See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/292708806

Sustainable Machining of Titanium Alloys: A

Critical Review

Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B Journal of Engineering Manufacture ·
February 2016
DOI: 10.1177/0954405416634278

READS

174

2 authors:

Kapil Gupta R. F. Laubscher

University of Johannesburg University of Johannesburg
21 PUBLICATIONS 46 CITATIONS 42 PUBLICATIONS 64 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, Available from: Kapil Gupta
letting you access and read them immediately. Retrieved on: 22 August 2016
 Sustainable Machining of Titanium Alloys: A Critical Review

Kapil Gupta1* R.F. Laubscher2

1 2
Postdoctoral Fellow, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Science,
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg (SA)-2006

Abstract

The three main pillars of sustainability are usually considered to be society, the environment and
the economy (people, planet and profit).The key drivers that sustain these three pillars are energy and
resource-efficiency, a clean and ““green”” environment that incorporates effective waste reduction
and management and lastly cost effective production. Sustainable manufacturing implies technologies
and/or techniques that target these key drivers during product manufacture. Because of the effort and
costs involved in the machining of titanium and its alloys there is significant scope for improved
sustainable manufacturing of these materials. Titanium and its alloys are extensively used for
specialized applications in aerospace, medical and general industry because of its superior strength to
weight ratio and corrosion resistance. They are however generally regarded as difficult-to-machine
materials. This paper presents an overview of previous and current work, and trends as regards to
sustainable machining of titanium and its alloys. The paper focuses on reviewing previous work to
improve the sustainable machining of titanium and its alloys with specific reference to the selection of
optimum machining conditions, effect of tool materials and geometry, implementing advanced
lubrication and/or cooling techniques and employing advanced and hybrid machining strategies. The
main motivation is to present an overview of the current state of the art, to discuss the challenges and
to suggest economic and environment friendly ways for improving the machinability of titanium and
its alloys.

Keywords

Sustainability, titanium, machining, energy-efficiency, lubrication, hybrid-machining, cryogenic,

MQL, laser, ultrasonic.

*Corresponding Author- Tel: +27-011-5592931; Email: kapiliiti@gmail.com; kgupta@uj.ac.za

1
1. Overview

1.1 A Primer on Sustainability

In general ‘sustainability’ is the ability to continue a defined behaviour indefinitely. Higher

demand for resources due to the increasing world population and the associated environment impacts
thereof are put forward as the main reasons for requiring sustainable development. The United
Nations defines sustainability as: ““Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”” [1, 2].
According to U.S. Department of Commerce, sustainable manufacturing is defined as ““the
creation of manufactured products using processes that minimize negative environmental impacts,
conserve energy and natural resources, are safe for employees, communities, and consumers, and are
economically sound”” [3, 4]. It includes: (a) the manufacturing of ““sustainable”” products; and (b)
the sustainable manufacturing of all products. The former includes exploring sources of renewable
energy, green and social equity-related products. The main aspects concerned with the latter i.e.
sustainable manufacturing of products are developing and establishing energy efficient, non-polluting,
economical and viable processes for manufacturing of products [5, 6]. Furthermore, the
implementation of such processes /techniques ensures the societal well-being and economic growth
adopting the system-level approach throughout the whole life-cycle of a product [7, 8].
Figure 1 displays the three pillars of sustainability (economy, environment and society) in context
with the key drivers. The key drivers that underpin these pillars are: energy; cost and resource-
efficiency, waste reduction and management, personnel health and operational safety, and
environment friendliness [1, 5, 9]. Sustainable manufacturing requires simultaneous consideration of
economic, environmental, and social implications associated with the production and delivery of
products.
Various sustainable manufacturing strategies and corresponding techniques such as using smart
materials, advanced composites and coatings; advanced manufacturing practices such as hybrid
processes and additive manufacturing, environmentally conscious/green machining, lean
manufacturing practices, automation, enterprise resource planning systems, product life cycle
management systems; and recycle and remanufacturing exist. These are the prime means to attain the
key drives targeting to strengthen the three pillars of sustainability [7, 8]. Moreover, the sustainability
of machining processes are influenced significantly by the process parameters, tool geometry, tool
material, workpiece material, part geometry and the associated process cooling and lubrication
strategies employed (Fig. 1). Improved sustainability during machining may then be attained by [8-
10]:
 Selecting optimum machining conditions to minimize energy consumption and to maintain cost
efficiency;

2
 Selection of suitable tool materials-geometries-coatings to minimize tool failure and improving
part quality thereby maintaining resource efficiency;
 Employing hybrid machining processes for reducing the process chain by eliminating the need for
subsequent finishing operations; and
 Adopting advanced lubrication/cooling techniques such as minimum quantity lubrication (MQL)
and cryogenic cooling etc. to minimize the cost associated with these fluids and reduce the
environmental impact that these may have when discarded or recycled.
Ample published literature exists on the machinability improvement of titanium alloys using
different sustainable machining strategies. The aim of this review paper is therefore to extract the
most important information collectively among the available literature and to offer a brief review and
discussion of the mechanism and working of the techniques and strategies employed. The following
section briefly introduces titanium and its alloys along with the perceived difficulties encountered
during machining.

1.2 Introduction to Titanium and its alloys

The ‘wonder metal’ titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the earth’s crust and fourth
most abundant structural metal [11]. It is a low density element which can be strengthened
significantly by alloying and deformation processing. In general titanium and its alloys exhibit high
strength-to-density characteristics, exceptional corrosion and erosion resistance, bio-compatibility,
high fatigue strength and attractive mechanical properties. Consequently it is used extensively in:
 Aerospace applications (aircraft engines and airframes, missiles and spacecraft);
 Chemical and petrochemical production;
 Hydrocarbon production and processing;
 Power generation;
 Desalination; nuclear waste storage; pollution control; ore leaching and metal recovery; and
offshore marine deep sea applications;
 Automotive components;
 Food and pharmaceutical processing;
 Recreation and sports equipment; and
 Medical implants and surgical devices.

