For other uses, see River (disambiguation).

"Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see Rivers (disambiguation).

"Riverine" redirects here. For riverine warfare, see Brown-water navy.

Elwha River in the Olympic Peninsula

The Amazon River (dark blue) and the rivers which flow
into it (medium blue).
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually a freshwater stream, flowing on the earth's land
surface or inside caves towards another waterbody at a lower elevation, such as
an ocean, sea, bay, lake, wetland, or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground
or becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water. Small rivers can
be referred to by names such as creek, brook, and rivulet. There are no official definitions for the
generic term river as applied to geographic features,[1] although in some countries or
communities, a stream is defined by its size. Many names for small rivers are specific to
geographic location; examples are "run" in some parts of the United States, "burn"
in Scotland and Northeast England, and "beck" in Northern England. Sometimes a river is
defined as being larger than a creek,[2] but not always; the language is vague.[1]

Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National

Park, Alberta, Canada
Rivers are an important part of the water cycle. Water from a drainage basin generally collects
into a river through surface runoff from precipitation, meltwater released from
natural ice and snowpacks, and other underground sources such as groundwater
recharge and springs. Rivers are often considered major features within a landscape; however,
they actually only cover around 0.1% of the land on Earth. Rivers are also an important natural
terraformer, as the erosive action of running water carves out rills, gullies, and valleys in the
surface as well as transferring silt and dissolved minerals downstream, forming river
deltas and islands where the flow slows down. As a waterbody, rivers also serve
crucial ecological functions by providing and feeding freshwater
habitats for aquatic and semiaquatic fauna and flora, especially for migratory fish species, as well
as enabling terrestrial ecosystems to thrive in the riparian zones.
Rivers are significant to humankind since many human settlements and civilizations are built
around sizeable rivers and streams.[3] Most of the major cities of the world are situated on the
banks of rivers, as they are (or were) depended upon as a vital source of drinking water, for food
supply via fishing and agricultural irrigation, for shipping, as natural borders and/or defensive
terrains, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery or generate electricity, for bathing, and as
a means of disposing of waste. In the pre-industrial era, larger rivers were a major obstacle to the
movement of people, goods, and armies across regions. Towns often developed at the few
locations suitable for fording, building bridges, or supporting ports; many major cities, such
as London, are located at the narrowest and most reliable sites at which a river could be crossed
via bridges or ferries.[4]
In Earth science disciplines, potamology is the scientific study of rivers, while limnology is the
study of inland waters in general.

Topography

The Colorado River at Horseshoe Bend, Arizona

Source and drainage basin
A river begins at a source (or more often several sources) which is usually a watershed, drains
all the streams in its drainage basin, follows a watercourse, and ends either at a mouth or
mouths which could be a confluence, river delta, etc. The water in a river is usually confined to
a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers, there is often also a
wider floodplain shaped by floodwaters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be very wide
in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain
can be blurred, especially in urban areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become
greatly developed by housing and industry.
The terms "upriver" and "downriver" refer to the direction towards the source of the river and
towards the mouth of the river, respectively.

Channels

Cross-section of a river channel and its valley

Rivers can flow down mountains and hills through valleys and can create canyons or gorges,
especially when traversing plains. The river channel typically contains a single stream, but some
rivers flow as several interconnecting streams, producing a braided river,[5] which occur
on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided
rivers and are quite rare; they have multiple sinuous channel – one carrying large volumes of
sediment. There are rare cases of river bifurcation in which a river divides into distributaries, and
the resultant flows end in different seas. An example is the Nerodime River in Kosovo.
A river flowing in its channel is a source of energy that acts on the river channel to change its
shape and form. In 1757, German hydrologist Albert Brahms empirically observed that the
submerged weight of objects that may be carried away by a river is proportional to the sixth
power of the river flow speed.[6] This formulation is also sometimes called Airy's law.[7] Thus, if the
speed of flow is doubled, the flow would dislodge objects with 64 times as much submerged
weight. In mountainous torrential zones, this can be seen as erosion channels through hard
rocks and the creation of sands and gravels from the destruction of larger rocks. A river valley
that was created from a U-shaped glaciated valley can often easily be identified by the V-shaped
channel that it has carved.
In the middle reaches where a river flows over flatter land, meanders may form through erosion
of the river banks and deposition on the inside of bends. Sometimes the river will cut off a loop,
shortening the channel and forming an oxbow lake or billabong. Rivers that carry large amounts
of sediment may develop conspicuous deltas at their mouths. Rivers whose mouths are in
saline tidal waters may form estuaries.
Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often
be a combination of the free water flow together with a substantial volume flowing through sub-
surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain (called the hyporheic zone).
For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible
flow.

