewhat novel. From the Comparison table and Graphical
Representation, we can conclude that for the undertaken trial problems, VIM is decidedly accurate
than VIADM and hence New MKVIADM. We can conclude that solution range of VIADM and so forth
New MKVIADM is within 0 to 1.After this range convergence using VIADM slightly will start to diverge.
While VIM converges in the domain where solution exist for the given initial condition. Objective of this
paper that how rapidly these methods are converges to the exact solution is also fulfilled.
5. TEST PROBLEMS ON VIM, MVILTM & LVIM
Problem:5 Consider the Non linear In viscid Burger’s Equation
104
[11] (47)
Solution: Method:01 Using VIM:
Using VIM correctional function of (47) will be,
(48)
Here is the restricted variable, so
Making correctional function stationary and taking integration by parts and simplifying it, we obtain the
Lagrange multiplier
(49)
Now,
And Hence we obtained the exact solution is,
Method:02 Using MVILTM:
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of eq.(49);
Now the iteration formula is;
(50)
Now,
105
And Hence we obtained the exact solution in a closed form as,
Table 6. Comparison between Exact Solution, VIM and MVILTM at
X  -Exact  -VIM  -MVILTM Error:  Exact -  VIM/  MVILTM

0. 1.1052 1.1052 1.1052 0.0000
0.1 1.2052 1.2052 1.2052 0.0000
0.2 1.3052 1.3052 1.3052 0.0000
0.3 1.4052 1.4052 1.4052 0.0000
0.4 1.5052 1.5052 1.5052 0.0000
0.5 1.6052 1.6052 1.6052 0.0000
0.6 1.7052 1.7052 1.7052 0.0000
0.7 1.8052 1.8052 1.8052 0.0000
0.8 1.9052 1.9052 1.9052 0.0000
0.9 2.0052 2.0052 2.0052 0.0000
1.0 2.1052 2.1052 2.1052 0.0000
Graphical Representation:
Fig. 5. Pink line-X Exact, Blue line-X VIM/MVILTM
Problem:6 Consider the Non homogeneous In viscid Burger’s Equation
[11] (51)
106
(52)
Making correction functional stationary and taking integration by parts and simplifying it, we obtain the
Lagrange multiplier
So, iteration formula of (52) will become,
(53)
Now,
And so on. Neglecting the noise terms, we get;
Method: 02 Using MVILTM:
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of eq.(51);
Now iteration formula is;
(54)
Now,
107
And so on. Neglecting the noise terms, we get;
Table 7. Comparison between Exact Solution, 2nd iteration of VIM and 2nd iteration of MVILTM
at t=0.1
X  -Exact  2 -VIM  2 -MVILTM Error:  Exact -  2 VIM/  2 MVILTM

0. 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.0000
0.1 0.02 0.0199999 0.0199999 0.0000001
0.2 0.03 0.0299997 0.0299997 0.0000003
0.3 0.04 0.0399996 0.0399996 0.0000004
0.4 0.05 0.0499995 0.0499995 0.0000005
0.5 0.06 0.0599993 0.0599993 0.0000007
0.6 0.07 0.0699992 0.0699992 0.0000008
0.7 0.08 0.0799991 0.0799991 0.0000009
0.8 0.09 0.089999 0.089999 0.0000010
0.9 0.1 0.0999988 0.0999988 0.0000012
1.0 0.11 0.109999 0.109999 0.0000010
Fig. 6. Blue line-X-Exact, Pink line-X2-VIM / MVILTM
108
Problem:7 Consider the Viscid Burger’s Equation:
[11] (55)
(56)
Making correction functional stationary and taking integration by parts and simplifying it, we obtain the
Lagrange multiplier
So, iteration formula of (56) will become,
(57)
Now,
In general, we can say that;
Method:02 Using LVIM:

Applying Laplace transform on both the side of the variational iteration correctional function,
(58)
109
Making correction functional stationary,
Simplifying this equation, we obtain;
(59)
Now,
In general, we can say that;

nd nd
Table 8. Comparison between Exact Solution, 2 iteration of VIM and 2 iteration of LVIM at
t=0.1
X  -Exact  2 -VIM  2 - LVIM Error:  -Exact-  2 VIM/  2 -LVIM

0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
0.1 -0.111111 -0.100573 -0.100573 -0.10538
0.2 -0.222222 -0.201146 -0.201146 0.021076
0.3 -0.333333 -0.301719 -0.301719 -0.031614
0.4 -0.444444 -0.402293 -0.402293 -0.042151
0.5 -0.555556 -0.502866 -0.502866 -0.05269
0.6 -0.666667 -0.603439 -0.603439 -0.063228
0.7 -0.777778 -0.704012 -0.704012 -0.073766
0.8 -0.888889 -0.804585 -0.804585 -0.084304
0.9 -1. -0.905158 -0.905158 -0.094842
1.0 -1.11111 -1.00573 -1.00573 -0.10538
110
Fig. 7. Blue line--Exact, Pink line-2 VIM / LVIM
Problem:4 Consider the non linear wave equation,
[11] (60)
Solution: Method: 01 Using VIM:
(61)
Now,
Now, Hence we obtained the exact solution in a closed form as,
Method:02 Using New LVIM:
Applying Laplace transform on both the side of the variational iteration correction functional,
111
(63)
(64).
Making correctional function stationary,
Simplifying this equation, we obtain;
So, iteration formula will become,
(65)
Now,
Now, Hence we obtained the exact solution in a closed form as,
Table 9. Comparison between Exact Solution, VIM and New LVIM at t=0.1
X  -Exact  -VIM  - LVIM Error:  Exact-  LVIM

0. 1. 1. 1. 0.
0.1 1.01 1.01 1.01 0.00
0.2 1.02 1.02 1.02 0.00
0.3 1.03 1.03 1.03 0.00
0.4 1.04 1.04 1.04 0.00
0.5 1.05 1.05 1.05 0.00
0.6 1.06 1.06 1.06 0.00
0.7 1.07 1.07 1.07 0.00
0.8 1.08 1.08 1.08 0.00
0.9 1.09 1.09 1.09 0.00
1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.00
112
Fig. 8. Blue line- Exact, Pink line- VIM/LVIM
6. CONCLUSION ON VIM, LVIM, MVILTM
In these last four trial problems, we have used VIM, LVIM and MVILTM to solve the Viscid and In
viscid Burger’s equations and Non linear Wave like equation. Aim of this research is to apply the
variational iteration method and combination of Laplace transform and Variational iteration method to
check the convergence criteria of the solution and which method how rapidly converges to the exact
solution in the closed form, in the given domain for the given initial condition. We can conclude that
original variational iteration method is rapidly converges to the exact solution in the closed form if
Lagrange multiplier has been effectively defined.
A Laplace correction functional is introduced that enables us to express the integral in many instances
in the form of a convolution. Laplace transforms will make the variational problems easier to tackle,
particularly in finding the general Lagrange multiplier, when it is difficult to determine using VIM. So
we can conclude that in certain cases when VIM is difficult to define Lagrange Multiplier, LVIM or
MVILTM is comparatively easy to apply. Nevertheless, LVIM and MVILTM methods are also
converges to the exact solution in the closed form but process of finding the solution is little lengthy
than the VIM yet maintaining the high accuracy. While in certain cases, both methods are effective
alternative of the VIM strategy.
Additionally, all three methods VIM, LVIM and MVILTM are speedily converges to the exact solution in
the closed form in the given domain, than comparatively to the other analytical approximate methods
like Adomian decomposition Method, Natural Decomposition Method, Differential Transform Method,
Differential Difference Method, Differential Quadrature Method, etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express sincere gratitude to the staff of SCET & SVNIT for providing the
necessary support in getting required information for this study.
113
COMPETING INTERESTS
REFERENCES
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Science and Numerical Simulation. 1997;2(4):230–235.
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International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics. 1999;34(4):699–708.
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International Journal Computers and Mathematics with Applications Science Direct Elsevier.
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Press; 1994.
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theoretical and applied mathematics. 2016;11(4):451-458.
ISSN 0973-4554
8. Abdelilah K, Hassan Sedeeg, Zahra I. Adam Mahamoud. The use of kamal transform for
solving partial differential equations advances in theoretical and applied mathematics.
2017;12(1):7-13.
ISSN 09734554
9. Inokuti M, Sekine H, Mura T. General use of the Lagrange multiplier in nonlinear mathematical
physics, in: S Nemat-Nasser (Ed.) Variational Method in the Mechanics of solids Pergamon
Press NewYork. 1978;156–162.
10. Syed Tauseef Mohyud-Din Muhammad Aslam Noor, Khalida Inayat Noor. Modified variational
iteration method for solving sine-gordon equations world applied sciences. 2009;6(7):999-1004.
ISSN 1818-4952
11. Tarig M. Elzaki. Solution of nonlinear partial differential equations by new laplace variational
iteration method Chapter-9 Intech Open 73291.
12. Khuri SA, Sayfy A. A Laplace variational iteration strategy for the solution of differential
equations Applied Mathematics Letters. 2012;25:2298–2305.
114
Ms. Shruti S. Sheth, Assistant Professor

Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Dr. R. K. Desai Marg, Opp. Mission Hospital, Athwalines, Suart-395001,
Gujarat, India.
Research and Academic Experience: Academic Experience: 12 Years, Research Experience: 06 Years
Research Area: Analytical Approximate Methods, Analytical Methods, Similarity Techniques, Bio Mathematics, Fluid Dynamics
Number of Published papers: International: 05; Conference Proceedings: 04
Dr. Twinkle R. Singh, Assistant Professor

Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchanath, Surat-Dumas Road, Suart-395007, Gujarat, India.
Research and Academic Experience: 17 Years
Research Area: Fluid Dynamics, Nonlinear differential equations, Mathematical Modelling
Number of Published papers: More than 55 research papers in published in peered reviewed International/National journals
and More than 20 Research papers in Conference Proceeding.
Ph.D. Guided: 07 Students, Ph.D. Guiding: 06 Students
Special Award (If any): Best Paper Presentation Award in year 2014.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1473: 012008, 2020.
115
Chapter 8
A Comparative Study on Calculated Work Function

of Metals Using Metallic Plasma Model with
Stabilized Jellium, Ab-Initio Approach and
Experimental Values
O. Olubosede1*, O. M. Afolabi2, E. O. Oniya2 and A. C. Tomiwa2
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6297D
ABSTRACT
The work function of metals was calculated using the metallic plasma model (MPM). The results
obtained were compared with the available results of the stabilized jellium model (SJM), Ab-initio
model and the experimental values. Result shows that the stabilized jellium model was in good
agreement with experimental values for the simple metals, the transition, inner transition and rare-
earth metals. The metallic plasma model gave results that are agreeable with experimental values for
most of the metals especially the polycrystalline metals. The work function of elemental metals
obtained from the SJM calculation was in fairly good agreement with experimental values. This shows
that the SJM could be used to calculate and predict the work function of metals. The ab-initio results
were higher than experimental values except for Ba, Ca and Sr, this shows that the metallic plasma
model is more reliable in predicting the work function of metals.
Keywords: Metallic plasma model; stabilized jellium model; Ab-initio model; metallic surfaces; work
function; electron density parameter.
1. INTRODUCTION
Work function (Wf) is the minimum energy required to extract an electron from a crystal. It is essential
in the determination of the physical and chemical properties of metallic surfaces. It is an important
fundamental property defining, for example, the photoemission threshold [1] as well as the energy
landscape when multiple materials are brought into contact [2]. It is an intrinsic parameter which is
affected by atomic arrangement in the metal and inter-atomic distances within the metal and very vital
in understanding some surface phenomena such as the calculation of corrosion rates, properties of
materials for light emitting and photosensitive devices [3,4]. Wf can be measured absolutely using
thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and field emission. It can also be measured relatively
using the retarding potential and vibrating capacitor methods [5]. Measurement of work function is
improving with advancement in technology and development of better methods of measurement [6,7].
Most adsorbates affect the work function and their concentration can be deduced from the work
function change [8].
Much attention has been paid to the theoretical study of work function. The first theory proposed for
the work function of metals and the self-consistent many-electron calculation of the work function of
metals from first principles within the free electron model produced results that were not in good
agreement with experimental values [9,10]. Lang and Kohn [11] developed the theory of work function
of metals based on the jellium model. In the jellium model, the ionic point charges are replaced by a
semi-infinite distribution of constant positive charges. The work function of metals was calculated by
solving the Kohn-Sham equation self-consistently using the kinetic, exchange, and correlation
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Department of Physics and Electronics, Federal University Oye, Ekiti, Nigeria.
2
Department of Physics and Electronics, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: sayolayo@yahoo.com, olusayo.olubosede@fuoye.edu.ng;
A Comparative Study on Calculated Work Function of Metals Using Metallic Plasma Model with Stabilized Jellium, Ab-Initio
Approach and Experimental Values
energies based on the local density approximation. The results were only in good agreement with
experimental values for some simple metals [12]. Mahan and Schaich [13] also derived another
formula for calculating work function based on the jellium model, which is an improvement to the
formula of Lang and Kohn. The formula showed that work function might be related to the ground
state energy per electron of the bulk metal. Work functions of Al, Li, Na, Mg, Pb, and Zn calculated
using density functional theory of the inhomogeneous electron gas were not in good agreement with
experimental values [14]. The work function increases linear with the free electron density and equals
the exchange energy given by the Hartree-Fock model of electrons [15].
The stabilized jellium model (SJM) was developed by Perdew et al. [16]. It evolved from the
variational self-consistent method of the ground state properties of metals [14], Wilkins, J.W. 1978, P.
656-66. The model has all the properties of the jellium model with an additional constant potential to
the effective potential of the metal. Recently, Brodie [17] redefined the work function idea by reducing
it to the work done by an electron against the image forces, expressing the work function in terms of
the atomic radius, the Fermi energy and the effective mass of the electron.
In this work, a fundamental relationship between the work function, the Fermi energy and the electron
density parameter is established taking the entire novel approach to the application of plasma physics
concept. The results obtained were compared with the results obtained from other models like the
pseudopotential (SJM), Ab-initio method as well as experimental values.
2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION
The work done against forces acting between an electron emerging from a metal surface and its
image contributes significantly to the work function of the metal [18]. For a planar conducting surface
at zero potential, the work required to take an electron initially at a distance do to infinity [19] is
(1)
Where e is the electronic charge and is the permittivity of free space.
The polarization length in a metal may be evaluated by replacing in the classical formula for
distance d, from plasma physics [20] by
(2)
n is the average density of free electrons in a metal lattice and e is the electronic charge.
Comparing the d-value with Thomas-Fermi screening length, equation 2 corresponds to Debye length
in plasma physics [21];
(3)
It can be seen that hence the ion is completely screened at a distance somewhat larger than
d [21]. It should be emphasized that both the ion screening and the image forces appear due to the
displacement of an electron from its average position. Therefore, we assume that when an electron is
shifted from a remote plane (where, under normal conditions, the electron density tends to zero) by
where α is a factor of the order of unity and d is given by equation (2), the ion is completely
screened, whilst the image force are just starting to act.
117
By substituting and rewriting the equation (1) we have:
(4)
Where is the Bohr radius (0.52918 ), the Rydberg is the atomic unit of energy
The d-value is calculated using equation (2), in which the free-electron density n, is replaced by the
density parameter rs defined as follows [22]
and Fermi Energy hartree.
Equation (2) can be rewritten as:
(5)
Substituting equation (5) into equation (4) gives:
(6)
The work function of elements in terms of Fermi energy EF and electron density parameter rs is
expressed as.
(7)
where rs is Bohr radii, EF is Fermi energy The scaling factor which defines the fraction of the
polarization length from which the integration of the image force should be done was assumed to be
equal to unity [19] for all elements except the alkali metals, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra and Tl, for which it was
assumed to be equal to 0.86, the factor is treated as just an empirical constant. The equation (7)
is the metallic plasma model (MPM) that was employed in this work to evaluate work function of
metals.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The work function of metal that was calculated in this work using MPM was compared with those of
SJM, Ab-initio model and experimental values reported in other papers. These results are presented
in Table 1. Fig. 1 shows the comparison of the MPM results and experimental values with electron
density parameter. The MPM obtained results are in excellent agreement with the experimental work
function values for pure-metal polycrystalline surfaces. The agreement in the case of semiconductors
118
(Ge, Si) is not as good as that of metals as the values are clearly too low. This may be due to the fact
that the valence electrons in semiconductors are strongly localized as a result of covalent bonding of
the atoms, thereby making the efficiency of the screening by the valence electron poor. However, for
the alkali metals, Ca, Mg, Sr and Ba, results fit fairly well with the experimental values.
Fig. 1. Comparison of MPM and experimental Values with electron density parameter
Fig. 2. Comparison of SJM and experimental Values with electron density parameter
119
Fig. 3. Comparison of Ab-initio and experimental Values with electron density parameter
Table 1. Input values and the results of calculations for the MPM model. SJM, Ab-initio and
Experimental values are taken from references Osiele, O.M. and Olubosede, O. (2007). P. 9-16,
Ashcroft N.W and Mermin N.D (1976). P. 345-368. and Michaelson H.B, (1977) P. 4729-4733
respectively
Element Z rs EF Calculated Calculated Ab-initiomethod Experimental

(a.u) (eV) MPM (eV) SJM (eV) Ref. (eV) Ref.(Ashcroft Value (eV)
(Osiele,O.M., N.W et al. [22]) Ref.(Michaelson
et al. [23]) H.B, [4])
Li 1 3.26 4.74 2.92 2.92 3.33 2.9
Na 1 3.99 3.24 2.61 2.64 2.76 2.75
K 1 4.95 2.12 2.32 2.23 2.34 2.30
Rb 1 5.31 1.85 2.25 2.13 2.22 2.16
Cs 1 `5.75 1.59 2.15 2.02 2.50 2.14
Fr 1 6.12 1.50 2.0 NA NA NA
Be 2 1.87 12.0 4.91 4.22 5.62 4.98
Mg 2 2.65 7.10 3.79 3.34 3.86 3.66
Ca 2 3.26 5.20 2.79 2.91 2.86 2.87
Sr 2 3.55 4.49 2.64 2.74 2.42 2.59
Ba 2 3.73 3.84 2.65 2.70 2.23 2.7
Ra 2 3.92 3.00 2.78 NA NA NA
Se 2 3.72 7.54 3.52 2.88 3.74 3.5
Y 2 2.99 6.88 3.21 3.39 3.38 3.1
La 3 2.89 6.10 3.57 NA NA NA
Ac 3 2.89 6.10 3.58 NA NA NA
Ti 3 2.24 8.84 4.28 4.16 4.59 4.33
Zr 3 2.33 8.50 4.18 3.90 4.15 4.07
Hf 3 2.43 8.69 3.89 NA NA 3.9
V 3 2.09 11.09 4.32 4.63 5.2 4.3
Nb 3 2.13 10.82 4.25 3.88 4.63 4.3
120
Element Z rs EF Calculated Calculated Ab-initiomethod Experimental

(a.u) (eV) MPM (eV) SJM (eV) Ref. (eV) Ref.(Ashcroft Value (eV)
(Osiele,O.M., N.W et al. [22]) Ref.(Michaelson
et al. [23]) H.B, [4])
Ta 3 2.13 10.19 4.38 4.39 5.08 4.25
Cr 3 1.98 11.95 4.50 4.25 NA 4.50
Mo 3 2.03 11.36 4.52 4.28 5.34 4.60
W 3 2.04 11.47 4.40 NA NA 4.55
Mn 3 2.01 12.20 4.37 NA NA 4.10
Tc 3 1.97 10.90 4.76 NA NA NA
Re 3 2.01 10.90 4.62 NA NA 4.72
Fe 3 1.96 11.81 4.60 4.25 5.54 4.50
Ru 3 1.96 10.82 4.81 4.15 NA 4.71
Os 3 1.97 11.06 4.72 NA NA 4.83
Co 3 1.93 10.52 5.00 NA NA 5.00
Rh 3 2.07 9.26 4.80 4.12 NA 4.98
Ir 4 1.87 10.26 5.31 NA NA 5.27
Ni 3 1.92 9.66 5.25 3.96 NA 5.25
Pd 3 2.12 7.69 5.08 3.71 NA 5.12
Pt 4 1.91 8.79 5.56 4.05 NA 5.65
Cu 2 2.12 9.03 4.69 3.90 NA 4.65
Ag 2 2.39 7.48 4.31 3.16 NA 4.26
Au 3 2.22 7.25 4.88 3.59 NA 5.1
Zn 2 2.30 8.65 4.24 NA NA 4.33
Cd 2 2.59 6.45 4.10 3.40 NA 4.22
Hg 3 2.51 5.66 4.59 NA NA 4.49
B 2 1.84 15.40 4.44 NA NA 4.45
Al 3 2.07 11.30 4.34 3.96 NA 4.28
Ga 3 2.19 10.40 4.16 NA NA 4.2
In 3 2.41 8.60 3.96 NA NA 4.12
Tl 3 2.49 6.00 3.88 3.51 NA 3.84
C 2 1.93 10.50 5.0 NA NA 5.0
Si 4 2.00 12.50 4.34 NA NA 4.85
Ge 4 2.09 13.00 3.98 NA NA 5.0
Sn 4 2.22 10.20 4.12 NA NA 4.42
Pb 4 2.30 2.30 9.50 4.03 3.16 4.25
As 5 1.91 11.90 4.77 NA NA 5.11
Sb 5 2.14 10.90 4.21 NA NA 4.55
Bi 5 2.25 9.90 4.09 NA NA 4.22
Se 6 1.94 7.50 5.87 NA NA 5.9
Te 6 2.12 8.00 4.98 NA NA 4.95
Po 6 2.20 7.00 5.03 NA NA NA
Note: NA means not available
For some metals, there are large departures from this relationship which could also be attributed to
the complexity of their electronic structures. Fig. 2 shows the Comparison of SJM and experimental
Values with electron density parameter as seen from [23]. SJM agrees well with metals in the low
density limit but not too accurate in the high density limit. This limitation of SJM is well observed in the
high-density limit, rs 3.0 au where the agreement with the experimental values decreases with
decrease in the electron density parameter. This may be due to the fact that the simple metals are in
the low-density limit. In addition, the properties of non-simple metals are affected by band structure
and crystal structure, which the SJM does not put into consideration. However, SJM conformed with
the experimental values in the low density region rs 3.0 au . Fig. 3 shows the comparison of Ab-initio
method and experimental values with electron density parameter. In this derived figure, Ab-initio
results were all higher than the experimental values except in Ba Ca and Sr. For all the methods, the
calculated work function value reduces with an increase in electron density parameter.
121
4. CONCLUSION
The MPM used in this work is a new formula which shows the relationship of the work function, Fermi
energy as well as the electron density parameter. In this paper, the MPM has been successfully
compared with the SJM [23], Ab-initio [22] and Experimental values [4]. The SJM proved to be more
accurate for calculations of work function of simple metals, while MPM has agreeable results for pure-
metals and polycrystalline surfaces. However, in the semiconductors (Ge and Si) it gives a lower
value due to low screening efficiency. The work function of elemental metals obtained from the SJM
calculation was in fairly good agreement with experimental values. Considering the cubic
arrangements of lattice structures, the SJM gave more accurate results for the work functions of body
centred cubic (bcc) metals, followed by hexagonal closed packed (hcp) metals and was least accurate
for face centred cubic (fcc) metals. This shows that the SJM could be used to calculate and predict
the work function of metals. Although MPM and SJM were in good agreement with the experimental
values, MPM was more accurate than SJM for non-simple metals. This may be due to the band
structure, crystal strength and crystal structure which the SJM does not put into consideration.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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123
O. Olubosede
Department of Physics and Electronics, Federal University Oye, Ekiti, Nigeria.
Research and Academic Experience: Condensed Matter Physics
Research Area: Theoretical Condensed Matter
Number of Published papers: Thirty (30)

_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Applied Physics Research, 3(2), 2011.
124
Chapter 9
Probing Non Unitarity of Neutrino Mixing Matrix on

