INTRODUCTION TO

MICROBIOLOGY
MICROBIOLOGY- NURS1111
Objective

1. Give a brief
overview of the 3. Classify
2. Define microbiology
historical development microorganisms
of microbiology;

4. Explain the 6. Discuss laboratory

5. Explain the
difference in cellular safety and use of
importance of micro-
structure of eukaryotic laboratory equipment.
and prokaryotic organisms as agents
of infectious diseases (Lab)
microorganisms
Definition of microbiology
Microbiology is the study of:
Microscopic living forms (Bacteria)
Organisms that live in other cells
(Viruses, Bacteria)
Macroscopic forms (fungal molds,
parasitic worms)
Microbe / Microorganism
are
minute living being
large & diverse group of
microorganisms that exist in single
cells or clusters
Microorganisms / Microbes
■ located almost everywhere
■ only a small % are pathogens
TYPICALLY TOO SMALL TO
UNICELLULAR SEE WITH ■ most involved in
UNAIDED EYE
environmental /ecosystem
balance:
■ breakdown waste

FUNGI PROTOZOA ALGAE

■ fix nitrogen
■ photosynthesis –foundation of
food chain
■ digestion in animals
BACTERIA & VIRUSES
■ vitamin production
ARCHAEA
Overview of Microbiology

Relatively young discipline developed in 19th century

Since then, it has developed rapidly, spawning new sub-disciplines

Bacteriology , Mycology,
Virology , Immunology
Parasitology
Microbiology

■ Microbiology have determined the course of history because of the disease they
cause
■ New infectious disease appear due to
– Lifestyle changes
– Travel
– Improvement in isolation techniques
New and emerging infection

SARs, Zika, Dengue,

Pandemics - SARS-COVID-2
Ebola, Cholera, Syphilis,
Measles…???

Epidemics of Ebola, chikungunya,

Zika and other infectious diseases
were the norm.

Human immunodeficiency virus

(HIV)/AIDS, first identified in 1981
• Consider their economic impacts
The impact
of a new and dangerous infectious disease

The impact of a new and

dangerous infectious disease:
•monopolize governmental
activities
•cause fear and hysteria
•have a significant impact on
the economy throughout the
world
The Jamaican economy
contracted by an estimated 5.7
per cent in the January to March
2021 quarter, largely due to the The price of freedom in a COVID-
impact of the coronavirus 19 world (Jamaica Observer,
(COVID-19) pandemic.
•(Dr Wayne, Henry, PIOJ, 2021)
Tuesday, April 13, 2021)

•freedom of movement of
people
Microbiology
■ Impact on Human Health
■ Balance of Nature - food source, play a role in decomposition, help other animals
digest grass (cattle, sheep, termites).
■ Environmental – provide safe drinking water; development of biodegradable
products;
■ use bacteria to clean up oil spills, etc. – called bioremediation.
■ Industrial – foodstuffs (beer, wine, cheese, bread), antibiotics, insulin, genetic
engineering
■ Agricultural - research has led to healthier livestock and disease-free crops.
 Production of Foods: Microbes are a key component in both home and
industrial food preparation.

■ Lactic acid bacteria - make yogurt, cheese, sour cream, buttermilk and other fermented
milk products.
■ Vinegars are produced by bacterial acetic acid fermentation.
■ Yeast - manufacture of beer, wine, leavening of breads. also fermentation to convert corn
and other vegetable carbohydrates into ethanol to make beer, wine, or gasohol; but bacteria
are the agents of most other food fermentations.
■ Other fermented foods include soy sauce, sauerkraut, dill pickles, olives, salami, cocoa
and black teas.
Beneficial Effects of Microorganisms
■ Decomposition or biodegradation ■ their ability to recycle the primary
elements that make up all living systems,
results in the breakdown of complex Nitrogen fixation
organic materials to forms of carbon that
can be used by other organisms.

There is no naturally-occurring organic ■ slowly or not at all, metabolic processes

compound that cannot me degraded of fermentation and respiration, organic
although some synthetic compounds such molecules are eventually broken down to
as teflon, styrofoam, plastics, insecticides CO2 which is returned to the atmosphere.
and pesticides
 THE MICROSCOPE
Van Leeuwenhoek microscope.
The original made in 1673 could magnify
the object being viewed almost 300
times.
The object being viewed is brought into
focus with the adjusting screws.