Types and ratings

Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The Nile is an

example of a wave-dominated delta that has the classic Greek letter delta (Δ) shape after
which river deltas were named. A radar image of a 400-kilometre
(250 mi) river of methane and ethane near the north pole of Saturn's moon Titan
Rivers have been classified by many criteria including their topography, their biotic status, and
their relevance to white water rafting or canoeing activities.

Subsurface rivers: subterranean and subglacial

Most but not all rivers flow on the surface. Subterranean rivers flow underground in caves. Such
rivers are frequently found in regions with limestone geologic formations. Subglacial streams are
the braided rivers that flow at the beds of glaciers and ice sheets, permitting meltwater to be
discharged at the front of the glacier. Because of the gradient in pressure from the overlying
weight of the glacier, such streams can even flow uphill.

Permanence of flow: perennial and ephemeral

An intermittent river (or ephemeral river) only flows occasionally and can be dry for several years
at a time. These rivers are found in regions with limited or highly variable rainfall or can occur
because of geologic conditions such as a highly permeable river bed. Some ephemeral rivers
flow during the summer months but not in the winter. Such rivers are typically fed
from chalk aquifers which recharge from winter rainfall. In England, these rivers are
called bournes and give their name to places such as Bournemouth and Eastbourne. Even in
humid regions, the location where flow begins in the smallest tributary streams generally moves
upstream in response to precipitation and downstream in its absence or when active summer
vegetation diverts water for evapotranspiration. Normally dry rivers in arid zones are often
identified as arroyos or other regional names.
The meltwater from large hailstorms can create a slurry of water, hail, and sand or soil, forming
temporary rivers.[8]

Stream order classification

See also: Main stem
The Strahler Stream Order ranks rivers based on the connectivity and hierarchy of contributing
tributaries. Headwaters are first order while the Amazon River is twelfth order. Approximately
80% of the rivers in the world are of the first and second order.
The ways in which a river's characteristics vary between its upper and lower course are
summarized by the Bradshaw model. Power-law relationships between channel slope, depth,
and width are given as a function of discharge by "river regime".
In certain languages, distinctions are made among rivers based on their stream order. In French,
for example, rivers that run to the sea are called fleuve, while other rivers are called rivière. For
example, in Canada, the Churchill River in Manitoba is called la rivière Churchill as it runs
to Hudson Bay, but the Churchill River in Labrador is called le fleuve Churchill as it runs to the
Atlantic Ocean. As most rivers in France are known by their names only without the
word rivière or fleuve (e.g. la Seine, not le fleuve Seine, even though the Seine is classed as
a fleuve), one of the most prominent rivers in the Francophone commonly known as fleuve is le
fleuve Saint-Laurent (the St. Lawrence River). Since many fleuves are large and prominent,
receiving many tributaries, the word is sometimes used to refer to certain large rivers that flow
into other fleuves; however, even small streams that run to the sea are called fleuve (e.g. fleuve
côtier, "coastal fleuve").

Topographical classification
Rivers can generally be classified as either alluvial, bedrock, or some mix of the two. Alluvial
rivers have channels and floodplains that are self-formed in unconsolidated or weakly
consolidated sediments. They erode their banks and deposit material on bars and their
floodplains.
Bedrock rivers form when the river downcuts through the modern sediments and into the
underlying bedrock. This occurs in regions that have experienced some kind of uplift (thereby
steepening river gradients) or in which a particularly hard lithology causes a river to have a
steepened reach that has not been covered in modern alluvium. Bedrock rivers very often
contain alluvium on their beds; this material is important in eroding and sculpting the channel.
Rivers that go through patches of bedrock and patches of deep alluvial cover are classified as
mixed bedrock-alluvial.
Alluvial rivers can be further classified by their channel pattern as meandering, braided,
wandering, anastomose, or straight. The morphology of an alluvial river reach is controlled by a
combination of sediment supply, substrate composition, discharge, vegetation, and
bed aggradation.

Biotic classification
There are several systems of classification based on ecological conditions typically assigning
classes from the most oligotrophic or unpolluted through to the most eutrophic or
polluted.[9] Other systems are based on a whole ecosystem approach such as developed by the
New Zealand Ministry for the Environment.[10] In Europe, the requirements of the Water
Framework Directive has led to the development of a wide range of classification methods
including classifications based on fishery status[11]
A system of river zonation used in francophone communities[12][13] divides rivers into three primary
zones:

 The crenon is the uppermost zone at the source of the river. It is further divided into the
eucrenon (spring or boil zone) and the hypocrenon (brook or headstream zone). These areas
have low temperatures, reduced oxygen content, and slow-moving water.
 The rhithron is the upstream portion of the river that follows the crenon. It has relatively cool
temperatures, high oxygen levels, and fast, turbulent, swift flow.
 The potamon is the remaining downstream stretch of river. It has warmer temperatures,
lower oxygen levels, slow flow, and sandier bottoms.
Navigability
The international scale of river difficulty is used to rate the challenges of navigation – particularly
those with rapids. Class I is the easiest and Class VI is the hardest.