3
Fig. 1 Schematic showing various sustainable machining strategies attaining key drivers to strengthen the three pillars of sustainability.

4
 Both pure (unalloyed) and alloyed forms of titanium have diverse application areas. Lower-
strength largely commercially pure titanium alloys (ASTM Grades 1-4, 7, 11) are used mostly for
their corrosion resistance coupled to adequate strength. The high-strength alloyed grades (α, near-α, α-
β and β alloys) are used mostly for their superior strength to weight ratios and good corrosion
resistance in aerospace, automotive and biomedical applications. Grade 5 (Ti6Al4V) is an example of
α-β alloy grade that is widely used in aerospace and for biomedical applications because of its high
strength to weight ratio. It is the most common Ti-alloy used and accounts for more than 50% of all
Ti-alloy used. Grade 2 and 4 are examples of widely used commercially pure Ti-alloys. The former is
extensively used for its superior corrosion resisting properties in applications such as heat exchangers
while the latter finds widespread use in biomedical applications because of its good corrosion
resistance coupled to an improved (relative to Grade 2) mechanical properties.
Many of these applications require significant machining. Unfortunately titanium and its alloys
are generally classified as difficult to-machine materials because of certain inherent properties. These
are briefly summarized as [11-13]:
 Low thermal conductivity, inhibiting dissipation of heat within the machining zone, creates high
thermal gradients which leads to rapid tool wear and in some cases catastrophic tool failure;
 Low elastic modulus (effectively 50% of steel) implies large deflections of the workpiece during
machining and thereby increases chatter, vibration and rubbing leading to elevated temperatures
which in turn may cause poor surface finish; and
 High chemical reactivity of titanium especially at elevated temperatures leads to tool-workpiece
interactions such as localized adhesion implying increased wear, chipping and eventually tool
failure.

2. Previous work on sustainable machining of titanium alloys

Optimizing machining parameters, selecting suitable tool material and geometries, using
advanced cooling and lubrication strategies, and adopting hybrid methods of machining etc. are
important ways to improve machinability and thereby achieving sustainability in machining by
ensuring lower power and energy consumption; waste reduction; resource efficiency by minimizing
tool failure, reducing consumption of cutting fluid and water; minimizing environmental pollution;
and improving the part quality. It is worth mentioning that most of the research work conducted to
date to improve sustainable machining of titanium and its alloys has largely focused on the machining
of titanium grade-5 i.e. ‘Ti-6Al-4V. Limited work has been conducted on most of the other Ti alloys.
Table 1 presents a summary of previous work conducted to improve the machinability of titanium
alloys and therefore benefitting its sustainable manufacture (categorized on the basis of machining
strategy and corresponding technique implemented).

5
2.1 Selecting Optimum Machining Conditions
Before presenting some of the more important investigations in detail, it necessary to briefly
introduce and qualify selected facts about conventional machining conditions and their consequences.
Higher cutting speeds are required in order to achieve improved material removal rates (reduced
machining time) for a specific chip cross-section. This implies increased machine power and higher
stability and may reduce the tool life [15-17]. Shorter machining times or higher removal rates can
also be achieved by using higher feed rates and larger depths of cut, which usually in turn increases
the cutting temperature and forces (thereby shortening the tool life) and does not solve the increased
power requirements. In comparison to the use of a larger depth of cut, the use of higher feed rates
should be preferred, since, it does reduce the specific cutting forces more significantly, which also
means using less power and less energy. In general higher cutting speeds, feeds and larger depths of
cut does result in higher material removal rates but usually at the expense of a reduced tool life, which
may reduce productivity and efficiency. However, surface quality may remain acceptable at higher
cutting speeds (due to the minimum chances of built-up edge formation) whereas it may decrease
significantly with increasing feed and depth of cut. In conclusion machining parameters should be
optimized rather than maximized for improved machinability and productivity. This usually involves
an engineered trade-off and is essential for economic machining of especially difficult to machine
materials such as titanium and its alloys.
Various investigations have been conducted to achieve the most favourable cutting conditions by
optimizing the process parameters and therefore improving sustainable machining of titanium alloys
thereby improving sustainability. Typically combinations of the three basic machining parameters i.e.
cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut [18-26] are varied and optimized.

6
Table 1. Summary of previous work conducted on sustainable machining of titanium alloys adopting various strategies and corresponding techniques.

Strategy Sub-technique Description Reference

Selection of optimum Optimizing cutting speed, feed Optimum cutting conditions i.e. optimum values of cutting [18-26]
machining conditions rate and depth of cut speed, feed and depth of cut for a particular machining
condition help to improve machinability in terms of low tool
wear, high material removal rate, and improved part quality.
Selection of suitable tool Use of carbides, PCD, CBN tool Use of cutting tool of hard materials such as PCD, and CBN [28-37]
materials and geometries inserts and tool coatings. etc.; and of wear resistant coatings i.e. TiN, Al2O3, TiCN etc.
may effectively minimize tool wear significantly.
Cutting edge preparations, Tool geometries may have significant influence on tool life, [38-44]
appropriate rake angles correctly prepared tool edges, appropriate rake angle and tool
shape can reduce the cutting forces and increase the tool life.
Using advanced lubrication Minimum quantity lubrication This technique is based on directing a small quantity (10-150 [50-58]
and cooling methods (MQL) ml/h) of environmentally-friendly lubricant under high
pressure into the machining zone to reduce the heat
generation by effective lubrication at the tool-chip interface.
Advantages of MQL are lower power consumption, higher
tool life, good work surface integrity, reduced environment
emission and waste, improves chips recycle value, safety, and
flexibility.