Lepton Flavour Violation, Leptogenesis and
Neutrino Oscillation Probability
Gayatri Ghosh1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/2874D
ABSTRACT
Neutrino Physics is a mature branch of science with all the three neutrino mixing angles and two mass
squared differences determined with high precision. Inspite of several experimental verifications of
neutrino oscillations and precise measurements of two mass squared differences and the three
mixing angles, the unitarity of the leptonic mixing matrix is not yet established, leaving room for the
presence of small non-unitarity effects. Deriving the bounds on these non-unitarity parameters from
existing experimental constraints, on cLFV decays such as, we
study their effects on the generation of baryon asymmetry through leptogenesis and neutrino
oscillation probabilities. We consider a model where see-saw is extended by an additional singlet S
which is very light, but can give rise to non-unitarity effects without affecting the form on see saw
formula. We do a parameter scan of a minimal see-saw model in a type I see-saw framework
satisfying the Planck data on baryon to photon ratio of the Universe, which lies in the interval,
5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 ( ). We predict values of lightest neutrino mass, and Dirac and
Majorana CP-violating phase , , for normal hierarchy and inverted hierarchy for one flavor
leptogenesis. It is worth mentioning that all these four quantities are unknown yet, and future
experiments will be measuring them. Future measurements related to Dirac CPV phase in neutrino
experiments will validate or contradict some of the results presented here. Our analysis in this work
only provides a benchmark for consistent works affiliated to model building.
Keywords: Neutrino mixing matrix; Leptogenesis; probability; non-unitarity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Neutrinos have non-zero masses. There are 3 known flavors of neutrinos, , , , each of which
couples only to the charged lepton of the same flavor. , , , are superpositions of three mass
eigenstates, where = , , is the neutrino of definite mass . The
cosmological constraints of the sum of the ν masses bound is from CMB, Planck
2015 data (CMB15+ LRG+ lensing + H0) [1]. We note that the lepton mixing matrix U has a big mixing
and we know almost nothing about the phases. The discoveries of neutrino mass and leptonic mixing
have come from the observation of neutrino flavor change, CP violation interchanges
every particle in a process by its antiparticle. This CP violation can be produced by the phase in
U. Neutrinos can have two types of mass term in the Lagrangian - Dirac and Majorana mass terms.
To determine whether Majorana masses occur in nature, so that the favorable approach to
seek is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay
In the conventional type I see-saw framework, there are Dirac and Majorana mass matrices mD and
MR in the Lagrangian,
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Department of Physics, Gauhati University Guwahati-781014, Assam, India.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: gayatrighsh@gmail.com;
Probing Non Unitarity of Neutrino Mixing Matrix on Lepton Flavour Violation, Leptogenesis and Neutrino Oscillation Probability
(1)
The low energy mass matrix is given by
(2)
In the usual unitarity scenario, the three active neutrinos, the flavor eigen states are
connected to the mass eigen states , , = , where Here N is the
generalized neutrino mixing matrix which could be either unitary or non-unitary. In the diagonal
charged lepton basis, is diagonalised by a unitary matrix as
(3)
The Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (PMNS) matrix is UP, where U is
(4)
Here = 33.56°, = 41.6°(50°), = 8.46°(8.49°) [2] (see ref. [2] for recent global fit values) are
the solar, atmospheric and reactor angles for Normal Ordering (Inverted Ordering) respectively. The
Majorana phases reside in P, where
(5)
Cosmologists suggest that just after the Big Bang, the universe contained equal amounts of matter
and antimatter. Today the universe contains matter but almost no antimatter. This change needs that
matter and antimatter act differently (CP violation). The CP-violating scenario to explain this change is
leptogenesis. Leptogenesis is a natural outcome of the see-saw Mechanism. In the see-saw picture,
we assume that, just as there are 3 light neutrinos , , , there are 3 heavy right-handed neutrinos
, , where ~10 GeV, ~ , , which were there in the Hot Big Bang. The
decays modes are:
(6)
where, , , , , SM Higgs. CP violation effects in the decays, may

result from phases in the decay coupling constants. This leads to unequal numbers of leptons
( ) and antileptons ( ̅ ) in the Universe,
(7)
In leptogenesis, CP-violating decays of heavy Majorana neutrinos create a lepton - antilepton

asymmetry [3,4] and then B+L violating sphaleron processes [5,6] at and above the electroweak
126
symmetry breaking scale converts part of this asymmetry into the observed baryon-antibaryon
asymmetry. The heavy neutrinos are see-saw partners of the observed light ones.
Depending on mass of the lightest heavy RH Majorana neutrinos (whose decay causes leptogenesis)
the leptogenesis can be of three types - unflavored (or one flavor), two flavored and three flavored
leptogenesis. For unflavored leptogenesis, valid for ≥ 10 GeV, we have taken here ~10 GeV
where the flavor of the final state leptons play no role. It can be shown that for lower values of it
depends on the flavor of the final state leptons, and hence is called flavored leptogenesis [7]. Here
we consider unflavored leptogenesis. For unflavored leptogenesis, the decay asymmetry in the case
of hierarchical heavy neutrinos is given by [8].
(8)
where, ( )= for > 1, i.e., for hierarchical heavy neutrinos. The baryon asymmetry of the
√
Universe is proportional to the decay asymmetry . The Dirac mass matrix in terms of a complex
and orthogonal matrix R is [9].
(9)
The compatible quantity for leptogenesis is then,
(10)
If R is real then there is no leptogenesis at all. Here, we have taken R = U (see Eq.(4)). R consists of
the low energy mixing elements and the CP phases. Since unitarity of neutrino mixing matrix has not
been proved yet, if it is non-unitary, then for the neutrino mixing matrix N to be non-unitary, we have
(11)
connecting the flavor and mass states. The non-unitary matrix N can be written as
(12)
where If , which is diagonalized by a non-unitary mixing matrix, originates from the

see-saw mechanism, we have
(13)
And thereupon, we have
(14)
For non-unitary matrix, Leptogenesis is no longer independent of the

low-energy phases. It depends on the phases in as well as to the phases in η. Leptogenesis [10]
is one of the exceedingly well inspired framework which produces baryon asymmetry of the Universe
through B + L violating electroweak sphaleron process [5,11].
127
In the conventional type I see-saw mechanism, due to the mixing of the left handed and right-handed
neutrinos the PMNS matrix is non-unitary. Nevertheless this non-unitarity is too small to have any
observable effects in Lepton Flavor Violation (LFV) or neutrino oscillation, (see Ref. [8,12,13]). If we
want to connect the lepton mixing matrix to leptogenesis via the Casas-Ibarra parametrization, then
there should not be any significant sizeable contribution to and leptogenesis other than the usual
see-saw terms. Hence we must decouple the origin of unitary violation from these terms. Mixing of the
light neutrinos with new physics, creates non-unitarity in the low-energy mixing matrix. We consider
here a model as used in Ref. [8] where the see-saw mechanism is enlarged by an additional singlet
sector, which leads to a 9 × 9 mass matrix. Here
(15)
where the upper left block is the one corresponding to usual type I see-saw mechanism. It can be
diagonalised with a unitary matrix F, such that,
(16)
The form of F is as given in Ref. [8]. As discussed in Ref. [8] with proper choice of various elements in
F and of Ms, it can be shown that
(17)
which shows that is the lepton mixing matrix, as there is no other significant contribution to
the mass term of the light neutrinos. Thus in this model, the usual see-saw mechanism remains
unaltered with unmodified leptogenesis. Here does not couple to the new singlets but a sizeable
non-unitary lepton mixing matrix N can be induced, thus providing us with a framework where we can
apply Eq.(14).
We consider here, that lepton asymmetry is generated by out of equilibrium decay of heavy right-
handed Majorana neutrinos into Higgs and lepton within the framework of type I see-saw mechanism.
In a hierarchical case of three right-handed heavy Majorana neutrinos , > , the lepton asymmetry
created by the decay of , the lightest of three heavy right-handed neutrinos is [14]
(18)
Here υ = 174 GeV, is the vacuum expectation value of the SM Higgs and,
128
(19)
At temperatures, ≥ 10 GeV all charged lepton flavors come out of equilibrium and thus all of them
behave in the same way which results in the one flavor regime. At moderate temperatures <
10 GeV( < 10 GeV), tau (muon) Yukawa coupling interactions come into equilibrium and hence
flavor effects play an important role in the calculation of lepton asymmetry [15–20]. The region of
temperatures belonging to 10 < / < 10 and / < 10 are respectively denoted as two and
three flavor regimes of leptogenesis [21].
The building blocks of matter are the quarks, the charged leptons, and the neutrinos. The discovery
and study of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has provided strong evidence that
the quarks and charged leptons derive their masses from a coupling to the Higgs field. Most theorists
strongly believe that the origin of the neutrino masses is different from the origin of the quark and
charged lepton masses. Neutrino oscillation has proved that neutrinos have non-zero masses. We,
and all matter may have descended from heavy neutrinos. We list the values of for one flavor
for different hierarchies and unitarity, non-unitarity of in Table 2, and check whether our values
of are consistent with the constraints on the absolute scale of ν masses. The new results
presented in this work are as follows:
 We have calculated new values of non-unitarity parameters of matrix from the bounds
on rare cLFV decays.
 Hence we predicted the absolute value of lightest ν mass in this regard. The values of lightest
ν mass lies in the range of 0.0018 eV to 0.0023 eV, 0.048 eV to 0.056 eV, 0.05 eV to 0.054
eV, 0.053 eV to 0.062 eV in one flavor leptogenesis regime.
 All these values satisfy the constraint,
The predicted values of CP-violating phases, and Majorana phases α and β are 36°, 72°, 108°,
144°, 180°, 216°, 252°, 288°, 324°, 360°.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section II, we show the effect of low energy phenomenology of
non-unitarity on charged lepton flavor violating decays in type I see-saw theories and present the
values of various parameters used in our analysis for the generation of baryon asymmetry of the
Universe through the mechanism of leptogenesis. Section III contains our calculations and results.
Section IV contains analysis and discussions. Section V summarizes the work.
2. LOW ENERGY PHENOMENOLOGY OF NON-UNITARITY AND LEPTOGENESIS
One interesting feature of non-unitarity of the PMNS matrix can be studied in rare charged lepton
flavor violation (LFV) decay processes. In the light of unitarity violation in decays such as →
, ( , ) = ( , ), ( , ), the branching ratio is [8]
(20)
Also
(21)
Using the latest updated constraint on [22], one can derive bounds on
from Eq.(22). It can be shown that
129
(22)
Now, we calculate the ratio,
Thus we find constraints on from Eq.(23), using the latest constraint on
(23)
From our calculation, the ratio is,
(24)
And then we calculate the latest updated bounds on The calculations are summarized in Table
1. We note that interesting results on cLFV in NUSM, NUHM, NUGM, mSUGRA models are
presented in Ref. [23] in which we have predicted some values of new SUSY particles that may be
detected at next run of LHC.
Returning to leptogenesis, the baryon asymmetry should lie in the interval, 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 ×
10 [24]. In general, we have taken complex and orthogonal matrix = , but R can be taken
as = × in non SUSY SO(10) models [20] (see ref. [20] for detailed discussion on it) as
studied in the context of breaking entanglement of octant of in the light of baryon
asymmetry of the universe through the mechanism of leptogenesis.
For the Normally ordered light neutrino masses, we have
(25)
Table 1. Our calculated constraints on non-unitarity parameter using branching

ratios of latest cLFV decays taken from [22]
Serial No. Latest updated Branching Ratios on cLFV Calculated bounds on |η|αβ
Decays
-13 -6
1 BR(μ→e+ү) = 4.2*10 |η|μe = 6.64733013 *10
2 BR(τ→μ+ү) = 4.4 *10-8 |η|τμ = 5.11766 *10-3
-8 -3
3 BR(τ→e+ү) =3.3*10 |η|τe = 7.021 *10
With as is evident
from the neutrino oscillation data [2], being the lightest of three neutrino masses. For the inverted
ordered light neutrino masses, we have
(26)
130
With being the lightest of the three neutrino masses. Next, we do the parameter scan for one
flavored leptogenesis of a minimal see-saw model satisfying the Planck data on baryon to photon ratio
of the universe for four cases :
(i) Normal hierarchical structure neutrino masses, non-unitarity of PMNS matrix.

(ii) Normal hierarchical structure neutrino masses, unitarity of PMNS matrix.
(iii) Inverted hierarchical structure of neutrino masses, non-unitarity of PMNS matrix.
(iv) Inverted hierarchical structure neutrino masses, unitarity of PMNS matrix.
We perform random scan of the parameter space for NH, IH in the light of recent ratio of the baryon to
photon density bounds 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 in the following ranges:
(27)
While doing parameter scan, we find values of lightest neutrino mass, Majorana phases α, β and
Dirac CPV phase , or which baryon to photon ratio YB lies in the given range, for above four cases.
This is done for one flavor/unflavored leptogenesis regime.
3. CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS
Results of our analysis have been presented in Fig. 1 - Fig. 9. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that in the
one-flavor regime, NH structure of neutrino masses, non-unitarity textures of PMNS matrix can give
rise to correct baryon asymmetry of the Universe, 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 , if the lightest ν mass
lies around 0.0018 eV to 0.0023 eV. A close numerical inspection of the situation reveals that for a
lightest neutrino mass of 0.0024 eV-0.005 eV, one can exceed the upper bound on YB. The
dependence of lightest neutrino mass m1 on Majorana phases a, ß is shown in the left, right panel of
Fig. 2 respectively, YB. being constrained in the order 10 . We find that = 10 GeV is favoured
in the light of baryon asymmetry of the Universe for one flavor regime.
Fig. 3 shows the scatter plot of the lightest neutrino mass against the baryon asymmetry of the
Universe with.
Normal hierarchy, and unitary in one flavor regime. For to be in the range, 5.8 × 10 <
-10
< 6.6 × 10 , lies between 0.048 eV to 0.056 eV. For in the order 10 , the lightest
neutrino mass is mostly concentrated in the region 0.043 eV to 0.006 eV.
In Fig. 4 we have shown the variation of lightest neutrino mass with Dirac CP phase and
Majorana phase α for NH (normal hierarchy), unitarity texture. For to be in the consistent BAU
range 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 , one of the values of predicted by us, i.e. =252.9° is also
favoured in the recent global fit values, =253.8° for normal hierarchy. It can be seen from Fig. 5
that in the one-flavor regime, IH structure of neutrino masses, nonunitarity textures of PMNS matrix
-10
can give rise to baryon asymmetry of the Universe, of the order of 10 , if the lightest neutrino mass
lies around 0.05 eV to 0.054 eV. Few Points lie in the region, 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 .
131
Fig. 1. Scatter plot of the lightest neutrino mass against the baryon asymmetry of the
Universe with normal hierarchy, non-unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime. The
-2
values of [eV] along the x-axis is multiplied by 10
Fig. 2. Variation of lightest neutrino mass with Majorana phases α and β in case of NH, non-
unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime. is in eV. The values of [eV] in Fig. a, b
-2
along the x-axis is multiplied by 10
Fig. 6 shows the scattered plot of lightest neutrino mass against Dirac CPV phase and
Majorana phase α in IH of neutrino mass, non-unitarity case of one flavor leptogenesis regime. Fig. 7
shows the variation of the lightest neutrino mass against the baryon asymmetry of the Universe and
Dirac CP phase with Inverted hierarchy, unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime. For
in the order 10-10, the lightest ν mass is concentrated in the region 0.053 eV to 0.062 eV. In Fig. 8
we have shown the scatter plot of with Majorana phase αand β for IH, Unitarity texture of in
one flavor leptogenesis regime.
132
Fig. 3. Scatter plot of the lightest neutrino mass against the the baryon asymmetry of the
Universe with normal hierarchy, unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime.
Fig. 4. Variation of lightest neutrino mass on Dirac CP phase and Majorana phases α in
case of NH unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime
4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
We present here some comments, that reflect the main inference of this work. From the results
presented in Table 2 we see that in all the four cases, there exist values of lightest neutrino mass,
satisfying the constraint, and those of present day baryon asymmetry of the
Universe. The analysis of our results can be summarized as follows:
 One Flavor Leptogenesis: The value of lightest neutrino mass shifts to higher value in IH
case, as compared to NH. Non-unitarity effects decrease the value of lightest neutrino mass
in both NH and IH and the diminishing effect is more severe in NH.
 We also found that non-unitarity affects the probability of ν oscillation
133
Fig. 5. Scatter plot of the lightest neutrino mass against the baryon asymmetry of the
Universe with inverted hierarchy, non-unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime
Table 2. Our calculated results for with inverted hierarchy, normal hierarchy and one
flavor leptogenesis. The symbol is used when is within (not within) updated BAU
range
Case One Flavour

NH, non- unitarity 0.0018 eV-0.0023 eV √
NH, unitarity 0.048 eV to 0.056 eV √
IH, non-unitarity 0.05 eV to 0.054 eV √
IH, unitarity 0.053 eV to 0.062 eV √
Fig. 6. Variation of lightest neutrino mass against Dirac CP phase and Majorana phase
α in case of IH, non-unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis regime. The values of [eV] in
-2
Fig. b along the x-axis is multiplied by 10
134
The predicted values of CP-violating phases, and Majorana phases α and β are 36°,72°,108°,
144°, 180°, 216°, 252°, 288°, 324°, 360°.
Fig. 7. Scatter plot of the lightest neutrino mass against the baryon asymmetry of the Universe
and Dirac CP phase with Inverted hierarchy, unitarity case in one flavor leptogenesis
regime. For in the order 10-10, the lightest ν mass is concentrated in the region 0.053eV
to 0.062 eV. The values of [eV] in Fig. b along the x-axis is multiplied by 10-2
Fig. 8. Variation of lightest neutrino mass with Majorana phase α and β for IH, Unitarity
texture of in one flavor leptogenesis regime. The values of [eV] in Fig. a along the x-
-2
axis is multiplied by 10
Fig. 9. Variation of ( → ) against energy E in Long Baseline Neutrino Experiments with

value of Dirac CP phase, = . , equal to the best fit value [2]. The yellow (red) curve in
the figure corresponds to unitarity (non-unitarity) of PMNS matrix
135
Table 3. The results for Dirac CPV phase and two Majorana phases α, β of all the four
cases mentioned above in one flavor leptogenesis regime in this work
δ α β
360 720 1080
0 0 0
144 180 216
2520 2880 3240
3600
5. CONCLUSION
To conclude, in this work, we have considered the possibility that the neutrino mixing matrix
(considering charged lepton mass matrix to be diagonal), could be non-unitary, and then
calculated the limits on non-unitary parameters , (see Table 1) from latest constraints
on branching ratios of cLFV decays. It is well known that in usual type I see-saw mechanism, mixing
of left and right handed neutrinos may lead to non-unitarity but it has been found that [12] its effect is
not significant for processes like lepton flavor violation and neutrino oscillation. Therefore we consider
here a model (see Ref. [8]) where see-saw is extended by an additional singlet (very light) which
although induces non-unitarity of the matrix, it leaves formula for see-saw mechanism
unmodified. This non-unitarity however may affect leptogenesis. Baryogenesis through leptogenesis is
believed to be responsible for producing the matter-antimatter asymmetry present in the present day
universe, which can be expressed through parameter (baryon to photon ratio). We then analysed
how the non-unitarity of can affect leptogenesis, and hence calculated the values of lightest ν
mass, Dirac CPV phase and Majorana phases α and β, such that lies in the present day
constraints 5.8 × 10 < < 6.6 × 10 . This was done using type I see saw mechanisms for
producing light neutrino masses.
Above analysis was done for different cases - NH neutrino masses, unitary ; NH neutrino
masses, non unitary ; IH neutrino masses, unitary ; IH neutrino masses, non-unitary
We discussed these issues for unflavored leptogenesis regimes, for which ≥ 10 ,
where is the lightest of the three heavy right-handed Majorana neutrinos, whose out of equilibrium
decays produces lepton asymmetry (which in turn can be converted to BAU).
In this work, we have calculated new limits on non-unitarity parameters using latest bounds on cLFV
decays and thus predicted values of lightest neutrino mass, (Table 2) for both the hierarchies, which is
still unknown experimentally. We also have predicted values of CPV phase - (Dirac phase) and α
and β (Majorana phases), which are also unknown so far (Table 3). Though Majorana phases do not
affect neutrino oscillation probability, they may affect neutrino mass measurements in 0
experiments. Hence the results in this work are important, keeping in view that in future, experiments
will be endeavoring to measure the values of absolute value of neutrino mass, and CP-violating phase
and α, β (Majorana phases). Future measurements related to Dirac CPV phase in neutrino
experiments will validate or contradict some of the results presented here. Our analysis in this work
only provides a benchmark for consistent works affiliated to model building.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
GG and KB would like to thank Debasish Borah for fruitful discussions, and suggestions. GG would
like to thank UGC, Government of India, for providing RFSMS fellowship to her, during which this
work was done. GG also acknowledges the fruitful discussions carried out on the constraints of the
sum of the absolute neutrino mass scale at the XXII DAE BRNS High energy physics symposium, 12 -
16 December, 2016, Delhi University, India.
COMPETING INTERESTS
136
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137
Assistant Professor Dr. Gayatri Ghosh

Department of Physics, Gauhati University Guwahati-781014, Assam, India.
She is currently working in the Physics Department of PDUAM, Karimganj, Assam as an Assistant Professor. Her current
Research interest includes Flavor Physics, Neutrino Physics, Higgs Physics. She has been a JRF and SRF awardee of the
RFSMS Fellowship funded by UGC India for 5 years for the topic entitled "Aspects Of Lepton Masses, Mixings and Flavor
Violation in Supersymmetric Theories". She also worked as an assistant professor, Head of the Department in Physics
Department of Barak Valley Engineering College, Gauhati University from 2017 to 2020. She has been awarded Gold Medal
in B.Sc Physics Honours from Assam University in 2008 and Silver Medal in MSC Physics from Gauhati University in 2011.
Her research area include High Energy Physics, Neutrino Physics, Beyond Standard Model physics, Flavor Physics, Higgs
Physics. She has published Nine International Papers (SCOPUS, SCI INDEXED) and Five National Papers. Special Award:
She has got special award for Bisharad in Kathak Dance from Lucknow University and presented many papers in National and
International Conferences in High Energy Physics. She also got Life Time Membership for Women in Science For the
Developing World Under United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Advances in High Energy Physics, 2018, 2018, Article ID 5093251.
138
Chapter 10
Assessment of QRS Detection on Noisy ECG Signal

Using Threshold-based Method
M. A. Z. Fariha1*, R. Ikeura2, S. Hayakawa2 and S. Tsutsumi2
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/7085D
ABSTRACT
The threshold-based method has been used at the last stage of most QRS detection for monitoring
many cardiac diseases including arrhythmias detection. The method also been proven to achieve
good detection accuracy in clean and high-quality ECG signal. However, the threshold-based method
is sensitive to noise and the performance of detectors will be affected by low-quality ECG signal data.
The numerous types of noise and different abnormal morphological of ECG signal will produce low-
quality of signal. Because of that, the performance of the threshold-based method to detect the QRS
complex in low-quality ECG signals should be investigated. In this paper, to assess the QRS detection
on noisy ECG signal, the performance of threshold-based method is evaluated. Two experiments
were performed using MIT-BIH Noise Stress Test data and MIT-BIH Arrhythmia data to assess the
algorithm performance. The performance of the algorithm was then analysed and presented. This
paper shows the capability of the threshold-based detection method to identify QRS complex in noisy
ECG signals.
Keywords: QRS detection; noisy ECG signal; threshold-based method.
1. INTRODUCTION
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a graphical representation of the electric waves generated during a

cardiac cycle. It provides information about heart rate morphology and rhythm [1,2]. Cardiologists use
ECG to diagnose and monitor cardiac diseases including the detection of arrhythmia [3,4,5].
Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are a fundamental and reliable test for the diagnosis of heart arrhythmias
[6]. A normal-beat ECG signal consists of a P-wave, a QRS complex along with T-waves as shown in
Fig. 1. The QRS complex or R-peaks is an important feature in the ECG signal. They play an
essential role in many algorithms used for automated ECG analyses [7,8]. Based on the identified
QRS complex and R-peak, the rest of the waves and ECG features can be detected [2].
Fig. 1. ECG features
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu-shi, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu City, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: 418DB53@m.mie-u.ac.jp;
Assessment of QRS Detection on Noisy ECG Signal Using Threshold-based Method
During the recording process, numerous types of noise exist in the ECG signal [9,10]. The ECG signal
is composed from different subjects and devices commonly manifested by the variations in the
amplitude of the heartbeat. This situation produces a low-quality signal that can impact the QRS
detection performance [11]. Many approaches to improve QRS and R-peak detection have been
proposed in previous work [7,12]. According to [13], the threshold-based method has been used as
the last stage for most of QRS detection algorithms because of its simplicity and computational
efficiency. It has also been proven to achieve good detection performance in high-quality clinical ECG
signal data [9,12,14].
However, the threshold-based method is quite sensitive to noise and their performance is affected by
the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) [13]. The capability of the threshold-based method in detecting the
QRS complexes in ambulatory ECG signal with low-quality and noisy signals still needs to be clarified.
Thus, the performance of the threshold-based algorithm to detect the QRS complex in the noisy ECG
signal is investigated in this paper.
One of the most commonly used threshold-based methods is the algorithm introduced by Pan and
Tompkins [15]. The algorithm is the most widely used and frequently cited approach for the detection
of QRS complexes. To assess the detection of QRS complex in noisy ECG signal, the Pan Tompkins
algorithm was employed and evaluated in this study. To investigate the performance of the algorithm,
two groups of ECG signal data with different noise environments were used in the experiments. The
results of the experiments are presented and discussed in this paper.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describe the noise and artefacts
present in the ECG signal; Section 3 outlines the databases used in this study. Then, the
implementation and the evaluation performance of the algorithms are described in Sections 4 and 5.
The final section summarises this work.
2. NOISES AND ARTEFACTS IN ECG SIGNALS
The recognition of QRS complex in the ECG signal might be influenced by the presence of noise and
artefacts. These artefacts could emerge due to physiological and non-physiological factors, such as
muscle activity, skin movements, electrical devices or improper use of the equipment [14]. There are
four common types of noise in ECG signals that distort the ECG signal rhythm which is: 1) Baseline
wander (BW); 2) Muscle noise (EMG); 3) Power line interference and 4) Motion artefact (MA) noise.
The BW is a common low-frequency signal that usually stems from the subject motion or leads. The
EMG is a signal contaminated with muscular contraction artefacts whereas Power Line Interference
occurs at multiples of the main frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) [11,13]. Among them, the MA is usually the
most difficult to handle and is a result of the subject movement that is more closely related to random
limb movement [16].
3. DATABASES
In this study, two annotated ECG databases were used: 1) The MIT-BIH Noise Stress Test Database
(NST) [16] and 2) The MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database (MIT) [17]. The databases are summarized in
Table 1 and further described in the following sections.
3.1 The MIT-BIH Noise Stress Test Database (NST)
The NST database [16] contains 12 half-hour ECGs and three half-hour noise recordings. The ECG
signal in NST was produced based on two clean records from the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database
(Records 118 and 119) with (24, 18, 12, 6, 0 and −6) dB SNR. During two-minute segments
alternating with clean sections, the noise was added at the beginning after 5 minutes of each file. The
three noise recordings were collected from physically active volunteers with standard ECG recorders
and equipment. The noise recording contained typical artefacts in an ambulatory signal such as the
BW, the EMG, and the MA.
140
Table 1. A comparison between the NST and MIT databases
Characteristics Databases
NST MIT
Device Type Holter Monitor Holter Monitor
Signal Type Ambulatory ECG Ambulatory ECG
Record 12 48
Duration 30 minutes 30 minutes
Activity Type N/A N/A
SNR (24, 18, 12, 6, 0, -6) dB N/A
Noise Artefacts in ambulatory ECG Artefacts in ambulatory ECG
and motion artefact (from the
physically active subject)
3.2 MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database (MIT)
The MIT database [17] has reportedly been used in many publications. This database includes 48
heartbeat recordings at 360 Hz. Each record of 47 different patients is 30 minutes in duration and
contains two leads: 1) Lead A, modification of Lead II and; 2) Lead B, regular lead V1, V2, V5 or V4.
The database has been employed by researchers to test algorithms for QRS detection and arrhythmia
detection and classification [1]. As per Mood and Mark [18], Lead A is commonly used to identify the
characteristics of heartbeats while Lead B is normally used to identify arrhythmic types
Supraventricular ectopic beats and Ventricular ectopic beat.
4. THE QRS DETECTION BASED ON THRESHOLD METHOD
In this study, the Pan-Tompkins algorithm is selected as the threshold-based method. The Pan-
Tompkins algorithm used as a QRS detection method in real-time approaches [15]. This algorithm
utilises the amplitude, slope, and width of an integrated window to identify the R-peaks in QRS
complexes [15]. The algorithm consists of two stages, which are pre-processing and decision. In pre-
processing, the raw ECG signal is prepared as input to the detection process. Pre-processing
includes noise removal, signal smoothing, width and QRS slope increasing. Then, the thresholds are
used to select the signal peaks and eliminate the noise peaks in the decision stage.
The algorithm consists of a band-pass filter (Low Pass and High Pass Filters), derivatives, a squaring
function, a moving window integration (MWI), threshold, and decision, as shown in the diagram in Fig.
2. In this algorithm, the noise and artefact present in the ECG signal were reduced using a digital
band-pass filter. To adapt to the changes in QRS morphology and heart rate, the thresholds were
automatically adjusted with the parameter in the decision stages. The detailed algorithm process flow
is presented in the flowchart of Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. A block diagram of the Pan-Tompkins algorithm
141
Fig. 3. The process flow of the Pan-Tompkins algorithm

A more detailed explanation of each process is given below [15]. The implementation of the
algorithms using the record from NST database (Record 118e12) and the MIT database (Record 118)
is also presented. Since Record 118e12 (NST) with 12 dB SNR was produced from Record 118
(MIT), a comparison between both records of noisy and clean data is observed.
4.1 Band-Pass Filter

