Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Powering agriculture: Present status, future potential, and challenges

of renewable energy applications
Md Momtazur Rahman a, b, 1, Imran Khan a, c, 1, *, David Luke Field b, Kuaanan Techato a,
Kamal Alameh b
a
Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
b
Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, WA-6027, Australia
c
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Modern agriculture requires much greater energy input than conventional agriculture, which heavily
Received 16 June 2021 depends on fossil fuels for drying grain, manufacturing fertilizers, driving machinery, and generating
Received in revised form electricity used for heating and lighting purposes. These energy-intensive activities at or off the farm
27 November 2021
level are major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In developing countries, the agriculture
Accepted 15 February 2022
Available online 21 February 2022
sector is responsible for 35% of GHG emissions, while this figure is only 12% in developed countries.
However, climate change and its impact can be alleviated by promoting renewable energy (RE) in
agricultural applications, such as solar, wind, hydro-powered water pumps, greenhouse heating and
Keywords:
Renewable energy
cooling, solar water heaters, solar dryers for post-harvest processing, and lighting technologies. Never-
Sustainable agriculture theless, transforming from a non-renewable energy-based system to a renewable-based agriculture
Sustainable development system imposes several challenges. RE transition should be immediate and orderly, and requires
Sustainable energy incentive-based policies for both lower- and higher-income countries. This study investigates the
Energy and agriculture application of renewable energies for agricultural activities for developing and developed countries, and
reveals the present status and future potential along with challenges to be faced in this sector. The results
suggest that renewable energy application in agriculture is well adopted in developed countries. In
contrast, developing countries are still struggling to apply renewable resources in agriculture for chal-
lenges such as technical and economic ones, and RE application in agriculture could be the key to sus-
tainable agriculture sector development. Related policy implications are indicated.
© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction currently consume 30% of one-third of the world's energy pro-

Renewable energy (RE) is gaining momentum in agricultural
applications due to its lower risk than fossil fuels, reduced costs of
solar modules, wind, and battery-related technologies. For
example, 100% renewable energy is becoming technically feasible
and economically viable with decreasing costs every year, and
achieving 100% renewable energy by 2050 is possible across all
sectors [1]. The agriculture sector is driven by various renewable
and non-renewable energy sources. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the agri-food chain systems
* Corresponding author. Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Jashore, 7408, Bangladesh.
E-mail addresses: ikr_ece@yahoo.com, i.khan@just.edu.bd (I. Khan).
1
These authors contributed equally.
duction, with about 70% percent of the energy consumed by
transportation, processing, packaging, shipping, storage, and mar-
keting [2]. However, the energy demand from the production stage
to processing mainly comes from non-renewable energy sources,
contributing to a significant agricultural production cost [3]. Energy
usage in agriculture can be divided into primary or direct energy
usage (lighting, irrigation, transportation, heating/cooling) and
secondary or indirect energy usage (chemical, fertilizer produc-
tion). Nearly one in five people (about one billion) worldwide do
not currently have access to mains electricity services [2]. There-
fore, it can be argued that making the agri-food supply chain in-
dependent from fossil fuel and the development of renewable
energy sources in agriculture such as solar, wind, and hydro has a
great potential to contribute to global food security and climate
protection.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.02.065
0960-1481/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Moreover, due to fossil-fueled energy generation, many lower- The rest of the article is organized as follows. Section 2 explains
income countries, such as Bangladesh, are more responsible for the methodology employed. Section 3 describes different renew-
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) than higher-income countries [4]. able energy applications in agriculture and highlights their ad-
However, they have lower per capita GHG emissions compared to vantages and limitations. Section 4 discusses the current status of
developed nations. The higher GHG has a negative effect on plant renewable energy technology applications in both developed and
yield due to its impact on climate change. For instance, due to developing countries. Section 5 discusses the findings and indicates
weather changes, the production of wheat (13%), rice (15%), and related policy implications, and the final section concludes the
maize (20%) in developing countries could reduce by 2050 [5]. article.
Sustainable agriculture also depends on the proper utilization of
renewable resources to maximize crop productivity and maintain
2. Methodology
economic stability, while reducing natural resources and preser-
ving environmental safety. Thus, renewable sources are suitable in
An exploratory research methodology was employed for this
the agricultural sector due to their low carbon footprint, inex-
study [14]. This study's predominant focus is not to offer conclusive
haustible supply, and price stability.