Streamflow
Studying the flows of rivers is one aspect of hydrology.[14]

Characteristics
Direction
 River meandering course
Rivers flow downhill with their power derived from gravity. A common misconception holds that
all or most rivers flow from north to south, but this is not so: rivers flow in all directions of the
compass and often have complex meandering paths.[15][16][17]
Rivers flowing downhill, from river source to river mouth, do not necessarily take the shortest
path. For alluvial streams, straight and braided rivers have very low sinuosity and flow directly
downhill, while meandering rivers flow from side to side across a valley. Bedrock rivers typically
flow in either a fractal pattern, or a pattern that is determined by weaknesses in the bedrock,
such as faults, fractures, or more erodible layers.
Rate
Volumetric flow rate, also known as discharge, volume flow rate, and rate of water flow, is the
volume of water which passes through a given cross-section of the river channel per unit of time.
It is typically measured in cubic metres per second (cumec) or cubic feet per second (cfs).
Volumetric flow rate can be thought of as the mean velocity of the flow through a given cross-
section, times that cross-sectional area. Mean velocity can be approximated through the use of
the law of the wall. In general, velocity increases with the depth (or hydraulic radius) and slope of
the river channel, while the cross-sectional area scales with the depth and the width: the double-
counting of depth shows the importance of this variable in determining the discharge through the
channel.

Effects
Fluvial erosion
In its youthful stage, a river causes erosion in the watercourse, deepening the valley. Hydraulic
action loosens and dislodges aggregate which further erodes the banks and the river bed. Over
time, this deepens the river bed and creates steeper sides which are then weathered. The
steepened nature of the banks causes the sides of the valley to move downslope causing the
valley to become V-shaped.
Waterfalls also form in the youthful river valley where a band of hard rock overlays a layer of soft
rock. Differential erosion occurs as the river erodes the soft rock more readily than the hard rock,
this leaves the hard rock more elevated and stands out from the river below. A plunge pool forms
at the bottom and deepens as a result of hydraulic action and abrasion.[18]
Flooding

Flash flooding caused by a large amount of rain falling in a

short amount of time The mouth of the River

Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rain caused flooding and significant erosion of the beach.
Flooding is a natural part of a river's cycle. The majority of the erosion of river channels and the
erosion and deposition on the associated floodplains occur during the flood stage. In many
developed areas, human activity has changed the form of river channels, altering magnitudes
and frequencies of flooding. Some examples of this are the building of levees, the straightening
of channels, and the draining of natural wetlands.
In many cases, human activities in rivers and floodplains have dramatically increased the risk of
flooding. Straightening rivers allows water to flow more rapidly downstream, increasing the risk of
flooding places further downstream. Building on flood plains removes flood storage, which again
exacerbates downstream flooding. The building of levees only protects the area behind the
levees and not those further downstream. Levees and flood banks can also increase flooding
upstream because of the back-water pressure as the river flow is impeded by the narrow channel
banks. Detention basins finally also reduce the risk of flooding significantly by being able to take
up some of the flood water.
Sediment yield
Sediment yield is the total quantity of particulate matter (suspended or bedload) reaching the
outlet of a drainage basin over a fixed time frame. Yield is usually expressed as kilograms per
square kilometre per year. Sediment delivery processes are affected by a myriad of factors such
as drainage area size, basin slope, climate, sediment type (lithology), vegetation cover, and
human land use/management practices.
The theoretical concept of the 'sediment delivery ratio' (ratio between yield and total amount of
sediment eroded) indicates that not all of the sediment is eroded within a certain catchment that
reaches out to the outlet (e.g., deposition on floodplains). Such storage opportunities are typically
increased in catchments of larger size, thus leading to a lower yield and sediment delivery ratio.

Frozen river in Alaska

Brackish water
Brackish water occurs in most rivers where they meet the sea. The extent of brackish water may
extend a significant distance upstream, especially in areas with high tidal ranges.

Ecosystem
River biota
Main article: River ecosystem
The organisms in the riparian zone respond to changes in river channel location and patterns of
flow. The ecosystem of rivers is generally described by the river continuum concept, which has
some additions and refinements to allow for dams and waterfalls and temporary extensive
flooding. The concept describes the river as a system in which the physical parameters, the
availability of food particles, and the composition of the ecosystem are continuously changing
along its length. The food (energy) that remains from the upstream part is used downstream.
The general pattern is that the first-order streams contain particulate matter (decaying leaves
from the surrounding forests) which is processed there by shredders like Plecoptera larvae. The
products of these shredders are used by collectors, such as Hydropsychidae, and further
downstream algae that create the primary production become the main food source of the
organisms. All changes are gradual and the distribution of each species can be described as
a normal curve, with the highest density where the conditions are optimal. In rivers, succession is
virtually absent and the composition of the ecosystem stays fixed.