(The replica was made according to the

directions given in the American
Biology Teacher 30.537,1958.)
Note its small size.
 MICROSCOPES
VARIOUS TYPES OF MICROSCOPES ARE AVAILABLE FOR USE IN THE
MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY. THE MICROSCOPES HAVE VARIED
APPLICATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THEIR
USEFULNESS
Types of Microscope
The light
m icroscope.

fluorescent
m icroscope uses
dark‐field microscope,
ultraviolet light as its light
which is used to observe
source. electron live spirochetes
m icroscope is a beam of
electrons

phase‐contrast
Live, unstained
organisms are
seen clearly
with this
microscope
 Brief History of Microbiology
■ Robert Hooke 1635-1703)
– Invented the compound
microscope
– Posited the Cell theory all living
things are composed of cells.
– First scientist to observe
microorganisms.
– He mentioned microscopic fungi
in 1665
– Microscope however lacked
resolution to see microbes
clearly
History
■ Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723
– Dutch merchant
– Possibly the first to see and describe
various microorganisms
– Between 1673-1723 constructed
more that 400 microscopes
Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s letter to the royal
society in London after seeing microbes
■ "...Very many little animalcules, whereof some were roundish, while others a bit
bigger consisted of an oval. On these last, I saw two little legs near the head,
and two little fins at the hind most end of the body. Others were somewhat
longer than an oval, and these were very slow a-moving, and few in number.
These animalcules had diverse colours, some being whitish and transparent;
others with green and very glittering little scales, others again were green in
the middle, and before and behind white; others yet were ashed grey. And the
motion of most of these animalcules in the water was so swift, and so various,
upwards, downwards, and round about, that ’twas wonderful to see....“
HISTORY

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

■ French chemist and microbiologist.
■ Made significant contributions to the field
■ Father of microbiology
■ Discovered microbes involved in fermentation (Pasteur effect)
■ Pasteurization (sterilization process for wine)
■ Disproved theory of spontaneous generation
■ Discovered vaccine for anthrax and Rabies
History continued
Robert Koch (1843-1910)
■ Father of modern
bacteriology (Nobel prize
1905)
■ provided proof that a
bacterium causes anthrax
using experimental steps
now called the Koch’s
Postulates
■ Contributed to Germ theory
■ He was the first to use agar
as solid culture medium in
bacteriology.
History continued

■ Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865)

■ Hungarian physician demonstrated the importance of disinfection
■ Proved value of handwashing
■ Used chlorinated lime to reduce death on delivery ward.
■ Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
■ Consider father of antisepsis
■ Scottish surgeon used phenol to reduce postoperative infections
■ The concept od disinfection used to prevent hospital acquired infections
History continued

Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915)

■ German scientist, father of chemotherapy
■ Introduced the methods of staining cells and tissues
■ Identified the acid-fast property of tubercle bacillus
■ Introduced the concept of minimum lethal dose
■ Developed salvarsan, an arsenical compound (Magic bullet) against the syphilitic
spirochete
 John Snow (1813-1858) – "father of field epidemiology.”
Conducted studies twenty years before the development of the
microscope, to discover the cause of cholera and to prevent its
recurrence…Broad Street pump
(CDC)

History
continued Edward Jenner’s (1749-1823)vaccine – field of immunology
In science credit goes to the man who convinces the world,
not the man to whom the idea first occurs.
—francis galton

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/
History continued
Mary Secole
■ Mary Jane Grant (1805- 1881)
Hometown: Kingston, Jamaica
Occupation: Nurse and business
woman
See:
■ https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/disc
over/history/general-history/mary-
seacole/
■ https://www.maryseacoletrust.org.uk
/learn-about-mary/#
Florence Nightingale
■ Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
■ known as “The Lady With the Lamp,”
■ British nurse
■ Known internationally as the founder
of modern nursing.
See:
■ https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/
education/resources/florence-
nightingale/
Mothers of modern nursing

MARY SECOLE FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

(1805-1881) (1820-1910)
ORIGINS OF LIFE
DEBATE
The origin of life debate

Leeuwenhoek’s discovery (animalcule) reignited scientific

debate on the origin of life:

Spontaneous generation (revisited)- the hypothetical process by

which living organisms develop from nonliving matter;
• appearance of maggots on decaying meat.