The band-pass filter reduces the influence of noise. The desirable passband maximises the QRS
energy up to a suitable frequency. The Low Pass Filter (LPF) and High Pass Filter (HPF) were
cascaded to achieve an approximately 5–15 Hz passband. LPF was used to remove the high-
frequency noise such as EMG, Power Line Interference, and T-wave interference while allowing the
low-frequency signals to be recorded. HPF was used to remove the low-frequency noise such as the
Baseline Wander while keep the high-frequency signals.
Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 show the raw ECG signal (a) and the output of the Band-Pass Filter (b). Since NST
data was added with the motion artefact noise, this data has a lower quality ECG signal compared to
the MIT data. The noise is illustrated in Fig. 4.1(a) where the signal displays unstable amplitudes,
which influenced the R-peak identification in the signal. However, the digital band-pass filter output
shows that the noisy signal was improved and has better quality after the filtering, as shown in Figs.
4.1(b) and 4.2 (b).
Fig. 4.1. NST database (a) Raw signal data and (b) Filtered data
142
Fig. 4.2. MIT database (a) Raw signal data and (b) Filtered data
4.2 Derivative
After the filtering process, the ECG signal was differentiated to increase the high amplitude peaks in
the signal. The low-frequency P- and T-waves were suppressed in the derivative process to gain high-
frequency signals existing in the higher slopes of the QRS complex. Then, the higher amplitudes in
the signal related to the QRS complex were further enhanced. Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 show the output of
the derivative process, which enhanced the slope of the QRS complex in ECG signals.
Fig. 5.1. NST database (Derivative output)
Fig. 5.2. MIT database (Derivative output)
4.3 Squaring Function
From the derivative process, the signal was squared so that all components of the signal displayed a
positive value, as shown in Figs. 6.1 and 6.2. The squaring function helps reduce the usual higher
amplitudes from T-waves that cause false detection. This process emphasises large differences from
the QRS complexes. In a noisy environment, since the ECG signal contained motion artefact, the
output from the squaring process is troublesome with the interferes of high amplitudes of noise.
Fig. 6.1. NST database (Squaring output)
143
Fig. 6.2. MIT database (Squaring output)
4.4 Moving Window Integration (MWI)
In this step, the MWI is performed to acquire information from the waveform feature with the addition
of the R-wave slope. The integrated window is important in this process. The widest integrated
window must be used to match with a possible QRS complex. A window with a width of 30 samples
(150 ms) was used in this algorithm for the sample rate of 200 Hz [15]. Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 show the
comparison of the R-wave found in the signal. The output in Fig. 7.1 shows that the high amplitudes of
the R-wave slope are identified in the signal and the false detection of the R-wave slopes is observed
in a noisy signal (Fig. 7.1).
Fig. 7.1. NST database (MWI output)
Fig. 7.2. MIT Database (MWI Output)
4.5 Decision
Once the signal is pre-processed, the filtered signal will be used as the input in the decision stage.
This step is performed to decide whether or not the fiducial marks from the MWI signal is a QRS
complex by using the thresholds. Two thresholds were used to ensure the right peak was chosen. The
threshold automatically adjusted to detect the QRS peak in the ECG signal. Figs. 8.1 and 8.2 show
the comparison of QRS complex detected in the noisy signal, NST and clean signal, MIT. As can be
seen, there are many false detections of QRS complex in the noisy signal because of the high
amplitude artefact that imitated the QRS peak. This condition has degraded the detection of the QRS
complex and affected the performance.
Fig. 8.1. NST database (QRS complex detected)
144
Fig. 8.2. MIT database (QRS complex detected)
5. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Two experiments were carried out in this study to evaluate the performance of the Pan-Tompkins
algorithm in noisy ECG signals. These experiments were run to achieve the following goals: 1) to
assess the performance of QRS detection in different intensity of noisy ECG signal, and 2) to assess
the performance of the algorithm in arrhythmias ambulatory ECG signal. To evaluate the performance
of the algorithm, 12 records of NST with MA noise (with different SNRs) [16] and 48 records from MIT
[17] is used in this study. The data was processed in MATLAB R2017B software. The reference
annotation and WFDB toolbox provided by Physionet website were used for the evaluation [18].
According to ANSI/AAMI [19], two evaluation metrics can be used to evaluate QRS detection is
Sensitivity (Se) and Positive predictivity (+P). Many previous works related to QRS detection also
used these two parameters to evaluate algorithm performance [7,14]. One more measurement also
has been used in order to evaluate noisy ECG signal which is Error detection (DER) [11,20].
Sensitivity is defined as the percentage of true QRS correctly detected by the algorithm, Positive
predictivity represents the percentage of the detected QRS while DER denoted the percentage of the
error detection rate. Sensitivity, Positive predictivity and Error detection are computed using Equations
(1), (2) and (3), respectively:
= × 100% (1)
+ = × 100% (2)
= × 100% (3)
where True Positive (TP) is the number of QRS correctly identified, False Negative (FN) is the number
of QRS that was not detected, and False Positive (FP) is the number of non-QRS peaks is detected
as the QRS complex.
To achieve the first objective, the records from the NST database with different levels of SNR are
used in the experiments. The SNR is representing the quality of ECG signal with different noise
intensity level. The signal with MA noise created by clean signal from record numbered 118 and 119
with SNR of 24 dB to −6 dB was investigated. The MA noise is used since it the most difficult to
handle and can imitate the morphology of ECG signal [9]. The details of the ECG signal with SNR are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Levels of SNR in NST database
SNR (dB) Records 118 Records 119

Low Noise 24 118e24 119e24
18 118e18 119e18
12 118e12 119e12
6 118e06 119e06
0 118e00 119e00
High Noise −6 118e_6 119e_6
145
The performance of the algorithms using record 118 and 119 that contaminated with motion artefact
from NST data is presented in Tables 3 and 4. Based on the results, the algorithm achieves higher Se
and +P with bigger than 99% in the signal of SNR of 24 dB to 18 dB for both record 118 and 119. This
result shows that the algorithm was still capable of detecting QRS in a noisy signal with the lower
SNR. However, the detection performance decreased with an increased level of SNR for both
records. At the SNR -6 dB, the detection performance achieved lower percentage with 71.47% of Se
and 60.50% of +P in the record 118 while 66.48% of Se and 54.21% of +P in the record 119. In both
records with low SNR, the performance results of +P have lower percentage compared with the Se,
showing the number of false detection is higher in a noisy signal.
Table 3. Performance analysis using record 118 from NST database
Records Se (%) +P (%)

118e24 100.00 99.96
118e18 100.00 99.96
118e12 99.96 95.39
118e06 97.76 79.39
118e00 91.09 70.87
118e_6 71.47 60.50
Table 4. Performance analysis using record 119 from NST database
Records Se (%) +P (%)

119e24 100.00 100.00
119e18 100.00 99.90
119e12 99.95 87.92
119e06 98.09 74.28
119e00 89.63 64.34
119e_6 66.48 54.21
Fig. 9 shows the algorithm behaviour of detection performance in different SNRs and Fig. 10 shows
the error detection of the algorithm. An assessment of the performance results and error detection
indicates that increasing the noise contributed to the worst detection performance. The performance
results show that the algorithm has a good detection in noise up to 12 dB SNR with lower error
detection (Fig. 10). In SNR higher than 12 dB were signal containing a minimum level of noise is
increasingly attained. While in SNR values lower than 6 dB, the Se and +P decreased drastically
depending on the amount of noise in the signal. The results show (in Fig. 9), the +P much affected
with the noise compared with the Se performance that presents the number of false positives is higher
than false negatives.
Fig. 9. Analysis of algorithms behavior with different SNR
146
Fig. 10. Error detection with different SNR
To achieve the second goals, an experiment was performed to assess the detection of QRS complex
performance in arrhythmias ambulatory ECG signal. The MIT data is used as the most widely used
standard database recommended by ANSI/AAMI for arrhythmia detection [1]. The same procedure for
noisy data is performed for the arrhythmia data in this experiment. Table 5 shows the evaluation
results of the algorithm using MIT data. The result shows the performance of the algorithm with all
records (rec) in the MIT data yielded higher sensitivity and positive predictivity including record 118
(100% of Se and 99.96% of +P) and 119 (100% of Se and 100% of +P), which was the clean record
used for the NST data. It can be observed that the algorithm can perform well in ECG signal that has
different morphological structure due to arrhythmias rhythm.
Table 5. Performance analysis using MIT database
Records Se(%) +P (%) Records Se(%) +P (%)

100 100.00 100.00 201 96.64 100.00
101 99.89 99.73 202 99.53 100.00
102 100.00 100.00 203 97.11 99.25
103 99.95 100.00 205 99.74 100.00
104 98.70 98.57 207 98.98 99.68
105 99.46 98.27 208 98.65 99.83
106 99.85 100.00 209 100.00 99.97
107 99.25 100.00 210 98.45 99.85
108 99.77 83.27 212 100.00 100.00
109 99.80 100.00 213 99.94 100.00
111 99.48 100.00 214 99.82 99.96
112 100.00 100.00 215 99.91 100.00
113 100.00 100.00 217 99.82 99.91
114 99.95 100.00 219 100.00 100.00
115 100.00 100.00 220 100.00 100.00
116 99.05 99.87 221 99.84 100.00
117 100.00 100.00 222 99.07 99.07
118 100.00 99.96 223 99.54 100.00
119 100.00 100.00 228 99.66 99.56
121 99.89 100.00 230 100.00 100.00
122 100.00 100.00 231 100.00 100.00
123 99.80 100.00 232 100.00 99.94
124 99.32 100.00 233 99.90 100.00
200 99.85 99.85 234 99.89 100.00
147
6. CONCLUSION
This study presented the performance results of the threshold-based method in order to assess the
QRS detection in noisy ECG signal data. The Pan Tompkins algorithm has been employed as a
threshold-based method that consists of a band-pass filter (LPF and HPF), derivatives, square,
integral, and threshold process. Two experiments have been performed to evaluate algorithm
performance by using different intensity level of noisy signal and arrhythmias ambulatory signal data.
The performance result with motion artefact in different intensity level achieved Se (> 90%) at 24dB to
6dB SNR. However, the existence of noise and artefacts in the signal, especially with high noise such
at SNR -6dB distorted the morphological ECG signal thus affected the detection process. The result
also showed the algorithm competence in detecting the QRS complex in arrhythmia ambulatory signal
with high Se (>96%). As a conclusion, the algorithm was capable to perform the QRS detection in
noisy and arrhythmia ECG signal data. However, the improvement still is needed especially to
improved detection in high noisy signals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology and TATI University College Malaysia for supports in this study.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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16. Moody GB, Muldrow WE, Mark RG. A noise stress test for Arrhythmia detectors. Computers in
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17. Goldberger AL, Amaral LAN, Glass L, Hausdorff JM, Ivanov P, Mark RG, Mietus JE, Moody GB,
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149
M. A. Z. Fariha
Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu-shi, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
She received the BCS. degree in Software Engineering and M.Sc. degree in Intelligent Computing from University Putra
Malaysia, Malaysia in 2008 and 2013, respectively. Currently, she is working towards a Ph.D. degree at the Graduate School of
Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Japan. She is Lecturer at Faculty of Computer, Media and Technology Management,
University College TATI, Terengganu, Malaysia. She received a Sarjana Terengganu award by state of Terengganu, Malaysia
in 2008. Her research interests include intelligent system design and machine learning application, software quality in software
engineering on educational application. Her current research is in biomedical signal processing for monitoring and detection of
abnormal health events, especially the identification of a cardiac abnormalities in ambulatory ECG signals.
R. Ikeura
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu city, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
He received the B.E., M.E., and Ph.D. degrees, all in mechanical engineering from Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, in 1986,
1988, and 1991, respectively. Currently he is a professor at Division of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of
Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Japan. He received a young engineer award and an outstanding paper award from Japan
Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1995 and 2004, respectively. His areas of research include cooperative control of robots
and humans, development of power assist device for industry and an enhanced robot for assisting care giver person, analysis
and subjective evaluation of human motion for developing human-machine interface.
S. Hayakawa
He received the Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from NAGOYA University, Nagoya, Japan, in 1996. Currently he is an
associate professor at Division of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Japan. He
received the IEEJ best paper presentation award, the IEEJ industrial measurement and control technology committee best
paper award and the outstanding lecture award of SI2009 in 2003, 2004 and 2010, respectively. His research areas include the
autonomous vehicle control, the development of advanced driving assist system, cooperative control of robots and humans,
analysis and modeling of human motion for developing human friendly machine system.
150
S. Tsutsumi
He received the B.E., M.E., and Ph.D. degrees, all in engineering from Kagawa University in 2008, 2010 and 2013 respectively.
Currently he is an assistant professor at Division of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University,
Tsu, Japan. And he was a research assistant professor at Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and
Technology. His areas of research include humans, transportation and vehicle simulations, development of human-machine
interface understanding and considering the condition of drivers, behavior analysis of humans and drivers.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1532(012022): 1-11, 2020.
151
Chapter 11
A Frame Work for Decimal Floating Point Multiplier

Using Vinculum Multipliers
G. Sreelakshmi1*, Kaleem Fatima2 and B. K. Madhavi3
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6866D
ABSTRACT
IEEE Decimal floating point format play an important role in many financial, tax, account, commercial
and internet based applications for which binary floating point format is not suitable. IEEE Standards
Association approved a revision to the IEEE 754-1995 format to IEEE 754-2008 which includes
specifications for DFP formats and operations. This paper broadens our past work on floating point
multiplier utilizing proficient vinculum multipliers for mantissa multiplication and vinculum adders for
adding exponents.
Keywords: Signed Digit; floating point multiplier; Urdhav Triyagbhyam; VBCD multipliers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Designing of hardware units for decimal arithmetic is a growing interest among researchers to achieve
better latency and throughput for highly complex, accurate fast computation required in business and
commercial applications. The basic binary number system can be used for decimal arithmetic
operations but it requires conversions at both ends. These conversions will take significant amount of
processing time which increase delay. Binary and Decimal number system supports integer and
fractional parts in numbers and the system which uses fractional numbers may result in lack of
accuracy which in turn has a greater negative impact on commercial, financial and tax applications.
To solve these problems, interest in hardware design of decimal arithmetic is growing. This has led to
the incorporation of specifications of decimal arithmetic in the IEEE-754 2008 standard for floating-
point arithmetic [1]. With high performance and low resource usage it is expected to facilitate the
implementation of business applications [2,3]. In DFP formats, multipliers play an important role in
multiplication of mantissas. Among all arithmetic operations, multiplication is a complex operation. To
speed up this operation, different methods were explained in the literature: Mixed Binary and BCD
Approach [4], Multiplication via Carry Save Addition [5], Efficient Partial Product Generation [6], using
Radix-10 multipliers [7,8,9], Parallel Decimal Multipliers [10,11,12,13], Compressor Trees for partial
product reduction [14], Multi operand Decimal Adders [15,16], Redundant BCD and Signed Digit
Adders [17,18], High performance Vedic decimal multiplier using binary to BCD converter [19],
Vinculum BCD Multiplier (VBCD multiplier) [20,21]. In our earlier approach in [20], we had proposed a
vinculum BCD multiplier based on Ten’s complement method [22,23]. There also we used vertical
cross wire method to generate partial products but the generated partial products were checked for
+ve or −ve and if it is −ve, it was passed through Ten’s complemented circuit and those products were
given to the adder circuit.
In this paper floating point multiplication using vinculum multiplier is proposed. The number system we
used is vinculum number system {-4, 5} in which –ve numbers are represented in two’s complement
form [24]. In this method mantissas are multiplied using vinculum multipliers and exponents are added
using vinculum adders and simple xor gate is used to identify sign bit of the resultant floating point
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
2
Muffakamjah College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
3
Siddhartha Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: gantisiriphd@gmail.com;
multiplier. Terms like NaN (Not a Number), overflow, underflow, and normalization were explained
with the help of examples and simulation results were shown for various inputs.
The outline of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, review of decimal multiplication, vertical
and cross wire method used in generation of partial products were discussed. In section 3 is focused
on Vinculum binary coded multipliers and in section 4 Floating point multiplier is discussed along with
Results, Conclusions and Future scope in section 5.
2. REVIEW OF BCD REPRESENTATIONS AND DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION
Vazquez and E. Antelo implemented a BCD multiplier using a recoding technique [7]. Signed-Digit
(SD) Radix5 was employed to recode one of the input operands of the multiplier for the generation of
the partial products. 6-Input LUTs and fast carry chains in Xilinx FPGAs were used to generate the
building blocks and the decimal adders. Another SD-based decimal multiplier approach was proposed
in [18]. The recoding was based on SD Radix10. BCD4221, 5211 and 5421 converters were used for
the partial product generation. BCD4221-based compressors and adders were utilized in this
approach. Although the BCD4221-based operations are similar to binary operation, the recoding and
the different code conversions still lead to delay and resource cost.
1) SD Radix10 Recoding and Decimal multiplier based on BCD-4221/5221. In this method

author assumed both multiplier and multiplicand to be unsigned BCD decimal integers of n
digits each. The product P = x * y is a non redundant BCD format with 2n digits. They used
BCD4221/5211 in recoding [13].
2) Redundant BCD Representation and Decimal Partial Product Generation and Reduction:
In this method author used the same BCD 4221 and BCD5211 encodings to reduce partial
product reduction [12,13]. It is passed through a pre-computed correction, binary CSA tree
structure, decimal sum correction blocks and 3:2 compressors to get final BCD 8421
corrected sum with 2d digits [14,15].
3) Decimal Multiplier using Hybrid BCD codes: In this design author uses various types of BCD
codes like 4221, 5211, ODDS, XS-3 and XS-6 codes [13] in which binary partial product
reduction trees are non-fixed size.
The above method uses the weighted codes where conversions are required from one code to other
code.
2.1 Vertical and Cross Wire Method (Urdhav Triyagbhyam)
It is an ancient method which is very simple and suitable for both binary and decimal number systems.
It follows the principle of divide and conquer method where large module is divided into small modules
of regular structures [20, 21]. This feature became an advantage in designing VLSI architectures. This
method is very efficient for high speed applications [22]. Fig. 1 shows an example of two digit
multiplication using Urdhav Triyagbhyam method.
3. Binary Coded Vinculum Multiplier

Multiplication mainly consists of three stages: the generation of partial products, the fast addition
(reduction) of partial products and the final carry propagate addition.
3.1. Vinculum Number Representation
It’s a Vedic mathematics of representing numbers. It allows only the digits from 0 to 5 either in +ve
form or in –ve form. The higher order numbers from 6 to 9 must be converted into its equivalent
numbers. In our method we selected the two’s complement representation to denote –ve numbers.
Instead of 6,7,8,9 the equivalent less complex digits are included in the set of vinculum
153
numbers. Therefore the new vinculum number system is { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,4, }. These digits are
represented in binary using 4 bits each [24].
3.2 Generation of Partial Products
Single digit VBCD multiplier is developed using LUT where all partial products are saved in memory
as shown in Fig. 2. The maximum value of the partial product generated by single digit is +25 (5 × 5)
and in BCD the maximum value generated is 81 (9 × 9). Very less combinations are available in
proposed number system method which is simple and faster. This forms the basic multiplier for all
other higher multipliers.
Fig. 1. Two digit multiplication using vertical cross wire method
Fig. 2. One digit VBCD multiplier
3.3 Two and Four Digit VBCD Multiplier Architecture
Fig. 3 shows an example of 2 digit Vedic multiplier with the pictorial representation of addition of
partial products along with their intermediate sum and carry bits of various levels to get their final
product using VBCD parallel Adders [26]. Fig. 5 shows the basic 2 × 2 digit Vedic multiplier. Multiplier
and Multiplicand are the two inputs to the system which produces four partial products. These four
partial products are passed through parallel VBCD adder [26] for addition. The output of the adder is
nothing but Final Result. The addition process is explained in next paragraph.
154
3.4 Example for 4 Digit Vedic BCD Multiplier
The above figure shows an example of 4 digit BCD multiplication using vertical cross wire method
only by divide and conquer method. In this each digit is subdivided into 2 digits and multiplication is
performed as shown in above figure.
Fig. 7 shows the pictorial representation of addition of partial products their intermediate sum and
carry bits of various levels to get their final product.
Fig. 3. Addition of partial products using VBCD parallel adders
Fig. 4. Two digit Vedic BCD multiplier
Fig. 5. Example for 4 digit multiplication
155
Fig. 6. Addition of partial products using parallel adder
It was observed that as the number of digits increases BCD adders increases but the number of levels
or stages remains same because it generates only four partial products always.
3.4.1 Four digit VBCD multiplier architecture
Fig. 7 illustrates 4 × 4 multiplication using 2 × 2 digit Vedic multiplier (divide and conquer approach).
Using this approach we will get only four partial product rows at any time there by addition becomes
simple and faster. Four digit VBCD adders are used to add partial products and the output of the
adder structure becomes Final product of 8 digits (32 bits).
Fig. 7. Four digit VBCD multiplier
3.5 Adder Structures for Adding Partial Products
Efficient adders were designed to add partial products for high performance and less delay. Literature
gives various adder structures like simple simple Ripple carry adder, CLA, Carry Save Adders etc to
complex prefix adder structures like Kogge stone, Brent kung adders etc, compressor logics (3:2 to
7:2 compressors), parallel Adders, Multi operand adders. Our proposed method uses 3 different
methods to add partial products.
156
3.5.1 First method (VBCD Parallel Adder)
In this method we used signed parallel adders to add partial products. The input to the adder may be
+ve or –ve numbers which produces a valid vinculum sum. The advantage of signed digit adders are
carry depends only on i-1th stage for ith bit addition as shown in Fig. 9 which means only one bit
delay exists. This concept was explained more clearly in refs [25, 26] and Fig. 10 shows an N-digit
th
parallel adder in which i + 1 stage depends only on i stage output.
3.5.2 Second method (Multi Operand VBCD Adders)
It uses Multi-operand signed digit adders to add partial products. Minimum depth of the adder is two
which means we require two operands to add also known as parallel adder and maximum we went up
to 8 operands as shown in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 with 4, 8, 16, 32 bit operands. 4 × 4 digit multiplier uses
4 rows with 7 columns. The maximum depth for 4 digit multiplier is 5 along with previous carry bit. So
we used 5:2 multi operand adder with 5 inputs and two outputs sum and carry. We observed that
delay is reduced when compared to first method. Fig. 13 explains addition of partial products using
multioperand adder concept for the example which is shown in Fig. 6.
th
Fig. 8. Decimal adder at i digit
Fig. 9. N-digit parallel adder
157
Fig. 10. Multi operand adder
4. FLOATING POINT MULTIPLIER
IEEE 754-2008 format Single Precision Format
Fig. 11. Single precision decimal floating point format
The above format consists of three fields namely Sign field of 1bit which gives information of +ve or –
ve and 8 bits of Exponent field where the maximum range of numbers that can perform arithmetic
operation can be in the range of +10 and - 10 23 bits of Fractional field. The maximum Value of
mantissa is F=555555 and minimum value of mantissa is F= 4 4 4 4 4 . If we are going to add these
fractional parts then we can call it as Floating Point Adder, if we subtract fractional parts then its
equivalent to Floating point Subtractor and if we multiply two fractional parts it’s called Floating point
Multiplier. Using this format we can perform any arithmetic operation like Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and Division. In this chapter we concentrated more on Floating point Decimal multipliers
and the same is compared with the conventional decimal floating point multipliers. As a part of this
chapter we also discussed about Floating point Adders and subtractors.
Sign Field: The most significant bit of the format is used as sign bit and if it is logic high ‘1’ it indicates
the number is –ve and if it is logic ‘0’ it gives +ve number. By passing the sign bit of two numbers to
xor gate we can find out the resultant as +ve or –ve number.
Exponent field: 8 bits are reserved under this field which indicates that if both numbers are either +ve
or –ve Exponents must be added and if both are different exponents are subtracted.
Fraction field: 23 bits are reserved under this field where actual operation of numbers are either added
or subtracted or multiplied. Multipliers are most important unit in any processor and consume lot of
delay in getting its output. Lot of research is taking point in reducing delay. For this various concepts
like Fast Adders, Parallel Adders, Booth Algorithm, Vedic Algorithm and many more exists in
literature. In the proposed Floating point Multiplier we used Signed Digit multiplier for multiplying
fractional part.
158
 maximum value of mantissa that can accommodate 6 digit number m=555555 and minimum
value of mantissa than can accommodate with 6 digit is 5 4 4 4 4 4
 Exponent: In IEEE format 8 bits are reserved for exponent and the min and max values of
exponent are 4 4 and 5 5.
 Hence the maximum floating point number in vinculum number system is 555555x1055 and
the minimum floating point number in vinculum number system is 5 4 4 4 4 4 x10
Not a Number (NaN): when any one of the input is zero output is zero and is termed as Not a
Number
 Example:
A= 0_0000_0000_000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0001;
B= 0_0000_0010_000_0000_0000_0011_0010_0001;
Final Product = 0_0000_0101_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000
Under flow: Under flow occurs when the result enters into out of range.
Example: a= 333x10 and b=333x10

Product= 111 1 1 1 x10 (1 indicates underflow)
a=0_1100_1100_000_0000_0000_0011_0011_0011;
b=0_1100_1100_000_0000_0000_0011_0011_0011;
Final Product: 0_0001_0010_001_0001_0001_1111_1111_1111;
Overflow: Overflow occurs when the result exceeds the maximum value or range. It is indicated by
overflow flag.
55 55
Example: a= 333x10 and b=333x10
110
Product= 111 1 1 1 x10 (1 indicates over flow)
a=0_0101_0101_000_0000_0000_0011_0011_0011;
b=0_0101_0101_000_0000_0000_0011_0011_0011;
Final Product: 0_0001_0000_001_0001_0001_1111_1111_1111;
Normalization can be defined as non zero digit in most significant digit.mul_out is before normalization
and shft_data is after normalization.
Fig: Floating point Architecture
Table 1. Decimal Floating Point Multiplier delay and area report
DFP Format Vinculum DFP

Delay(ns) Cellusage
Single Precision 16.03 882
Double Precision 28.402 7060
159
Simulation results of Floating point multiplier is shown in Table 1.
The decimal floating point multiplier design is described at gate level in verilog HDL, simulated and
synthesized by Xilinx 14.2i simulator tool.
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
In this paper we implemented floating point multiplier using Vinculum binary coded number systems
in which we used VBC adders and multipliers for designing. In future we can design VBC Artihmetic
unit, Division algorithms, MAC architectures and Fused multiply and Add units.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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7. Vazquez EA, Bruguera J. Fast Radix-10 multiplication using redundant BCD codes. IEEE
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9. Dadda L, Nannarelli A. A variant of a Radix-10 combinational multiplier. 2008 IEEE International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Seattle, WA, 18-21 May. 2008;3370-3373.
10. Gorgin S, Jaberipur G. A fully redundant decimal adder and its application in parallel decimal
multipliers. Microelectronics Journal. 2009;40:1471-1481.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mejo.2009.07.002
11. Jaberipur G, Kaivani A. Improving the speed of parallel decimal multiplication. IEEE
12. Vazquez EA, Montuschi P. Improved design of high-performance parallel decimal multipliers.
IEEE Transactions on Computers. 2010;59:679-693.
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13. Cu X, Lui W, Dong W, Lombardi F. A parallel decimal multiplier using hybrid Binary Coded
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Decimal (BCD) codes. IEEE 23 Symposium on Computer Arithmetic (ARITH), Santa Clara,
CA, 10-13 July. 2016;150-155.
14. Castellanos D, Stine JE. Compressor trees for decimal partial product reduction. Proceedings of
the 18th ACM Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI, New York, NY, 4-6 May. 2008;107-110.
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15. Vazquez, Antelo E. Multi-operand decimal addition by efficient reuse of a binary carry-save
adder tree. Conference Record of the 44th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and
Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, 7-10 November. 2010;1685-1689.
16. Kenney RD, Schulte MJ. High-speed multi operand decimal adders. IEEE Transactions on
Computers. 2005;54:953-963.
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multipliers. International Conference on Reconfigurable Computing and FPGAs, Quintana Roo,
9-11 December. 2009;36-41.
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in two’s compliment method for BCD arithmetic operations. IEEE Conference ICCMC 2018,
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adders; 2018.
G. Sreelakshmi
Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
She did her Masters in Engineering from Osmania University, Hyderabad in the field of Digital Systems in 2008 and Bachelor of
Engineering from JNTU Anantapur in 2002. She is having 17 years of academic experience and started her career as an
Assistant professor in Department of Electronics and Communication Engineer in 2003 and became Associate professor in
2008. She served as In charge HOD, Internal BOS member, established various labs and handled more than 15 subjects for
UG and PG students. She carried out various works related to NBA and NAAC accreditations during her service. She is
currently pursuing her PhD in the field of VLSI from JNTU Hyderabad, Telangana. She is the author and co-author of more than
25 papers in various fields in reputed journals and conferences. She had presented papers in prestigious IEEE conferences at
161
National and International level. She acted as a reviewer for an International journal JCSC (Journal of Circuits Systems and
Computers). Her research interest includes several aspects in Computer Architectures, Digital VLSI, Testing and Verification
and developing new Arithmetic circuits. She is a member of IEEE and Circuits and System Society, Fellow of IETE and Life
member of ISTE. She organized various Student Development programs and workshops at various levels.
Dr. Kaleem Fatima