information regarding renewable energy application in agriculture,
With the new technologies currently under development, RE
but rather to explore its present status, future potential, challenges,
has been increasingly employed in agriculture with its rapidly
and policy implications. Exploratory research is suitable for this
falling costs. However, the use of energy in agriculture from
type of study as “exploratory research is the initial research, which
traditional fuel (coal, natural gas, oil) to renewable energy (solar,
forms the basis of more conclusive research. It can even help in
wind, biomass, hydroelectric, geothermal) imposes several chal-
determining the research design, sampling methodology and data
lenges worldwide. For example, the high initial cost, an intermit-
collection method” [15]. In addition, this type of research method
tent energy supply, and a highly regionally distributed nature of
“tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research
renewable energy sources play a critical role in applying renewable
has been done” [16].
energy in agriculture [6]. Besides, changes in the existing energy
In general, exploratory research can be conducted in three steps
supply system with voltage stability and peak electricity demand
(see Fig. 1 (a)) by adopting any one or a combination of two or more
make it difficult to integrate renewable energy systems due to its
methods, as illustrated in Fig. 1 (b). In the ‘review or survey of
high load fluctuations [7].
literature’ method, the researcher collects relevant information
Globally, renewable energy use increased by 3.7% in 2019 [8].
from different sources such as research organizations, journals,
About 440 TWh of renewable energy was generated from renew-
conference proceedings, websites, magazines, and newspapers.
able sources in that year. According to the latest report of the In-
‘Experience survey’ includes interviewing people in the relevant
ternational Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the maximum
fields. This kind of survey helps to gain insight into the relationship
renewable electricity was generated from hydro (63%), followed by
between the variables and ideas of the topic under investigation. In
onshore wind (18.1%) and solar (8.3%) [9]. In terms of renewable
the ‘focus group’ method, a few people are brought together to
energy consumption, China was the leading country, consuming
share their ideas on the topic. This is an effective method to acquire
about 6.63 EJ in 2019, followed by the USA (5.83 EJ) [10]. In com-
new ideas from ‘out of the blue’ due to its interactive nature. The
parison, Australia consumed only 0.42 EJ.
‘analyzing stimulating cases’ method helps to identify relationships
As a proportion of national energy consumption, the agriculture
between many different aspects of each case in diverse contexts.
sector occupies a tiny share for most developed countries. For
This method is particularly helpful in circumstances where there is
instance, in Australia, it was only 1.9% of the country's total energy
almost no experience to serve as a guide. Sometimes, two or more
consumption for the financial year 2017e18 [11]. Similarly, in
methods are employed for exploratory research. In this study, the
developing countries such as Bangladesh, the agriculture sector
‘review or survey of literature’ and ‘analyzing stimulating cases’
consumed about 2.42% of total energy in 2019e20 [12]. However,
methods are used. The former was used for the formulation of the
the energy requirements are increasing in this sector every year,
research focus, and the latter to gain detailed insight into the topic.
and the average annual growth in Australia was found to be 1.1%
The benefits, limitations, and reasons for adopting these methods
[11]. Therefore, there is an essential requirement to meet this sec-
for this study are listed in Table 1.
tor's energy demand through renewable sources towards sustain-
The document search process began by using Edith Cowan
able development.
University's (ECU), library search engine ECU Worldsearch using
An earlier study considered only the application of solar tech-
relevant keywords (ECU-Worldsearch, 2020), such as renewable
nologies for agriculture towards sustainable development [13].
energy application in agriculture; renewable energy application in
However, the authors did not take into account other renewable
agriculture for developing countries; renewable energy application
energy options (e.g., wind, hydro). At the same time, no contrasts
in agriculture for developed countries; sustainable agriculture
between developed and developing countries were presented.
practice in developed and developing nations. The search resulted
Evidently, the present status of renewable energy application in
in 203 studies, 10 online newspaper or magazine articles; during
agriculture has rarely been investigated in the literature. Thus, this
the selection process, 106 articles not directly associated with
study's objective is threefold: first, to explore the available
renewable energy applications in agriculture were removed from
renewable technologies that are in use; second, to identify the
the initial analysis step, leaving a total of 97 studies and 10 news-
applications of these technologies in both developed and devel-
paper or magazine articles that are considered for this study. This
oping countries. Finally, to indicate future potential, challenges, and
process is illustrated in Fig. 2.
related policy implications related to renewable energy application
At the start of the search, the following steps were used to
in agriculture illustrated by two case studies, for developed and
determine the search terms:
developing countries. Such a contrast between developed and
developing countries is required, as a technology well suited in the

