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MIDTERM EXAM
is the study of living organisms of microscopic
Microbiology size w/c include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa
and infectious agents –viruses​

Zoology Study of animals

Botany Study of Plants

Entomology Study of Insects

Molecular biology molecular constituents of the cell​

cell biology – level of the cell​

organismal biology Study of – intact organisms​

population biology Study of – groups of organisms​

Haeckel’s kingdom- neither plants nor

protista-
animals​

Cellular organization principal modes of nutrition​

Prokaryotic bacteria and archeus​

Eukaryotic fungi (yeasts and molds), protozoa and algae​

Medical
Aquatic
Aero micro
Food microbiology
Applied areas of microbiology​
Agricultural
Industrial
Exo micro
Geochemical micro

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Mycro Bacterium Found in a 3000 yr old

tuberculosis DNA
Egyptian mummy

crude microscope - life’s smallest structural

Robert Hooke 1665
units – “little boxes “ or “cells”-

The theory that all living things are composed

cell theory of cells – structure and functions of cells- lacked
staining techniques.​

Dutch merchant and amateur scientist –

observe live m/o through magnifying lenses-
Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek “animalcules” in rain water, liquid where
peppercorn was soaked and in material scraped
form his teeth – bacteria and protozoa​

John Needham 1745 - Englishman – heated nutrient fluids – m/o​

Theory of Biogenesis​ cells can arise from pre-existing living cells​

Rudolf Virchow 1858 who disocrved theory of biogenesis

–French scientist- m/o are present in the

air and can contaminate sterile solutions
but air itself does not create microbes;
Louis Pasteur 1861
m/o can be present in non living things-
solids, liquids, air; microbial life can be
destroyed by heat – aseptic techniques​

1857-1914 When was the Golden Age of microbiology

Possibility that m/o might have similar

Germ Theory of Disease ​ relationship with plants and animals –
specifically that m/o might cause disease​

Silkworm fungus, protozoa- Agostino Bassi-1865​

– English surgeon applied germ theory on

Joseph Lister 1860
medical procedures​

1876 Robert Koch

first proof that bacteria can cause
disease- Robert Koch- German
physician – cause of anthrax in cattle and

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sheep in Europe- rod shaped bacteria

Bacillus antracis ​

Bacteriology, mycology , parasitology,

New Branches of Microbiology ​ immunology , virology, recombinant DNA
technology ​

Nomenclature (naming) m/o​

Genera (genus)​
Scientific naming​
Specific epithet ( species)​

Bacteriology study of bacteria

the study of fungi including medical,

Mycology
agricultural and ecological branches.

Genomics study of the cell of an organism genes​

Parasitology study of protozoa and parasitic worm​

Immunology the study of immunity​

Virology – study of virus​

Microbial genetics - inherent traits​

– genetic information is carried in

Molecular biology
molecular DNA​

cell shape, size and structure cell arrangement:

occurrence of special structure and
Morphological developmental forms; staining reactions and
motility and flagella arrangement. Requires
pure culture​

various constituents of the cells- organic

Chemical composition
compounds​

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nutritional requirements and physical condition

required for growth and the manner to w/c
Cultural
growth occurs- culture medium: mixed of
nutrients used​

the way in w/c cells obtain and use their energy,

Metabolic carry out chemical reactions and regulate these
reactions. – life processes

special large chemical component(antigen) of

Antigenic
the cell, distinctive in certain kind of m/o​

- characteristics of the hereditary

material of the cell ( deoxyribunucleic acid
Genetic or DNA) and occurrence and function of
either kind of DNA that may be present
such as plasmids​

– ability to cause disease to various plants

Pathogenicity
or animals or even either m/o​

– habitat and the distribution of the

organism in nature and the interactions
Ecological between and among species in natural
environments​
​

- made up of all the descendants of a pure

culture.​
taxa-strain
- succession of cultures derived from an initial
colony​

Family a group of similar genera​

Family – a group of similar genera​

Order – a group of similar families​
Taxonomic groups of higher rank​ Class – a group of similar orders​
Division – a group of similar classes​
Kingdom – a group of similar divisions​

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Species collection of strains

a group of similar families​

Order –

a group of similar orders​

Class –

Division – a group of similar classes​

Kingdom – a group of similar divisions​

Stability – subject to frequent, radical

changes that lead to confusion​
Goals of classification​
Predictability – assumption of similarities
of characteristics​

Intuitive method
Numerical taxonomy
General methods of classifying bacteria
Genetic relatedness
DNA homology