7
 Cryogenic cooling Cryogenic cooling is based on directing a cutting fluid, [47-49]
usually liquid nitrogen, under pressure and at low [59-66]
temperature, into the cutting zone being an efficient way to
maintain the cutting temperature well below the softening
temperature of the tool material. This technique increases
tool life, reduces environmental pollution, improves
productivity.
Combined cooling and lubrication It encompasses simultaneous cooling (by compressed low [67-72]
temperature CO2 or N2) and lubrication (through oil-mist at
minimum quantity) to ensure significant reduction in
machining zone temperature and improvement in tool life.

Adopting hybrid machining Laser assisted machining (LAM) Laser assisted machining uses a laser beam as an external [73-85]
processes heat source to soften the workpiece before machined by tool
in order to increase the ease of machining. LAM results in
reduced cutting force, increased tool life and improved work
surface integrity.
Ultrasonic vibration assisted UVAM utilized high frequency ultrasonic vibrations for [88-94]
machining (UVAM) providing assistance to conventional machining for ease of
cutting. It may improve the machinability of difficult-to-cut
materials significantly.

8
 Other investigations where cutting parameters were optimized for improved machinability are
discussed elsewhere in the paper as appropriate to the specific strategy involved i.e. MQL machining,
cryogenic cooling and thermal assisted machining.

2.2 Selection of Suitable Tool Materials, Coatings and Geometries

Careful selection of tool material and geometry is an important requirement to address the
problems associated with the machinability of titanium alloys. The performance of a cutting tool is
normally assessed in terms of its operating life based on a certain wear criterion. Wear affects the
stability of the cutting edge and consequently the dimensional tolerance of the machined work
surface. Tool materials that are typically used for machining titanium alloys include: uncoated and
coated cemented carbides (extensively used); polycrystalline diamond; polycrystalline boron nitride
and cubic boron nitride [11-13]. To further enhance tool life (reduced wear) coatings such as TiN,
TiCN, and Al2O3 are widely used.
When considering the main reasons for the poor machinability of titanium alloys, the most
important parameters when selecting a tool material for titanium is that it must have a high hardness at
elevated temperatures (hot hardness), high thermal conductivity to mitigate thermal gradients and
shocks, a high chemical inertness with titanium and a high compressive and shear strength [11, 12, 17,
27]. In addition to tool wear, tool materials, geometries and coatings are also responsible for
machining dynamics and work surface integrity.

2.3 Using Advanced Lubrication and Cooling Methods

The basic function of a metal cutting fluid is to provide cooling and lubrication and thus reducing
the high temperatures encountered during the cutting process as well as the tendency for welding of
chips to the tool, while increasing tool life simultaneously [45].
A wide variety of cutting fluids are commercially available for cooling and/or lubrication for various
machining operations. The primary function of a cutting fluid is to control the thermal and tribological
aspects of the workpiece, chip and cutting tool interface during a machining process. An uncontrolled
cutting interface usually leads to elevated temperatures and associated difficulties such as increased
wear, tool material breakdown etc. It is worth mentioning that the metal working fluid associated cost
(cutting fluid and lubrication system) may account for almost 15 % of the total machining cost [45,
46]. Generally, cutting fluids can be divided into three main classes: oil based, aqueous based, and gas
based. Vegetable oils, esters and gas based coolants-lubricants i.e. air, nitrogen, helium, argon are
some of the environment-friendly cutting fluids and good alternatives of harmful conventional cutting
fluids such as mineral oils, semi-synthetic fluids and other emulsion-based fluids.
The cooling methods for mechanical machining can be divided into two types, namely,
conventional cooling (flood cooling) most widely used cooling technique; and non-conventional
cooling (dry, cryogenic, minimum quantity lubrication, minimum quantity cooling, minimum quantity

9
cooling and lubrication etc.) [45]. While conventional use of cutting fluids i.e. flood cooling aims to
provide ample cutting fluid in the machining zone it may affect operators health, cause environmental
pollution and contribute significantly to the manufacturing cost. Whereas, modern techniques such as
near dry cooling methods may significantly minimize the wastage of cutting fluid, keep environment
clean and green, reduce machining cost while even being beneficial to product quality.
Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) is a micro-lubrication technique that facilitates near-dry
machining and eliminates large quantities of water and oil-based coolants and replaces them with a
small quantity of lubricant mixed with a transport medium (usually air) [45]. MQL is a modern
technique that aims to deliver metal working fluid (MWF) to the cutting interface where it is actually
required. Contrarily to other conventional techniques MQL is not primarily a heat removal technique;
rather it primarily reduces the frictional heat produced by the chip sliding along the rake face of the
tool and the tool interacting with the recently cut work piece surface [46]. The pressurized transport
medium may provide some residual cooling of the cutting interface but this is not the primary reason
for the effectiveness of MQL. A typical MQL system consists of a cutting fluid reservoir, a source of
compressed air, flow control system, tubing and a spray nozzle as shown in Fig. 3.
High pressure air from an air compressor and cutting fluid from a reservoir pass through the flow
control system where atomization of the cutting fluid takes place. The mixture of high pressure air
with micro droplets of cutting fluid (called aerosol) are then sprayed at a controlled flow rate into the
machining zone with the help of appropriate tubing and nozzle system [46]. MQL generally makes
use of small amounts of oil based on vegetables or esters, which are less harmful to humans and the
environment [45, 46]. It is therefore safer for operators and workers as they are not exposed to the
toxicity, bacteria and fungus risks that come with traditional wet machining. Metal chips produced
during MQL machining are nearly dry and much cleaner than with conventional approaches. Near-dry
chips are easier to recycle and more valuable as a recycled material. The consumption of cutting fluid
in MQL is typically 10-250 ml/h compared to the several l/h (of flooded cooling system), which keeps
the cost of manufacturing low. In general the use of minimal quantity lubrication may significantly
reduce machining costs while protecting and maintaining the environment.

