Essential Microbiology (Lecture-1)

(Course Code: BTE-5103)

By
Prof. Dr. Sudhangshu Kumar Biswas

Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Faculty of Biological Sciences
Islamic University, Kushtia-7003
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Fundamentals of Microbiology Microbiology: The study of
organisms that are usually too small
to be seen with the naked eye; special
techniques are required to isolate and
grow them.

Microorganism: Technically a
microorganism or microbe is an
organism that is microscopic. An
organism that is too small to be seen
clearly with the naked eye and lacks
highly differentiated cells and distinct
tissues.

Pathogens: A pathogen is any

disease-producing agent, especially a
virus, bacterium, or other
microorganisms.
Figure: Macro, Micro and Nano scale
Figure: Macro, Micro and Nano scale
 Different types of Microorganisms
Bacteria:
•Prokaryotic organisms with a simple cell structure lacking a true nucleus.
•Abundant in various environments, playing essential roles in nutrient cycling and many industrial processes.

Viruses:
•Acellular entities consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein coat.
•Obligate intracellular parasites, requiring a host cell to replicate.

Fungi:
•Eukaryotic organisms with a chitinous cell wall and distinct nucleus.
•Include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms, and play significant roles in decomposition and food production.

Algae:
•Photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms found in diverse aquatic habitats.
•Primary producers in many ecosystems and produce a significant portion of Earth's oxygen.

Protozoa:
•Single-celled eukaryotic organisms found in diverse habitats, including soil, water, and animal hosts.
•Important players in nutrient cycling and some species are responsible for causing diseases.
Organisms Studied in Microbiology

Name of the organism Subject area

 Some of the main branches of Microbiology
1.Bacteriology: This branch focuses on the study of bacteria, including their structure, classification, genetics,
physiology, and ecology. Bacteriologists investigate the role of bacteria in disease, food production, environmental
processes, and biotechnology.

2.Virology: Virology is the study of viruses, which are infectious agents that require host cells to replicate.
Virologists research viral structure, genetics, pathogenesis, and the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines.

3.Mycology: Mycology deals with the study of fungi, including yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Mycologists
explore fungal biology, taxonomy, ecology, and their significance in areas such as agriculture, medicine, and
biotechnology.

4.Parasitology: Parasitology involves the study of parasitic organisms that live on or within host organisms.
Parasitologists research various parasites, their life cycles, host-parasite interactions, and the impact of parasitic
infections on human and animal health.

5.Immunology: Immunology is concerned with the study of the immune system, including how it defends the body
against pathogens, the development of immunity, and the immune responses in various diseases. It plays a crucial
role in vaccine development and understanding autoimmune disorders.

6.Environmental Microbiology: This branch focuses on microorganisms in their natural environments, such as soil,
water, and air. Environmental microbiologists study microbial communities' diversity, roles in biogeochemical
cycles, and environmental remediation.
 Some of the main branches of Microbiology

7. Medical Microbiology: Medical microbiology involves the study of microorganisms relevant to human
health. It includes the identification, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases caused by bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and parasites.

8. Industrial Microbiology: Industrial microbiologists apply microorganisms in various industrial processes,

such as fermentation, bioremediation, biofuel production, and food production (e.g., cheese-making, brewing).

9. Agricultural Microbiology: Agricultural microbiology focuses on the role of microorganisms in soil

fertility, plant diseases, plant-microbe interactions, and beneficial microbial applications in agriculture, like
biofertilizers.

10. Microbial Genetics: This branch explores the genetic makeup of microorganisms, including the study of
gene transfer mechanisms, genetic engineering, and the role of genes in microbial traits.

11.Microbial Ecology: Microbial ecologists investigate the interactions between microorganisms and their
environment, including community structure, population dynamics, and the roles of microbes in ecosystem
functioning.

12.Astrobiology: Astrobiology, also known as exobiology, explores the study of life beyond Earth and the
potential for microbial life in space and on other planets or celestial bodies.
 History of Microbiology
 Robert Hooke : Microbiology has had a long, rich history, initially centered in the causes of
infectious diseases but now including practical applications of the science. Many individuals
have made significant contributions to the development of microbiology. Early history of
microbiology. Historians are unsure who made the first observations of microorganisms, but
the microscope was available during the mid-1600s, and an English scientist named Robert
Hooke made key observations. He is reputed to have observed strands of fungi among the
specimens of cells he viewed.

 Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): Considered as the father of Microbiology. The credit
for having first observed and reported bacteria belongs to Antony van Leeuwenhoek. He was
the amateur microscopist and was the first person to observe microorganisms (1673) using a
simple microscope. In 1683 he made accurate descriptions of various types of bacteria.
Contributions of Antony von Leeuwenhoek

1. He constructed the first microscope

2. The first person to observe microorganisms
3. Accurate description of bacteria
History of Microbiology

Fig: Leeuwenhoek’s Microscope

 History of Microbiology
Louis Pasteur (1822-95) was originally trained as a chemist, but his studies on fermentation led him to
take interest in microorganisms. Louis Pasteur is known as “Father of modern microbiology”/ Medical
microbiology because his contribution led to the development of microbiology as a separate scientific
discipline.

Contributions of Louis Pasteur in Microbiology

1. Coined the term microbiology.
2. Proposed germ theory of disease.
3. Disapproved theory of spontaneous generation.
4. Developed sterilization techniques.
5. Developed methods and techniques for cultivation of microorganisms.
6. Studies on pebrine (silk worm disease), anthrax, chicken cholera and hydrophobia.
7. Pasteurization.
8. Coined the term vaccine.
9. Discovery of attenuation and chicken cholera vaccine.
10. Developed live attenuated anthrax vaccine.
11. Developed rabies vaccine.
12. Noticed Pneumococci.
 History of Microbiology
 Joseph Lister (1827-1912) was a professor of Surgery. He was impressed with Pasteur’s study on the
involvement of microorganisms in fermentation and putrefaction.

• Developed a system of antiseptic surgery—He developed a system of antiseptic surgery designed to

prevent microorganisms from entering wounds. It also provided strong evidence for the role of
microorganism in disease because phenol, which killed bacteria, also prevented wound infections.

• Father of modern surgery—He established the guiding principle of antisepsis for good surgical practice
and was milestone in the evolution of surgical practice.

 Robert Koch (1843-1910) was the German physician. The first direct demonstration of the role of
bacteria in carrying disease came by the study of anthrax by Koch. He is the Winner of the Nobel
Prize in 1905, Robert Koch is known as “Father of bacteriology”. Contributions of Robert Koch

1. Staining techniques
2. Hanging drop method: He was the first to use hanging drop method by studying bacterial motility.
3. Methods for isolating pure cultures of bacteria
4. Discoveries of the causal agents of anthrax (1876), tuberculosis (1882), and cholera (1883).
5. Koch’s postulates
 History of Microbiology

 The first scientific attempts at artificial immunizations in the late eighteenth century by Edward
Jenner (1749-1823) from England. He observed the immunity to smallpox in milkmaids who were
exposed to occupational cowpox infection, introduced the technique of vaccination using cowpox
material (1796). Edward Jenner is known as the “Father of immunology”.

 Iwanowski (1892), Russian scientist and Martinus Beijrinck (1898) in Holland, attributed the cause of
tobacco- mosaic disease to the infectious agents in bacteria-free filtrates to be living and introduced the
term virus (Latin for ‘poison’) for such filterable infectious agents. Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch
at the same time in 1898 in Germany found that foot and mouth disease of cattle was also caused by a
similar filter-passing virus.

 Frederick W Twort (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle (1917) independently discovered a lytic phenomenon
in bacterial cultures. The agents responsible were termed bacteriophages (virus that attack bacteria).
 Development of Microbiology at a glance
1.Invention of the Microscope (1590s): The development of the compound microscope by Zacharias Janssen and the
subsequent improvements by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek allowed scientists to observe and study microorganisms for the
first time.

2. Spontaneous Generation vs. Biogenesis (17th to 19th century): Early microbiologists like Francesco Redi, Louis
Pasteur, and John Tyndall conducted experiments to refute the idea of spontaneous generation, showing that living
organisms arise from pre-existing life (biogenesis).

3.Germ Theory of Disease (19th century): Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch independently established the germ theory of
disease, which states that microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases.

4. Discovery of Bacteria (late 19th century): Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were among the pioneers who discovered
and classified various bacterial species.

5. Discovery of Viruses (late 19th to early 20th century): Dmitri Ivanovsky and Martinus Beijerinck were the first to
describe viruses, which are smaller than bacteria and can only replicate inside host cells.

6. Penicillin Discovery (1928): Alexander Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin marked a significant breakthrough
in antibiotic research, paving the way for the development of modern antibiotics.
 Development of Microbiology at a glance
7. Electron Microscopy (1930s): The invention of the electron microscope by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll greatly improved
the resolution and allowed for the visualization of much smaller microorganisms.