Identifying the chosen topic as several questions
developed world might not be suitable for developing countries.

Classifying and defining the principal notions in our selected
This study will thus help policymakers select appropriate renew-
question (s)
able energy technologies to meet their national demand.

Creating a list of keywords for reviewing and searching

732
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Exploratory research steps, (b) methods of exploratory research.

Determining whether we need to be wide-ranging or selective

Defining the scope of our search qualitatively
3. Renewable energy in agriculture
3.1. Solar energy
Solar energy applications in agriculture are on the rise for irri-
gation, lighting, heating, cooling and drying, due to their self-
733
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
sufficiency and reduced energy costs, ultimately causing a reduc-
tion in production costs and saving a considerable amount of in-
vestment. Moreover, solar energy is also becoming more affordable
and efficient, effectively reducing global warming, and is a sensible
solution for climate change problems. Further, the solar module has
no moving components, and the inverters are housed in sound-
proof boxing. Hence, there is hardly any noise generated from the
“agrivoltaic” system, which can be located very close to loading
centers located in an urban area. This system could reduce the
difficulty of transmission and, at the same time, improve the
module efficiency by reducing line losses. Still, competition be-
tween energy and food production for land use and the political
will are the main barriers in making the co-production system
viable [17].
It was reported that the degradation rate of a field-aged PV
panel lies in the range of 0.5% to 1.8% per year [18,19], and that
the solar cell output power decreases with increasing temperature
[20,21]. Therefore, choosing the appropriate type of PV panel for a
given installation location, such as a residential or open crop field, is
crucial. It has been found that the degradation rate in UK and
Australian systems varies from 1.16%/year to 1.46%/year [22] due
to temperature variations.
The degradation rates of PVs located in domestic sites show that
the average of degradation rate is 0.923% per year. On the other
hand, PV systems installed in household roofs closer to growing
trees exhibit higher degradation rates due to the increasing length
of shadow periods [23].
3.1.1. Solar energy-based glass greenhouse
Solar energy can accomplish the energy requirement of the
agricultural system on and off the farm. For instance, energy-driven
processes can be performed during the day, such as water pumping
and heating the greenhouse. The excess energy can be stored in the
battery for night-time use, such as greenhouse cooling, lighting, etc.
It has been reported that a grid-connected photovoltaic system can
be used to power a protected cropping system and, at the same
time, fulfill household energy needs [24,25]. Due to higher popu-
lation growth, the land requirements can be optimized using the
concept of co-developing the same land area for energy generation
and agricultural production. According to the International Energy
Agency (IEA), 6000 TWh PV-generated power can be produced by
2025 through building-integrated PV [26], and agrovoltiac system
can be another excellent option to fulfill the requirements [27].
Land for agrovoltaic/PV greenhouses can increase land resources
and food production and reduce land competition [28]. However,
opaque PV-integrated greenhouses create a shading effect, limiting
photosynthesis and leading to lower crop productivity. In this case,
transparent or semi-transparent solar cells can be a useful selection
(see Fig. 3). They do not obstruct the incident light, which is a
perfect solution for reducing the negative impact of the
greenhouse-grown plants' shading effect. Besides, integrating
stransparent photovoltaic panels on greenhouses can increase the
irradiation's transmissivity. Even the supplemental lighting can be
powered by generating PV energy at night to provide light for plant
development. For example, photovoltaic agricultural farming with
the integration of utility-scale generation is gaining popularity
[29,30]. China has recently planned to build a PV-based modern
greenhouse system [31]. For instance, two different types of PV
greenhouse have been introduced: in the first type, opaque solar
panels are laid on the greenhouse roof, while for the second type,
the panel is installed just above the greenhouse roof.
Flexible solar cells exhibit many more opportunities than con-
ventional silicon-based cells to decarbonize the agricultural system
[32]. Therefore, the viability of using organic, flexible solar strips as
greenhouse cladding materials has also been investigated. It has
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Table 1
Benefits and limitations of exploratory research method and reason of adoption for this study.

Criteria Details

Benefits
Secondary research method; thus, it uses different sources for data collection.

Flexible, i.e., includes case studies, pilot studies, informal interviews.

Adaptive to changes

Ensure insightful information to a study.

Useful to create a research baseline.

Leads future research
Limitations
Provides qualitative information; thus, careful interpretation needs to be conducted to avoid biases.

Findings should not be generalized for broader applications.

Findings should not be used for firm policymaking somewhat helpful for primary decision-making
Reason of Adoption
To acquire new insight into the agriculture sector's renewable energy application, which is scarce in the literature.

This type of study is at a preliminary stage.

Data were collected from different sources.

Two distinct case studies were included

Fig. 2. Review or survey of literature methodology used for this study.

been found to be suitable for both greenhouse shading material and
electricity generation; however, due to its relatively short life span,
it has become too expensive [33]. Cadmium-telluride can be an
alternative option, which forms a crystalline lattice that becomes
highly stable. However, due to its toxic nature, the cadmium
telluride solar cell for greenhouse cladding material needs to be
enclosed between two thick sheets of glass and is unlikely to leach
out cadmium, which would make them much safer. The only
concern is disposal after its lifetime. However, proper recycling will
completely resolve any environmental concerns. Nowadays, the
general opinion on using cadmium-telluride solar cells is that they
are not harmful to humans or the environment in normal circum-
stances [34].
Greenhouses usually requires high energy for heating, cooling,
and lighting systems [38]. The solar heat inside the greenhouse can
be stored for later use by using a heat storage material/phase
change material [39] to reduce the heating cost. The thermal per-
formance of solar greenhouses can be increased about 29% by using
thermal energy storage [40]. Solar-powered cooling presents an
essential alternative opportunity towards carbon-free agriculture,
particularly in rural areas without access to the national grid. It has
been reported that heating and lighting costs together for
greenhouse-grown tomatoes represent 24e36% of the total pro-
duction cost. To provide food at a reasonable price, greenhouse
designers have to optimize the heating and cooling costs. Hence,
they must find a sustainable way to manage greenhouse operating
requirements. Therefore, the photovoltaic glass greenhouse system
can be an excellent choice to reduce greenhouse expenses [41]. For
example, solar panels can produce energy for heat pump operation
such as in Italy [42] and China's cooling systems [43]. However,
opaque panels have adverse effects on crop production, especially
tomatoes and maize yield [49]. The modern photovoltaic glass
greenhouse usually uses a transparent solar cell to obtain multiple
advantages. For example, it can meet onsite energy demands and at
the same time can power the necessary lights for plant photosyn-
thesis [44], thus not affecting plant yield [45]. Despite a high initial
cost of building a PV-based greenhouse, the investment can be paid
back within nine years [46]. Meanwhile, in the experiments

734
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 3. A semitransparent photovoltaic glass greenhouse thermal flow [35e37].
conducted to date, semi-transparent panels such as dye-sensitized
solar cells [15], organic photovoltaics [47,48] have revealed a great
potential in terms of plant yield, and nutritional content [49], and
provide essential energy for greenhouse utilities.
Advantages:

Able to vary the shading according to the weather conditions.

Dynamic and flexible based structure.

Enable the production of low-cost and low-maintenance
technology.

Enable energy and land optimization for cultivation.

Harmful radiation can be filtered by using an additional reflec-
tive coating on the glass surface.
Disadvantages:

Higher initial installation costs.

Excessive shading might affect crop yield.