10
 Fig. 3 A schematic showing various components of a typical MQL system.
Cryogenic cooling is also an environmentally safe alternative to the conventional emulsion
cooling and uses cryogenic gases such as nitrogen, helium and carbon di-oxide as the main coolants,
which evaporate harmlessly into the air [47-49]. Figure 4 depicts a schematic of a typical cryogenic
cooling system, which constitutes a cylinder of cryogenic gas, pressure and flow control systems,
tubing and nozzle. Unlike MQL the primary aim here is to cool (remove heat) the cutting interface.

Fig. 4 Schematic representation of a typical cryogenic cooling system.

In cryogenic cooling with nitrogen, a liquid form of nitrogen is injected or sprayed into the cutting
zone with small diameter nozzles at temperature of around -2000 C. The liquid nitrogen absorbs the
heat generated during machining and evaporates quickly, becoming a form of gaseous fluid protection
layer between the chip and the tool face that functions as a lubricant; this lubricant may further reduce

11
the tool-chip interface temperature and thus chemical reaction between tool and chip. This reduces the
adhesion and diffusion of the cutting tool and hence increases the tool life [47-49]. The chips
produced by this technique can be recycled as scrap metal as they have no residual of oil attached to
them. Nitrogen is inert and lighter than air and therefore disperses readily into the atmosphere and
does not harm the operators and the environment. The cooling effect of the cryogens are particularly
interesting in machining difficult-to-machine materials that suffer from excessive tool wear mainly
due to high cutting temperatures.
Previous work on the use of MQL, cryogenic cooling, and combined cooling and lubrication
assisted machining of titanium alloys are discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.3.1 Review of the Previous Work on MQL Assisted Sustainable Machining of Titanium Alloys

2.3.2 Review of the Previous Work on Cryogenic Cooling based Sustainable Machining of
Titanium Alloys

2.3.3 Review of the Previous Work on Combined Cooling and lubrication based Sustainable
Machining of Titanium Alloys
In conclusion, it can be said that the advanced lubrication and/or cooling techniques discussed in
the forgoing sections are much better in comparison to the conventional wet cooling. Table 2
summarises the important features and benefits of these techniques in comparison to wet cooling.

12
 Table 2 Features of some important lubrication and/or cooling techniques used for the machining of titanium alloys.
Cooling/lubrication Working principle
Method
MQL Air-oil penetrates the tool-work
interface and effectively prevents the
heat generation and distribution.
Cryogenic cooling Compressed and low temperature
cryogenic gases (mostly LN2 and CO2)
effectively remove heat from the
cutting zone and cool the tool cutting
edge and chip interface.
Combined cooling and Combined injection/spray of air-oil
lubrication mist and cryogenic gas performs both
lubrication and cooling in the cutting
zone.
Conventional (wet) Conventional cutting fluid (a mixture
cooling of hydrocarbon oil and water) removes
heat from machining zone and cools
the cutting edge of the tool.
Advantages
 Environmentally benign.
 Protects the cutting edge of the
tool and enhances its life.
 Better work surface quality.
 Lower machining cost.
 Safe for the operator.
 Environmentally benign.
 Longer tool life.
 Better work surface quality.
 This technique removes heat and
prevents it to transfer to the tool
or workpiece further.
 It ensures overall heat
management during machining.
 Longer tool life and better work
surface integrity.
 Environmentally benign.
 No extra setup or device is
needed.
Disadvantages
 Lower cooling ability.
 Oil evaporation in the cutting zone
evolves gases.
 High pressure requirements to get
better penetration ability.
 Sometimes not effective at high
cutting speed due to improper
penetration.
 It can only takes out the heat from the
cutting zone, it cannot minimize the
generation of heat.
 Initial investment is higher.
 Only cools the machining zone up to a
certain extent.
 Poor lubrication.
 It cannot effectively penetrate the
tool-work interface due to bigger fluid
droplets size.
 Shorter tool life and frequent tool
wear.
 Higher power consumption.
 Higher consumption of cutting fluid.
 Emits particulates, fumes and gases
harmful for the health of the operator.
13
2.4 Employing Hybrid Machining Processes
Difficulties encountered especially in case of hard and brittle materials during machining such as
frequent tool failures, poor work surface integrity, and high machining cost motivated the introduction
of hybrid machining processes (HMPs) [73, 74]. HMPs are the combinations of two or more
machining processes coupled together to facilitate ease of machining. Generally, non-conventional
manufacturing techniques are combined as aids to mechanical (conventional) machining processes for
improving the machinability. Laser and ultrasonic assisted mechanical machining processes are two
important HMPs, utilized extensively for cutting difficult-to-cut-materials including titanium alloys.
Laser assisted machining (LAM) uses an external heat source such as a laser beam to heat and
soften the workpiece locally in front of the cutting tool and allows difficult-to-machine material to be
machined with greater ease [73-75]. The substantial reduction in the cutting force required for
machining is the greatest reason for the improvement.
Figure 5 shows how the laser assisted machining uses a laser beam as an external heat source to
locally soften the workpiece in front of the cutting tool. The main intention of applying a laser beam
to the machining process is to significantly reduce the yield strength and the work hardening of the
material and subsequently to ease the plastic deformation of the workpiece. The two main and widely
used laser sources are CO2 laser and Nd: YAG laser [72-75]. The Nd: YAG laser has a shorter
wavelength and therefore better absorptivity. Laser power, laser beam spot diameter, cutting speed,
feed and depth of cut are the main operating parameters associated with laser assisted machining.
Significant decreases in cutting forces, longer tool life, and improvement in work surface integrity
have been reported with the application of LAM on various Ti-alloys [73-85].