8. DNA as the Genetic Material (1944): Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty demonstrated that DNA
carries genetic information, leading to a paradigm shift in biology and genetics.

9. DNA Double Helix Structure (1953): James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA,
which provided a framework for understanding how genetic information is stored and transmitted.

10. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (1983): Kary Mullis developed the PCR technique, enabling the amplification of
specific DNA sequences and revolutionizing fields like molecular biology, genetics, and medical diagnostics.

11.Human Microbiome Project (HMP) (2007): The HMP was launched to explore the microbial communities living on and
inside the human body, providing crucial insights into the role of the microbiome in health and disease.

12.CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing (2012): The discovery of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system by Jennifer Doudna and
Emmanuelle Charpentier has revolutionized genetic research and potential applications in medicine.

These milestones represent just a fraction of the significant contributions made in the field of microbiology.
Microbiological research continues to evolve rapidly, uncovering new insights into microorganisms' roles in ecosystems,
human health, and various biotechnological applications
 Theory of Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis

• According to this concept, it was thought that “live form of

organisms can arise from non-living matter”. It is also
known as abiogenesis

Germ Theory
The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific
theory for many diseases. It states that microorganisms known as
pathogens or "germs" can lead to disease.
 Koch’s postulates

Koch’s postulates are a series of guidelines for the experimental study of infectious disease. According to
these, a microorganism can be accepted as the causative agent of an infectious disease only. if the following
conditions are satisfied:

Postulate 1: The organism should be regularly found in the lesions of the disease.

Postulate 2: It should be possible to isolate the organism in pure culture from the lesions.

Postulate 3:-Inoculation of the pure culture into suitable laboratory animals should reproduce the lesion of
the disease.

Postulate 4: It should be possible to re-isolate the organism in pure culture from the lesions produced in the
experimental animals
 Fundamentals of Microbiology

Whittaker’s five-kingdom concept

Scientists classify living things into categories based on their physical and genetic
similarities. In the 1969, American biologist Robert Whittaker proposed a classification
system based on five kingdoms:

 Monera (prokaryotes),
 Protista (chiefly protozoa and algae),
 Fungi (molds, yeasts, and mushrooms),
 Plantae (plants), and
 Animalia (animals).

Whittaker's system was widely accepted until the 1970s, when further studies led to the
division of Monera into two kingdoms—Bacteria and Archaea. Five kingdoms have been
modified further by the development of three domains, or Superkingdoms system— the
Bacteria, the Archaea (meaning ancient), and the Eucarya.
 Kingdoms in the Classification of Organisms

Number of
Two Three Four Five Six
Kingdoms
Scientist Linnaeus Haeckel Copeland Whittaker Carl Woese
Date 1735 1866 1956 1969 1977
Plantae
Plantae
Plantae Animalia
Plantae Animalia
Names of Plantae Animalia Protista
Animalia Protista
Kingdoms Animalia Protista Fungi
Protista Fungi
Monera Eubacteria
Monera
Archaebacteria
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
All living organisms on earth are composed of either two types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells based on differences in cellular organization and biochemistry.

Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea. • Eukaryotes: Fungi, plants

1. Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells (pro or primitive nucleus) do not have a membrane-bound nucleus. All
bacteria and blue-green algae are prokaryotes. Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms and don’t
contain chlorophyll but in contrast, bluegreen algae possess chlorophyll. They are unicellular and do
not show true branching, except in the so called ‘higher bacteria’ (Actinomycetales)

2. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells (eu or true nucleus), have a membrane-bound nucleus. Other algae
(excluding blue-green algae), fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, higher plants, and animals are eukaryotic.

Three fundamental characteristics are often considered to distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes: small
size and absence of a complex, organelle containing cytoplasm, and the absence of a nuclear membrane.
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic cells
are mentioned below.

1.They lack a nuclear membrane.

2.Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
3.The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4.The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking in them.
5.The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
6.The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
7.They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves conjugation.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:

1.Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
2.The cell has mitochondria.
3.The genetic material is present on more than one chromosomes.
4.Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
5.A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
6.The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
7.The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
8.The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.
Compare and Contrast between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
 Compare and Contrast between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm
Cell size
in diameter in diameter
Usually present; chemically complex When present, chemically simple in
Cell wall
in nature nature
Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid
Nucleus Present
region in the cell

Present. Smaller in size and spherical Present. Comparatively larger in

Ribosomes
in shape size and linear in shape

DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
 Compare and Contrast between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Endoplasmic
Absent Present
reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
Lysosome
absent present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell
Compare and Contrast between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Thank You