Cloudy weather has a negative effect on solar energy storage.
3.1.2. Agrophotovoltaic (APV) system
As the demand for solar energy increases, land use competition
will increase, leading to potential economic and social conflicts
[50]. Agrophotovoltaic (APV) systems are a possible solution to this
challenge, whereby photovoltaic panels are deployed at croplands
to produce food and energy [40] simultaneously. The concept of
APV was pioneered by Goetzberger and Zastrow in 1982 [51]. In an
APV system, PV panels are mounted well above the ground to
facilitate cultivation practices [52]. A high water usage efficiency
can be attained underneath conventional PV [30,53] and APV in-
stallations [54]. In addition to conserving farm lands, this high
water use efficiency enables crops to be produced cost-effectively
[52]. However, while interest in APV systems is growing, a thor-
ough economic and environmental analysis of these systems is still
unavailable [52,55]. Since 2017, governments in the USA, Japan,
South Korea and China have announced policies supporting APV
installations [50]. Note that land-use conflict between food and
energy producers can be a major concern, especially in regions with
limited land or a dense population [54]. The European Union aims
to reach 32% renewable energy generation by 2030 [56], and
735
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
European countries have taken further steps to meet this target. For
example, to reach the climate goals, Italy expects to have large
amounts of ground-mounted PV [52]. According to Schindele et al.
(2019), the APV system (see Fig. 4) is a solar tracking system built on
two-axis suspended structures (stilts), where the solar panels are
hinged. The axes of the stilts can be rotated by electric motors
interconnected through a wireless control system [50].
It was found that total annual performance of land use for
growing potatoes for example, in conventional methods with APV
(4669.34 V ha1a1) is 20% less than without APV (5836.68 V
ha1a1) [50]. Hence, using APV is more beneficial than conven-
tional cultivation, at least for potatoes. In addition, it was reported
that investment costs for APV are about 73% higher compared with
ground mounted PV (GMPV). In contrast, the operating cost of APV
is about 13% lower compared with GMPV [50]. This implies that, as
the operating cost is lower for APV, it has long-term benefits.
Depending on the scale of the facility and the climatic condi-
tions, the energy generated by an APV system can be used for
various tasks. For example, the electricity generated could be used
for cooling and heating or to process harvested products [13].
Another possibility is to power farm machinery or vehicles. In
developing countries and regions with basic electrical grids, APV
systems could act as a decentralized energy source for providing
electricity to rural areas [59]. At the farm level, the power could be
utilized directly for irrigation [13], thus improving water supply
and food security.
Advantages:

An APV system reduces thermal radiation's imposture to the
soil, thus reducing evapotranspiration and improving the soil-
water balance. For instance, the effects of solar panels on soil
moisture, water usage, and biomass productivity were quanti-
fied using neutron probe readings. It has been found that higher
soil moisture was present in the area under the solar panel. In
addition to that, a significant increase in late-season biomass
(90% more) and water use efficiency (328%) was also observed
[53].

The PV panels convert sunlight to electricity, thus protecting
crops from excessive heat and mitigating the soil temperature
[60].
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 4. A typical agrophotovolatic system [57,58].

Increases land value and productivity. It was found that “about
50% of the agricultural land sales would have made up for the
price of the sale within 2 years with agrivoltaic systems” [61].

The APV system could increase land productivity by about
35e73% (predicted) [62].
Disadvantages:

The PV panels reduce the crop-illuminating solar radiation, thus
introducing partial shading, which affects crop growth, espe-
cially shade-intolerant crops, such as maize [63].

The architecture of APV arrays needs adjustments as per the
requirements of the agricultural machinery employed. For
example, the PV panels must be raised to an appropriate over-
head clearance to allow agricultural machines to pass through
easily [54].

Due to heavy runoffs from the PV modules, soil erosion might
occur during heavy rainfall [64].
3.1.3. Food drying by solar energy
Food drying by sun energy is an ancient method, a popular way
of drying agricultural products in many lower-income countries.
However, this open-air drying method affects the quality of the
product and is responsible for up to 70% of food spoilage due to
insufficient set-up and low processing capacities [65]. Sun drying is
different from solar drying: sun drying is a traditional way of food
drying, while solar drying uses the necessary equipment to collect
the sun's radiation [66]. The solar dryer technology can be classified
into three main categories: direct, indirect, and specialized types.
The material is placed inside the enclosed chamber in the direct
solar dryer, covered with a transparent cover. The heat is trapped
inside the section like a greenhouse, and the material itself absorbs
this heat.
However, in indirect solar dryers, air is used to heat the material.
In drying the product, the air is heated in the solar collector and
then ducted to the specific chamber for drying [68]. Specialized
dryers are usually designed with a particular product, where
736
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
supplementary forms of energy are used [69]. Many different solar
dryers can be found on the market; however, dryer selection mainly
depends on farmers' choices, based on specific application and
availability [70]. Fig. 5 is a schematic diagram of a three-
dimensional view of the solar drying cabinet.
Advantages:

Food water activity is reduced by solar energy.

Solar drying has become more modernized with international
standards, which can dry the fruits and vegetables in clean and
hygienic conditions.

It occupies less area and saves money, which makes the process
more efficient.
Disadvantages:

The costs of particular types of solar dryers, such as artificial
mechanical drying, are significantly high.