Intuitive method Thorough familiarization of the organisms​

Numerical taxonomy calculation of percentage similarities

Genetic relatedness based on DNA​

double stranded DNA molecules from two

organisms are heated to convert them to single
DNA homology
strands, them mixed with other organisms and
allowed to cool. ​

heteroduplexes closely related ​

no heteroduplexes not closely related​

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small granular –appearing structure w/in the

Ribosomes
cell w/c manufacture proteins​

cell shape, size and structure cell

arrangement: occurrence of special
Morphological structure and developmental forms;
staining reactions and motility and flagella
arrangement. Requires pure culture​

Magnification to see organisms​

Light microscopy optical lenses using light waves​

resolving power, numerical apeture, limit

Bright field
resolution, magnification ​

Preparations for light-microscopic examinations​

Liquid and Dry
Two techniques:​

Liquid ( -wet mount or the hanging drop method)​

Dry fix and stain films or smears of the specimen​

Ellipsoidal Rodlike spiral designated as cocci , they arrange themselves​

Diplococci pairs of cells​

Streptococci rows of cells, beadlike, chain like​

Tetrads four cells, arranged as square​

Staphylococci irregular clusters, resembling bunches of grapes​

cuboidal or packet arrangement w/ 8 or more

Sarcinae
cells​

Cylindrical or Rodlike do not arrange themselves​

Diplobacilli ​occur in pairs

Streptobacilli occur in chain​

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Spiral or helicoodal​ - unattached individual, one or more twists

Spirillium – helical shape ​

Vibrios – curved rods​

Spirochetes- helical and flexible​

monomorphic (genes )- maintain a single shape​

thin hairlike appendages that protrude through

Flagella
the cell wall

Monotrichous – signgle polar flegellum​

Amphitrichous - tuft flagella at each end of the cell wall​

Lopotrichous – 2 or more flagella​

Peritirchous – flagella distributed over the entire cell​

appendages, smaller, shorter and more

Fimbrae numerous than flagella, do not form regular
waves​

viscous substance surrounding the cell forming

capsule or slime layer –
a covering layer or envelope around the cell​

rigid structure w/c gives shape to the cell w/c is

cell wall – peripheral to a delicate membrane that is in
immediate contact w/ the cytoplasm​

– immediately beneath the cell wall , a fine

plasma membrane
membrane ​

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Thermophillic heat loving

Mesophilic standart temparature

Psychrophillic Cold loving

Psychrotrophic Refrigiritarion tempetrature

single cell divides into two after developing a

binary
transverse cell wall.​

elongation of the cell wall at the same time the

nuclear substances of the cell is reproduced and
Asexual reproduction
there is an internal reorganization to distribute
the nuclear bodies to the two halves of the cell​

mixing of the genetic material of two strains is

accomplished. Two types of parent cells of the
sexual reproduction –
same species are grown in the same tube of
medium​

an outgrowth or bud develops from the parent

Budding cell and after a period of enlargement separates
from the parent as a new cell​

Mycose- diseases caused by fungi in animals

It is a scientific discipline dealing with

mycology
fungi​

Industrial uses Fermentation Antibiotics Plant

Role of fungi in the economy
pathology

Ability of sone fungus to grow as either yeast or

Diphasic
filamentous

Ablity of fungus to grow on the outside of a

Ectothrixic
hair shaft

Endothrixic Grow and penetrate in a hair shaft

small projections which arise from cells of

Germ tube certain yeasts; indicates the onset of hyphal
formation​

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Geographic grouping
Epidemiologic grouping
Classifications of fungi ​
Taxonomy grouping
Topographic grouping

Geographic Where they exist

Epidemiologic grouping – how organism is transmitted​

according to morphological and cultural

Taxonomy grouping
characteristics​

Topographic grouping – type of mycosis produced

Superficial
Cutaneous
topographic grouping of fungi
Subcutaneous
Systematic

Superficial Limited to the outmoust layer of the skin or hair

Cutaneous In the keratin of the skin nails and hair

Subcutaneous Deeper layers of skin and often muscle tissue

Systematic Attack the deep tissue and organ system

Hypersensitivity
Mycotic Diseases Mycotoxicosis
Mycetismus

allergy Hypersensitivity

Mycotoxicosis production of toxin

•(mushroom poisoning) preformed toxin

Mycetismus
•Infection

Clinical manifestations​ Diagnosis of mycotic infection​

Microscopic examination​
Histologic staining​
Serologic testing​

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Cultures for fungi​

Fungal antigen detection​
DNA probes​

Hyphae
Morphology OF MOLDS
Mycelium

Hyphae mass of intertwined filaments

Mycelium whole mass of hyphae

Divisions of molds Septate Non-septate

– w/ crosswalls dividing the hyphae into cells

Increase in length by dividion of the tip cell

(apical) or of cells w/in the hyphae (intercalary
Septate
growth)