Muffakamjah College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India
She completed her PhD from Osmania University, Hyderabad in the field of VLSI. She is having 22 years of experience in
teaching. She served as Head of the Department. Her research interest are Digital Design, Semi-Custom/full custom VLSI
Design for applications in Digital systems, Digital Communications, Image processing and Signal Processing, Hardware
Routing accelerators for VLSI CAD, Embedded Systems design. She is a senior member of IEEE, acted as chair person for
Circuits and Systems Chapter, Member of IETE and ISTE. She is having a couple of papers in reputed journals and
international journals.
Prof. B. K. Madhavi
Siddhartha Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
She completed her PhD from JNTUH, Hyderabad in 2007 under guidance of X vice chancellor Prof. Dr..K.Lal Kishore from
JNTUA, in the area of Low Power VLSI Design. She had a total of 30 years of teaching and, 16 years of research experience.
She worked in various positions as a Principal, Dean, Head of the department of ECE and as R&D Director/Advisor in JNTUH
affiliated Engineering Colleges. Presently, she is working as a Professor in Siddhartha Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Ibrahimpatnam, Hyderabad. Under her guidance, 10 more Scholars are working and are in progress for their Ph.D. She is one
of the authors of the recently published IGI Global publisher book and the title of the book is “Major Applications of Carbon
Nanotube Field-Effect Transistors (CNTFET)”. She is a Life member of Professional bodies like ISTE and IETE.
_________________________________________________________________________________
DISCLAIMER
Circuits and Systems, 9: 87-99, 2018.
162
Chapter 12
Water Memory and Homeopathy Result from

Trimmed Chains of Water-Crystallites
Auguste Meessen1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nips/v13/6698D
ABSTRACT
Biologically active molecules create substitutes in liquid water by means of a remarkable physical
process. These molecules have indeed a charged part that can oscillate at a characteristic low
frequency f. Its electric field aligns the dipoles of close water molecules and forms small polarized
“water pearls” of identical size. They constitute chains, where they are set in oscillatory rotation at the
frequency f, as soon as their length allows for standing waves. These chains are thus trimmed and
become information carriers. They produce themselves an electric field, oscillating at the frequency f.
It causes multiplication of identical chains, which can also excite the specific receptors of the chosen
active molecules by resonance. This process is theoretically proven and confirmed by measurements.
Keywords: Water memory; homeopathy; extra-high dilutions; molecular interactions; nano-particles.
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of “water memory” is based on results of measurements, published more than 30 years
ago in the prestigious scientific journal Nature [1]. This astonishing phenomenon had been discovered
by Jacques Benveniste and his collaborators, but one month later, the same journal declared that it
was a delusion [2]. Even the publication of the discovery was already accompanied by an astounding
editorial reservation [3]. The editor in chief, John Maddox, declared that “there is no physical basis for
such an activity” and announced that investigators would “observe repetitions of the experiments”.
When they arrived at Benveniste’s laboratory, it turned out that John Maddox was accompanied by
the professional magician James Randi and the debunker of scientific fraud Walter Steward. Being
convinced that there had to be errors or fraud, their only objective was to detect them. During their
stay in Paris, the first experiments confirmed the published result, but not later ones. The behavior of
inquisitors could have contributed, since they did immediately publish their conclusion. In their
view, the reported results were not reproducible and merely due to imagination [2]. Randi stated
even that they should be compared to the claim of having seen a unicorn, where there was merely a
goat.
The load of the resounding accusation fell on Jacques Benveniste (1935-2004). He was a medical
doctor, who had practiced several years, before opting for research. In California, he discovered the
platelet-activating factor and determined its role in immunology [4,5]. He returned to France in 1973
and joined INSERM (National Institute of Health and Medical Research). Since 1980, he directed Unit
200, devoted to research in immunology, allergy and inflammation. He discovered there a very
sensitive method to detect allergens. It required careful counting of discolored cells, but Elisabeth
Davanas succeeded very well [1]. The young medical doctor Bernard Poitevain, who joined the team
to prepare a thesis, asked somewhat later if he could test the efficiency of homeopathic dilutions by
means of this method. Benveniste answered: “try if you want, but there will be no effect; high dilutions
are merely water” ([6], p. 45). Nevertheless, the results were positive and confirmed by independent
experiments of other members of the group.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: auguste.meessen@skynet.be;
This phenomenon was totally unexpected, since successive dilutions of biologically active molecules
in pure water do necessarily lead to their complete elimination. Was it really possible to create
substitutes that are only constituted of water molecules? Further experimentation did prove that these
structures should even be able to mimic active molecules of various types. No one knew how this
might be achieved. Benveniste verified therefore if these hypothetical structures could be destroyed. It
appeared that after heating extra-high dilutions (EHDs) of histamine during one hour at 70°C, they
had completely lost their biological efficiency. Exposition to ultrasound had the same effect ([6], pp.
53-54). The phenomenon of “water memory” had even a very peculiar characteristic property. In the
course of successive dilutions, the biological efficiency of EHDs decreased at first, but increased
th
again and reached a high value after about the 9 decimal dilution. Then it dropped and continued to
vary during successive dilutions in a quasi-periodic way.
Since the reality of this phenomenon was tested many times for different substances, Benveniste
thought that these facts had to be published, though they were unexplained. Unexpected discoveries
can be made, of course, before developing the corresponding theory, which may require to abandon
previous assumptions. Benveniste insisted in his article, on the observed quasi-periodic variations, by
providing two figures [1]. However, Maddox refused to publish, since he felt sure that the reported
results could not be real and required independent confirmations. They were provided by laboratories
in Italy, Canada and Israel. Eventually, after two-year long discussions ([6], p. 51), Maddox accepted
to publish the article, but only if Benveniste did agree that a team of experts could come to “verify the
quality of the experimentation”. This was more than bizarre, but Benveniste had nothing to hide. The
outcome was the terrible accusation that we mentioned [2]. Benveniste was allowed to add a reply,
but could only describe how the investigators had proceeded. They created a climate of “intense and
constant suspicion”. Benveniste and his collaborators were even treated like “criminals”. That resulted
from preconceptions and beliefs, instead of scientific research.
In their report, the group of inquisitors insisted on the variability of the peaks of activity and claimed
that measurements had been treated in “disregard of statistical principles”. They declared even that
“the laboratory has fostered and then cherished a delusion about the interpretation of this data”.
Melinda Baldwin, lecturer on History of Science at Harvard University, identified the actual cause of
this grave incident. She wrote that Maddox considered that scientific journals are shaping science by
controlling its quality [7]. This implies enormous power, but also the danger to defend orthodoxy by
condemning any deviation. Baldwin mentioned the quasi-periodic variations of the reported biological
efficiency. They were strange, but authentic results of measurements. .
Benveniste considered that his duty was only to establish the reality of these “unbelievable and fear-
provoking” facts, since their meaning and the underlying mechanism could be studied later on ([6], p.
61). After the events of 1988, the experiments were repeated many times with the statistician Spira,
but the previous results were validated. In the course of further tests, Benveniste made a second
discovery. He realized in 1993 that two EHDs were able to perturb one another and thought that this
was due to electromagnetic fields. He suspected that these “signals” could also play an essential role
in the constitution of water memory and did prove that they can be detected, amplified, recorded and
transmitted. They seemed to be noise in the frequency domain of audible sound waves (lower that 20
kHz). However, when pure water was exposed to them, it acquired the same properties as EHDs of
the initially dissolved active molecules. This information transfer confirmed that water memory is real,
but INSERM did not renew the contract for Unit 200 in 1995. Benveniste pursued his research in a
room on the parking of his former institute, with a caravan for storing materials. He focused now his
efforts on developing “digital biology”.
Alain Kaufmann presented in 1994 basic facts and an analysis of the sociological context [8]. Michel
Schiff published the same year a more detailed description of the experiments and denounced the
dangers of censorship [9]. Benveniste, who had reluctantly accepted to write the preface of this book,
attributed there the radical rejection of available evidence to the following belief: “It cannot be, since if
it were true it would have been found two hundred years ago” and “there is no theory behind it.” We
can add that the discovery of an expected “anomaly” leads at first to incredulity, but well-documented
facts will induce a search of their cause. This is not necessarily easy, since it may require abandoning
of a generally accepted paradigm. Peer evaluation is necessary and useful, but not infallible. Schiff
164
insisted that even scientists can “suppress unwanted knowledge” when it would “shatter their current
beliefs”. Actually, “the long history of scientific dogmatism shows that today’s heresy could well
become tomorrow’s scientific truth”.
Francis Beauvais, a former collaborator of Benveniste, provided in 2007 much more details on events
at the critical time [10]. Yolène Thomas [11] continued research on water memory, but it had to be
camouflaged as concerning properties of EHDs. Even the French virologist Luc Montagnier, who
received in 1988 the Nobel Prize for his contribution to the discovery of the HIV virus, was violently
attacked when he resumed the experimental study of water memory. He was motivated by scientific
curiosity and the constant need of improved medical treatments, while his opponents negated a priori
that EHDs in pure liquid water could modify this solvent. Montagnier presented his experimental
method in a documentary, realized in 2014 by French TV [12]. It is also available in English [13] and
does clearly demonstrate that water memory involves detectable signals at frequencies like those of
audible sound waves (20 to 20,000 Hz). Montagnier published in 2009 and 2010 important results
concerning water memory [14,15]. He discovered even that viral DNA sequences can be reproduced
by means of transmitted signals when the building blocks are available in pure water. These signals
had thus to provide the required master plan and this fact might account for strange resurgences of
some sicknesses. The conference of Montagnier at UNESCO in 2014 stressed this fact and other
medical applications [16].
Visceral opposition to the concept of “water memory” was also motivated by fear that it could justify
homeopathy. The aim of the present study is merely to find out if water memory is real or not. This
has to be viewed as a basic problem for condensed matter physics, since bonds between water
molecules are constantly broken by thermal agitation in liquid water at the time scale of picoseconds.
Martin Chaplin, specialist of properties of water molecules, proposed therefore in 2007 that water
memory could result from creating statistically stable clusters of water molecules [17]. Individual
molecules would there be replaced by other ones, but without affecting the global structure. This
hypothesis was the most plausible one, but Martin Chaplin added that “much research work remains
to be undertaken if these real and observable facts are to be completely understood”.
The structure of this article results from the itinerary that we followed. In Section 2, we examine the
internal structure of water molecules and their possible interactions. This leads to the concept of
“water pearls”. In Section 3, we explain why biologically active molecules can create chains of these
nano-pearls and why they account for water memory. Section 4 presents more observational
evidence concerning these chains. It is diverse, detailed and very remarkable, but the concept of
water pearls accounts for these facts, while the alternative concept of “Coherent Domains” does not.
In Section 5, we insist on the most important consequence of water memory. Molecular interactions
are not only possible by means of the “key and slot” model of chemical reactions. Intermolecular
communications can also result from oscillating electric fields and resonance effects. It will appear
once more that “the book of Nature is written in Lingua Mathematica”, as Galilei stated already, but we
endeavor to be also understandable by non-specialists.
2. INTERACTIONS OF WATER MOLECULES
2.1 Their Structure and the Dipole Approximation
Martin Chaplin provides detailed information about the internal structure of water molecules [18] and
various models that have been proposed [19]. The usual “stick and ball model” insists on the chemical
composition (H2O), but the protons of both hydrogen atoms are deeply embedded in the electron
cloud of the oxygen atom. Water molecules are thus practically spherical. Moreover, they are
electrically neutral, but can be viewed as being dipoles. Moreover, H2O molecules are very compact,
since their kinetic diameter for collisions in the terrestrial atmosphere is 0.265 nm. These molecules
are thus smaller than O2, N2, CO2 and H2 molecules [20]. The average separation of two oxygen
atoms oi the liquid state is measurable by means of x-ray diffraction. The resulting diameter of a
single water molecule is d = 0.275 nm. Vibrational and rotational spectra of water molecules disclosed
that the angle H-O-H is 104.5° in the gaseous state, but close to 106° in the liquid state. This results
from interactions with neighboring molecules. The length of OH bonds is found to be δ ≈ 0.095 nm.
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Thus, δ/d ≈ 1/3. Since water molecules behave in the liquid state like hard spheres that can easily roll
on one another, we adopt the model of Fig. 1. To simplify later calculations, we set δ = 1. The
diameter of a water molecule in the liquid state is then d ≈ 2.90. Since the angle φ = 53°, the distance
a = cos(φ) ≈ 0.60 and b = sin(φ) ≈ 0.80. It follows that a/d = 1/5.
Because of their internal structure, water molecules are tripoles, but it is customary to replace them by
dipoles, constituted by the central charge −2q and a charge +2q, situated in the middle between the
two charges +q of the protons, when q = e. This dipole is represented in Fig. 2 by a red arrow. The
value of the dipole moment is then p = 2qa. The limited validity of this approximation appears when
we calculate the electrostatic potential V(r,θ) of the effective dipole when the test charge +1 is situated
at a great distance r from the center of the effective dipole. The angle θ specifies the chosen direction
with respect to the axis of this dipole. The test charge does then “see” the 3 point-like charges along
parallel lines, but their distances are slightly different. They are indicated in Fig. 2 by thin red lines.
2
Adopting natural units (4πe /δεo = 1) for electrostatic potentials, their sum is
( , )= + +
= (2 + − ) + (− 2 + − ) +⋯
Fig. 1. Model of water molecules
Fig. 2. Test of the dipole approximation

2
The first and second order approximations of ( , ) result from 1/(1+x) = 1 – x + x when x ≪ 1.
Since + = cos( − ), − = cos( + ) and = , it follows that
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(1)
The radial and angular components of the electric field E result indeed from partial derivatives of
( , ). The dipole approximation is thus only valid at large distances from the tripole (r » a). At closer
range, there are inevitable corrections. However, it is also necessary to account in liquid water for all
intermediate water molecules, since they are easily reoriented by any applied electric field. The
potential ( , ) is then reduced by the factor 1/εr, where the relative dielectric constant εr ≈ 80. This
improves the validity of the dipole approximation.
The scientific argument that can be advanced to justify the belief that biological molecules are unable
to create durable structures in liquid water is that they would be destroyed by thermal agitation. Only
small groups of water molecules could remain bound to one another, but they would not depend on
the type of dissolved biologically active molecules. The constitution of specific “memory traces” seems
to be impossible. However, we had performed experiments to visualize electric field lines by means of
grains of semolina or short plastic filaments dispersed on oil. An applied electric field polarizes these
particles. The induced dipoles tend then to align one another and to form chains. They remain stable,
even when the electric field is shut off, since they stick together by Van der Waals forces. Could
similar chains be formed inside liquid water? To answer this question, we have to begin with
examining the nature of van der Waals forces, which might also bind water molecules to one another.
2.2 The physical origin of Van der Waals Forces
Even electrically neutral molecules attract one another in gases, because of quantum-mechanical
effects. If such a particle were subjected to an electric field, it would displace indeed all weakly bound
electrons inside this particle. This will produce surface charges, creating a secondary electric field
inside the particle. It is opposite to the applied electric field and provides a “restoring force” that can
lead collective oscillations of all nearly free electrons inside the polarizable particle. We used this idea
also to explain the mysterious optical properties of thin granular metal films, formed by condensation
on a solid support. This yields vivid colors, resulting from resonances and strong absorption of light at
some frequencies [21]. This is also valid for infrared and ultraviolet light and scattering of Sun light.
Since oscillations of electrons inside neutral particles do also create an oscillating electric field outside
these particles, two molecules can interact with one another, since nearly free electrons will be set in
coupled oscillations inside neighboring ones. The common resonance frequency is lowered, indeed.
This phenomenon reduces their lowest possible energy, because of quantum-mechanics. The energy
reduction increases when the two polarizable particles get closer to one another, but that is equivalent
to an attractive force. The existence of this short-range force was discovered by Van der Waals in
1873, since a relatively dense gas does not behave like an ideal gas. It was then assumed to be
constituted of very small particles that are only able to collide with one another, but even neutral
molecules attract one another at sufficiently small distances.
Since Van der Waals forces are proportional to the volume of the polarizable particles, they are
negligible with respect to other forces for water molecules in the liquid state. However, small metal
particles contain many nearly free electrons. They are thus very polarizable and big enough to attract
one another by Van der Waals forces in liquid water. They constitute chains that are observable by
optical microscopy [22] and these “necklaces of pearls” attract now much attention, because of
possible applications. Could similar chains be relevant for water memory? Is it possible that water
molecules can also constitute chains? To answer these questions, we have to proceed in a
systematic way, by considering Coulomb forces, instead of van der Waals forces.
2.3 Hydrogen Bonds and Exchange Effects
The concept of so-called “hydrogen bonds” was already introduced in 1920, since some quantum
effects could be treated in a semi-classical way [23]. The Lewis model, proposed in 1916, was based
on the fact that light atoms are more stable when their external shells contain 2 or 8 electrons.
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Because of Bohr’s semi-classical model of atomic structures and Pauli’s exclusion principle, these
values correspond to closed shells. Hydrogen atoms contain only 1 electron, while C, N, O, and F
atoms do respectively have 4, 5, 6 and 7 electrons in their external shells instead of 8. Lewis
suggested therefore that molecules like CH4, NH3, OH2 and FH should result from the “tendency to
complete the octet of electrons”. This lowers the total energy and accounts also for the structure of
water molecules, as indicated in the left part of Fig. 3. Electrons are there represented by black dots,
situated in the same plane. Though it is customary to teach chemistry by using simplified models and
the concept of “links”, Hydrogen bonds can only be explained by means of quantum-mechanical laws.
Every oxygen atom contains 8 electrons. Two of them are strongly bound with a spherical probability
distribution. The six other electrons are situated on the “external shell” of oxygen atoms.
Electrons are particles that behave like waves. Superposition of their wave functions will thus lead to
interference effects. Probability distributions are indeed determined by the intensity of these waves.
This interference accounts for the left part of Fig. 3, but the most favorable case leads to four electron
pairs that are symmetrically distributed in space. The right part of Fig. 3 accounts for hydrogen bonds,
represented by red lines. They result from the fact that protons are also subjected to quantum-
mechanical laws of motions, because of their small mass. The blue balls correspond to possible
average positons of protons. However, the white balls are also possible, since the proton is
delocalized. It can pass through a relatively thin potential barrier by quantum-mechanical “tunneling”,
but also “jump” over thicker barriers, because of energy uncertainties during very short time intervals.
This explains the structure of ice crystals, where every water molecule is surrounded by 4 water
molecules in space. For simplicity, they are resented here as if they were situated in the same plane.
H O
Fig. 3. Semi-classical concepts of hydrogen bonds
The essential fact is that that hydrogen bonds result from two possible positions of protons. They are
equally probable for H2O molecules. Neighboring oxygen atoms do thus share the same proton [24].
We could also say that there are “proton donors” and “proton acceptors”. This applies also to different
atoms, X and Y, when an intermediate proton can belong to X or Y. This can be expressed by the
notation XH…Y or X…HY. It accounts also for the stability of molecular hydrogen ions ( ). Exchange
effects are quantum mechanical phenomena that can also contribute to nuclear forces.
Fig. 4(a) shows the effects of hydrogen bonds between water molecules in 3D space, for tetragonal
bonds. The red dots define average positions of the cores of neighboring water molecules, while the
red lines correspond to possible exchanges of protons. It should be noted that this configuration
requires a slight modification of the usual structure of water molecules in liquid water. The angular
separation of two protons was there 2φ = 106° (Fig. 1). Here we get 4 equal angles 2μ ≈ 110°. They
are defined by joining the center of the cubic cell to four equally separated vertices. The value of cosµ
= h/c = 1/√3 and (2 ) = 3(2ℎ) . It follows that μ = 54.74°.
Fig. 4(a) accounts for one possible lattice structure of ice, since it can be modified by changing the
temperature and the pressure. There are thus different “phases” for frozen water [25]. In liquid water,
all bonds between adjacent molecules are constantly broken and reconstituted at an extremely rapid
pace [26]. Nevertheless, small-scale order is statistically preserved, but large-scale order becomes
impossible. Fig. 4(b) shows that body-centered cubic cells are attached to one another in ice and
liquid water, to yield an alternating distribution of filled and empty cubes. Ice is less dense than liquid
water. The density of liquid water is greater, since water molecules are constantly moving around, but
statistically, the same structure is preserved at small scales. There are also voids that will be
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increasingly be filled at higher temperatures. This fact explains the existence of low-density and high
density liquid water and similar amorphous states for frozen water.
Fig. 4. (a) Idealized model for the relative positions of oxygen atoms in neighboring
molecules for ice and liquid water. (b) Extended lattice structure of this type
2.4 Coulomb Forces and Exchange Effects for Water Dimers
Fig. 5a shows that when a proton is situated between two oxygen ions, it leads to attractive Coulomb
forces that compensate mutual repulsion of the charges -2. We account here for the fact that the
length of OH parts is δ =1, while two oxygen ions are separated in liquid water by the distance d =
2.90. Since the charge +1 could be situated at two different places between the charges -2, we
consider also the upper right part of Fig. 5. The lower part would correspond to an approximation,
where the proton is assumed to be situated exactly in the middle between the negative charges. A
unique position is represented by a black dot, since it corresponds to a particle of charge +1. Two
equally probable positions are represented by gray dots. Their effective charges are +1/2.
U1 U2
 
 d- U3
d/2 d/2
Fig. 5. Three conceivable models for O-H-O bonds
We can compare the corresponding energies U1, U2 and U3 by calculating the sum of Coulomb
potentials in natural units. They are equal to the product of the two mutually attracting or repelling
charges, divided by the distance that separates them. Thus,
Since U2 = U1, a strictly classical description is sufficient, although the proton is delocalized. This
would even be true for any partition q' and (1 − q') of the charge +1. The third configuration would not
be stable, since U3 > U2. Actually, the proton would then be situated on the top of the intermediate
potential barrier, but we know now its height. We are even ready to calculate the total potential
energies for different configurations of two water molecules bound to one another. One water
molecule can easily be rotated with respect to the other one, indeed.
It is usually assumed that the structure of water dimers (H2O)2 corresponds to upper left one of Fig. 6,
since the charge +1 of one proton is situated between the two charges -2. The tripole of the left
molecule is situated in the plane of the drawing. The other tripole is perpendicular to this plane and
seen in profile. Our aim is to find out if a linear polymerization of many water molecules is possible or
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not. We will thus calculate the potential energy V1 for the usually assumed configuration and compare
it to the potential energies V2, V3 and V4 for other configurations.
Fig. 6. Conceivable structures of water dimers
V2 corresponds to aligned effective dipoles. This configuration would be preferred if water molecules
did only contain dipoles. However, an applied electric field would orient the effective dipoles in the
same way. The two tripoles will be orthogonal to one another to minimize repulsion between protons
in neighboring molecules. Would the resulting chain of water molecules remain stable when the
electric field is shut off? V3 is the potential energy for any pair of molecules in a nearly linear chain,
where all intermediate protons are ideally situated between two oxygen atoms. The resulting
zigzagging configuration is planar. Even a strictly linear chain might be possible when we account for
the fact that one proton can be situated with equal probabilities above and below the symmetry axis,
where one proton is close to the core of the neighboring oxygen atom.
An applied electric could induce the formation of such a chain, although this fact was unknown. For
clarity, we consider here two coplanar tripoles. The resulting potential energy for any pair of water
molecules is then V4. Alternatively orthogonal tripoles would reduce repulsion between the delocalized
protons and lead to a potential energy V5. To facilitate this type of calculations, we note that the total
potential energies result always from adding the Coulomb potentials (V = qq'/Δ) for pairs of point-like
charges q and q', when they are separated by a distance Δ. We define thus a function S(x,y,z), where
x, y and z are differences of Cartesian coordinates, respectively measured towards the right, rear and
top. This yields the potential
2 2 2 -1/2
V = qq’S(x,y,z) where S(x,y,z) = (x +y +z ) (2)
In the gaseous state, the value of V1 depends on the angle φ = 106° and the complementary angle ϕ
= 74°. Since δ = 1 in natural units, the distance a1 = cosϕ = 0.28 and b1 = sinϕ = 0.96. However, a2 =
aa1 and b2 = ab1, where a = cosφ = 0.60 and b = sinφ = 0.80. Thus,
V1 = 4S(d,0,0) + 2S(d-1+a2,b,b2) + 2S(d+a1+a2,b,b1+b2)

-2S(d-1,0,0) - 4S(d+a2,0,b1) – 2S(d+a1,0,b1) = -0.116
V2 = 4S(d,0,0) + 4S(d,b,b) – 4S(d+a,b,0) – 4S(d-a,0,b) = -0.093
V1 can be slightly lowered when the repulsion between the nearest protons is reduced by a small
rotation of the left molecule around its center. An angle of 1.4° is sufficient to reach the minimal
potential energy [27]. Since V1 is very low, it has been assumed that more than 2 water molecules
should always be assembled according to the same rule as for the most strongly bound dimer. Water
molecules could then only constitute rings or clusters of limited size. However, linear polymerization is
not excluded and would even be preferred for n2 water molecules, compared to clusters of n1
molecules when (n2 − 1)V2 < (n1 −1)V1. This is true as soon as n2 > 1.3 n1. Long chains of water
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molecules would be too fragile to resist thermal agitation in liquid water, but we will prove in section
2.7 that parallel chains of water molecules can stabilize one another.
Moreover, it turns out that V3 = −0.111, which is close to V1 = −0.116. Since water molecules can
easily be rotated, they are able to pass through very narrow pores by forming a so-called “wire” or
“filament” [28]. It is a linear chain of water molecules. Perfectly linear polymerization would be slightly
more stable for alternatively orthogonal tripoles. We get then
V5 = 5S(d,0,0) + S(d,b1,b1) + S(d-1-a1,b1,0) + S(d+1+a1,0,b1)