Fig. 5 A typical laser assisted machining Fig. 6 Schematic representation of ultrasonic

system. assisted machining.

14
 Ultrasonic vibration assisted machining (UVAM) has been recognized as an important substitute
to conventional machining processes for machining difficult-to-cut materials [86-88]. Contrary to
conventional ultrasonic machining where an ultrasonic transducer is utilized to propel abrasive
particles suspended in a slurry to erode the work surface, in ultrasonic assisted machining the
ultrasonic vibrations are directly applied to the tool or workpiece of the conventional machining
(drilling, turning, milling etc.) systems to influence the machining operation. Ultrasonic vibration
assisted machining (UVAM) employs the superposition of high-frequency (up to 80 kHz) and low
amplitude (up to 400 µm) vibrational waves on the tool or workpiece movement, preferably, in the
cutting direction, to facilitate improved machining. It avoids the chipping or destruction of the part’s
surface layer on the tool, decreases the cutting force, and improves the tool life and work surface
properties.
Figure 6 presents a schematic of an ultrasonic assisted machining system which consists of an
ultrasonic transducer that imparts high frequency vibrations generated by external ultrasonic source,
via a horn attached to the tool holder thereby superimposing the vibrational movement onto the tool
motion. UVAM has also been used to improve the machinability of titanium alloys [88-94] and is
reviewed in the upcoming section.
2.4.1 Review of the Previous Work on Laser Assisted Machining of Titanium Alloys

2.4.2 Review of the Previous Work on Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Machining of Titanium Alloys
3. Conclusions and future recommendations
The current paper presents a review of previous efforts to improve the machinability of titanium
alloys using various sustainable machining strategies and the corresponding benefits. Despite the
difficulties associated with the machining of titanium and its alloys cost effective and quality
machining of these alloys are possible if the machining conditions are optimized, appropriate tool
materials and geometries are used, suitable cooling and lubrication strategies are employed; and
advanced and/or hybrid techniques such as thermal and vibration assisted machining are used.
Noticeable improvements are possible in the machinability of titanium alloys after adopting
sustainable machining techniques as demonstrated in the review. This does not mean that all the
problems associated with the machining of titanium and its alloys have been addressed. It remains an
area of major research concern.
Based on the review presented to improve the sustainable machinability of titanium alloys, the
following conclusions and recommendations for future work can be drawn:
1. Uncoated carbides and cubic boron nitride were found to be the best and most extensively used tool
materials.
2. Important coatings found to minimize the wear and increase tool life are TiAlN, TiN, Al2O3 and
AlCrN.

15
3. The shape of the cutting edge, rake angle and side cutting edge angle were identified as the main
tool geometry descriptors influencing the machinability of titanium alloys.
4. MQL assisted machining and cryogenic cooling was demonstrated as the most prominent
lubrication techniques for improved energy-efficient and green machining of titanium alloys.
5. Laser assisted and ultrasonic vibration assisted machining were both demonstrated to improve the
machinability of titanium alloys. These technologies are however still in their infancy and much
further work is required.
6. Various possibilities still exist where combinations of different tool materials and coatings along
with other sustainable machining strategies, viz. MQL, cryogenic, LAM; and UVAM may be
developed into hybrid processes that could lead to further improvements.
7. Most of the previous efforts on improving the sustainable machining of titanium and its alloys have
largely focused on a limited number of the high strength alloys, especially Ti6Al4V. Very little, work
exists on the commercially pure grades.
8. MQL was mostly demonstrated for milling operations, its workability and suitability for turning,
drilling, grinding etc. need to be further explored.
9. Exploring the combined effects of two machining strategies together such as MQL-LAM, MQL-
UVAM, cryogenic-LAM, and cryogenic-UVAM etc. on machinability and therefore sustainability
may result in interesting results and also requires further exploration.
10. Micro-machining of titanium alloys by using different sustainable machining strategies is also a
challenging future avenue.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

References
1. United Nations General Assembly, 96th plenary meeting, 11 December 1987, Report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development, A/RES/42/187.
2. World summit outcome, Resolution A/60/1. United Nation General Assembly, 2005.
3. Haapala, K.R., Zhao, F., Camelio, J., Sutherland, J.W., Skerlos, S.J., Dornfeld, D.A., Jawahir,
I.S, Zhang, H.C., Clarens, A.F. (2013) ““A Review of Engineering Research in Sustainable
Manufacturing””, J Manuf Sci Eng, Transactions of the ASME 135 (4), 041013.
4. The International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, How does commerce
define sustainable manufacturing, Downloadable at:
http://www.trade.gov/competitiveness/sustainablemanufacturing/how_doc_defines_SM.asp.
5. Pusavec F, Krajnik P, Kopac J. Transitioning to sustainable production - Part I: application on
machining technologies. J Clean Prod 2010; 18 (2): 174-184.
6. Davim PJ. Sustainable Manufacturing; John Wiley and Sons: US, 2013.
7. Papakostas N, Mavrikios D, Chryssolouris G (2008) A Perspective on manufacturing
strategy: produce more with less. CIRP J Manuf Sci Tech 1(1):45-52