It also causes a change in food quality and a comparatively
slower drying process.
3.1.4. Irrigation with solar energy
Irrigated agriculture plays a significant role in superior crop
quality, such as increases in the crop's fresh mass with irrigation.
The demand for irrigation water for sustainable agriculture has
been recently increasing. The solar-powered pumping system for
cultivation in developing countries could be a promising way of
watering crops. For example, a solar pump is considered a useful
option in India for drawing irrigation water from rivers, canals, and
ponds. However, the higher price of electricity limits its application
in the broader community of farmers worldwide, especially in the
rural areas of developing countries. A similar situation is also seen
in Bangladesh. Solar pumping systems are also expanding in the
rural area for low-lift small irrigation [71] due to their water-lifting
capability of the soil and ability to evenly distribute water in
command areas. For example, about 35% of installed solar pumps in
Bangladesh are used for irrigation purposes. A solar-powered water
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Fig. 5. The schematic diagram of a three-dimensional view of the solar drying cabinet [67].

Fig. 6. A schematic of a solar-powered water pumping system [73].

pump is profitable for five years compared to a diesel-operated is a schematic diagram of a PV-panel-based solar-powered water
pump [71]. There are different solar-powered water pumping sys- pumping system, including a power collecting and conditioning
tems, and the most popular design is based on PV panels [72]. Fig. 6 unit, a deep water pump, and a water storage reservoir. The power

737
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
collection system is connected with the solar panel to convert solar
radiation into energy, and the battery stores the direct current (DC)
energy for further uses. The power conditioning unit converts the
DC power to alternating current (AC) for powering AC-based water
pump. The solar-powered water pump drives the water from the
water source to a water storage reservoir, which is located at a
higher level above ground. The height difference is known as the
pump head, which is an essential parameter in designing the
pumping system.
Most irrigation pumps within agriculture are run by electricity,
in developed countries like Turkey, or the USA, and by diesel or
petroleum fuel in developing countries like Bangladesh and India.
However, due to higher energy costs, these systems have become
more expensive, demanding an alternative approach with a lower
operating price, such as solar-powered water pumping systems.
Moreover, a solar-powered water pumping system is cost-
effective compared to diesel-powered engines in manufacturing
and operation, yet despite the enormous benefits of solar-powered
irrigation systems, they are still underused compared to others. For
example, 70% of India's irrigation relies on grid electricity, and
29.6% is powered by diesel. The rest of the demand, 0.4%, is fulfilled
by renewable energy [74]. However, the irrigation system in
Bangladesh is in transition: the infrastructure development com-
pany limited (IDCOL) is playing a vital role in this development, and
approved 1429 solar irrigation pumps for irrigation purposes, with
1186 already operational [75]. There are 37 partner organizations of
IDCOL working for different solar irrigation projects in Bangladesh.
Until October 2019, 181,000 pumps have been installed in India
[76], mostly 3 or 5 HP pumping systems, recently appended with a
7.5 HP pumping system. These solar pumps could withdraw water
from a depth of about 75 m and, therefore, may be beneficial in
those areas where groundwater is at this depth.
The installation of a solar panel over the canal saves a significant
amount of water (3300 million water) from being evaporated
(IRENA, 2015). For instance, a 1 MW solar power plant has been
installed over a canal system, producing 1.53 GWh of electricity
over a year. At the same time, the use of land and energy simulta-
neously in Germany could significantly increase farmers' income.
Advantages:

Solar photovoltaic pumping systems may be used in remote
locations where electric grids are not available.

More cost-effective than diesel pumps.
Disadvantages:

Only suitable for low-lift small scale irrigation.

Cannot supply sufficient energy during rainy seasons.
3.2. Wind energy
Wind energy is an ancient method of drawing water from wells.
Wind energy could be attractive for farmers in areas with fair wind
conditions, and the cost of wind farms has decreased by 50%e516
USD/kW in 2012 (China as an example) [107]. Due to the shortage of
land in Japan, a micro-wind turbine can be integrated into farming
and grazing areas. However, Japan needs to implement a more
comprehensive policy package to change the market focus and
reduce the renewable energy price [77] for wind energy to be
widely used in the Japanese agriculture sector.
Wind energy depends on geographical location, and wind
conditions: 7e9 m/s wind velocity is needed to generate electricity
by wind turbines. Due to its changeable characteristics and natural
fluctuations, the electricity generated is stored in an accumulator
battery and used for night-time agricultural applications. Europe is
738
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
the largest wind energy producer, with the most significant share at
72%. Wind energy applications for sole agricultural applications
have decreased due to the higher initial cost of installation and
technology immaturity. Wind turbines can be designed especially
for agricultural applications. For instance, 2, 3, or 4-wing turbines
are designed and made with an annealed fiberglass, wood, and
aluminium material suitable for on-farm installation.
3.2.1. Use of wind energy in greenhouse
The use of greenhouses for agricultural purposes in developed
countries has increased. For example, Turkey's greenhouses cover
many farming demands, where by day and night energy is required
to grow crops. In this system, the heating and cooling systems are
the highest energy users [78]. Such a requirement can be fulfilled
quickly and cost-effectively by building wind turbines close to
greenhouses.
3.2.2. Irrigation by wind energy
The application of wind energy in agricultural irrigation can lead
to greater plant yield and reduced energy costs with the integration
of agriculture-compatible poly-winged turbines, which can draw
water from the deep soil (see Fig. 7). These systems are widely used
in higher-income countries, such as Turkey, which has exceeded
7600 MW with 3500 turbines by 2019 [78]. Wind energy for agri-
cultural applications in Turkey has been increasing in the last few
years. In this regard, Turkey's National Energy Efficiency Action
Plan, established in early 2018 aims to reduce 14% of primary en-
ergy consumption by 2023 through a comprehensive strategy in
transport, agriculture, and cost-cutting areas [108].
Advantages:

Wind turbines can be installed in the middle of agricultural land
with minimal crop damage

Both low- and high-speed turbines can be used, a relatively
modern technique with lower noise.