-2S(d-1,0,0) - 2S(d+1,0,0) – 2S(d+a1,0,b1) – 2S(d-a1,b1,0) = -0.084
However, an applied electric field does polarize water molecules. This is possible [29] and would
facilitate exchange effects and thus yield stronger bonds.
2.5 Initial Evidence of Molecular Chains
When the young Theodor von Grotthuss was experimenting in 1806 with a Volta pile, he discovered
that pure water has a much higher electric conductivity than other liquids. The chemical structure of
water molecules was not yet known. John Dalton asserted in 1808 that it is merely HO, because of
electrolysis that he discovered in 1800. Avogadro proposed already in 1811 that it could be H2O, but
that resulted from the hypothesis that all types of particles occupy the same volume. This hypothesis
was not believed until about 1860, when the kinetic theory of gases did prove that this hypothesis is
correct. Von Grotthuss knew only that water molecules are composed of positive and negative parts.
He thought therefore that water molecules are held together in liquid water by mutual attraction of
positive and negative parts. An electric field would align the dipoles.
To account for the high conductivity of liquid water, Von Grotthuss assumed that it results from small
charge carriers that can more easily inside chains of water molecules than in the surrounding liquid
water [30]. This hypothesis may have been suggested by the method of fire-fighting at that time.
People were standing in a row and passed buckets from hand to hand. Anyway, this explanation was
intuitively appealing and rapidly adopted, although the hypothetical charge carriers were still unknown.
They are protons and travel inside adequately aligned chains of water molecules by quantum-
mechanical “hopping” over intermediate potential barriers. However, the high electrical conductivity of
liquid water could be verified and there was no other explanation. Today, we can clarify this problem
by means of Fig. 7. It represents two neighboring water molecules in a chain that is oriented by an
electric field E.
Fig. 7. Explanation of the von Grotthuss mechanism
The left part of Fig. 7 represents a water molecule that contains an excess proton. The 3 protons are
situated in privileged positions inside this ion. The neighboring water molecule is a normal one. It
contains only 2 protons, but one of them has two equally possible positions, indicated by gray dots.
Because of the applied electric field, the effective dipoles are oriented and both molecules are
polarized. The positive and negative charges are thus displaced along the red lines. This increases
the chance for the intermediate proton to jump towards one of the two possible positions in the right
molecule. The right part of Fig. 7 shows the result. The excess proton has advanced in the direction
of the applied electric field. In a chain of water molecules, it will continue to advance by hopping, even
when the chain is broken by thermal agitation or when oriented dimers are merely touching one
another from time to time. The essential point is, indeed, that the proton advances more easily by
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hopping than when it is subjected to friction in the surrounding liquid water. It is there constantly
deviated from its path by collisions with thermally agitated water molecules.
2.6 Evidence of 2D Polymerization of Water Molecules
The story of this discovery is similar to that of water memory. It began with an unexpected
observation, made by the Russian chemist Nikolai Fedyakin. He condensed water in thin capillary
quartz tubes and found that its physical properties are different from those of ordinary water. This
phenomenon was totally unexpected, but arose at first much attention. Lippincot and Stromberg
combined routine infra-red spectroscopy with an improved method for producing this type of water.
They confirmed that it has peculiar properties and proposed an explanation [31]. It was based on the
model of Fig. 8, assuming that the charge +1 of a proton is precisely situated in the middle between
two charges -2. This would yield a 2-D crystallization with a regular hexagon lattice. When such layers
of bound water molecules can for formed near some types of solid substrates, they could still slide on
one another, but liquid water would there be more viscous.
Fig. 8. Polywater with hexagonal cells
Other persons declared that such a 2-D polymerization is impossible. Media did even propagate the
slogan of “bad science”. It had great impact and led to total prohibition of research on polywater.
Academic careers would have been broken for anyone who did dare to be involved in “pathological
science”. Even Stromberg, interviewed some 40 years later, conceded that researchers might be
misled by unconscious bias [32]. However, he added that “most mistaken hypotheses in science
aren’t entirely wrong; they just have to be modified a bit.”
Actually, it is well-known in material science that crystallization can be influenced by the substrate.
Rostrum Ray proposed that this “epitaxy” might explain water memory, because of the “extreme
structural flexibility” of water molecules [33]. This is not enough, but Ray tried at least to explain water
memory, instead of pretending that it is impossible.
2D polymerization of water molecules was rediscovered by the bioengineer Gerald Pollack, who
wondered why particles that imitate red blood cells can easily move through narrow capillaries. Trying
to understand this fact by means of experimental investigations, he discovered that some materials
create an “exclusion zone” near their surface [34]. This means that water molecules can there be so
strongly bound to the substrate and to one another that red blood cells, for instance, cannot penetrate
this region. Pollack adopted also the model of Fig. 8 to explain the formation of 2D lattices and
deduced from this model that every oxygen atom is surrounded by 3 half-hydrogen atoms. In natural
units, this would yield a charge (3/2) − 2 = −1/2 per molecule. Exclusion zones should thus be
electrically charged and this was proven to be true. Even simple contact of pure water with some
materials is sufficient to constitute a battery.
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Pollack’s discoveries and empirical investigations were outstanding achievements. We add only that
Fig. 8 should be replaced by Fig. 9, since delocalized protons have then 3 equally probable positions
inside water molecule. Even the concept of hydrogen bonds is correctly implemented, when the equal
angles of 120° are replaced by one angle of 148°. Regular hexagons become then elongated ones.
We note also that the upper and lower rows of Fig. 9 are zigzagging chains as in Fig.6.
148°
Fig. 9. Polywater with elongated cells
2.7 Formation and Stabilization of Molecular Chains
In interstellar space, there are ions that attract water molecules and align their effective dipoles. They
collect water molecules and become “haired”, since the molecular chains were unperturbed. However,
they account for the condensation of water when planets were formed. This was important for the
early evolution of life. Fig. 10 represents a single molecular chain in 3D. The tripoles are alternatively
orthogonal to one another and their effective dipoles are aligned.
Fig. 10. A single chain of water molecule
Such a chain would be unstable in liquid water, but parallel chains can be bound to one another when
they are shifted with respect to one another. Fig. 11 represents two possible arrangements,
decreasing the separation of positive and negative charges. Which one of these configurations will
lead to stronger attraction?
Fig. 11. Mutual attraction of molecules on parallel chains
According to the dipole approximation (1), the electric field is −p/r3, when θ = 90°. Real dipoles would
then be antiparallel in lateral positions, but we have to consider chains of tripoles. They allow for
parallel as well as antiparallel effective dipoles. In both cases, the relative shift is equal to a. It is thus
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useful to calculate the potentials Va and Vb. Since the potential energy of the upper pair is V2 = −0.093
in natural units, we get
Va = V2 + 4S(a,0,da) + 2S(a,b,da±b) + 4S(d-a,0,da) + 2S(d+a,0,da) + 2S(d+a,2b;da)

- 2S(0,0,da±b) - 4S(2a,b;da) – 4S(d,b,da) - 4S(d-2a,2b;da) = -0.28
Vb = V2 + 4S(a,0,da) + 2S(a,b,da±b) + 4S(d-a,0,da) + 2S(d+a,2b,da)

+ 2S(d+a,2b;da) - 2S(0,0,da±b) - 4S(2a,b,da) - 8S(d,b,da) = -0.09
The ± signs mean here that we have to sum two different terms. It appears that Va is 3 times lower
than Vb. In an applied electric field, all effective dipoles are thus automatically oriented in the same
way. This produces stable chains of a special type. Because of numerous similar bonds, they do
strongly stabilize one another and remain stable when the electric field is shut off. Even more and
more parallel chains can be associated. We will see that there is a limit, but the usual argument that
structuring of water molecules is prevented by thermal agitation is not valid anymore.
It is also very important to realize that biologically active molecules contain electrically charged parts,
since they attract water molecule and orient their effective dipoles. This explains also why these
molecules are easily dissolved in liquid water and require at least contact with saliva. Fig. 12 shows
three typical examples.
Fig. 12. Biologically active molecules contain charged parts that can vibrate
We see that the charged parts, indicated in red, are situated on a branch, where they can be set in
oscillation by thermal agitation of water molecules. Moreover, they will resonate at some particular
frequency. Its value f is characteristic of the chosen active molecule and is much lower than for
possible modes of coordinated vibrations of charged particles inside molecules, since they are there
strongly bound to one another and have smaller inertial masses. Electrically charged arms of active
molecules are even flexible and any resonance frequency is only determined by the ratio of the
restoring force and the inertial mass. It is even increased by the cocoon of surrounding polarized
water molecules. There are also other facts that have to be considered.
2.8 Single-Domain Ferroelectric Crystallites
Once the electric field of a biologically active molecule has started to assemble water molecules, it
becomes a germ of ongoing crystallization. More and more water molecules are attracted and align
their effective dipoles. This yields an ensemble of closely packed molecular chains, like that of Fig. 10.
However, ideal alignment of all effective dipoles can only by achieved in very small ferroelectric
crystallites. We will prove that they are spherical and have always the same size. They constitute
minute Water-pearls (WPs), but contain a large number of water molecules, since these molecules
are extremely small and densely packed. An essential point is that N molecules of strictly parallel
dipole moment p yield a total dipole moment P = Np, which is much greater than p, when N is very
great. This dipole creates an electric field, which is able to assemble other water molecules. This
process creates an adjacent WP and even a spontaneously growing chain of WPs.
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To discard immediately unnecessary objections, we mention that the solid state physicist Kittel
realized already in 1946 that molecules of magnetite (Fe3O4) create single-domain ferromagnetic
crystallites [35]. Since they are ideal magnets, their discovery led to important applications, like
magnetic recording. Blackmore discovered in 1975 that some species of aquatic bacteria collect
Fe3O4 or Fe3S4 molecules. They are spontaneously assembled and constitute single-domain
ferromagnetic crystallites [36]. They form chains of about a dozen beads. Magnetotactic bacteria
produce these chains to remain in deeper layers of shallow waters and are able to sense the
orientation of these compass needles in the inclined geomagnetic field of the Earth. They developed
this stratagem to survive, since the oxygen content would be too high for them near the water surface.
This required specialized genes [37].
Theoretical determination the radius R of crystallites where all dipoles are parallel is a tricky problem.
It has been tackled for the most common ferromagnetic material (BaTiO3) by means of the theory of
phase transitions [38]. It is quite opaque and not applicable to ferroelectric materials. We adopt
therefore another approach, based on electrostatics. Fig. 13(a) represents a WP in pale blue color. All
effective dipoles of water molecules are there strictly parallel. The resulting dipole moment is and
the electric field inside the particle results from the positive and negative surface charges.
Fig. 13. (a) A water pearl and the external domain of oriented water molecules. (b) A single
charge Q situated at the center of the sphere would generate an electric potential ϕ(r). (c) For a
dipole, the actual external potential ϕe(r, θ) results from two slightly separated charges ±Q.
The surface charges do also create an electric field outside the particle. It polarizes the water
molecules, but only in a limited region, represented in a different color. This results from the fact that
thermal agitation will there increasingly randomize the orientation of the electric dipoles. We will now
prove that this particle is spherical and very small. This proof is of fundamental importance for the
explanation of water memory, but more technical. Most readers can thus jump to the conclusion at
the end of this section.
On the average, the WP is electrically neutral, because of the charges ±2q inside water molecules.
The surface charge density results from the charges of the oriented dipoles at the extremities of every
molecular chain. They would occupy a surface d2 in planes that are perpendicular to the aligned
chains, but the intersected surface is magnified when it is inclined by an angle . The internal surface
2
charge is then σi(θ) = (2q/d )cosθ at the positive side. The external surface charge density σe(θ) is
lower, but proportional to the internal one. The total surface charge density is thus σ(θ) = σocosθ,
where σo = σi – σe. Positive and negative surface charges on opposite sides of a WP create a
homogeneous electric field Ei inside the sphere and an electrostatic potential ϕi(r, θ) = Ei r cosθ.
Fig. 13(b) defines the potential ϕ(r) = (Q/r)exp(−r/λo) outside the sphere, if the total positive charge Q
= N2q of all effective positive poles of water molecules were situated at the center of the sphere. We
account for the fact that the usual Coulomb potential (Q/r) is modified by screening effects. They
result from positive and negative charges in the intermediate region of the surrounding liquid water.
The radial decrease is then characterized by the Debye length λo. Fig. 13(c) defines the actual
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potential ϕe(r,θ) in the external medium. It is due to the charges ±Q of all positive poles and negative
poles, separated by the distance a, which defines the length of the effective dipole of every water
molecules (FIG. 1). The external potential depends then on Δr = (a/2)cosθ, since
( , )= ( −Δ )− ( + Δ ) for r ≥ R
However, ( ± ) = ( ) ± ( ), where the prime indicates derivation with respect to . The

potentials in the external and external medium are then
/ ∘
( , )=− + cos while ( , )= cos
It follows that
2 2 1 /
( , )=− ( , )= + + cos
The radius is determined by the boundary conditions:
( , )+ ( , ) = ( ) and ( , )= ( , )+ ( )
The first relation results from Gauss’s law, since the electric field points away from the interface,
which carries the surface charge density ( ) = cos . The second relation includes the dipole
density ( ), which results from the inner and external surface charge densities. We set = .
The value of the constant is unknown, but ( ) = cos is negligible since is small. It
follows that the boundary conditions yield
/ /
=− + and + + =
= 2 , where = (4 /3)/ and = . We get thus, / = (1 − ) . Moreover,
(2 + 2 + ) = 0.015(1 − ) where = /
The value of is unknown, but it results from the last equation that varies only from 9.5 to 10.5
when increases from 0.5 to 0.8. Even when or 0.9, we get only  = 9.1 or 11.5. We conclude
that ≈ 10 . The value of the Debye length λo depends on the concentration of ions in the
surrounding water. It is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature T, but is nearly
constant between 20 and 30°C. Actually, the value of λo has been measured at 25°C for water with
different concentrations of dissolved NaCl [39]. It appeared that λo ≈ 1 nm at 0.1 M (mol/liter), but
increases for lower and higher concentrations. λo ≈ 3 nm at 0.01 M and 5 M, which is slightly higher
than for Dead Sea water and pure water contains only H+ and OH− ions.
Conclusion: The radius of WPs is slightly smaller than 10 nm. They are thus nano-pearls, but contain
a huge number N of water molecules, since they are much smaller. The actual value of R and N will
be deduced from measurements.
2.9 Experimental evidence of WPs
When the particle physicist Shui-Yin Lo was visiting professor at the famous California Institute of
Technology in 1996, he adopted a research project concerning properties of liquid water. He was
surprised to discover that EHDs of HCl, NaOH or HNO3 molecules in very pure water led to the
formation of “novel stable structures”. Lo thought that they result from crystallization of hydration
spheres [40], but we can now attribute their existence to the formation of ferroelectric crystallites. This
explains the dipolar nature of these particles and their great stability. Lo found that they subsisted
when all ions had been removed by successive dilutions and that these structures were even
multiplied in the course of successive dilutions, always followed by vigorous agitation.
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When Lo determined the sizes of various types of structures by means self-interference of scattered
laser light, he found 3 distinct groups. The smallest particles had a diameter D ≈ 15 nm with very low
dispersion. We interpret this result as meaning that D is the diameter of single WPs in pure water.
Thus, R ≈ 7.5 nm and the Debye length λo ≈ 0.75 nm. Since the cubic volume occupied by every
3
water molecule is d , where d = 0.275 nm, WPs contain about 85,000 molecules.
The second group of structures, discovered by Lo, had a size of about 300 nm. This value determines
the length L = ND of chains of WPs and the number N ≈ 20 of aligned water pearls. We will explain (in
Section 3.3), why the length L has to be limited. Every WP has two point-like electric poles, situated
inside the sphere. They result from the surface charges, which are the real cause of the mutual
attraction of two adjacent WPs. This is similar for magnetized steel balls, but we can say more about
the poles of WPs. The total charge Qo on the surface of the positive hemisphere, is the integral of
2πrσ(θ)rdθ, where r = Rsin(θ) and σ(θ) = σocosθ, while the angle θ varies from −π/2 to +π/2. This
2
yields Qo = (4π/3)R σo. We can also calculate the electrostatic potential V(x) for a test charge +1 that
is situated on the symmetry axis at the distance x from the center O of a WP. Fig. 14 shows that V(x)
is the integral of 2πσ(θ)r2dθ divided by the distance R’. This defines also the effective charge Q(x) of
the positive pole:
⁄
3 ( )
( )= .
=
2 ⁄ [ + −2 ] − ( ⁄2)
Fig. 14. The poles of water pearls
Fig. 14 represents the positive pole by a black dot and the negative pole of the adjacent WP by a
white dot. The value of the charge Q(x) is determined by numerical integration for various distances x
of the observation point from the center O of the left WP. The result is shown in Fig. 15. It appears
that Q(x) = Qo when x > 3R, but when the test charge is close to the surface of the WP, it does mainly
interact with the nearest surface charges. This reduces the value of Q(x). On the surface, Q(R) =
0.68Qo. The poles could thus be situated at different depths below the surface of WPs, but it is only
important for us that this allows for Fig. 14, where mutually attracting poles of adjacent WPs are
separated by the distance R. They would then carry well-defined charges ±Q(3R/2). We can thus also
adopt this model for a chain of WPs.
Fig. 15. Calculated values of the charge Q(x)
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3. THE MECHANISM OF WATER MEMORY
3.1 Small Oscillatory Rotations of Water Pearls
Because of the rapidly decreasing Coulomb forces, it is sufficient to consider the mutual attraction of
neighboring positive and negative poles. At rest, they are aligned and we can assume that their poles
are separated everywhere by the same distance R. Because of mutual entrainment, Small oscillatory
rotations of WPs around their center will lead to transverse displacements of the poles. They are
represented by red arrows in Fig. 16, which takes into account the fact that the amplitude of
transverse displacements of the poles can vary along the chain. We characterize thus the
instantaneous rotation of the nth water pearl by the variable un(t).
Fig. 16. Small rotations of WPs in a chain yield displacements of poles
Fig. 17 shows that when u is the relative displacement of two neighboring poles, they attract one
another by the force F. In natural units, its magnitude is /( + ). The transverse component
is reduced by the factor / . It follows that when ≪ , the restoring force is
( )=− where = (5)
R
Fig. 17. The restoring force is a component of the force F
Since this force is proportional to the relative displacement , the equation of motion for the water
of effective inertial mass M pearl is
̈ = ( − )− ( − ) (6)
Every dot indicates a time derivative, to yield the acceleration. Since this equation is identical for all
WPs, it describes the behavior of the whole chain. It can be simplified when the displacements are
smoothly varying along the chain, which is equivalent to saying that the diameter of WPs is small
compared to the distance where the relative displacements are notably varying. We can then
replace ( ) by the function ( , ), where the coordinate is treated as if it were a continuous
variable. Actually, ± = ± + /2 , where and designate first and second order
partial derivatives with respect to . Equation (6) is then reduced to the usual wave equation for
vibrating strings:
̈ = where = / (7)
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3.2 Standing Waves on Chains of Water Pearls
An infinite chain would allow the solution ( , ) = ( ± ), which corresponds to a function of any
shape, moving at the velocity towards the right or the left. For a chain of finite length , we have to
know the boundary conditions. Since both ends are free, the first and last pearls are not subjected to
any force. Thus, ( , ) = 0 for = 0 and = . In other words, ( , ) has to reach maximal values
at both extremities. This allows for a particular solution of well‐defined frequency and well‐defined
wavelength . Thus,
( , )= cos ( ) sin ( ) where =2 and =2 / (8)
Since ( , ) is proportional to sin ( ), the boundary condition ( , ) = 0 is satisfied, but ( , ) =

0 requires that = , where = 1,2,3, ⋯ . It follows that = /2 and because of (7), that the
spectrum of possible frequencies is defined by
= = = where = 1,2,3, ⋯ (9)
The only possible frequencies are thus integer multiples of the fundamental frequency = /2 . For
sound waves, any pair of these frequencies would produce an impression of harmony. The spectrum
= is therefore said to be a “harmonic” one. These properties are well‐known in physics, but
everyone should see why a chain of WPs with free ends does only allow for standing waves.
This means that for any particular solution (8), all WPs are set in oscillatory rotations at the same
frequency . The amplitude of these oscillations varies along the chain. However, the approximation
(7) is of limited validity, since it requires that ≪ . The measurements of Lo imply that chains of
WPs contain a relatively small number of WPs ( ≈ 20). To see how far the approximation (9) is
realistic, we have to solve the general equation (6). This is easy when we use complex notations,
since standing waves are then defined by
( )
( )= where = ( + − 2)
It follows that the angular frequencies  depend on the wavelength :
( / )
( )= and ( , )= sin ( / ) (10)
/
The function ( , ) is represented by the dark curve in Fig. 18. The red line corresponds to the
approximation = / It is only valid for frequencies « = ⁄ ), but is valid for a relatively
large domain of low frequencies. [Indeed, sin ( ) = − /6 ≈ , when ≪ 2.5]. The spectrum of
possible frequencies is then = when ≪ N.
Fig. 18. Possible frequencies for standing waves on chains of
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3.3 Automatic Trimming of Chains of Water Pearls
Fig. 19 summarizes the essential steps that explain why chains of water pearls are the required
information carriers for water memory. The upper line represents a biologically active molecule, where
the charged part oscillates at some very low frequency . Although it creates a growing chain of WPs,
it cannot communicate its oscillations to all other WPs, as long as the length of the chain < /2,
where the wavelength is determined by = / . The second line represents what happens as soon
as the length of the chain of WPs reaches the critical value = /2 . The electric field of the
oscillating charge does then excite a standing wave for oscillatory rotations of WPs.
The last WP of the growing chain begins suddenly to oscillate when the length = /2 has been
reached. The amplitude of this oscillation at the end of the chain is the same as near the active
molecule. The WP remains attached to it, but is set in oscillatory rotation and communicates its
motion to other WPs of the chain. The rotation of the last pearl of the chain prevents the formation and
attachment of an additional WP to the chain of length . The growing chain is thus automatically
trimmed. Information that is characteristic of the type of active molecules has been encoded by means
of the length of the chain, which depends on the frequency .
The third line of Fig. 19 shows that when the trimmed chain is detached from its generator, it does still
yield a standing wave for the same length = /2. The liberated chain of WPs conserves the
acquired information. Moreover, it produces itself an oscillating electric field. Its frequency f is
adequate to create more equally trimmed chains of WPs. They are thus multiplied by an autocatalytic
process. This provides the key for a rational explanation of water memory. It should also be noted that
trimmed chains of WPs cannot be destroyed by thermal agitation of surrounding water molecules.
Fig. 19. Creation of trimmed chains of water pearls, resonating at the frequency of the active
molecules for chains of length . This remains true for detached chains
We might object that oscillatory rotations of WPs will be damped by friction, implying energy losses.
However, when trimmed chains are subjected to local impacts of water molecules, they will pick‐up
energy when it allows for resonances at anyone of the frequencies for possible standing waves.
Since it is sufficient that the free ends of the chain can oscillate with maximal amplitude, standing
waves of smaller wave‐lengths and higher frequencies can also be excited. This can easily be
demonstrated with a flute, since “overblowing” is sufficient to double the frequency for standing
waves, without modifying the effective length for longitudinal oscillations inside the flute. Oscillatory
rotations of WPs at higher frequencies imply more rapid motions and thus greater kinetic energies and
more violent local impacts, but available energies depend on the statistical distribution of the kinetic
energies of thermally agitated water molecules in the liquid state. Although a chain of WPs of given
length allows for a superposition of different modes of oscillations, they will have decreasing
amplitudes for higher frequencies. The actual frequency spectrum for excited standing waves results
from random excitations, but the lowest possible frequency remains the predominant one.
3.4 Negation of Water Memory Was Based on False Assumptions
Benveniste’s experimental proof of water memory was categorically rejected because of prevailing
beliefs. They resulted from four erroneous assumptions:
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1) Biologically active molecule can have no effects any more, when all of them have been
eliminated by successive dilutions.
2) Even if biologically active molecules could create substitutes by means of water molecules,
these structures would have to be adaptable. That is unknown and unrealistic.
3) Biologically active molecules can only act on their specific receptors by means of chemical
affinities. Local structuring of liquid water would be unable to do that too.
4) Extra high dilutions (EHDs) are also used for homeopathy, which is often declared to be
inefficient. The preconized vigorous shaking after every dilution is a sign of charlatanism.
We have already shown that the two first objections are contradicted by the formation of trimmed
chains of WPs. The third objection concerns the mechanism of molecular interactions. We have been
accustomed to the idea that they require direct contact, adequate affinities and even configurational
compatibility, as for chemical reactions. Molecular interactions are also possible, however, by actions
at a distance, because of force fields. This possibility is usually overlooked.
Fig. 20 summarizes the needed restructuring of our ideas in this regard. First of all, we have to realize
that biologically active molecules contain an electrically charged part (Fig. 12) that can vibrate at a
particular frequency . This vibration is excited by impacts of surrounding water molecules and the
extraction of energy when it allows for resonance. The charge creates an electric field that oscillates
at this frequency. The upper line of Fig. 20 represents the normal process, where this field acts on a
molecular receptor, which has also a charged part. It can be set in oscillation when its resonance
frequency f ≈ f. The oscillating electric field of the active molecule is sufficient and very effective,
since direct contact is not required.
Fig. 20. Water memory reveals a new type of molecular interaction
The usual assumption that molecular interactions are only possible according to the “key and slot
model” of chemical reactions has to be corrected. The second line of Fig. 20 shows that water
memory results from a bypass. It results from the fact that the oscillating electric field of active
molecules can also create trimmed chains of WPs. As long as they are attached to their generators,
they resonate at a frequency f1 ≈ f. This remains true when these chains are detached. Reactivation of
their oscillations by thermal agitation in liquid water leads to a harmonic spectrum of possible
frequencies fs = f1, f2, f3 … However, the fundamental frequency f1 remains dominant and can thus
stimulate the same receptors. Neither Benveniste nor those who prepare or use homeopathic
preparations did know that. We ignored it also, until we discovered it by patient and meticulous
scientific reasoning.
It has many consequences that agree with observations. The most important one is that the collective
electric field, generated by all trimmed chains of WPs, has the capacity to create more and more
equally trimmed chains. Their number is even increased by an autocatalytic process. The fourth
erroneous assumption concerns homeopathy. Since the underlying mechanism was not understood, it
was believed that its efficiency can only result from placebo effects. We wonder how they would be
justified for animals and small children. The aim of this study was not to defend homeopathy, but to
find out if water memory is possible not. By restoring truth in this regard, the present status of
homeopathy is also modified in a decisive way.
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It is instructive to examine also the argumentation advanced by those who would like to eliminate
homeopathy. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council published in 2015 a
study, called “Evidence on the effectiveness of homeopathy” [41]. This report was sponsored by the
Australian Government, but was not based on a scientific study of underlying physical and
physiological process. It was merely a collection of 176 articles, supporting the claim that “there are
no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective.” It was
recognized that the general conclusion of their report was “based on all the evidence considered”. It
resulted from a collection of data and evaluations that were influenced by subjective appreciations
and opinions, favorable to the proposed thesis. Other evidence was discarded.
The first report of 2012 had even been concealed [42], since it was not sufficiently selective to reject
homeopathy as a justifiable medical practice. The published report stated that the aim of their study
was “to assist people in making health care choices”, but it was addressed to political deciders. The
authors mentioned even that they wanted to “influence policy” and to get “increased funding for such
research” ([41], pp. 6, 16 and 4). It should eliminate homeopathy. The widely publicized report was
manifestly equivalent to lobbying instead of searching objective truth.
3.5 The Standard Procedure for Extra-High Dilutions
It is therefore necessary to clarify also the origin of homeopathy. The basic idea was due to Samuel
Hahnemann (1755‐1843). He was a regular medical doctor. After acquiring his diploma at the age of
24, he practiced during 5 years, but decided then to cease. He had realized, indeed, that it would
have been better for some of his patients not to be treated according to the “art of healing” of his time.
He was even horrified that he might “murder” suffering people instead of helping them. This was an
exceptionally honest attitude, also justified by recognizing the real cause of this horrible situation.
Neither the chosen substances nor the doses were determined in a rational way, although Paracelsus
wrote already in 1543 that “only the right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy”.
Hahnemann’s linguistic gifts made it preferable for him to translate books and to search there for
possible improvements of medical practice. In one of these books, it was claimed that the bark of a
Peruvian tree was able to treat malaria. It is known today that the bark of “cinchona” trees contains
quinine. Most efficient medicines were actually discovered by trial and error. It was already known in
Antiquity, for instance, that leaves of willow trees can stop pain. A chemist discovered in 1853 that the
active molecule is C H O , which became famous as aspirin. Even elephants, apes and other animals
know how to cure or avoid ailments [43]. The textbook attributed the beneficial effects of cinchona
powder to its taste, but Dr. Hahnemann could not believe this claim. Being critical, he wanted to verify
if there were any detectable effects.
He was surprised that this powder produced malaria‐like symptoms. By experimenting also with other
substances, he realized that medicines could be discovered in a more rational way, by adopting the
“law of similars”. This was merely an empirical rule, but such rules were often followed before
understanding why they are valid. Since Hahnemann tried to discover medications by means of tests,
performed on healthy persons, he had to use the lowest possible doses. He adopted thus the method
of successive dilutions. If the result was beneficial, such an EHD could also be administered to
patients in a secure way. We recall that Hahnemann was a learned medical doctor and was thus able
to verify if a preparation is helpful of not.
As an example, we mention Apis mellifica. Until recently, it was customary in medicine to use Latin,
also for anatomy, to overcome language barriers. The European honey bee is called “Apis mellifera”
and the main component of its venom is mellitine. This molecule has anti‐inflammatory properties and
honey bees do even protect their larvae from infections by means of very efficient substances.
Hahnemann presented his discovery already in 1796 in a German medical journal, by formulating the
rule that “like cures like”. Objections that are based on the finite divisibility of matter are anachronistic.
Indeed, the ancient concept of atoms had been reintroduced by Boyle in 1661 and elaborated by the
chemist John Dalton in 1804, but the atomic theory was only accepted at about 1860, after
development of the kinetic theory of gases Nevertheless, Mendeleev did not yet dare to use the
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concept of atoms in 1869, although the periodicity of chemical elements would then have been
attributed to a periodic structure of these atoms.
Hahnemann assumed that even when a substance has been diluted many times, there remains
something of this substance, since that seemed to justify his findings. His proofs were empirical ones
and more detailed theoretical explanations were not yet possible. In 1810, he presented a first
collection of results and one year before his death, already the 6 edition of his “Organon of the
Rational Art of Healing” was ready for publication. It is easily available [44], but homeopathy has often
been misrepresented and unjustly denigrated.
It was obvious for Hahnemann that successive dilutions required always homogenization before the
next step. He did this by holding the vessel in his hand and stroking it with vigor on a semi‐elastic
surface, like leather. Modern chemists use mechanical vortexing to insure homogenization of
mixtures. This is a simpler method, but we will show in the following section that these “succussions”
do also have another effect. Although Hahnemann was only concerned with practical medicine, he
discovered already the bypass of Fig. 20. Neither he nor his detractors were aware of its existence
and scientific justification. Even when Benveniste did empirically prove the biological efficiency of
EHDs, it was categorically declared to be impossible.
3.6 The Quasi-Periodic Variations of Biological Efficiency
Sir John Maddox, long‐term editor of Nature (1966‐73 and 1980‐95) accused Benveniste of
self‐delusion, although his article contained two figures, displaying results of measurements [1]. Fig.
21 reproduces one of them. We see 9 peaks. The first one is higher than the following ones. Since
every peak did result from several measurements, Maddox should have realized that they cannot
simply result from “disregard of statistical principles” and “sampling errors”. The showman Randi was
not a scientific expert, but eager to discover a fraud, since he was told that this cannot be true. Even
Maddox believed that it was sufficient to proclaim these results were due to sloppy work [2].
Fig. 21. Measured quasi-periodic variations of the biological efficiency of EHDs,