Chemistry
Main article: River chemistry
The chemistry of rivers is complex and depends on inputs from the atmosphere, the geology
through which it travels, and the inputs from man's activities. The chemical composition of the
water has a large impact on the ecology of that water for both plants and animals and it also
affects the uses that may be made of the river water. Understanding and characterizing river
water chemistry requires a well-designed and managed sampling and analysis.

Uses

Leisure activities on the River Avon at Avon Valley

Country Park, Keynsham, United Kingdom. A boat giving trips to the public passes a moored
private boat.
Construction material
The coarse sediments, gravel, and sand, generated and moved by rivers are extensively used in
construction. In parts of the world, this can generate extensive new lake habitats as gravel pits fill
with water. In other circumstances, it can destabilize the river bed, and the course of the river
and cause severe damage to spawning fish populations that rely on stable gravel formations for
egg-laying. In upland rivers, rapids with whitewater or even waterfalls occur. Rapids are often
used for recreation, such as whitewater kayaking.[19]

Energy production
 Watermill in Belgium.
Fast-flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy,
via watermills and hydroelectric plants. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many
hundreds of years, for instance in Orkney at Dounby Click Mill. Prior to the invention of steam
power, watermills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and other textiles were common
across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were
established at places such as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been
a significant increase in the development of large-scale power generation from water, especially
in wet mountainous regions such as Norway.

Food source
Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history.[20] They are often a rich source of fish and
other edible aquatic life and are a major source of fresh water, which can be used for drinking
and irrigation. Rivers help to determine the urban form of cities and neighborhoods, and their
corridors often present opportunities for urban renewal through the development
of foreshoreways such as river walks. Rivers also provide an easy means of disposing
of wastewater and, in much of the less developed world, other wastes.

Navigation and transport

Rivers have been used for navigation for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of navigation
is found in the Indus Valley civilization, which existed in northwestern India around 3300
BC.[21] Riverine navigation provides a cheap means of transport and is still used extensively on
most major rivers of the world like the Amazon, the Ganges, the Nile, the Mississippi, and
the Indus.
In some heavily forested regions such as Scandinavia and Canada, lumberjacks use rivers to
float felled trees downstream to lumber camps for further processing, saving much effort and cost
by transporting the huge heavy logs by natural means.[22]

Political borders
Rivers have been important in determining political boundaries and defending countries. For
example, the Danube was a long-standing border of the Roman Empire, and today it forms most
of the border between Bulgaria and Romania. The Mississippi in North America and the Rhine in
Europe are major east–west boundaries in those continents. The Orange and Limpopo Rivers
in southern Africa form the boundaries between provinces and countries along their routes.

Sacred rivers
Main article: Sacred waters
Sacred rivers are examples of sacred natural sites and their reverence is a phenomenon found
in several religions, especially religions in which nature is revered. For example, the Indian-origin
religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism revere and
preserve groves, forests, trees, mountains, and rivers as sacred. Among the most sacred rivers
in Hinduism are the Ganges,[23] Yamuna,[24][25] and Sarasvati[26] rivers. Other sacred rivers for
Indian religions include the Rigvedic rivers, the Narmada, the Godavari, and the Kaveri rivers.
The Vedas and Gita, the most sacred of Hindu texts, were written on the banks of the Sarasvati
river.
Management

River bank repair

Main article: River engineering
Rivers are often managed or controlled to make them more useful or less disruptive to human
activity.

 Dams or weirs may be built to control the flow, store water, or extract energy.
 Levees, known as dikes in Europe, may be built to prevent river water from flowing on
floodplains or floodways.
 Canals connect rivers to one another for water transfer or navigation.
 River courses may be modified to improve navigation or straightened to increase the flow
rate.
River management is a continuous activity as rivers tend to 'undo' the modifications made by
people. Dredged channels silt up, sluice mechanisms deteriorate with age, and levees and dams
may suffer seepage or catastrophic failure. The benefits sought through managing rivers may
often be offset by the social and economic costs of mitigating the bad effects of such
management. As an example, in parts of the developed world, rivers have been confined within
channels to free up flat flood-plain land for development. Floods can inundate such development
at high financial cost and often with loss of life.
Rivers are increasingly managed for habitat conservation, as they are critical for
many aquatic and riparian plants, resident and migratory fishes, waterfowl, birds of
prey, migrating birds, and many mammals.