However, by the 18th century it had become obvious that higher

organisms could not be produced by nonliving material.
The origin of life debate cont’d
Francesco Redi 1626-1697 first to
challenge notion of spontaneous
generation
– Maggots did not arise
spontaneously from
decaying meat (1668)
– Demonstrated that
maggots come from eggs
of flies

(Brittanica.com)
Redi’s experiment
1. Redi took six jars
2. and divided in two groups of
three:
Flies could only enter the
uncovered jar, and in this,
maggots appeared.
In the jar that was covered with
gauze, maggots appeared on
the gauze but did not
survive.
The origin of life debate cont’d

■ John Needham (1713-1781)

– Supporter of spontaneous
generation
– Refuted Redi’s claims with his
chicken and corn broth experiment
■ Broth found teeming with microbes
after boiling and cooling
– ?endospores
– ?Air contamination
– ?Not sterile experimental
– ? Broth not boiled long enough to kill
microbes
The origin of life debate cont’d

■ Lazzaro Spallanzini (1729-1799)

– Twenty years after Needham’s

experiment postulated that
microbes from the air may
have entered the experiment.
– Showed nutrient fluid sealed
in a flask and heated showed
no microbial growth
The debate

Spallanzani experiment

■ Microbes move through air

■ Microbes could be killed by boiling.
The origin of life cont’d

■ German scientist, Rudolf Virchow

(1821-1902)challenged
spontaneous generation with
biogenesis
■ Biogenesis - living cells can arise
only from pre-existing living cells
■ Cells was the basic unit of the body
that had to be studied to
understand disease
The origin of life cont’d

■ Louis Pasteur:
– Settled the spontaneous
generation debate
– Demonstrated presence
of microbes in air and that
they can act as
contaminants
– Microbes can be present
in/on nonliving matter
– Microbes can be
destroyed by heat and
other methods (basis of
aseptic techniques)
 PASTEUR’S
EXPERIMENT
The golden age of microbiology

■ The period 1857-1914

■ Rapid advances in the sciences of microbiology
■ Pasteur and Koch integral
■ Significant discoveries during this period:
– Agents of diseases
– Role of immunity in disease prevention and cure
The Golden age

During this period scientists searched for answers to four questions

1. Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible?
2. What causes fermentation?
3. What causes disease?
4. How can we prevent infection and disease?
Koch’s Postulates

1. The microbe must always be present in every case of the

disease
2. It must be isolated in pure culture on artificial media
3. When inoculated into healthy animal host it should produce
the same disease
4. It must be isolated from the diseased animal again
 KOCH’S
POSTULATE
Classification of micro-
organisms
Classification of microorganisms

TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
■ Microorganisms are quite diverse
– Prokaryotes( Bacteria & Archae )
– Eukaryotes (Protozoan & Fungi)
– Viruses are acellular
– Parasitic helminths are included in the study of microbiology as the infectious
and diagnostic stages are microscopic
Human pathogenic microorganisms

Acellular/ subcellular infectious particles Viruses, Prions

Prokaryotic microorganisms Bacteria

Eukaryotic microorganisms Fungi, Protozoan

Eukaryotic macroorganisms Helminths ( parasitic worms)

Microbiology for nurses

Classification of microorganisms

■ Taxonomy- the science of the classification of living forms

– To show degree of similarities between organism

– Reference for identification of organisms

Classification of Microorganisms
Taxonomy
■ Formal system originated by Carl von Linné
(1707-1778)
■ Identifying and classifying organisms
according to specific criteria (visible)
■ Each organism placed into a classification
system
– Plantae and Animalia
See
➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G
b_IO-SzLgk
➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
38BmgPcZ_I
Making the news
Classification of microorganisms -
Phylogeny
■ Study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms
■ Achieved by molecular and morphologic studies
■ Group common organisms together by juxtaposing similarities and differences
■ All Species inventory: http://sciencenetlinks.com/science-news/science-
updates/all-species-inventory/
Evolution - living things change gradually
over millions of years

Changes favoring survival are retained and less

beneficial changes are lost

All new species originate from preexisting species

Closely related organism have similar features

because they evolved from common ancestral forms

Evolution usually progresses toward greater

complexity
Taxonomy
Domain
Kingdom
MNEMONIC
Phylum ■ Dear
Class ■ King
■ Phillip
Order ■ Came
Family ■ Over
■ For
Genus ■ Great
species ■ Soup
3 Domains