published by Benveniste et al. [1]
What would result from the theory of water pearls? We begin with a description of the underlying
processes in usual language by means of Fig. 22. The first frame (a) shows some of the initially
diluted active molecules, their charged parts (in red) and attached trimmed chains of WPs. We know
that their length = /2 and depends thus on the frequency f of the oscillating electric field of the
active molecules. The second frame (b) illustrates the situation immediately after the first dilution and
vigorous agitation. The concentration of active molecules has been reduced and agitation lasted long
enough to detach all chains from the remaining ones, but some chains of WPs were broken.
The third frame (c) shows that after a relatively short time interval, the remaining active molecules had
again formed trimmed chains of WPs. Broken detached chains did grow and new ones were
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generated by the global oscillating electric field. These chains have the same characteristic length ,
allowing for standing waves at the frequency f1 and its harmonics. Some chains may have reached
the length 2 . It allows for a mode of oscillation where 2 = , which is equivalent to = /2 and
allows thus also for the frequency f1. There did even appear some “associated chains”.
Fig. 23 shows that they result from mutual attraction of two parallel chains of WPs, but more than two
parallel chains can also be bound to one another. These associated chains do not resonate at the
same frequency or even not at all. The fourth frame (d) of Fig. 22 represents a state where nearly all
single chains of WPs got bound to one another. The biological efficiency of the resulting EHD is then
much reduced, but associated chains can be broken by vigorous agitation. The small number of
remaining single chains can then be multiplied during successive dilutions, until there are again too
much associated chains. This explains the quasi‐periodic variations in Fig. 21.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 22. Decoding the standard procedure for preparing EHDs. (a) Active molecules and
attached trimmed chains of ; (b) Detached and broken chains, immediately after dilution
and agitation; (c) Reconstituted chains; (d) Excess of associated chains
Fig. 23. Two associated chains of water pearls
3.7 Kinetics of Water Memory
It is useful to express these ideas by means of equations, since they allow for logical deductions. Let
be the initial number of active molecules, dissolved in a given volume of twice distilled water. This
concentration is reduced by successive dilutions, since the same fraction of the homogenized solution
is eliminated at every step. Usually, this fraction is 9/10 or 99/100. It is replaced by pure water to get
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always the same volume. When successive dilutions follow one another at identical short time
intervals , the concentration of active molecules becomes a function ( ) that decreases step‐wise:
( + )= ( )− ( )
The value of = 9/10 or 99/100. For small time intervals, ( ) can be treated as if it were a
continuous function. It decreases then according to the equation:
̇ =− so that ( )= exp (− ) (11)
This exponential decrease does necessarily end up with ( ) = 0 when ≫ 1/ , but this does not
prove that the biological efficiency of EHDs has to vanish. Active molecules are able to generate
trimmed chains of WPs with a probability g per unit time and the chains generate more identically
trimmed chains with a probability par unit time. The concentration ( ) of trimmed chains of WPs
increases thus according the equation:
̇ = + (12)
When the sequence of EHDs starts without previously formed trimmed chains, the initial value
( ) = 0. Because of (11) and (12), we get then
( )= [ − ] where = (13)
Since ( ) = when t → 0, the initial increase of ( ) is linear and very rapid when A is great.
However, when t » 1/, the concentration ( ) does increase like exp( ). This exponential increase
would only stop when the whole amount of liquid water has been solidified. This might even apply to
oceans and would be catastrophic, but is prevented by forming associated chains. Their concentration
( ) does also increase, since (12) has to be replaced by
̇ = exp (− )+ − − (14)
̇= + − (15)
Equation (15) accounts for the fact that ( ) increases by combining already existing associated
chains with single ones and by combing single ones. However, every associated chain has also a
probability per unit time to be destroyed by vigorous agitation. Fig. 24 presents the results of
numerical integration of (14) and (15).The unit of time is = 1/ = 1. We assumed here that = 50
and that = 0.5, = 0.1, = 0. = 1.5 . The measured efficiency is proportional to ( ) . This
function is represented by the black line in Fig. 24. It corresponds to Fig. 21. The first peak is also
higher, because of remaining active molecules, but the other peaks are perfectly periodic, since we
assumed constant parameters in (14) and (15), though statistical variations are possible.
The red line describes the exponential decrease of the concentration ( ) of active molecules and the
bluish line represents the variations of the concentration ( ) of associated chains. It was a “hidden
variable” for Benveniste and his team. The initial increase of ( ) is linear and very rapid when
= is great. This appeared also in Fig. 21. The following peaks were there not identical, but had
nearly equal heights. The initial conditions were ( ) = 0 and ( ) = 1, since = 0 requires that one
of the initial values ( ) or ( ) is different from zero to initiate periodic variations.
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Fig. 24. Decrease of the concentration ( ) of active molecules and the periodic variations of
the concentrations ( ) and ( ) of single and associated chains of WPs in the course of
successive dilutions. They lead to EHDs that remain effective
The peaks of the function ( ) are dissymmetric, since the increase is progressive, while the decrease
is precipitated. Single chains are indeed more frequently associated with already existing ones when
their concentration ( ) is great. This dissymmetry was not obvious in Fig. 21, but does appear in
measurements performed by Montagnier and his collaborators (Section 4.1).
It is simply a matter of fact that if Maddox had tried to understand the experimental results, he would
have discovered that similar variations were already known since 1910 for autocatalytic reactions and
so‐called “chemical clocks” Periodic variations attracted even more attention in the 1920th, since they
were also observed for variations of the population density of predators and their prey. Predators
proliferate when pray is abundant, but when the population of victims has been decimated, they have
greater difficulties for their own survival and reproduction. Fewer predators allow the population of
potential victims to grow again. This phenomenon was described by the famous Lotka‐Volterra
equations, which are identical to (14) and (15), when = 0 and = 0.
After developing the present theory, we found the book of Francis Beauvais [10]. He provided many
examples of similar results obtained by Benveniste and his team. Beauvais mentioned even the
Lotka‐Volterra equations, but he assumed that the periodic variations of the efficiency of EHs might
result from the formation of negative and positive molds. This hypothesis was only mentioned as an
example, but proves that Maddox could have referred to the Lotka‐Voltera equations. However, he did
only want to prove that water memory is impossible.
Thomas Kuhn analyzed the process of scientific revolutions [45] and distinguished different stages.
When “anomalies” appear and cannot be explained by means of “normal science”, the first reaction is
to declare that they are impossible. Confirmation of the reality of these anomalies opens a period of
“crisis” Various types of approaches are then tried and momentarily tolerated. [For instance,
Michelson’s experiments of 1881 and 1887 did prove that the velocity of light with respect to the Earth
is identical for any direction. This was not compatible with the concept of light waves propagating in
“ether”, although its existence had merely been assumed to account for propagation of light waves by
analogy with sound waves. It was then proposed at first that the ether could be entrained by the Earth
or could be a peculiar medium, but Einstein realized that no luminipherous ether is really needed. Its
assumed existence is not required for EM waves and can simply be dropped when we accept that
Nature can impose restrictions on possible results of measurements, so that the velocity c is a
universal constant. This had enormous consequences].
Previously unknown facts can thus lead to a “paradigm shift” of great importance, since it may be
necessary to reexamine basic assumptions and to correct them, when they turn out to be inadequate.
This is also necessary for water memory and homeopathy, since the assumptions mentioned in
section 3.4 were suggested by observations of limited validity.
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3.8 The Limit Cycle and Aging
Consequences of (14) and (15) can also be expressed by displaying the variations of ( ) versus
those of ( ). Any particular point ( , ) defines then the state of the system at some instant and the
evolution of this state is represented by a continuous line. The dark curve in Fig. 25 is equivalent to
Fig. 24. The green curve results from identical parameters, but starts at another instant, where EHDs
are resumed when there are more associated chains. The height of the first peak is then reduced, but
the variations will also lead to limit cycle. It has the property maximal and minimal values of ( ) are
always reached when = / . Those of ( ) require that = / . These facts result from (14) and
(15) when ̇ = 0, = 0 and ’ = 0.
Fig. 25. Parametric representation of the evolution of EHDs
Fig. 26 shows what would happen for ’ = 0.0001, when all other parameters have the same values as
for Fig. 24. We assumed again that = 50, but the first peak of ( ) is greater, since ̇ = when
= 0. The red curve corresponds again to what would happen without formation of water chains
Fig. 26. Possible variations of ( ) for many successive dilutions.
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The amplitude of the periodic variations of ( ) is decreasing. The article of Benveniste [1] contained
a second figure for a longer series of EHDs. It suggests a possible decrease of ( ), but ’ was
smaller than 0.0001. Equations (14) and (15) allow us also to answer two very important questions.
Should the sequence of successive dilutions be stopped at an instant where the biological efficiency
has a high value? Does the efficiency of homeopathic preparations not totally vanish after some time?
It is sufficient to solve these equations after the instant = 0, where the process of EHDs was
stopped. We assume that all active molecules have already eliminated ( = 0), but without shaking,
the values of and o are smaller than previous ones. Fig. 27 shows the results of numerical
integrations when is reduced from 0.5 to 0.1 and o from 1.5 to 1, while and are not modified.
The black curve results from (0) = 30 and (0) = 1, while the red one would be due to Y(0) = 5 and
Z(0) = 10. We see that the initial conditions are irrelevant for the final result.
Fig. 27. Effects of aging after stopping serial dilutions
It is particularly important for homeopathy that the alternative dominance of single and associated
chains continues during the initial period of aging, but the efficiency ends up with the average value of
the quasi-periodic variations, as shown in Fig. 27. The final value is also determined by (14) and (15),
since ̇ = 0 and A = 0 yield + = and ̇ = − = ( − ) when ≈ 0.Thus →
 and ( ) → / = 1. These results could not be guessed without a mathematical analysis of
the kinetics of water memory. Preservation of the biological efficiency of EHDs requires, of course,
that they are not severely perturbed by heating or ultrasound.
3.9 Crosstalk and Beat Phenomena
Controlled tests, performed in 1993, led to an unexpected fiasco. How and why this happened will be
detailed in section 5.2, but the biological efficiency of EHDs was lost, while samples of pure water,
needed for blind tests, turned out to be efficient. Benveniste was confronted to they confirmed their
conviction that water memory is an illusion, based on random results. Benveniste knew that this is not
true, because of numerous tests, and tried thus to understand these surprising observations. He
realized that tubes with genuine EHDs of active molecules had been placed during some time near
tubes that contained merely pure water. He suspected therefore that the invisible structures,
responsible for water memory, are emitting “signals” that can transfer their biological efficiency to pure
water. It was not clear why this information transfer was possible and why this could result in silencing
authentic EHDs, but Benveniste did empirically prove that the assumed signals do really exist.
At present, it is sufficient to consider that trimmed chains of WPs allow for standing waves that create
an oscillating electric field. It generates other chains of WPs of identical length or restores broken
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ones. The resulting chains of WPs produce the same effects as the initially dissolved biologically
active molecules, since direct interactions between active molecules and their receptors can be
bypassed, as shown in Fig. 20. We noted already that resonance effects allow for some tolerance. It
is thus sufficient that ≈ ≈ , where is determined by the length of trimmed chains ( =
v/2 ). However, it follows from Lo’s measurements that = , where ≈ 20. The fundamental
frequency for standing waves will thus not always be precisely equal to the frequency that is
characteristic of the chosen type of active molecules. It can happen, for instance, that the active
molecules did initially create trimmed chains where N = 20 or 21 for a given type of active molecules.
Autonomous generation of equally trimmed chains of WPs during successive dilutions is then
governed by the collective electric field that oscillates at one of the resulting frequencies. This is also
possible for pure water in a neighboring tube, but it will then “breed” always identically trimmed
chains. The resulting strains can be slightly different. This is irrelevant when ≈ ≈ . However, the
strains produced by the original EHDs and in pure water can be slightly different. They produce then
oscillating electric fields of slightly different frequencies: ± = ± , where ≪ . When the
vessels are put side by side, these fields are superposed. The resulting electric field does then
oscillate at the average frequency with a modulated amplitude. Indeed,
cos ( − ) + cos ( + ) = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
cos ( − ) − cos ( + ) = 2 sin ( ) sin ( )
This “beat phenomenon is well‐known in acoustics. Even when the proximity of two slightly different
EHDs was only temporary, their already strong electric fields generate together both types of trimmed
chains. Even when this happened only during a short time, they will continue to produce both types of
chains and therefore “mixed signals”. Their biological efficiency will vary in a periodic way. The
relative phase of the superposed fields is also relevant, since the sum of two signals of equal
amplitude will be doubled. They can also annihilate one another, but will then become strong again
from time to time. The interval may be too long to become aware of it. The following section will
confirm this prediction. Although Benveniste ignored the underlying mechanism, he discovered that
“information transfer” is possible, by proving the existence of the assumed signals. However, they
could also produce strange effects. Beauvais used the term of “coherent discordances” to designate
“wild transfers” and the fact that one operator did even “erase” the imprint [10] ( . 429, 450 and 453).
These facts were enigmatic, but repeatable.
3.10 Confirmations by Physico-Chemical Measurements
Vittorio Elia and his collaborators performed remarkable experiments with the “long term goal” of
clarifying the problem of water memory [46]. They began in 1999 with measuring the heat of mixing
when EHDs of active molecules were dissolved in twice distillated water. It appeared that addition of
NaOH resulted in energy release. It was concluded that EHDs contain aggregates of water molecules,
which are able to create new ones. Elia insisted on the fact that these structures have the capacity of
“self‐organization”. We can now say that the added ions do also create trimmed chains of WPs. In this
case their length is different, but bonds do always correspond to negative energy states. Mixing had
thus to liberate more energy in the form of measurable heat.
The same team measured also the electric conductivity of EHDs at 25°C. Dissociation of NaOH
produced ions that did increase it. Since this increase was always proportional to the measured heat
of mixing, both phenomena had a common cause [47]. The ions increased the concentration of
trimmed chains and the conductivity by the von Grotthuss mechanism.
Elia and his team made two other remarkable discoveries by measuring the excess electrical
conductivity for homeopathic dilutions of Arnica Montana during aging. The active substance is
helenalin ( ), containing charged oxygen atoms. Its EHDs displayed wave‐like variations of
the electric conductivity, but at an extremely slow pace [48]. In 4.4 years, there appeared only 4
peaks, which had nearly the same form, but their amplitude increased [49,50]. We can understand
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this fact in terms of beat phenomena. It appeared also that the excess conductivity was greater for
smaller volumes of EHDs. Initial conditions are usually irrelevant for aging (Fig. 27), but ( ) → / .
This value will thus be increased when the probability for creating associated chains is reduced by
surface effects.
4. MORE EVIDENCE OF FERROELECTRIC WATER PEARLS
4.1 The Measured Frequency Spectrum
Benveniste discovered that EHDs of biologically active molecules produce “signals” that can be
detected by means of a coil. The output was an electric tension that could easily be amplified and
stored in analogical or digital form. The waveform was noise, but the low frequency approximation of
(10) predicts it results from a superposition of simpler signals, randomly shifted with respect to one
another. The predicted spectrum is
= when = 1,2,3, ⋯ ≪ (16)
Montagnier has shown the results of Fourier analysis, nicely displayed on a computer screen [13].
The frequency spectrum did correspond to equidistant bell‐shaped peaks. Moreover, their heights
varied in the course of successive dilutions. Montagnier’s patent US2010323391 contains also the
spectrum obtained by Fast Fourier Analysis [51]. It uses shorter extracts and yields clearly separated
spectral lines. For a particular type of active molecules, the reported values were
= 1000, 2000, 3000, 4100, 5100, 5500
The three lowest values do precisely correspond to (16). Since higher frequencies than result from
molecular agitation in liquid water, they are excited with decreasing intensities. This implies greater
uncertainties. Important results of normal Fourier analysis were presented in an article [14], even for
several substances and different stages of dilutions. They are especially interesting, like hieroglyphs
when we understand their meaning. For the first dilutions, there was only one great peak at the
fundamental frequency . We can attribute it to trimmed chains of WPs that are still attached to active
molecules. Further dilutions led to the appearance of additional peaks, according to (16). Their
average height increased during successive dilutions, but was maximal for dilutions D‐9 to D‐12. It did
strongly decrease for D‐13.
These facts agree with Fig. 24 for Y(t). Since these authors wanted only to get EHDs of maximal
efficiency, it was not necessary to continue the sequence of dilutions. They would only lead to quasi-
periodic repetitions. High efficiency could be reliably predicted by observing the magnitude of the
peaks for high frequencies, where they were then strongly excited the thermal agitation of water
molecules in liquid water. It may be astonishing that the peaks for some harmonic frequencies were
depressed, but this is due to interference effects and happens also for musical instruments [52].
4.2 Water “Balls” and Their Alignments
S.Y. Lo measured the diameter ( = 15 ) of WPs. The second group of structures had variable
sizes of about 300 nm. This yields the length of chains of WPs, combined in a fluffy way. Montagnier
and his collaborators tried to measure the size of the required information carriers of water memory by
means of filters. This method suggested a size between 20 and 100 nm [15]. No one knew that the
carriers of water memory are single chains of WPs and can thus be broken by filtering. If the length L
= ND were always shorter than 100 nm, these chains would contain at most 7 WPs. The resolution for
distinguishing different types of active molecules would then be too small to be detected, but the
measured values of the length = /2 ≈ 300 nm. This result and the frequency = / ≈ 1
allow us even to deduce the velocity = 2 / ≈ 0.6 / for any chain of .
Lo found also a third group of supramolecular structures by means of interference measurements.

Their size was much more variable, but of the order of 3000 nm [40]. The ‐ray spectrum confirmed
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that they were only constituted of water molecules, without silicon contaminations from vessels. These
structures could be created by means of different types of initiators, but required always very high
concentrations of chains of WPs. Excitation by UV light produced fluorescence at 298 nm, which is
absent for pure water and ice. These “water balls” survived after short heating at 80∘ , but were
decomposed by vigorous agitation. However, they were then spontaneously reassembled after about
15 min. Fig. 28 reproduces, with kind permission of World Scientific Publishing Company, two pictures
that were published the same year [53].
Fig. 28. Transmission electron-microscopies realized by Lo [51]. They show deformable