Farmers' incomes can be increased due to the co-production of
energy and crops.
Disadvantage:

Wind turbines produce unwanted noise, which poses a threat to
wildlife, and can create a visual disturbance.

Although costs are falling, wind turbines are still costly.

Wind is a fluctuating source of energy, which affects the wind-
powered pumps.
3.2.3. Grinding by wind energy
Earlier, wind turbines were called “windmills”, and were first
invented in the Netherlands to irrigate crops and flat land [79].
Since then, developing countries use them as grain and wheat
grinders and to pump water.
Advantages:

Traditional method and easy to operate.

Saves money due to no fuel cost.

Free from creating greenhouse gases.
Disadvantages:

Creates noise pollution.

An inefficient technique to grind grains.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 7. A schematic of a wind-powered water pumping system.
3.3. Hydropower
Hydropower takes the highest share of renewable energy in
energy generation and is a commonly used energy source globally.
Hydraulic power is the hydroelectricity source, such as electric
energy stored in the water with height as potential energy. For
example, grinders in flour mills use water flow to turn wheels. It has
been reported that hydropower generation in China is likely to be
reduced by about 1.7%e2% (2020e2050) due to water-runoff [80].
For example, due to land use and urbanization, the landscape is
changed, which affects the streamflow, and thus hydropower
generation. For instance, due to climate changes, land patterns have
changed in Bangladesh, limiting the country's hydropower feasi-
bility. Accordingly, Bangladesh has issued a “Renewable Energy
Policy 200800 based on harnessing renewable sources [81]. Other
lower-income countries, such as China [82] and India [83] have also
expanded their energy consumption patterns from non-renewable
to renewable energy sources. Among the other renewable sources,
hydropower is the primary source of renewable energy generation
in China, due to the political will behind hydroelectric development
[84]. For example, China planned to produce 300 GW by 2020,
following its medium- and long-term plan [82]. One of the most
developed countries, Japan, has benefited from a human-made
irrigating system, which has taken water from rivers to irrigate
the cropland since 2006 in Japan's Tochigi Prefecture [85]. More-
over, Japan introduced a feed-in-tariff scheme in 2012 to efficiently
subsidize the renewable energy system, especially water manage-
ment for agricultural applications [86]. Due to the higher demand
for paddy production in Japan, 66% of the total renewable energy
consumption of renewable energy is used in the agriculture sector
[86].
Turkey has a vast economic potential in hydroelectricity. For
example, 433 GWh hydropower per year can be economically
generated in Turkey [88], which can be used for irrigation and
household electrification. The same is true for Bhutan and Nepal, as
they have substantial hydro potentials [106]. Fig. 8 is a schematic
diagram of a hydro-powered water pumping system.
Advantages:

Maintenance costs of hydro-powered water pumps are low due
to their simple construction features, which leads to a maximum
equipment lifetime, and are thus more efficient [89].

Few moving parts, making it more reliable and suitable for
agricultural uses.
739
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Operating costs of hydro-powered water pumps are signifi-
cantly lower compared to traditional water pumping systems.
Thus, they are more durable and economic compared to con-
ventional diesel-powered water pumping systems.
Disadvantages:

Despite being a sound alternative to conventional water
pumping systems, they are inaccessible in developed countries'
remote areas [89]. Some pumping systems are currently off-the-
shelf devices (e.g., cross-flow turbine-driven pump, tangential-
flow turbine-driven pump, waterwheel-driven pump) mainly
employed in developing countries. Their development,
commercialization, and wide application [89] in developed
countries are thus limited.