16
8. Duflou JR, Sutherland JW, Dornfeld D, Herrmann C, Jeswiet J, Kara S, Hauschild M, Kellens
K (2012) Towards energy and resource efficient manufacturing: a processes and systems
approach. Ann CIRP 61:587–609
9. Pusavec F, Kopac J. Achieving and implementation of sustainability principles in machining
processes. J Advn Prod Eng Manag 2009; 3: 58–69.
10. Yingjie Z. Energy efficiency techniques in machining process: a review. Int J Adv Manuf
Tech 2014; 71: 1123–1132.
11. Donachie MJ. Titanium: A Technical Guide; ASM International: US, 2000.
12. Davim PJ. Machining of Titanium Alloys; Springer: Germany, 2014.
13. Pramanik A. Problems and solutions in machining of titanium alloys. Int J Adv Manuf Tech
2014; 70: 919–928.
14. Park CW, et al. Energy consumption reduction technology in manufacturing-a selective
review of policies, standards and research. Int J Prec Eng Manuf 2009; 10 (5): 151-173.
15. DeVries WR. Analysis of Material Removal Processes; Springer: Newyork, US, 1992.
16. El-Hofy H. Fundamentals of Machining Processes; CRC Press: Florida, 2013.
17. Ezugwu EO, Wang ZM. Titanium alloys and their machinability a review. J Mater Process
Tech 1997; 68: 262-274.
18. Ramesh S, Karunamoorthy L, Palanikumar K. Measurement and analysis of surface
roughness in turning of aerospace titanium alloy (Gr 5). Meas 2012; 45: 1266-1276.
19. Wang Z, Nakashima S, Larson M. Energy efficient machining of titanium alloys by
controlling cutting temperature and vibration. Procedia CIRP 2014; 17: 523-528.
20. Khanna N, Davim PJ. Design-of-experiments application in machining titanium alloys for
aerospace structural components. Meas 2015; 61: 280-290.
21. Sooraj H, Mathew J. Multi Objective Optimization of cutting parameters in micro-milling of
Ti-6Al-4V alloy. In Proceedings of the 5th International & 26th All India Manufacturing
Technology, Design and Research Conference, Guwahati, Assam, India, December 12-14,
2014.
22. Kuram E, Ozcelik B. Optimization of machining parameters during micro-milling of Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy and Inconel 718 materials using Taguchi method. Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2015; DOI: 10.1177/0954405415572662.
23. Chauhan SR, Dass K. Optimization of machining parameters in turning of titanium (grade-5)
alloy using response surface methodology. Mater Manuf Process 2012; 27 (5): 531-537.
24. Kahles JF, Field M, Eylon D, Froes FH. Machining of titanium alloys. J Mater 1985; 37(4):
27-35.
25. Chryssolouris G, Stavropoulos P, Salonitis K. Process of Laser Machining. Handbook of
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Nee A (Ed.), Springer-Verlag: Berlin-
Heidelberg, 2013.
26. Stavropoulos P, Salonitis K, Stournaras A, Pandremenos J, Paralikas J, Chryssolouris G.
Experimental Investigation of Micro-milling Process Quality. In Proceedings of the 40th CIRP
International Seminar on Manufacturing Systems, Liverpool, UK, 2007.
27. Knight WA, Boothroyd G. Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools; CRC
Press: Florida, 2005.
28. Zoya ZA, Krishnamurthy R. The performance of CBN tools in the machining of Ti-alloys. J
Mater Process Tech 2000; 100: 80-86.
29. Jawaid A, Sharif S, Koksal S. Evaluation of wear mechanisms of coated carbide tools when
face milling titanium alloy. J Mater Process Tech 2000; 99(1–3): 266–274.

17
30. Ezugwu EO, Bonney J, Silva D, et al. Surface integrity of finished turned Ti-6Al-4V alloy
with PCD tools using conventional and high pressure coolant supplies. Int J Mach Tool Manu
2007; 47: 884-891.
31. Pan W, et al. Experimental investigations of end milling of titanium alloys with
polycrystalline diamond tools. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part
B: J Eng Manuf 2014; 228(8): 832–844.
32. Polini W, Turchetta S. P. Cutting force, tool life and surface roughness integrity in milling of
titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V with coated carbide tools. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2014; 1-7.
33. Syed H, Jaffery I, Mativenga PT. Wear mechanisms analysis for turning Ti-6Al-4V—towards
the development of suitable tool coatings. Int J Adv Manuf Tech, 2012, 58, 479–493.
34. Niu QL, Cai XJ, Liu ZQ, et al. Wear behaviour of carbide inserts in face milling TA19 alloy.
Adv Mat Res 2012; 426: 339–343.
35. Pervaiz S, Deiab I, Darras B. Power consumption and tool wear assessment when machining
titanium alloys. Int J Prec Eng Manuf 2013; 14 (6): 925-936.
36. Nithyanandam J, Das SL, Palanikumar K. Surface Roughness Analysis in Turning of
Titanium Alloy by Nanocoated Carbide Insert. Proc Mat Sci 2014; 5: 2159-2168.
37. Thepsonthi T, O¨zel T. Experimental and finite element simulation based investigations on
micro-milling Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy: effects of CBN coating on tool wear. J Mater
Process Tech 2013; 213(4): 532–542.
38. Hughes JI, Sharman ARC, Ridgway K. The effect of tool edge preparation on tool life and
workpiece surface integrity. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J
Eng Manuf 2004; 218: 1113-1123.
39. Zhang PF, Churi NJ, Pei ZJ, Treadwell C. Mechanical drilling processes for titanium alloys:
a literature review. Mach Sci Technol 2008; 12: 417-444.
40. Zhu L, Wang J. A study on titanium alloys deep-hole drilling technique. Mat Sci For 2006;
532: 945–948.
41. Li R, Hedge P, Shih AJ. High-throughput drilling of titanium alloys. Int J Mach Tool Manu
2007; 47 (1): 63–74.
42. Khanna N, Sangwan KS. Interrupted machining analysis for Ti-6Al-4V and Ti5553 titanium
alloys using physical vapor deposition (PVD)–coated carbide inserts. Proc IMechE Part B: J
Eng Manuf 2013; 227 (3): 465–470.
43. Wyen CF, Wegener K. Influence of cutting edge radius on cutting forces in machining
titanium. Ann CIRP 2010; 59: 93–96.
44. Ji W, Liu X, Wang L, Sun S. Experimental evaluation of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool
geometries at high feed rate in milling of titanium alloy TC11. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 2015,
DOI 10.1007/s00170-014-6517-9.
45. Davim PJ. Green Manufacturing Processes and Systems; Springer: Heidelberg, Germany,
2013.
46. Debnath S, Reddy MM, Yi QS. Environmental friendly cutting fluids and cooling techniques
in machining: a review. J Clean Prod 2014; 83: 33-47.
47. Yildiz Y, Nalbant M. A review of cryogenic cooling in machining processes. Int J Mach Tool
Manu 2008; 48: 947–964.
48. Kaynak Y, Lu T, Jawahir IS. Cryogenic machining-induced surface integrity: a review and
comparison with dry, MQL, and flood-cooled machining. Mach Sci Technol 2014; 18 (2):
149-198.