“balls”, constituted of loosely bound chains of water pearls
The left image proves that these balls tend to be aligned and the right image that they can be
deformed. We propose therefore that water balls are constituted of chains of WPs that tend to be
oriented in the same way. Water balls are thus dipolar, but contain also water molecules that can be
expelled. Lo discovered that when these balls are very numerous, they constitute extremely long
alignments, visible by optical microscopy [54]. Spectacular images of these alignments were
published in 2009 and reproduced in a book [55]. These images are also contained in an open‐access
article [56]. It is very remarkable that the alignments are branching‐off sideways at the same angle of
78°. We explained this astonishing fact by means of Fig. 29.
∘
Fig. 29. Chains of water molecules allow for strong bonds when they meet at .
This angle = 78° is indicated in by the upper dot, but the same angle appears also at another place,
where it is defined by cos = / = 0.6/2.9. This results from the fact that water balls can only stick
to one another when enough chains of water molecules can get strongly attached to one another, but
parallel chains have always to be displaced by with respect to one another by the same distance a
(see Fig. 11 and Fig. 1). It follows that  = 78°. The agreement between experimental and theoretical
values does strongly confirm the validity of the concept of chains of water pearls.
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4.3 Water Bridges and their explanation
What would happen if liquid water were subjected to very strong electric fields? This question has
been raised long ago by the British lawyer Willian George Armstrong, who became a respected
engineer, inventor and scientist. He had a powerful source of high electrostatic potential differences
and used it to find out if they produce very intense electric currents in liquid water. He knew that these
currents would result from motions of H and OH ions, but discovered surprising facts. He presented
them in 1893 to a general audience as being entertaining. He mentioned that they might “be
interesting to experts” [57]. Actually, he filled two wine glasses up to the rim with pure water and put
them in contact with one another. He immersed a long cotton thread in one of them and introduced
one wetted end in the other glass. He might have thought that the motion of charges though the
cotton thread could entrain it when a very high potential difference is applied to the water in the
adjacent vessels, but was amazed that the whole cotton thread was transferred to the other glass.
The spongy cotton was entrained by OH ions, since they yield more adhesion than the light H ions.
The thread did move indeed towards the positive pole, but the water level remained constant in both
glasses. This was confirmed when Armstrong used a vessel where a thin tube allowed to see more
precisely any variation of this level. He mentioned that during a few seconds after the complete
transfer of the cotton thread, a “rope of water” remained suspended between the two glasses. When
Elmar Fuchs was studying physics in Austria, he heard about this phenomenon and reproduced it with
a source that could sustain high currents at 15 kV, for instance. The first results were published in
2007. He found that the cotton thread is not necessary to produce a “floating bridge” of liquid water
[58]. It remained stable as long as the high electric field was applied.
This phenomenon did raise a fundamental problem [59]: how is it possible that a strong electric field
modifies the interaction between water molecules in the liquid state so much that it becomes able to
resist gravity? The generation of the water bridge was itself a complex process. At first, the water
surface became agitated in both vessels. Then, a very thin filament of liquid water established
contact, but it lasted only a fraction of a second. Its diameter was then suddenly increased to yield a
cylinder of circular section. It remained suspended in air like a catenary, even when its length was
slowly increased up to 2.5 cm at 25 kV. Fuchs started then a systematic study of this strange
phenomenon with various collaborators, to discover the cause of this “new state” of liquid water by
means of experimental methods.
Since water bridges provided direct visual evidence, it would have been difficult to negate the reality
of these observations, but the basic problem was the same as for water memory. Observations
confirmed that the transport of charges is bidirectional [60]. Protons and proton‐holes are thus passing
through the bridge in equal quantities. By measuring the complex impedance between 100 Hz and 10
MHz, it appeared that the charges were moving like nearly‐free conduction electrons in metals [61].
Raman scattering indicated that vibrational modes in liquid water were not modified with respect to
usual ones in bulk water [62]. We conclude that charge transport was due to the von Grotthuss
mechanism, but we have also to solve two other problems. 1) Why is cohesion of water molecules in
the liquid state increased by applying a very intense electric field? 2) How can many H and OH ions
move in opposite direction, without hindering one another?
The first question has to be related to the higher density of liquid water near the surface of the bridge.
This was proven by X-ray scattering for two‐dimensional beams of submillimeter extension [63]. Since
neutron scattering is sensible to hydrogen atoms, it did yield complementary results [64]. The stability
of water bridges has been attributed to higher surface tension [65], but that is not sufficient, since
longitudinal stretching of the “liquid cable” requires greater bond‐strength along this direction. We
propose that the stability of water bridges was due to the formation of very long chains of WPs.
We can then understand the sequence of events. At first the water surface became agitated in both
beakers, since growing chains were formed near the electrodes and then moving around, until contact
was established between water in both vessels. Few chains that constitute only a capillary bridge
were sufficient. Once the way was open, more and more chains of WPs were rapidly formed by the
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very intense electric field. The traffic of protons and proton‐holes along the thin bundle of chains of
WPs led to mutual repulsion of parallel chains. This increased the surface of the bridge until a new
equilibrium was stabled. Since WPs are constituted of close-packed water molecules, this explains
also the measured greater density near the surface and the observed birefringence for linearly
polarized light [66].
An increase of the applied potential difference allows also for a greater length of the catenary. This
fact is due to the very strong polarization of water molecules. The left part of Fig. 30 shows a
molecular chain like that of Fig. 10, since an electric field E of moderate intensity does only orient the
effective dipoles and set the spheres in contact. The right part shows that a very intense electric field
does modify the form of water molecules and that the usual angle of 106° between OH bonds is
reduced. This does also modify the intermediate potential barrier and increase electric conduction by
the von Grotthuss mechanism.
Fig. 30. Aligned water molecules get more tightly bound by a strong electric field E
It is then imperative to regulate opposite traffic of electrons and electron holes inside the cylindrical
water bridge. Some observations indicated that this might happen in a helicoidally coordinated way
[65]. This makes sense, when we adopt the model of Fig. 31. Positive and negative charges are
distributed on the average as in ionic crystals.
Fig. 31. Opposite motions of bunched charges along a double helix
Their most probable positions are represented by red and blue spots. They move along different
average trajectories, preserving axial symmetry. They are represented by red and blue lines, forming
a double helix. It is similar to Da Vinci’s famous stair case of the chateau of Chambord in France. Two
flights, forming a double helix, allowed there for simultaneous upward and downward traffic.
4.4 Lack of Evidence for Coherence Domains
Emilio Del Giudice et al. proposed in 1988 a bold hypothesis concerning properties of bulk liquid water
at very small scales [67]. Basically, they assumed that electrons can remain in an exited state inside
some water molecules, belonging to small spherical domains. Since the ionization energy of water
molecules is 12.6 eV, they considered excitation to an energy level at 12.06 eV. To keep the electrons
in this weakly bound state, they assumed constant emission and reabsorption of virtual photons,
trapped inside the small spherical volume. This required that electrons should be accumulated at the
surface of the sphere, while positive charges had to be expelled and would be distributed in the
surrounding liquid water. The accumulated electrons would then constitute a barrier at the surface of
spherical domains, reflecting virtual photons. It was postulated that the ensemble of excited electrons
is oscillating in phase with the EM field of all virtual photons inside such spheres. Because of the
selected excitation energy, the wave‐length would then be close to 100 nm and determine the size of
“coherence domains” (CDs). It was estimated that they contain about 1000 water molecules, since
only a fraction of the internal electrons would be excited.
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Although this theory was initially conceived for bulk water [68], it was assumed later‐on that it should
also account for exclusion zones, water bridges and water memory. Because of the prestige of
quantum field theory and the need of a rational justification of the mysterious phenomenon of water
memory, the theory of CDs had increasing impact. However, we have also to mention what happened
in 1993. It had already been decided that Benveniste’s Unit 200 would be closed, but he found a more
objective method for detecting the biological efficiency of EHDs. He was thus allowed to prove the
reality of water memory by means of blind experimentation, subjected to rigorous control of Georges
Charpak He was the 1992 Nobel Prize laureate in physics, since he invented a new type of particle
detectors for CERN. Benveniste tried to convince him, by referring to the article of Del Giudice et al.
[67]. This article concerned condensed matter physics. Charpak asked thus Pierre‐Gilles de Gennes,
also Nobel Prize winner in physics, what he thought of this theory. He answered that it is “worth
nothing”, since it is based on “false hypotheses” ([6], pp. 154, 168).
Beauvais mentions that de Gennes had asked Philip Nozières ([13], pp. 395, 398 and 402). He was
the top theoretical physicist in France for new properties of condensed matter. Since such a harsh
judgment might have been influenced by controversies, we have to ask why the concept of CDs has
been proposed. The theoretical physicist Giuliano Preparata (1942‐2000) made several contributions
to elementary particle physics, before trying to apply quantum electrodynamics (QED) to condensed
matter physics [68]. He viewed the existence of CDs as being a general property of pure liquid water,
since he assumed that CDs are there always present. This “two fluid picture” led him even to the
statement that “the concept of hydrogen-bonds is merely phenomenological” ([68], pp. 38, 196, 197).
We showed already in section 2.3 how hydrogen bonds can be explained.
Preparata was coauthor of the official article on CDs [67], presenting the same idea in Physical
Review Letters. The primary author, Emilio Giudice (1940‐2014), was one of the pioneers of
hypothetical string theories and explained why he got interested in CDs [69]. Since his youth, he felt
that the whole universe constitutes a profoundly integrated entity. Studying physics, he developed a
sense of wonder in regard to quantum mechanics (QM) and got especially interested in
“entanglement”. Since this concept provided his motivation for considering CDs, we have to explain
where it came from.
Albert Einstein had contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, but in 1927 he learned
about new ideas and discussed them with Niels Bohr at the Solvay conference in Brussels. He
perceived very keenly that this theory attributed peculiar properties to measurements. He developed
this idea in the famous EPR article of 1935, by means of a thought experiment. We describe it in
equivalent terms, by considering two particles that have a property that can be precisely measured,
but allows only for two possible values: +1 and −1. Since QM accounts for limited knowledge, we can
define a state where it is only known that the values ±1 are equally probable. It is then sufficient to
determine by means of a new measurement that the value is +1 for one particle, to be instantly sure
that it is −1 for the other particle. It does not matter how far these particles are separated from one
another at that instant. In classical physics, that would require the existence of a physical link. Einstein
asked therefore: are such “spooky actions” at a distance really possible or not? He did only raise the
problem, without solving it. Since Schrödinger had developed wave mechanics, where causal
relations were preserved for the propagation of wave functions in space and time, he insisted on the
need of causal relations. He did not like the idea of random “quantum jumps”, since they exclude
causal relations. When Einstein described in a vivid way that QM seemed to imply instantaneous
information transfer for any distance, Schrödinger coined the word “entanglement” to describe this
mysterious and purely hypothetical physical connection.
Actually, it is sufficient to accept that QM is a theory of possible knowledge that is limited because of
h. It imposes indeed irreducible uncertainties on simultaneous knowledge of positions and velocities
for particles of very small mass. Classical physics yields an approximation that is valid when these
uncertainties can be neglected. QM yields radically new physical laws and the concept of “virtual
photons” results from the fact that during short time intervals , the energy of a system can only be
determined with a minimal precision ( ≈ ℎ/ ). Since the theory of relativity imposes that the rest-
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energy of particles of given mass is finite, the number of identical particles cannot be precisely known
during short time intervals.
During the short period of their existence, they cannot go very far, since the velocity of photons is
limited to c. This value is very great, but not infinite. However, Del Giudice was convinced that “virtual
photons” can instantly establish a link between physical systems, even when they are separated by
arbitrarily great distances. He expressed this idea [70] by stating that telepathic communications are
possible, but he knew that physical theories are only justified by their agreement with observations.
He tried thus to show that the concept of CDs does account for unexplained phenomena, like water
memory, exclusion zones and the stability of floating water bridges. He did not explain their properties
in detail, but diligently propagated his hypothetical idea.
Bellavite and other health specialists at Italian universities reviewed in 2013 the status of research
concerning EHDs [71]. They concluded that “evidence strongly supports the notion that structuring of
water plays a fundamental role”. They added that the mechanism is not understood. However, two
hypotheses had been proposed: statistically stable, small hydrogen bonded clathrates and coherence
domains. After examining the evidence, they concluded that “none is fully convincing”. The concept of
ferroelectric water pearls was not yet known. It explains essential properties of EHDs, like the
observed quasi‐periodic variations of their biological efficiency, the measured frequency spectrum of
signals created by local structures and the angle of 78° between alignments of water balls. It should
be noted that ‐Wan tried to explain alignments of water balls by assuming that expelled
charged particles are more concentrated between water balls [56]. Even if that were true, it would not
be sufficient to explain the astonishing angle of 78°.
Benveniste was sure that water memory is real, because of the often verified quasi‐periodicity of the
biological efficiency of EHDs and detection of signals. It was thus obvious that a physical explanation
had to be possible. Since coherent domains seemed to offer an explanation, Montagnier accepted the
help of scientists who advocated the existence of CDs. They stated even that water memory involves
the “gauge theory paradigm of quantum fields” and “the framework of spontaneously broken gauge
symmetry theories” [72]. These words are familiar to those who know the jargon of QED. They are
impressive, but are they really necessary?
We recall that Thomas Kuhn distinguished three periods in the process of scientific revolutions [45]. At
first, the observed anomaly is declared to be impossible, since it does not agree with previously
acquired knowledge. When the facts are confirmed and cannot be denied anymore, it comes to a
“crisis”, where any hypothetical explanation may be proposed. The theoretical chemist Tamar Yinnon
published a series of articles, where the concept of CDs was elaborated by postulating the existence
of various types of similar structures. He presented them in 2015 as being “predictions of QED”, but
presented merely a catalogue of hypothetical structures [73].
4.5 Forced Oscillations of Water Molecules in EHDs
Instead of commenting respectable attempts to find an explanation of water memory, we continue to