Not popular due to a limited number of locations, site-specific
environmental problems, lack of suitable water flows, and
negative ecological effects. Seasonal variation in streamflow
causes variation and disturbance in energy supply [87].
4. Renewable energy in agriculture
4.1. Developed countries
Italy historically depends on imported fuel, but renewable en-
ergy utilization has been developing rapidly. The country has
launched a National Energy Strategy (NES) plan based on sustain-
ability and energy security, and is expecting a share of renewable
energy of 55%, and coal to be phased out by 2030. The establish-
ment of renewable energy policies in Australia has brought many
opportunities and challenges to be overcome. In 2019, renewable
energy consumption in Australia reached 55.34 TWh. Australia
began its hydropower consumption for domestic and agricultural
uses in 1965 with 7.69 TWh, increasing to 14.30 TWh in 2019.
Similarly, for wind, the consumption pattern of energy increased
from 0.002 TWh (in 1993) to 19.52446 TWh (in 2019), and for solar,
the figure reached 17.95 TWh in 2019, from 0.00545 TWh, in 1991.
Germany is a pioneer in renewable energy utilizations and global
emission reduction. In 2019, Germany's renewable energy con-
sumption reached 244.29 TWh, where cross-border electricity
trade was not considered. It began its hydropower consumption for
domestic and agricultural uses in 1965 with 16.21 TWh, increasing
to 20.19 TWh in 2019.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 8. A schematic of a hydro-powered water pumping system [87].
The United States started consuming its hydropower in 1965 of
about 198.97 TWh and this figure reached 271.16 TWh in 2019.
Similarly, for wind, 0.002695 TWh (in 1983) and 303.10 TWh (in
2019). 0.003 TWh solar in 1983 increased to 108.36 TWh in 2019.
The United States also strives to meet energy demands and to
reduce fossil energy uses. The country introduced a national plan to
increase renewable energy consumption, including solar, wind, and
hydropower in agricultural applications. Japan is the third-largest
economy globally; prospects for the application of renewable en-
ergy are huge in Japan. After the major earthquake in 2011, several
nuclear plant closures triggered Japan to trust renewable energy
sources for energy production. Thus, in 2019, renewable energy
consumption in Japan reached 195.09 TWh. Italy has been the
highest consumer of hydropower. It began its hydropower con-
sumption for domestic and agricultural uses in 1965, with
76.07 TWh but this decreased to 73.93 TWh in 2019. For wind, the
consumption pattern of energy use increased from 0.00096 TWh in
1993 to 8.62 TWh in 2019, and for solar, it reached 75.27449 TWh in
2019 from 0.001 TWh (in 1990).
Energy is a significant factor in overall efforts to realize sus-
tainable agriculture development. Thus, higher-income countries
are supplying on-farm energy requirements, from water pumping
to space heating. Besides, farmers or landowners are selling their
power generated from wind turbines, solar panels, and hydro-
power, contributing to the real economy and agricultural energy
security, thus diversifying energy sources. The USA imports water
from different parts of the country for irrigating agricultural land,
which has a higher potential for installing micro-hydropower
plants. There is an energy-intensive process for small hydropow-
er, which is supported by various federal or state financing mech-
anisms. For example, the US department of agriculture has started
providing micro-hydropower support, including 25% grants for
project costs [90].
Japan has become one of the world's largest renewable energy
markets, with considerable long term growth potential in agriculture
[91]. On the contrary, acceptance is limited when hydropower affects
other sectors, such as agriculture, negatively. Moreover, strict water
management and agricultural water use laws have limited hydro-
power development in Japan [86]. A renewable energy-based policy
added to the Basic Energy Plan was introduced in 2002 in Japan.
Since 2002, Japanese government legislation has encouraged elec-
tricity retailers to use 1.6% of renewable energy [109]. Recently, a
strategic energy plan has brought about a certain number of global
opportunities in the renewable energy-based system. For example,
Japan has built several solar plants in a remote area to deploy
740
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
renewable energy; however, solar energy applications in agriculture
have been susceptible to higher solar module prices [3].
Europe has stimulated agricultural production since 1990, but
this was later hindered by some regional development projects.
Germany is the most prosperous country worldwide in terms of
renewable energy promotion [92]. The relevant policy of renewable
energy and legislation is a vital factor in this regard. In early 2000, a
special decree of the Renewable Energy Law (EEG) was passed in
the parliament, which has established incentive policies for
renewable energy and later introduced EEG 2017, to emphasize
marketization [93]. The German Renewable Energy Federation
(BEE) has planned to cover the energy demand in agriculture by
renewable energy [94]. Following recent bushfire and drought in
Australia, the renewable energy-based policy system is working as
a driving force. Australia was the first country to pass a Renewable
Energy Target (RET) as a law in 2001. Later, in 2009 the plan was
extended to confirm that 20% of the country's energy consumption
would come from renewable energy [95].
4.1.1. The case of Australia
Clean energy helps farmers to be more independent and pros-
perous. Consequently, they are adopting new renewable technol-
ogies on their farms. One such agricultural sector is the egg
industry. Climate-controlled sheds are essential for hens, and this
involves a high cost due to electricity demand. This electricity de-
mand is aligned with solar power generation during the day as
more cooling is required in the middle of the day. Egg farmers in
Australia started using solar energy for hatching. For example, Pace
Farm invested AUD 3.2 million in solar projects in their three
properties in New South Wales, and the annual energy output of
this project is about 2.7 million kWh [96].
Similarly, Melbourne installed a 25 kW solar system with 100
panels for their orchard and cold storage. The system can produce
up to 38% of the farm's total electricity demand [97]. The farmers
intended to reduce their carbon footprint and reduce electricity
costs, and this is a sustainable solution. Sundrop Farms, situated
north of Adelaide, use solar thermal technology for electricity and
desalinated seawater for heating, cooling and irrigation for a 20-ha
greenhouse facility. Cooling and warming of the greenhouses are
conducted using seawater. Solar energy is used to produce fresh-
water for irrigation purposes. At the same time, solar energy is also
used to heat water and generate electricity. The heating was
accomplished through concentrated solar-powered (CSP) technol-
ogy. In CSP technology, mirrors are used to focus a large area of
sunlight onto a receiver [98].
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Waste to biogas and biogas to electricity is a waste to energy
(WtE) system developed in a northern Victoria's piggery. This WtE
system treats and recycles waste (mainly pig effluent) with a 250-