Eubacteria
•true bacteria, peptidoglycan

Archaea
•odd bacteria that live in extreme environments,
high salt, heat, etc. (methanogens,extremophiles)
Eukarya
•have a nucleus & organelles (humans, animals,
plants)
■ Though diverse in morphology and organization, living organisms are generally
classified into five kingdoms
– Kingdom Monera== Bacteria & Archae (prokaryotes)
– Protista==single celled eukaryotes
– Fungi== a network of hypgae (eukaryotes)
– Plantae== chlorophyl pigment & cell wall made of cellulose
– Anamilia== lack cell wall, multicellular (eukaryotes)

Five kingdom classification

Taxonomy

■ 4 main eukaryotic kingdoms:

– Protista
– Fungi
– Plantae
– Animalia
 Scientific Nomenclature
...Thanks to Carl Von Linne

■ Binomial (scientific) nomenclature

■ Gives each microbe 2 names:

– Genus - noun, always capitalized

– species - adjective, lowercase

Scientific Nomenclature

Organsism Nomenclature
■ latinized
■ each organism has unique two part
■ genus species name:
e.g. Escherichia coli
■ written in italics or underlined
■ genus with Capital first letter
■ species/specific epithet all lowercase
■ after first use in documents can abbreviate genus: E. coli
■ name often describes organism: shape,
■ habitat, name of discoverer, etc.
Scientific Nomenclature

■ Both italicized or underlined

– Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)

– Entamoeba coli (E. coli)

– Escherichia coli (E. coli)

 Full name must be noted before using abbreviated form e.g. Escherichia coli(E. coli)

 Why is this important?

Scientific Names

Scientific Source of Source of

Binomial Genus Specific
Epithet
Salmonella Honour Stupor in
typhimurium Daniel Mice ( muri-)
Salomon
Streptococcus Chains of Forms pus
pyogenes cells(strepto-) (pyo)
Classification Systems in the
Procaryotae
Microscopic morphology- size, gram reaction (+/-)

Macroscopic morphology – colony appearance no

internal structure that are inclosed by membrane
Physiological / biochemical characteristics

Chemical analysis

Serological analysis

Genetic and molecular analysis

Species and Subspecies
1. Species
1. collection of bacterial cells which share an overall
similar pattern of traits in contrast to other bacteria
whose pattern differs significantly
2. Strain or variety
1. culture derived from a single parent that differs in
structure or metabolism from other cultures of that
species. The slight distinction generally does not give
rise to a new species but a strain
3. Type
1. subspecies that can show differences in antigenic
makeup (serotype or serovar), susceptibility to bacterial
viruses (phage type) and in pathogenicity (pathotype)
 Bacterial Taxonomy Based on Bergey’s
Manual
■ Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology – five volume resource
covering all known procaryotes
– classification based on genetic information –phylogenetic
– two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
– five volumes covering all known bacteria
Major Taxonomic Groups of Bacteria
■ Domain Archaea
– primitive, adapted to extreme habitats(temperature, salinity)
and modes of nutritional requirements(some require certain
sulfurur compounds to grow
■ Domain Bacteria
Further division:
– Gram-negative cell walls
– mainly Gram-positive cell walls
Archaea: The Other Procaryotes

Archaea
■ Have unique membrane lipids and cell wall
construction
■ Live in the most extreme habitats in nature,
extremophiles
■ Adapted to heat, salt, acid pH, pressure and
atmosphere
■ Includes: methane producers,
hyperthermophiles, extreme halophiles, and
sulfur reducers
Eukaryotes classification

■ Protista
■ Fungi
■ Plantae
■ Animalia
■ Algae
 Fungal Classification

■ Sexual reproduction
– Spores are formed following fusion of male and
female strains and formation of sexual
structure
■ Sexual spores and spore-forming structures
are one basis for classification
– Zygospores
– Ascospores
– Basidiospores
Fungal Classification
■ Subkingdom Amastigomycota
– Terrestrial inhabitants including those of medical
importance:

1. Zygomycota – zygospores; sporangiospores

and some conidia
2. Ascomycota – ascospores; conidia
3. Basidiomycota – basidiospores; conidia
4. Deuteromycota – majority are yeasts and
molds; no sexual spores known; conidia
Protozoan Classification
Difficult to classify because of diversity
■ Simple grouping is based on method of motility,
reproduction, and life cycle
1. Mastigophora – primarily flagellar motility, some
flagellar and amoeboid
2. Sarcodina – primarily ameba; asexual by fission; most
are free-living
3. Ciliophora – cilia; most are free-living, harmless
4. Apicomplexa – motility is absent except male gametes;
sexual and asexual reproduction; complex life cycle –
all parasitic
Classification:
Pathogenic vs Non Pathogenic

■ Pathogenic organisms
– Capable of causing disease

■ Non-pathogenic organisms
Classification of micro-organisms

Classification according to Groups

I. Bacteria: cocci, bacilli, spirilla and spirochetes

– Ubiquitous single-celled organisms.
– Small cells observable with the aid of a microscope.
Bacterial microscopy
Schematic illustration
of bacterial structure.

Flagellum- organelle used for

locomotion
 Cellular structure of prokaryotic and
eukaryotes cells cont’d
■ Eukaryote ■ Prokaryote
■ Cell wall - gives the cell its shape and retains the constituents
■ Cell membrane-for filtering food and discharging waste products; semipermeable
■ Nucleus -stores genetic material of the cell
■ Cytoplasm - semiliquid substance which containing starch, fat and enzymes.

Contents of a simple bacterial cell

Classification: Viruses

■ Small obligate intracellular parasites

■ contain either a RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded
protein coat
■ A complete virus particle is called a virion
■ May be enveloped or naked
■ Viruses are grouped on the basis of size and shape, chemical composition and
structure of the genome, and mode of replication.
Types of viruses
Micro-organisms as agents of infectious
diseases
Infections may be caused by:
– bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
■ Causative agents of infections may be:
– Exogenous i.e. acquired from an external source
– Endogenous i.e. acquired from normal flora

Can you give examples of either types of infections?

Portals of entry

■ The portal of entry is the site at which a microbe enters the body
■ Is dependent on how microbe travel from reservoir to the host
■ Portals of entry include:
– respiratory tract
– gastrointestinal tract
– genitourinary tract
– Skin
– mucous membranes.
Mode of disease transmission

There are various ways of disease transmission

– Direct contact - Touching an infected host
– Indirect contact - Touching a contaminated surface
– Droplet contact - Coughing or sneezing
– Faecal–oral route - consumption of faecal contaminated food or water
– Airborne transmission - spores bearing pathogens e.g. fungi
Mode of disease transmission cont’d

■ Vector - Organism serves mechanical purpose by transmitting pathogens from one

host to another but is unaffected by it
■ Fomite - An inanimate object or substance capable of carrying infectious germs or
parasites
■ Environmental - Nosocomial infections
Microbiology: its application

■ Food & beverage industry

– Bread, Cheese, Yoghurt
– Wines, beers
– Genetically modified foods
■ Environmental science
– Bioremediation-the process of using bacteria to chew up and detoxify the PCB
pollutants.

■ Biotechnology
– GMOs, cloning
Future trends

■ Microbiology is required to face threat of new and reemerging human infectious

disease & develop industrial technologies that are more efficient & environmentally
friendly
Future trends

■ Production of new drugs & vaccines to counter the spread of multiple antibiotic
resistance

■ Further development of molecular techniques to facilitate study of microbes in their

natural environment (microbial ecology)

■ Vaccination==the impact of the www on vaccination policy etc

 The knowledge of microbiology in the nursing profession is
essential to the practice of medicine:
A. Collection and transportation of specimen to
the laboratory
➢ Inappropriate/ inadequate/contaminated
samples===impair analysis

Microbiology B. Interpretation of results received from the

laboratory
➢ Must be au fait with the procedure for

and nurses C.
specimen analysis and conclusion
Prevention of hospital acquired infections
➢ Have a good understanding of principles
& procedures required to prevent HAI
D. Waste disposal
➢ Careful disposal & knowledge of
microbiology paramount in keeping
environs free of HAI
References

■ http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/560859/spontaneous-generation
■ http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Microbiology.htm
■ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8174/
■ Tortor, Funke, Case. (2018) Microbiology and Introduction
■ Kannan,I (2016) Essentials of Microbiology for Nurses