Special mycelial structure s or parts aid in the

identification of molds

– w/ hyphae consisting of cylinders w/o

crosswalls

- have nuclei scattered through their length

and are considered multicellulari
Non-septate
- hyphae are clear but some are dark or smoky

- appear uncolored and transparent in

microscopic examination but colored when
large hyphae are viewed macroscopically.

cut off or bud from special fertile hyphae called

conidia
conidiosphores

oidia formed by fragmented hyphae

sporangiospores sac at the tip of a fertile hypha or sporangium

– form when molds out and inside the

chlamydospore mycelium stores up reserve food, swells and
forms a thicker wall; called as resting cell

Columella – swollen tip of the sporangiospore

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– smooth or roughened and one or two many

Conidia
celled

– form by the union of a small male gamete

Oospores
and a large female gamete (

– form by the union of the tip of two hyphae

Zygospores w/c appear similar and w/c may come from the
same mycelium or from different mycelia

formed after the union of two cells from the

Ascospores
same mycelium or from two septate mycelia

Basidiospore include most mushrooms, plants roots.

True fungi whose dominant growth form is

Yeasts
unicellular

•Cell wall, cytoplasm, water vacuoles, fat

•Visible parts of yeast
globules and granules

– may grow as a film or scum on the surface of

Oxidative yeast
a liquid and termed as film yeasts

– usually grow throughout the liquid

Fermentative yeasts
-Both oxidative and fermentative

sugars are the best energy food for yeasts

– referring to the number of cells, not the size

Microbial growth
of the cells

Physical requirements/Chemical requirements Requirements for growth

Physical requirements:​ Temperature pH Osmotic pressure

Carbon nitrogen trace elements oxygen Organic

Chemical requirements
Growth Factors​

psychrophiles cold-loving microbes

psychrotrophs grow fairly well at refrigeration tempt.

mesophiles moderate- temperature-loving microbes

thermophiles heat loving microbes

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extreme thermophiles 80ºC or higher

minimum growth tempt. – lowest tempt at w/c the species will grow

optimum growth tempt at w/c the species grow best

maximum growth tempt highest tempt at w/c growth is possible

6.5/7.5 bacteria that is grow best at ph?

Acidophiles acid tolerant

–shrinkage of the cell’s plasma membrane)

Plasmolysis
osmotic loss of water

Extreme Halophiles – high salt concentration

obligate halophiles dead sea saline water – 30% salt

facultative halophiles do not require high salt conc – 2%

Carbon
Nitrogen, Sulfur and Phosphorus
Chemical requirements​
Trace elements
Oxygen

Carbon structural backbone of living matterr

Nitrogen Sulfur and Phosphorus – synthesis of cellular material

Aerobes – use molecular oxygen -produce more energy

Anaerobes – do not use energy

Obligate aerobes - require oxygen to live

Facultative anaerobes –continue growing in the absence of oxygen

unable to use molecular oxygen for energy-

Obligate anaerobes
yielding reaction

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Singlet oxygen all foreign bodies-

Superoxide free radicals ​
Toxic forms of oxygen Hydrogen peroxide​
Hydroxyl radicals​
​

microbes are introduced into a culture medium

Inoculum
to initiate growth

It is the nutrient material prepared for the

Culture Media​
growth of m/o in a lab. ​

– microbes that grow and multiply in or on a

Culture
culture medium

Chemically Defined Media

Complex media
Anaerobic growth media Types of media​
Differential media
Enrichment culture

–special needs​
Selective suppress the growth of
Special culture techniques
unwanted bacteria and encourage the
desired microbes​

Chemically Defined Media exact chemical composition is known

Complex media nutrients provided primarily by protein

Differential media easier to distinguish colonies

Enrichment culture more bacteria that grow

Refrigeration short term storage

Deep freezing – suspending liquid and quick-frozen

quickly frozen and water removed by high

Lyophilization
vacuum(sublimation)

Bacterial division – reproduce by binary fission and budding

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Generation Time –the time required for a cell to divide

Phases of growth – bacterial growth curve​

– destruction of all forms of microbial life-

Sterilization
including endospores

Heating – most common used method for sterilization

– commercial sterilization –to destroy

Canned foods
Clostridium Botulinum

Disinfection Ðdestroying harmful m/o

– mechanical removal rather than killing

Degerming
microbes

– lower microbial counts to safe public health

Sanitization levels and minimize the chance of disease
transmission from one user to another

×Suffix-” cide “ – meaning to kill – inhibit the growth &

multiplication

×Suffix “ stat” or “ stasis” – stop or to steady

( Greek word – decay or putrid) bacterial

Sepsis
contamination – disease condition

Aseptic – area/object free of pathogens

90% Die at constant rate –

constant m/o Death rate

Alteration of membrane permeability

Action of Microbial Agents
Damage to protein nucleic acids

Heat Low temperature Desiccation Osmotic

Physical Methods of Microbial Control
pressure Radiation

– kills m/o thru coagulations of proteins by

Moist heat
breakage of hydrogen bonds

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lowest temperature at which all m/o in a liquid

Thermal death point (TPD)
suspension will be killed in 10 minutes.