18
49. Hong SY, Markus I, Jeong WC. New cooling approach and tool life improvement in
cryogenic machining of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2001; 41: 2245-
2260.
50. Sun J, Wong YS, Rahman M, et al. Effects of coolant supply methods and cutting conditions
on tool life in end milling titanium alloy. Mach Sci Tech 2007; 10: 355–370.
51. Sadeghi MH, Haddad MJ, Tawakoli T, Emami M. Minimal quantity lubrication-MQL in
grinding of Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy. Int J Adv Manuf Tech2009; 44: 487–500.
52. Rahim EA, Sasahara H. Investigation of tool wear and surface integrity on MQL machining
of Ti-6Al-4V using Biodegradable oil. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2011; 225: 1505-1511.
53. Liu ZQ, Cai XJ, Chen M, An QL. An Investigation of cutting force and temperature of end-
milling Ti–6Al–4V with different minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) parameters.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2011, 225 (8):
1273-1279.
54. Cai XJ, Liu ZQ, Chen M, Long Q. An experimental investigation on effects of minimum
quantity lubrication oil supply rate in high-speed end milling of Ti-6Al-4V. Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2012; 226 (11): 1784-1792.
55. Nath C, Kapoor SG, DeVora RE, et al. Design and evaluation of an atomization-based cutting
fluid spray system in turning of titanium alloy. J Manuf Proc 2012; 14: 452-459.
56. Zheng X, Liu Z, Chen M, Wang X. Experimental study on micro-milling of Ti6Al4v with
minimum quantity lubrication. Int. J. Nano Manuf 2013; 9 (5/6): 570-582.
57. Okada M, Hosokawa A, Asakawa N, Ueda T. End milling of stainless steel and titanium alloy
in an oil mist environment. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 2014; 74 (9-12): 1255-1266.
58. Gao K, Qi L, Yu D, Luo J. Design and experimental research of micro-quantity lubrication
device used in the in situ cutting of aircraft titanium alloy structural damage. In Proceedings
of the First Symposium on Aviation Maintenance and Management, Xian, China, November
25-28, 2014.
59. Lin KEY, Yue DH, Gang L, Ming Z. Use of nitrogen gas in high-speed milling of Ti-6Al-4V.
Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China 2009; 19: 530-534.
60. Sun S, Brandt M, Dargusch MS. Machining Ti-6Al-4V alloy with cryogenic compressed air
cooling. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2010; 50: 933–942.
61. Dhananchezia M, Kumar PM. Cryogenic turning of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy with modified
cutting tool inserts. Cryog 2011; 51: 34-40.
62. Bermingham MJ, et al. New observations on tool life, cutting forces and chip morphology in
cryogenic machining Ti-6Al-4V. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2011; 51 (6): 500-511.
63. Strano M, Chiappini E, Tirelli S, Albertelli P. Comparison of Ti6Al4V machining forces and
tool life for cryogenic versus conventional cooling. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2013; 227(9): 1403–1408.
64. Yap TC, Tayeb EN, Brevern VP. Cutting forces, friction coefficient and surface roughness in
machining Ti-5Al-4V-0.6 Mo-0.4 Fe using carbide tool K313 under low pressure liquid
nitrogen. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng 2013; 35 (1): 11–15.
65. Klocke F, Lung D, Arft M, Priarone PC, Settineri L. On high-speed turning of a third-
generation gamma titanium aluminide. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2013; 65 (1-4): 155-163.
66. Rotella G, Dillon OW, Umbrello D, et al. The effects of cooling conditions on surface
integrity in machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 2014, 71, 47–55.
67. Yuan SM, Yan LT, Liu WD, Liu Q. Effects of cooling air temperature on cryogenic
machining of Ti–6Al–4V alloy. J Mater Process Tech 2011; 211 (3): 356-362.