test the validity of the concept of WPs by collecting more experimental results. Adriana de Miranda
measured the dielectric response of water molecules that interact with supramolecular structures [74].
She used 14 lots of LiCl, prepared by pharmaceutical laboratories and determined the spectral
distribution of the real and imaginary parts of the impedance in the frequency range of 1 kHz to 13
MHz. She defined these variables by means of an equivalent circuit and compared the results to those
of the measured dielectric response of EHDs of H2O molecules in pure water, always prepared in the
same way. To understand the underlying physical processes, we examine the response of the
effective dipoles of water molecules to an oscillating electric field at various frequencies. The center of
these molecules remains practically motionless, while the positive tip of the effective dipole is
displaced by a small distance ( ) along the direction of the applied electric field. When is the
density of water molecules, the instantaneous polarization density is ( ) = 2 ( ), where the
displacement is subjected to the equation of motion
̈ = − ̇/ + ( / ) ( )
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Indeed, 2 is the charge and 2 the effective mass of the pair of protons. They are set in forced
oscillation by an oscillating electric field ( ), but also subjected to friction, which is proportional to the
velocity ̇ . The value of the relaxation time depends on all possible interactions in bulk water. For an
electric field that oscillates at some angular frequency with a given amplitude. These parameters
define the polarization density and the polarizability ) of water molecules when
( )=2 cos ( ) and ( )= ( ) cos ( ).
Expressing the cos function in terms of exp (± ), we get the complex polarizability
(2 ) /2 (0) (0)(1 + )
( )= = = = ( )+ ( )
− 1− 1+( )
The function  specifies the average orientation of effective dipoles. At low frequencies ( ≪ 1),
they are oriented along the direction of the applied electric field, but the polarizability drops quite
suddenly when ≈ 1. It is even reduced to zero when ≫ 1. The imposed rhythm is then too fast
to allow the molecules to follow, because of friction. The imaginary part varies like /(1 + ), when
= . This yields a peak that is centered on = 1. The function ( ) describes energy losses
because of friction. It is maximal when  = 1/. Increased friction leads to lower values of and higher
resonance frequencies. Miranda found that the resonance frequencies were situated between 40 and
100 kHz for EHDs of LiCl in pure water. This means for us that friction resulted from the creation of
trimmed chains of WPs. The height of the peak for ( ) varied in the course of successive dilutions
of LiCl in such a way that it was maximal for D‐9. Since friction is proportional to the concentration
( ) of trimmed chains of WPs in Fig. 24, these measurements confirm the concept of WPs.
This resonance phenomenon for water molecules in EHDs was indirectly related to chains of WPs.
We began thus searching for other resonance phenomena that might be directly related to WPs. We
found very remarkable, but mysterious results of measurements, performed by the Indian electrical
engineer Chitta Ranjan Mahata. He had witnessed the healing power of homeopathy and wanted to
understand how this is possible [75,76]. Studying the literature [77], he discovered the proposition of
Barnard [78]. He declared in 1965 that homeopathy needs of a “surer foundation” than to refer merely
to positive results. This should be possible, since homeopathy requires that EHDs create substitutes
of the initially dissolved active molecules. These substitutes have to be constituted of water
molecules. Barnard thought therefore that they might “join up to form long molecular chains”. This
idea was probably suggested by the concept of polywater, which was in vogue at that time. Barnard
proposed that these molecular chains may be wrapped around active molecules and that their length
would thus provide the required specificity.
We were surprised that some important ideas had already been formulated more than 20 years before
Benveniste’s discovery. Barnard was aware of the hypothetical nature of his proposition, but he
insisted that it indicates “the kind of experimental research in physics and chemistry needed now to
establish the truth of homeopathy”. Barnard and Stevenson provided more details in another article
[79]. They reviewed what was known about properties of EHDs, prepared for therapeutic purposes. It
had already been found that the capacity of healing of homeopathic preparations displays “rhythmic
variations” in the course of successive dilutions. It was also mentioned that biologically active
molecules contain electric charges and that Alphonse Gay had developed in the early 1950th a
method for measuring the dielectric response of EHDs [80]. It was complicated, but sufficient to
identify EHDs of NaCl even after 27 centesimal dilutions. [We thank Dr. van Wassenhoven for his help
to get access to this paper.]
4.6 Mahata’s high frequency resonances
Mahata realized that he could test the validity of Barnard’s hypothesis, since ordered molecular
groups in liquid water should lead to resonance effects. He developed with his collaborators a very
efficient technique [81] and in 2010, they presented results for the spectral distribution of the real and
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imaginary parts of the dielectric constant [75] in a very large frequency domain (100 Hz - 50 kHz).
They found typical features of resonances for preparations of Cuprum met, but also for pure water. In
2013, they provided more results [76] and did interpret them in terms of Barnard’s model. There were
resonances, indeed, but we noted 4 perplexing anomalies:
1) The resonance frequencies were always very high: about 25 MHz instead of about 1 kHz.
2) There was only one resonance frequency, without harmonics.
3) Such a resonance was even observed for pure water.
4) The energy‐loss functions were not symmetric, as required for usual resonances.
These results did not correspond to our expectations for single chains of WPs, but might be due to the
surface charges of WPs. Their presence is justified by Fig.13 and they are represented in Fig. 32 by
red and blue rims. The resulting positive and negative poles, indicated by black and white dots, will be
displaced by the component of the electric field that is perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the WP.
Could this allow for another resonance than the low frequency one, excited by biologically active
molecules? This was demonstrated by Mahata’s measurements but had to be explained.
Fig. 32. Rapid oscillatory rotations of a single water peal, excited by an electric field
+ -
The third anomaly can attributed to the fact that pure water contains H and OH ions. They do also
create WPs. However, a “normal” resonance for forced oscillations should be described by the
following equation for the displacements ( ) of the positive and negative poles:
̈ + + ̇ = exp (− ) (17)
The high value of the (angular) resonance frequency would require a strong restoring force and
is proportional to the amplitude of the electric field E(t).Thus, ( ) = ( ) exp (− )and the
measured polarizability ( ) of water that contains a given concentration of WPs is proportional to
( ). When we normalize ( ) to get always the same static polarizability (0) = 1, it follows that
(18)
We simplified the real part ( ) to insist on the fact that without friction, this function would diverge
when ω = Ω. The imaginary part β (ω) describes energy losses because of friction. These losses are
maximal when ω ≈ Ω. The peak is symmetric and Γ = γ/2. The height of the peak is then Ω/2Γ, while
its width at half height is equal to Γ. Fig. 33 shows the resultinf frequency dependence of β (in black)
and of β (in red), when the measured frequency f = 25 MHz and  = 5 MHz. Mahata’s experimental
results found very similar curves for ( ), but ( ) did correspond to curves like the blue one. The
height of the observed peak has been adjusted here to coincide with the height of the normal peak
and β → 0 when ≫ Ω. Measured energy‐loss functions were thus asymmetric. This feature did even
appear for EHDs of various biologically active substances. The values of Ω and Γ were somewhat
different, but the mysterious “dip” of the energy loss functions remained nearly identical.
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Fig. 33. The spectral distributions of the real and the imaginary parts of the polarizability
predicted for oscillators that resonate at 25 . The blue curve represents typical results for
Mahata’s resonances
It was absolutely necessary to verify if these unexpected facts are compatible with the concept of
WPs or not. We solved this problem (section 5.4), after enlarging the domain of experimental tests.
4.7 Complementary Experimental Evidence
The Swiss biochemist Louis did prove in 2003 that EHDs of NaCl and LiCl in ultrapure water
produce local structures that are preserved by freezing and provide more detailed information [82]. He
began with keeping the EHDs during 24 h at -20°C and reduced then the temperature to 77 K. When
he exposed the transparent disk to a high dose of ionizing radiation, most excited electrons did
immediately return to their normal state in ice, but some of them were trapped in local defects. To
leave enough time for diffusion of electrons, the ice remained during one week at 77 K. After reaching
equilibrium, the sample was slowly warmed up at constant rate. Trapped electrons were then excited
from progressively deeper levels. As soon as they reached the conduction band, they rejoined the
deeper valence band by emitting photons. The intensity of this thermoluminescence displays peaks.
They allow determining the depth of various traps.
There appeared a glow at ≈ 120 and a more intense one at ≈ 166 , especially when NaCl had
been dissolved in heavy water (D O). Since electron traps were different for NaCl and LiCl, they were
due to and ions. Rey concluded that these results prove “without any ambiguity” that liquid
water has been structured in a lasting way. The glows appeared only when serial dilutions were
followed by vigorous shaking. Rey proposed that it produces “nanobubbles, attracted by ions [83]. The
basic facts did not depend on this interpretation and were brilliantly confirmed by van Wijk et al. [84].
Demangeat studied the effects of EHDs by means of nuclear magnetic resonance [85]. Protons have
indeed a magnetic moment that tends to be parallel or antiparallel to the direction of a constant
magnetic field . The energy difference is proportional to the strength of this field and transitions can
be stimulated by EM radiation of adequate frequency. When the excitation ceases, the system returns
to its ground state, but there are two different relaxation times, and , for the components of the
magnetic moment of protons along the direction the magnetic field and perpendicular ones. The
ratio / depends on their environment. For EHDs, the results of measurements did prove that
“water is a self‐organizing system” [78]. Van Wassenhoven et al. presented more detailed results of
NMR studies, confirming this conclusion [86] and providing additional information.
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Other very important facts were discovered in Russia. They did prove that many types of molecules
dissolved in pure water create there structures that consist only of water molecules, but they depend
on the nature of the initially dissolved molecules. These structures subsisted, even when all active
molecules had been eliminated by many repeated dilutions, always accompanied by vigorous stirring.
Konovalov and Ryzhkina presented in 2014 a review [87], where they stated that the following
conditions have to be satisfied: 1) only one type of molecules should be dissolved in pure liquid water
at extremely low concentration, 2) these molecules have to carry an electric charge and 3) should be
subjected to low‐frequency EM fields. Although this phenomenon contradicted standard chemistry, it
was reproducible and the structuring of water was confirmed by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The
authors insisted that these entities do not result from the formation of nanobubbles, but are real
associations of water molecules. This is essential to justify the concept of chains of WPs.
The hypothesis of nano‐bubbles was closer to conventional ideas. Burkin and his collaborators [88]
performed thus light scattering measurements for very low concentrations to check this possibility.
They interpreted their results in terms of bubble clusters around ions, but this assumption leads to
inconsistencies [89]. The Indian chemical engineer Chikramane and his collaborators tried to find out
if the specificity of water memory could result from the subsistence of initially dissolved particles. They
used homeopathic drugs, prepared by means of EHDs of various metals (Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Zn and Pt).
They did yield local structures of sizes that ranged from 214 to 325 nm that could thus be trimmed
chains of WPs of length L ≈ 300 nm. These authors claimed that X-ray analysis demonstrated that
they contain particles of the initially dissolved metals and assumed that minute gas bubbles were
formed during agitation and stabilized by attachment to small metal particles. Moreover, they thought
that these entities did rise to the surface and could there constitute a thin layer, preserving metal
particles. NMR and other measurements of Van Wassenhoven did not confirm this hypothesis [86].
Demangeat, who thought also that vigorous agitation could produce nanobubbles, proposed that they
might account for water memory by creating a “stereospecific shell” around active molecules [90].
How could these structures remain stable and allow for replication? The concept of nanobubbles was
attractive, but do they really exist?
This question was answered by specific experimental investigations. The Slovenians Sedlák and
combined light scattering with rapid centrifugation and found that biologically active molecules at very
low concentration produce real material entities [91]. Their measured sizes ranged from 100 nm to
400 nm for various substances. It was explicitly noted that the mechanism of formation of these
supramolecular structures and their real nature were unknown. However, the exclusion of
nanobubbles was a significant progress and the reported sizes were compatible with the formation of
chains of WPs.
Elia et al. produced supramolecular aggregates in pure water by repeated contact with a polymer,
called Nafion [92]. It is strongly hydrophilic, because of its electrically charged sulfonate group
(SO3H). It produced structures in liquid water, subsisting after freeze‐drying. The solutions had a high
electric conductivity and absorbed UV light at 270 nm. Absorption of IR light, associated with the OH
stretching mode of vibration in water molecules was also modified [82]. Evaporation led to solid
residues, displaying clustered particles of about 40 to 400 nm. These aggregates of water molecules
did produce circular dichroism [93]. This means that plane polarized light, decomposed in left and
right circular polarized light, does not lead to equal effects both both components. Dichroism indicates
always the presence of left‐handed and right‐handed structures. For EHDs they might result from the
arrangement of tripoles in ferroelectric crystallites.
5. NEW TYPES OF MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS
5.1 The Sense of Smell
So far the concept of WPs and chains of WPs was safe, but Mahata’s strange experimental results
had still to be explained. To be self-critical and open-minded, we had to continue the search of other
facts and ideas. The assumption that biologically active molecules can be detected without chemical
reactions was an essential ingredient of our theory. Its validity had thus to be checked. The study of
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this problem began with trying to understand the sense of vision. The chemist John Dalton had
described in 1794 his own color blindness. Actually, he was unable to distinguish green from red. The
British physician and physicist Thomas Young was intrigued by this anomaly, which led him to raise a
very fundamental question: what is light? Newton had discovered that light of different colors can be
separated by refraction. This could be explained by assuming that light is composed of particles that
are moving in any transparent and homogeneous medium at a constant velocity. Why it is constant
and depends on the medium remained mysterious. However, refraction could then simply be
attributed to acceleration or deceleration at interfaces.
Young discovered in 1801 that light behaves like waves. Indeed, when light passes through two very
narrow and close slits, there appear dark fringes. He explained these results in terms of superposed
“undulations”, similar to those that can be observed on water surfaces. These interference effects led
to the concept of light waves. Colors were then determined by their wavelength. They can be
measured by means of gratings, but our eyes distinguish colors from one other in a different way.
Young realized that color vision requires only three types of receptors in our retina, mainly sensible to
red, green and blue light. Dalton had no green sensible ones. These receptors had to absorb energy.
During about one century, it was assumed that there are “light waves”. Planck and Einstein
discovered that light is composed of particles, but these photons behave like waves. Photons are
even required to understand the sense of smell. Its scientific study began when the English
physiologist Ogle tried to get more information in this regard by collecting cases of partial or total loss
of the sense of smell. He concluded in 1870 from his analysis of “anosmia” that odors are not
perceived by means of chemical processes. It requires receptors that detect waves [94]. Ogle
proposed that they should correspond to “undulations of the ether”. The concept of EM waves
emerged only in 1873 through the development of Maxwell’s theory. The development of quantum
mechanics made clear why molecules can emit photons of infrared light and that this type of
spectroscopy allows us to distinguish different types of molecules from one another, since the
frequency spectrum depends on rapid vibrations of internal charged particles.
Malcolm Dyson proposed therefore in 1938 that the sense of smell is due to receptors that detect
vibrational frequencies of molecules by energy absorption [95]. How is that possible without
complicated instruments? This problem has been solved in 1996 by the biophysicist Luca Turin. Being
a specialist of perfumes, he wanted to understand how odorants can be perceived and differentiated.
Since olfactory receptors of insects, animals and humans are very small, he was looking for compact
detectors. Thus, he explored the domain of solid state electronics. Eventually, he found that this can
be achieved by means of inelastic electron tunneling [96]. He told the story of this discovery in a very
interesting book [97]. The Japanese Esaki had invented in 1957 an efficient diode. It was based on
properties of two n and p type semiconductors, separated by a very thin gap. It blocks the passage of
electrons or electron holes when the conduction band on one side meets a forbidden band on the
other side. However, these bands can be shifted with respect to one another by applying a potential
difference. Charge carriers can then pass through the intermediate potential barrier by
wave‐mechanical tunneling. The Norwegian Ivar Giaever applied this method to prove in 1960 that the
BCS theory of low temperature superconductivity is correct. It implied, indeed, that two electrons can
be bound to one another and that this yields a forbidden energy band. Giaever shared the Nobel Prize
with Esaki for demonstrating that this is true.
Physicists realized somewhat later that it is not necessary to apply a potential difference. Even when
the energy of electrons is too high to pass through the gap, this becomes possible when the electrons
loose some energy by inelastic collisions with molecules inside the gap. Turin understood that this
method would also allow for detection of molecules and distinguishing them from one another. This
yields a simplified spectroscopy, but requires different receptors for different odors. Nevertheless, it
can happen that different molecules have the same odor. Turin could prove that this results from
nearly identical spectra.
Our color‐space is usually three‐dimensional, but the odor‐space is multidimensional. This is a matter
of genetics. Honeybees have 174 types of receptors and ants have even about 400 different ones
[98]. Recently, it has been discovered that trained dogs are able to sniff hidden cancer and to detect
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the Covid-19 virus. This is attributed to detecting EM signals emitted by DNA molecules. This
mechanism allows Dogs to search a person in a specific way, even when the signal is very weak.
Montagnier’s discovery that water memory is possible for DNA molecules becomes also plausible.
5.2 The Nature of Signals Discovered by Benveniste
Dr. Benveniste discovered the existence of water memory in 1988, but met unrealistic skepticism. He
continued thus to search simpler and more convincing methods to prove the reality of water memory.
In 1990, he began to use the system of Langendorff ([6], p. 123), which is based on an allergic
reaction of isolated hearts of guinea pigs or rats. It modifies the coronary flow by about 20% ([10], pp.
337‐343, 354). Since Benveniste did use empirical methods, he tried to verify if 50 Hz fields might
have some effect. About 100 experiments were performed in 1990 and 1991 with physicists of the
Central Laboratory of Magnetism in France. It appeared that 50 Hz magnetic fields could abolish the
biological efficiency of EHDs of histamine ([6], pp. 126‐128). Water memory can thus be perturbed by
magnetic fields, oscillating at relatively low frequencies.
Could that be proven in a more direct way? Benveniste spoke in 1992 with a friend, who was an
electronics hobbyist. He thought that if molecules are sensible to oscillating magnetic fields, they
could also produce them. This might be detected by means of a coil. He constructed a kit, used for
amplifying telephone sounds to detect electric signals produced by the coil. It worked, since it was
sufficient to place a tube, containing an EHD of some biologically active molecule in this coil, to
amplify the resulting electric signal and to apply it to another coil. When a tube that contained only
pure water was placed in the second coil, it acquired the capacity to stimulate the same receptors as
the original EHD ([6], pp. 128‐132). This fact did manifestly prove that water memory and information
transfer are possible. They depend on low-frequency signals (20 Hz‐20 kHz). Beauvais called the use
of coils a “molecular telephone” ([10], p. 336).
Since the published results could not be attributed anymore to errors or sloppy work, Benveniste tried
to restore his credibility. It was accepted to perform experiments with the system of Langendorff and
to get them controlled by physicists in Georges Charpak’s laboratory in Paris. He told Benveniste that
if molecular communications were possible by means of EM waves of Extra Low Frequencies (ELF),
this “would be the biggest discovery since Newton, if it were true”. Actually, he was convinced that
some fakers in Benveniste’s laboratory did “arrange” the experimental results ([6], pp. 155‐157).
Nevertheless, it was decided that two types of molecules (acetylcholine and ovalbumin) should be
used for preparing EHDs. They would be blindly treated by means of coding. These experiments
began in 1993, but the results were catastrophic. For 11 of 18 series of tests performed in 1994, the
reaction of the isolated hearts was inversed. Authentic EHDs had no biological efficiency, while the
tubes containing pure water produced positive results.
Benveniste tried to understand this new fact. He knew that the tubes had not been exchanged, since
he did transport them himself, but they had been placed side by side. The capacity of genuine EHDs
to provoke biological reactions could thus have been transferred to pure liquid water, even without
intermediate amplification. To test this hypothesis, he did shield all samples by means of thick
aluminum foil, but such a Faraday cage was not sufficient to suppress the unexpected information
transfer. We conclude that this transfer was not merely due to electric fields.
For Charpak, the idea of “information transfer” from one tube to another tube was even more abstruse
than water memory. He wrote in July 1995 to Benveniste that he was merely advancing “the most
baroque arguments to explain his failures” ([6], p. 166). This reaction was revolting for Benveniste. He
was accustomed to attach primary importance to experimental evidence, but was now confronted to
the conviction that “when a phenomenon cannot be explained with present‐day knowledge, it is not a
real one.” ([6], p. 90). Benveniste considered that new discoveries are possible, but have to be
objectively established. They are then more important than previous ideas.
He had proven the reality of information transfer, but the nature of these signals was unknown.
Benveniste thought that it has to be “intrinsic to molecular activity” ([6], p. 164), but how it was
generated remained an unsolved puzzle. Benveniste continued thus to improve his experimental
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methods ([13], pp. 336, 461, 519, 542, 584). His now very small laboratory acquired in 1995 a
computer with a program for sound analysis. The electronic signals, obtained by means of a coil could
be digitalized before applying them to the second coil ([10], p. 461). Pure water became active, even
when the signal were transmitted between different continents. Benveniste described these results in
an article, submitted for publication to the Journal of Immunology. The answer was that “the protocol
and experiments are perfect, but the article cannot be published without precisions concerning the
exact physical nature of the signal” ([6], p. 179).
That was difficult, since it was only known that molecules can emit and absorb EM waves in the
frequency domain of microwaves or infrared light. Benveniste and his collaborators used much lower
frequencies, belonging to the domain of sound waves. Because of Fig. 12, we proposed that
biologically active molecules contain charged parts that can vibrate at low frequencies. That was
unknown. Moreover, it was believed that these molecules have to stimulate their receptors according
to the model of chemical reactions. Water memory transgressed this dogma. The well‐known
neurologist Changeux called it thus a “scientific heresy” ([6], p. 194). Why did he, as well as referees
and experts not verify themselves if the reported facts are true or not? Why did the physicist Charpak
not help to identify the nature of the strange signals? They were blinded by preconceptions and
Benveniste recognized that “classical biologists” are not competent in electro-physics ([6], pp. 180,
184). He mentioned even that he had only “adopted the hypothesis of an electromagnetic nature of
the molecular signal” to organize his empirical research ([6], p. 211). He ignored the relevant
mechanism and Charpak told him even: “your experiments challenge elementary laws of physics and
common sense” ([6], p. 212).
As far as we know, the nature of the relevant signals has never been identified. We summarize our
explanation in Fig. 34. The upper line corresponds to the normal process, which allows biologically
active molecules to act on their specific receptors. An active molecule has an electrically charged part
that can oscillate at a particular frequency f. It produces an oscillating electric field, which acts directly
on an electrically charged part of the receptor. It is set in resonance, when it can oscillate at nearly the
same low frequency. We have already shown that this can be achieved by creating chains of WPs, as
indicated in Fig. 20. The lower line considers also an oscillating magnetic field.
Fig. 34. Communications by means of oscillating electric and magnetic fields inside EHDs,
with the aid of two coils (C and c)
Trimmed chains are the information carriers and could thus be compared to messengers. Anyway, the
information has to be expressed somehow. For usual language, it is encoded in oral or written form.
For water memory, the vehicle is an oscillating electric field or magnetic field. Oscillating electric
charges are indeed equivalent to oscillating electric currents. They create thus an oscillating magnetic
field, but this fact had also to be discovered.
It useful to pay attention at to the process of discoveries and only to the results, especially the context
of water memory and homeopathy. Oersted did use Volta’s pile to show to students that motions of
electric charges inside a wire do heat this conductor, but he saw that the current caused also a
rotation of a nearby compass needle. This phenomenon was totally unexpected, since it was only
known that magnetized metallic needles react to magnetic materials. They are able to exert so-called
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“magnetic forces”. Oersted examined the properties of magnetic forces that are generated by an
electric current. He published the results in 1820. Actually, he used the concept of “actions at a
distance”, as Newton did for gravitational forces and Coulomb for electric forces. Faraday discovered
in 1831 that “lines of magnetic force” passing through a closed loop of a conducting wire induce there
an electric current, but only when this flux is varying. In 1845, he used the more general concept of
electric and magnetic fields, defined anywhere in space by means of a fictitious experiment.
The oscillating magnetic field in Fig. 34 is produced by oscillating electric charges inside the tube that
is placed in the coil C. This coil is unable to detect an electric field, but is sensible to an oscillating
magnetic field. It produces then an oscillating electric tension inside the wire of the coil or an
oscillating current when the circuit is closed. These signals can be amplified and applied to a second
coil c, which produces also a magnetic field. It oscillates at the same frequency f than the flexible
charged part of the active molecules and can even act on charged parts of receptors when they are
slightly moving because of thermal agitation. As we mentioned already, they are set in resonance
when their own vibration frequency is sufficiently close to f. This can not only be achieved by means
of an oscillating electric field, but also by means of an oscillating magnetic field.
Benveniste compared the relevant signals to radio waves. This analogy was helpful, but information
transfer by means of coils does not involve radio waves. They can propagate in vacuum, since EM
waves consist of electric and magnetic fields that are constantly transformed into one another. In
vacuum, their velocity is c = 300.000 km/s. Their frequency f is related to their wavelength since f =
c/ Water memory requires, on the contrary, the presence of electric charges. They can produce
static electric and magnetic fields or “quasi-static” ones for oscillations at relatively low frequencies.
5.3 Effects of low‐frequency magnetic fields
For Benveniste and Montagnier the coil was a “black box”, but it becomes now mentally transparent.
Charpak could have explained the observed facts, but he missed this opportunity, while Benveniste
tried to make sense of the observed phenomena and applied it by developing “digital biology” with the
engineer Didier Guillonnet. He joined the remaining team in 1996 ([13], p. 596). Their common patent
[99] indicates that information transfer is even possible when pure water is simply flowing through the
second coil (c). This means that the formation of new trimmed chains of WPs is a rapid process. It
should be noted, however, that the information that was provided did not only consist of a single
frequency f. It was accompanied by its harmonics 2f, 3f, etc. The redundancy of the provided
information could be helpful to create chains of WPs of the required length. They are able then to
generate other ones. Benveniste had noted that shaking of the receiving tubes was not required, but
that another procedure was useful.
With Guillonnet, he found that “it is possible to improve the performance” of this system by adding a
signal that corresponds to white noise. It covered the whole low frequency domain (1 Hz to 20 kHz).
They were very surprised when they discovered this fact. Konovalov and Ryzhkina noted also that the
formation of supramolecular structures is favored by adding low‐frequency EM fields [87]. Montagnier
and his collaborators placed the test tubes, which contain “informed” and “naïve” water in different
coils, C and c, but both together in a greater coil C’. By applying a signal of 7 Hz to this coil, they did
increase the observable efficiency of EHDs of biologically active molecules. The frequency of 7 Hz
was chosen since it is naturally present and might have favored the initial evolution of life on Earth, by
favoring water memory. Thunderstorms do generate EM waves, indeed. Many frequencies are
possible, but these waves are reflected by the ionosphere and the surface of the Earth. They are thus
propagating in a spherical wave guide, but constructive interfere requires that their wavelength  is of
the order of the circumference of the Earth. It follows that their frequency f = c/is aboutHz. There
are also harmonics, but the average fundamental frequency for Schuman frequencies is 7.8 Hz.
Why do magnetic fields of 7 Hz or other very low frequencies improve water memory? We know that
-12
water molecules exchange their positions at a time scale of about 10 s. Nevertheless, they are
bound to one another by hydrogen bonds. Otherwise, they would not be in a condensed state. When
water molecules are reoriented at a frequency of about 7 Hz, they are liberated from their usual bonds
at this pace. The formation of WPs and trimmed chains of WPs is thus facilitated. We recall that “wild
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transfers” were not suppressed when the test tubes were shielded by means of aluminum foil. It did
only suppress electric fields. That was not sufficient, since magnetic fields do also allow for
information transfer. It is possible to eliminate magnetic fields by means of mu-metal. Benveniste had
discovered that it abolishes crosstalk and beat phenomena ([10], p. 565). Montagnier [14] interposed
a sheet of mu-metal between the primary coil C and the secondary coil c inside the greater coil C’.
We recall that “wild transfers” were not suppressed when the test tubes were shielded by means of
aluminum foil. It did only suppress electric fields. That was not sufficient, since magnetic fields do also
allow for information transfer. It is possible to eliminate magnetic fields by means of mu-metal.
Benveniste had discovered that it abolishes crosstalk and beat phenomena ([10], p. 565). Montagnier
[14] interposed a sheet of mu-metal between the primary coil C and the secondary coil c inside the
greater coil C’.
5.4 Explanation of Mahata’s resonances
We come now back to the unsolved problem of the asymmetry of the blue curve in Fig. 33. So far, we
were concerned with the explanation of water memory by considering the resonance frequency f of
biologically active molecule of the chain. They are of the order of 1 kHz and determine the length of
chains of WPs to allow for standing waves at the imposed frequency. This does not exclude that WPs
could also be set in oscillation at a much higher frequency  ≈ 25 MHz. Fig. 32 shows, indeed, that an
oscillating electric field could exert forces on the positive and negative poles of a single WP, but what
would happen when this WP interacts with other ones? .
To acquire more physical insight in this regard, we consider two identical pendulums that would
oscillate at the same frequency Ω but they are coupled by means of a weak spring. Free motions of
the coupled pendulums depend then on the chosen initial conditions. They can be quite complicated,
but there are two special cases, shown in Fig. 35(a). It is intuitively clear that both masses can still
oscillate at the frequency Ω for strictly parallel motions, since the length of the intermediate spring is
then not modified. However, antiparallel motions will lead to a higher resonance frequency Ω since
the string will produce an additional restoring force when it is stretched.
Fig. 35. (a) Low and high frequency modes for free oscillations of two coupled pendulums.
(b) These resonances correspond to quantum mechanical transitions at frequencies and .
Such coordinated motions are called “normal modes” of oscillation when the system behaves like a
single oscillator. Nevertheless, the frequencies Ωand Ω are different. Fig. 35(b) recalls that QM is a
generalization of classical mechanics. The lowest possible energies for any single harmonic oscillator
are then separated by intervals that are proportional to the (angular) resonance frequencies Ω or Ω .
They determine the height energy levels and account for transitions, where energy quanta are emitted
or absorbed. Mahata’s asymmetric energy‐loss functions ( ) displayed always a dip at the side of
lower frequencies (Fig. 33). This means that it is possible to absorb EM energy at the frequency Ω
and to restitute a part of it at the lower frequency . This happens also for fluorescence.
Fig. 36 shows that we get also two normal modes for small oscillatory rotations of two coupled WPs.
As for Fig. 35(a), displacements of neighboring poles can be parallel or antiparallel. They are here
represented by red arrows. Positive and negative poles are represented by black and white dots.
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Fig. 36. Two modes of coupled rotations for pairs of
To excite possible resonances, we have to apply an oscillating electric field. This yields two equations:
̈ + Ω + ( − )+ ̇ = exp (− ) (19)
̈ + Ω − ( − )+ ̇ = − exp (− ) (20)
Equation (19) accounts for the left part of Fig. 36 and (20) for the right part. Is sufficient to change the
sign of and C. We set  = 25 MHz and o = 1 kHz, since the coupling should be weak. Both
water pearls are subjected to viscous friction, but it is not identical, since the surrounding liquid water
can hinder or facilitate coordinated motions. The displacement > when < . We set thus
= − and = + . The sum and the difference of (19) and (20) yield then two separated
equations for ± = ± , with different resonance frequencies, related by Ω = Ω + 2 . Actually,
̈ + Ω + ̇ − ̇ =0 (21)
̈ + Ω + ̇ − ̇ =2 exp (− ) (22)
Only the mode is directly excited by the oscillating electric field of angular frequency . The mode
is excited by entrainment, but forced oscillations require synchrony and therefore that
± = ±2 exp (− )
The amplitudes ± are determined by the equations:
+ = 0 and + =1
where =Ω − − and =Ω − − . This yields
( )
=− and [ + ] =1
Forced oscillatory rotations of pairs of WPs involve both modes of oscillation. The polarizability is thus
( )=Ω ( + )
This function is normalized to get (0) = 1. Since  and o were specified, there remain only two
adjustable parameters: and . They specify the average energy loss and energy transfer, since the
oscillations are hindered for one mode and facilitated for the other mode by unequal viscous friction.
The resulting values of ± and ± allow us to calculate the spectral distribution of the real and
imaginary parts of the polarizability. When = 20 and = 0.01 (MHz), the resulting spectral
distributions of ( ) and ( ) are shown in Fig. 37. The energy‐loss function presents a dip, like the
experimentally observed one.
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Fig. 37. Predicted spectral distribution of the real part and the imaginary part of the
polarizability of pairs of coupled water pearls in pure water.
Fig. 38 shows that it is sufficient that only the rotation of one WP was reversed, but more “defects” are
also possible. The essential point is that Mahata’s high-frequency resonances can now be explained.
They revealed that the natural resonance frequency of isolated WPs is of the order of 25 MHz.
Fig. 38. One defect can modify HF resonances for trimmed chains of WPs
The previously considered low frequencies were those of charged parts of active molecules and their
receptors do also have a low resonance frequency. This is not an accident, since biological evolution
results from trial and error, combined with natural selection.
5.5 The Stabilizing Effect of Lactose
Homeopathic preparations are often presented in the form of pills of lactose. Opponents of this
medical practice claim that lactose is merely used because of its sweet taste. Initially, Hahnemann
used lactose for grinding hard substances to reduce their concentration before dissolving them in pure
liquid water. Mahata knew that lactose is also used to insure better preservation of the biological
efficiency of EHDs. He wanted thus to find out if the association of EHDs with lactose modifies the
measurable resonance curves. When he dissolved lactose powder in pure water, he found a
resonance at 50 MHz and the energy‐loss function was symmetric [100]. We have also to explain
these facts. From the point of view of condensed matter physics, lactose is an insulator. It attracts
thus charged particles by image forces.
Since lactose has many pores, nearly all WP would get attached to lactose, but the applied electric
field would also cause oscillations of their image charges. The resonance frequency will then be
doubled, since the restoring force is increased and image forces keep trimmed chains of WPs parallel
to the surface of the insulator. Even the energy-loss function becomes symmetric as for the red curve
in Fig. 33. Image forces are stronger, indeed, than coupling between neighboring WPs. When Mahata
added EHDs of Cu‐Met‐30 to the dissolved lactose powder, the resonance frequency was reduced to
about 45 MHz, but the peak of the energy-loss function remained symmetric. The essential result is,
of course, that lactose is not only used for its sweet taste.
206
5.6 A New Type of Molecular Interactions and Medical Applications
The empirical discovery of water memory and its theoretical elucidation do modify the traditional
paradigm that molecular interactions are only possible by direct contact of biologically active
molecules with their receptors. This was a byproduct of empirical investigations that had primarily
other objectives. Dr. Hahnemann was searching a method for selecting medications in a rational and
safe way. Dr. Benveniste wanted to detect possible allergens that may escape attention. They made
unexpected discoveries and pushed the investigation of the resulting problems as far as possible.
Maddox and many “experts” lamentably failed to do what was necessary. However, other scientists
contributed in various ways to the clarification of this amazing phenomenon
It appears here very clearly that science progresses by asking questions and trying then to answer
them. There are many possible subjects, but it happens quite often that only already acquired
knowledge is assumed to be relevant. Unexpected observations are even declared to be impossible,
since they cannot be explained with already acquired knowledge. A simple example is the
phenomenon of ball lightning. By collecting many repots of witnesses, it appears that a whole set of
characteristic properties are known and raise a real problem, like Fig. 21. This problem can be solved
by considering collective oscillations of electrons [101]. The autocatalytic generation of trimmed
chains of WPs is also due to collective effects.
In regard to medical applications, we think that it very important to realize that biologically active
molecules can act on their specific receptors without requiring any direct contact. Even the fact that
oscillating charges produce oscillating magnetic fields in addition to electric fields should lead to
further investigations. Modern magnetometers could allow us to determine the resonance frequency
of biological active molecules and possible receptors. Squids are used for magneto‐encephalography,
but a new, less expensive and highly efficient technology is now available. They are “spintronic”
systems. This word is an abbreviation of spin‐electronics. Standard electronics results, indeed, from
exerting forces on electrons because of their electric charge, but they have also a spin and an
associated magnetic moment. It is therefore possible to exert forces on electrons by means of
magnetic fields. This technology has already medical applications [102], since magnetic detectors of
this type have very high sensitivity in a large frequency domain. Even below 100 Hz, it is possible to
detect picotesla. Moreover, their very small active area allows for unprecedented spatial resolution,
down to tens of nanometers. They seem to be ideal tools for trying to study interactions between
active molecules and their receptors. That would also have great impact on future research in biology,
medicine and pharmacology. It could help in particular to detect low resonance frequencies of
receptors and facilitate the search of adequate molecules to act on them.
Progress in this regard has already been achieved by a collaboration of Mahata with the medical
doctor Chattopadhyay [103]. He is an Indian specialist of homeopathy and they found together that
EHDs of blood serum of patients did produce resonances at about 25 MHz. They were similar to
those of EHDs of biologically active molecules [104]. Dr. Chattopadhyay found also that homeopathic
preparations that led to a closer match of resonance curves for these samples were more efficient. He
concluded that it should be possible to “make a selection of medicines based on scientifically
measurable parameters.” The reported results require independent confirmations, but it would not be
justified to reject this possibility, simply because of its novelty.
The basic claim of Montagnier’s patent US2010323391 [47] was also that hidden infections in humans
and animals can be detected by a non‐invasive method. It requires only to collect blood samples and
to prepare EHDs of them. This allowed for spectral analysis of signals that were detected by means of
coils. Another patent added that “any human or animal fluid, e.g. blood, urine, various secretions” may
be used for this purpose. Even the unexplained resurgence of some sicknesses could result from
water memory, since Montagnier [14,15] found that DNA molecules do produce detectable signals.
Another potentially important question concerns Hahnemann’s empirical rule that “like cures like”. Is it
possible to prove the existence of a link between receptors and the sickness that they can cure?
Present‐day knowledge and already acquired experience in the domain of receptors and neurology
207
might be used, to verify if some sicknesses do activate receptors that interact with adequate
medications. Research depends on curiosity. Are scientists, political deciders and the general public
indifferent to possible progress that could result from research on this subject?
6. CONCLUSIONS
The initial objective of this study was only to find out if water memory is possible or not. We treated
this problem in terms of condensed matter physics, but it illustrates a much more general and
fundamental difficulty: the recurrent conflict between facts and ideology. Discoveries of unexpected
phenomena are possible, without knowing already how to explain them. They may even contradict
apparently well-established theories, since they were based on assumptions of limited validity. Kuhn
has shown [45] that the discovery of an anomaly with respect to “normal theory” does usually lead to
initial rejection of perturbing evidence. This was also true for water memory. It is thus necessary to be
aware of the fact that scientific progress can be drastically slowed down by so‐called “skeptics”, who
are not skeptic enough in regard to their own preconceptions and beliefs.
It is true that “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence,” but this slogan does only displace
the basic problem. What is valid evidence? In science, it can merely be recognized by referring to
reality. This is well‐known, but the tendency to rely only previously acquired ideas is still very strong.
In regard to water memory, it was claimed that thermal agitation of water molecules in the liquid state
would not allow for durable structuring. This belief resulted from usual observations, which did not
exclude more detailed ones, requiring an improved theory. We encountered a similar situation,
because of the belief in the existence of a “space-time continuum”. That was sufficient until now, but
the possible existence of an extremely small finite limit for the smallest measurable distance has not
been excluded. We have shown that it is possible by developing a theory of Space-Time Quantization.
It generalizes the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, without any logical inconsistencies.
Moreover, it explains still mysterious facts in the domain of elementary particle physics [105].
However, the belief that space and time are continuous is deeply rooted in our minds and our culture.
It will not easily be abandoned.
Remarkable empirical results concerning water memory and homeopathy were simply declared to be
impossible, since they could not be explained by conventional theories. This applies also to the
current conviction that biologically active molecules can only interact with their specific receptors
according to the model of chemical reactions. The possible creation of minute spherical crystallites in
liquid water was totally unknown, but it can be justified. This is also true for the formation of trimmed
chains of WPs and their capacity to become information carriers. They were yet observed, but that is
possible by means of modern high-resolution optical microscopy. It is only necessary that this
technique is applied for searching the cause of water memory and homeopathy. Electronic
microscopy and modern X-ray diffraction methods could also be applied. Scientist who could do that
are not yet aware of what they might discover or are afraid of it, since it might not be well-accepted by
the scientific community. Is that sufficient?
We recall that the proposed theory of water pearls and trimmed chains of WPs accounts for the
measured quasi‐periodic variations of the biological efficiency of EHDs (Sections 3.4 and 3.5), the
observed frequency spectrum (Section 4.1) and the peculiar angles for junctions of large‐scale
structures (Section 4.2). It is at least very probable that the astonishing water bridges result from the
formation of long chains of WPs by of very intense electric fields (Section 4.3). The von Grotthuss
mechanism can be understood in terms of intramolecular exchange effects for delocalized protons
(Section 2.5). They are also relevant for 2D polymerization of water molecules (Section 2.6). The
perplexing effects of cross-talk can be attributed to beat phenomena (Section 3.7). Physicochemical
and other types of measurements do also confirm the existence of water memory and the efficiency of
homeopathy (Sections 3.8 and 4.5). It is possible to understand the nature of the signals that transfer
information from informed to naïve pure water (Sections 5.2 and 5.3). Even Mahata’s unexpected high
frequency resonances could eventually be understood (Sections 4.6, 5.4 and 5.5). Of course, there
are still open questions, inviting to pursue research (Section 5.6). Especially spintronics should be
applied for more detailed understanding of basic processes and other observed facts [106].
208
The main lesson is that even a very familiar substance, like water, is still a fascinating domain of
research. Moreover, this study was not only concerned with experimental and theoretical results, but
also with truth and justice.
COMPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
This article is a modified version of a previously published one: “Water Memory is Due to Chains of
Water-Pearls” (J. Mod. Phys. 2018). Ideas and explanations can be more explicitly expressed, indeed.
A summary in French, with experiments that show the excitation of standing waves on a chain of
small compass needles is available in a video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i78z2tUmpyM
Lobbying for legal measures to eliminate homeopathic medications or to make their use at least more
difficult has found a powerful ally, but the arguments were not based on new scientific research:
https://easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Homepathy_statement_web_final.pdf
A similar problem concerns a harshly repressed physical method for fighting viruses, although it
efficiency was proven more than 80 years ago. It can even be explained:
https://www.scirp.org/pdf/jmp_2020122516060286.pdf
COMPETING INTERESTS
The author declares no competing interests at all.
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102. Available: https://www.mddionline.com/new-spin-magnetic-sensors-medical-devices
103. Chattopadhyay R, Mahata C.R. International Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine.
2016;3:00078:4.
104. Chattopadhyay R, Mahata C.R. International J. of High Dilution Research. 2016;15:11-17.
Available:http://highdilution.org/index.php/ijhdr/article/view/818
105. Meessen A. Journal of Modern Physics. 2017;8:35-56.
Available: http://file.scirp.org/pdf/JMP_2017011015364095.pdf
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2017.81004
106. Li W, et al. Dielectric spectral study in low frequency of IE water and some other solvents. Ref.
[50]. 1998;175-189.
213
Biography of the author
Auguste Meessen
Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
He is professor emeritus of a great Belgian university, where he was teaching theoretical physics, quantum mechanics and
solid state physics. The most important result of his research was the development of a generalization of relativity and quantum
mechanics. The initial problem was to find out if the concept of a space-time continuum is a logical necessity or not. There
could exist an extremely small, but finite “quantum of length”. Its value a is a universal constant like the light velocity c and
Planck’s constant h. This is possible and explains the peculiar spectroscopy of elementary particle physics. Other problems that
were solved concerned the resonances of the optical absorption of thin granular metal films, the functioning of ball lightning and
the propulsion system of Unconventional Flying Objects. Besides explaining the mechanism of water memory and homeopathy,
it is possible to understand the targeted destruction of viruses and bacteria by resonance at the adequate frequency. This
possibility has also be denied, but is justified by careful scientific research
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London Tarakeswar
Registered offices
India: Guest House Road, Street no - 1/6, Hooghly, West Bengal, PIN-712410, India, Corp. Firm
Registration Number: L77527, Tele: +91 8617752708, Email: director@bookpi.org,
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New Insights into Physical

India . United Kingdom

Dr. Mohd Rafatullah

FIRST EDITION 2021

ISBN 978-93-90768-98-1 (Print)

Analysis of Entropy Associated with Information

Keywords: Information; entropy; quantum interference.

atomic configuration are given. Therefore, we can easily study triple-color,

2. THE THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION

3. SPECTRAL DEPENDENCE OF ENTROPIES ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT

Over the selected frequency window under consideration.

For the coherent (Rayleigh) part of the scattered photons, we have:

4. TIME-DEPENDENT ENTROPY ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT STORAGE AND LIGHT

The time dependences of the coupling fields are:

Let the time‐dependent energy ( , ) = ‖ ( , ) + ( , )‖ be the energy distributed in time and

A dynamical entropy approach is adopted to describe atomic entropy by irreducible tensor

In summary, we have described quantum correlations generated by or within the manifold of

Author has declared that no competing interests exist.

(Accessed on 24 July 2015).

APPENDIX: THE TIME EVOLUTION OF THE DENSITY MATRIX EQUATIONS

Dr. Abu Mohamed Alhasan

SmartLVGrid Platform - Convergence of Legacy

2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SMARTLVGRID PLATFORM

Fig. 1. The SmartLVGrid stack in the context of the LV distribution system

Table 1. The micro-processes, Operational Primitives (OPs), performed in the layers of

1.2. Measuring; Ability to read and quantify physical quantities,

1.3. On/OFF Switching; Ability to connect or disconnect a circuit of the

2.2 The SmartLVGrid Stack

2.2.1 The Legacy Layer

Table 2. Identification of PoIs in each LVC domain and associated DRFs

2.2.2 The Middleware Layer

2.2.3 The Interoperability Layer

Fig. 6. Description of the hierarchical architecture, systemic organization and ACU

Fig. 7. The configuration scheme of SmartLVGrid platform in the distribution system

Fig. 8. Description of the three-tiered hierarchical architecture of the SmartLVGrid model

3 EXPERIMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

3.1 Retrofitting Method Description

3.2 Simulation and Test

Fig. 9. Test circuit implemented with SIMULINK

Smart Grid Operational Sub-Level DRF CSF ISF

3.2.1 Assay of the Telemetry Functionality

3.2.2 Assay of the Outage Detection Functionality

3.2.3 Assay of the Control of EU Connection Functionality

3.2.4 Assay of the Phase Unbalance Correction Functionality

3.3 Analysis of Results and Discussion

Monogamy Inequality in Terms of Higher Powers of

Keywords: Monogamy inequality; higher powers; shareability; quantum correlations.

the so-called three-tangle or concurrence-tangle as a measure of residual entanglement in three qubit

correlation measure. It is shown that (See Theorem 1 of Ref. [38]) if is a non-monogamous

2. MONOGAMY OF SYMMETRIC 3-QUBIT PURE STATES WITH RESPECT TO HIGHER

where denote the diagonal elements of . Also, as,

The monogamy relation in RRQD for any tripartite state is given by

is the RRQD of the state in its bipartition A with BC.

A. Monogamous nature of 3-qubit W state with respect to Rajagopal-Rendell quantum deficit

The 2-qubit subsystems , of the W state, obtained by tracing out a

Similarly the single qubit subsystems of

With being the eigenvectors of belonging to the respective eigenvalues

An evaluation of the eigenvectors nj, j = 1; 2; 3; 4 of the bipartite subsystems = of the state

As being a pure state, its entropy is zero i.e., .

It is easy to see that

and the monogamy inequality (10) is not obeyed [28].

B. Monogamous nature of 3-qubit state with respect to Rajagopal-Rendell quantum

For the state , the reduced density matrices are