– minimal length of time for all bacteria in a

Thermal death time (TDT)
liquid culture to be killed

Ionizing radiation
2 types of radiation
Non-ionizing radiation

Chlorine
Alcohols
Antibiotics Types of Disinfectants
Aldehydes
quats

the sum of all chemical reactions w/in a living

Metabolism
organism

Those that release energy

2 classes of chemical reactions
Those that require energy

– breakdown of complex organic compounds

Catabolism
into simpler ones.

Exergonic produce more energy than they consume

– the building of complex organic molecules

Anabolism
from simpler ones

Endergonic consume more energy than they produce

Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

Transferases ¢catalyzing group transfers

Hydrolases hydrolysis of a variety of compounds by water

¢form a group of enzymes that split substrates

Lyases
or remove groups w/in a substrate molecule.

– catalyze the linking together of two substrate

Ligases molecules w/ the breaking of a pyrophosphate
bondc

Apoenzyme Enzyme Components

Cofactor
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Coenzyme
Haloenzyme

Apoenzyme protein portion – inactive

– non-protein ¢Forming bridge between

Cofactor
enzymes

Nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide (NAD+)

Nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADP+)
important coenzyme
Flavin mononucleotide( FMN) and flavin
adenosine dinucleotide(FAD)

Coenzyme A (CoA)

Temperature
Ph
Substrate Concentration Factors affecting Enzymatic Activity

inhibitors

– reduced rate beyond the optimal tempt- -

Denaturation
three dimensional structure

Competitive
Inhibitors in enzyme activity
Non-competitive

– fill the active site and compete w/ the normal

Competitive
substrate

– do not compete w/ the substrate instead

Non-competitive
interact

– inhibitor binds to a site, other than the

Allosteric inhibition
enzyme site – allosteric site

– removal of electrons from an atom or

Oxidation molecule

¢Reaction that often produces energy

Reduction – addition or gaining one or more electrons

– pairing reaction of substance oxidized

Oxidation-reduction / redox
another simultaneously reduced

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Dehydrogenation – removal of hydrogen bonds

– the addition of the (stored energy) usuable

Phosphorylation
energy to a chemical compound.

– electrons are transferred from organic

Oxidative compounds to one group of electron carriers –
electron transport chain/system

occurs only in photosynthetic cells w/ light-

Photophosphorylation
trapping pigment- chlorophyll

Enzymes – speed up chemical reactions

ase suffix of enzeymes?

– oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid w/ the

Glycolysis production of some ATP and energy –
containing –NADH

– oxidation of acetyl to CO2 w/ the production

Kreb Cycle of some ATP, energy-containing- NADH and
another reduced electron carrier, FADH2

pentose
Alternative to Glycolysis
entner

–Cloudoroff pathway – metabolize glucose w/o

Entner
glycolysis and pentose-phosphate

– phosphate pathway (hexose monophosphate

shunt) produces important intermediate
Pentose
pentoses used in the synthesis of nucleic acids
and glucose and certain amino acids

generating process in w/c molecules are

ATP oxidized and the final electrons acceptor is an
inorganic molecule

Aerobic
2 types of ATP
Anaerobic

¢Release energy from sugars or the organic

Fermentation
molecules, such as amino acids, organic acids,

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Lactic acid – glucose oxidized, reduction

deamination – amino group removed

removal of – COO
decarboxylation
dehydrogenation

Conversion of light energy from the sun into

chemical energy-used to convert CO2 from the
photosynthesis
atmosphere to more reduced carbon
compounds, sugar

Photo means light

Synthesis – assembly of organic compounds

– synthesis of sugar by using carbon atoms

Carbon fixation
from CO2 gas

Phototrophs light – primary source

– oxidation-reduction of inorganic or organic

Chernotrophs
compounds

Litotrophs ( rock eating)

(feeders on others) – require organic

Heterotrophs
carbon/also –organotrophs

Autotrophs – (self-feeders) use CO2

Chemoautotrophs – electrons + reduced organic compounds

Chemoheterotrophs - hydrogenation of organic compounds

Saprophytes live on dead organic matter

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