19
68. Raza SW, Pervaiz S, Deiab I. Tool wear patterns when turning of titanium alloy using
sustainable lubrication strategies. Int J Prec Eng Manuf 2014; 15 (9): 1979-1985.
69. Deiab I, Raza SW, Pervaiz S. Analysis of lubrication strategies for sustainable machining
during turning of titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloy, Procedia CIRP 2014; 17: 766 – 771.
70. Park KH, Yang GD, Lee MG, et al. Eco-friendly face milling of titanium alloy. Int J Prec
Eng Manuf 2014; 15 (6): 1159-1164.
71. Su Y, He N, Li L, Li XL. An experimental investigation of the effects of cooling/lubrication
conditions on tool wear in high-speed end milling of Ti-6Al-4V. Wear 2006; 261: 760-766.
72. Machaia C, Iqbal A, Biermann D, Upmeier T, Schumann S. On the effects of cutting speed
and cooling methodologies in grooving operation of various tempers of β-titanium alloy. J
Mater Process Tech 2013; 213: 1027-1037.
73. Narul Amin AKM, Ginta TL. Heat assisted machining, In: Hashmi S. (Eds.) Comprehensive
Materials Processing. Elsevier 2014; 11: 297-331.
74. Venkatesan K, Ramanujam R, Kuppan P. Laser assisted machining of difficult to cut
materials: research opportunities and future directions-a comprehensive review, Procedia Eng
2014; 97: 1626 – 1636.
75. Chryssolouris G, Anifantis N, Karagiannis S. Laser Assisted Machining: an Overview. 75th
Anniversary Issue of the J Manuf Sci Eng, ASME 1997; 119(4B):766-769.
76. Sun S, Harris J, Brandt M. Parametric investigation of laser-assisted machining of
commercially pure titanium. Adv Eng Mater 2008; 10 (6): 565-572.
77. Dandekara CR, Shina YC, Barnes J. Machinability improvement of titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–
4V) via LAM and hybrid machining. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2010; 50 (2): 174–182.
78. Sun S, Brandt M, Barnes JE, Dargusch MS. Investigation of the cutting forces and tool wear
in laser assisted milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. In Proceedings of the 36th International
MATADOR Conference, Manchester, UK, July 14-16, 2010.
79. Sun S, Brandt M, Barnes JE, Dargusc MS. Experimental investigation of cutting forces and
tool wear during laser-assisted milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part B: J Eng Manuf 2011; 225 (9): 1512-1527.
80. Rashid RAR, Sun S, Wanga G, Dargusch MS. An investigation of cutting forces and cutting
temperatures during laser-assisted machining of the Ti–6Cr–5Mo–5V–4Al beta titanium
alloy. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2012; 63: 58-69.
81. Rashid RAR, Sun S, Wanga G, Dargusch MS. The effect of laser power on the machinability
of the Ti-6Cr-5Mo-5V-4Al beta titanium alloy during laser assisted machining. Int J Mach
Tool Manu 2012; 63: 41-43.
82. Rashid RAR, Bermingham MJ, Sun S, et al. The response of the high strength Ti–10V–2Fe–
3Al beta titanium alloy to laser assisted cutting. Precis Eng 2013; 37 (2): 461-472.
83. Rashid RAR, Sun S, Palanisamy S, Wang G, Dargusch MS. A study on laser assisted
machining of Ti10V2Fe3Al alloy with varying laser power. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 2014; 74:
219–224.
84. Mohid Z, Warap NM, Rahim EA, Ibrahim MR, Ismail MIS. Study on laser assisted micro
milling (LAMM) processing characteristic titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) using TiAlN coated
carbide micro ball mill. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Micro-
Manufacturing, Singapore, March 25-28, 2014.
85. Hedberg GK, Shin YC, Xu L. Laser-assisted milling of Ti-4Al-6V with the consideration of
surface integrity. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 2015; 79 (9): 1645-1658.
86. Babitsky VI, Kalashnikov AN, Meadows A, Wijesundara AAHP. Ultrasonic assisted turning
of aviation materials. J Mater Process Tech 2003; 132: 157-175.

20
87. Astashev VK, Babitsky VI. Ultrasonic assisted machining, In: Ultrasonic Processes and
Machines. Springer 2007; 249-314.
88. Churi NJ, Pei ZJ, Treadwell C. Rotary ultrasonic machining of titanium alloy: effects of
machining variables. Mach Sci Technol 2006; 10(3): 301-321.
89. Pujana J, Rivero A, Celaya A, Lacalle LNL. Analysis of ultrasonic-assisted drilling of Ti-6Al-
4V. Int J Mach Tool Manu 2009; 49 (6): 500–508.
90. Nik MG, Movahhedy MR, Akbari J. Ultrasonic-assisted grinding of Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
ProcediaCIRP 2012: 353 – 358.
91. Patil S, Joshi S, Tewari A. Microstructural analysis of ultrasonic vibration assisted turning of
Ti alloy Ti-6Al-4V. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on
MicroManufacturing, Victoria, BC, Canada, March 25-28, 2013.
92. Maurotto A, Muhammad R, Roy A, Silberschmidt VV. Enhanced ultrasonically assisted
turning of a β-titanium alloy. Ultras 2013; 53: 1242–1250.
93. Pawar S, Patil S, Joshi S, Singh R. An experimental analysis of ultrasonic vibration assisted
tapping of Ti-6Al-4V. SAE Technical Paper 2014; 28-0024.
94. Muhammad R, Maurotto A, Demiral M, Roy A, Silberschmidt VV. Thermally enhanced
ultrasonically assisted machining of Ti alloy. CIRP J Manuf Sci Techn 2014; 7: 159–167.

21