kW biogas system and produces electricity, which is sufficient to
meet the farm's total electricity demand. Consequently, the owner
was able to avoid an annual electricity bill of AUD350,000. In
addition, the piggery reduced its emissions from 16,598 to just 3121
tonnes [99]. Earlier, a similar system was also developed by GD Pork
for their Kojonup facility in Perth's south-east. The system pro-
duced a 1.7 MW of power per year, which was more than the farm
required [99]. In Western Australia, dairy farmers are using solar
energy to cut electricity bills. For instance, Capel Farms, family dairy
and cattle farm approximately 200 km south of Perth, installed a
30-kW solar system in 2014. Since then, the peak energy cost saving
was about 40%, and an overall energy cost saving was about 15%
[100].
4.2. Developing countries
According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy & Ember,
the importance of modern renewable energy uses in different
sectors, especially in agriculture, increases day by day. However, in
terms of renewable energy consumption, out of all the renewable
energies, hydropower remains dominant, accounting for 75% of
total consumption [101,102]. China is a leading renewable energy
consumer, replacing the USA, consuming about 2002.004 TWh of
the world's renewable energy supply in 2019. The significant
contribution comes from hydropower (1269.67 TWh) and the
lowest from solar energy (223.8 TWh), with 405.7 TWh from wind.
The country has several hydropower plants with the highest
generating capacity and consumed hydropower for domestic and
agricultural uses since 1965 with 22.097 TWh. China understands
the importance of renewable energy, resulting in establishing the
country's “13th Five-Year Plan” in 2016, which is an essential step in
mitigating environmental pollution. Thus, in 2019, China has
become the highest-consumer in renewable energy consumption,
and the United States has become the second-highest consumer
globally (760.95 TWh).
Similarly, for wind, the consumption pattern increased from
0.001 TWh (in 1986) to 125.975 TWh (in 2019), and for solar, it
reached 47.517 WTh in 2019 from 0.001 TWh in 1990.
Turkey's energy policies focus on sustainability, energy security,
and environmental concerns [12]. In 2019, renewable energy con-
sumption in Turkey reached 134.49 TWh. It has started its hydro-
power consumption for domestic and agricultural uses in 1965,
with 2.179 TWh and this increased to 89.16 TWh in 2019. Likewise,
for wind, the consumption pattern of energy increased from
0.0055 TWh (in 1998) to 21.70 TWh (in 2019), and for solar, it
reached 10.92 TWh in 2019 from 0.0024 TWh in 2010.
In 2019, renewable energy consumption in Bangladesh reached
1.26 TWh. It has started its hydropower consumption for domestic
and agricultural uses in 1972 with 0.175 TWh, increasing to
0.823 TWh in 2019. Likewise, for wind, the consumption pattern of
energy increased from 0.0016 TWh (in 2006) to 0.05081 TWh (in
2019), and for solar, it reached 0.421 TWh in 2019 from 0.0001 TWh
in 2002.
India is one of the most densely populated countries in the
world. In 2019, India's renewable energy consumption reached
296.78 TWh, including solar, wind, bioenergy, geothermal, and
hydropower. It began its hydropower consumption for domestic
and agricultural uses in 1965 with 19.167 TWh and this increased to
161.85 TWh in 2019. Correspondingly, for wind, the consumption
pattern of energy increased from 0.0303 TWh (in 1990) to
63.314 TWh (in 2019); and for solar, it reached 46.2677 TWh in
2019 from 0.00101 TWh in 1995.
741
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
China's investment in renewable energy expansion reached 103
billion USD, while Europe's investment declined to 49 billion USD
in 2015. The global renewable energy consumption reached about
18138.73 TWh in 2019, representing a 45-fold increase since the
1960s (10,103.18 TWh).
Further, improved access to modern renewable energy in
developing countries is considered an essential step towards
poverty reduction [103], promoting the development of local in-
dustry and agriculture, decreasing air pollution, and protecting the
environment. The lower-income countries' economies are pro-
foundly reliant on agricultural production [103]. For example, China
is one of the evolving economies where agriculture also heavily
depends on irrigation water. The irrigation water mostly comes
from the streamflows in different parts of the country, especially
the north, because hydropower potential drops substantially, up to
50% [104]. Moreover, it is challenging to obtain water in summer
due to the conflict between water irrigation withdrawal to increase
crop yields [105] and hydropower generation purposes. The Chi-
nese government has also introduced several renewable energy
projects to reduce energy shortage and optimize its energy uses
[106].
The Chinese government supports work as a driver for renew-
able energy-based system promotion. For example, a series of
support policies initiated in 2013 by the State Council, such as VAT
incentives and subsidy [31], plays a vital role in promoting
renewable energy applications in photovoltaic-based agricultural
greenhouses. Recently, the government incentive has reduced due
to the declining price of the photovoltaic module, which is a barrier
for solar energy applications in agriculture in China. Thus, gov-
ernment regulatory policy on renewable energy has become the
main barrier in photovoltaic application in agriculture in China
[107]. China launched several renewable energy policies to support
renewable energy use in the agricultural, transportation, and in-
dustrial sectors, for example, incentive policies regarding financial
subsidies and taxation [108]. However, the contribution is based on
the user, not product development [109]. Local authorities have
recently exempted tax on renewable energy production enter-
prises, which helps in favorable pricing policies. This is a positive
indication of China's law and regulations, which has gradually in-
clined towards renewable energy-based energy policy [109].
Bangladesh is an emerging country in terms of agricultural
production capacity. The government has taken adequate measures
to reduce poverty in rural areas by creating a revolution in agri-
culture through ensuring rural electrification. However, Bangladesh
is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change impact. It
has a lot of sunshine to make enough energy for rural electrification
and agricultural applications. But Bangladesh has limited potential
in hydropower due to plane surfaces and small pressure head [110].
Bangladesh has signed the Paris agreement and introduced
Renewable Energy Policy [111].
4.2.1. The case of Bangladesh
Irrigation plays a critical role in an agricultural country like
Bangladesh, which is in the tropical climate region. Out of about
14.4 million hectares of land in Bangladesh, about 64% is under
cultivation (Daily Sun 2020). Only 33% of this cultivable land has
access to irrigation facilities. About 1.6 million pumps are in oper-
ation for irrigation, of which 81% and 19% are diesel and electricity-
powered, respectively (Daily Sun 2020). The diesel-powered pumps
consume about one million tonnes of diesel per year, and the
government provides a subsidy to keep the diesel price within
farmers’ reach (Daily Star 2018). On the other hand, the pumps run
by electricity consume about 1500e1800 MW power (Daily Sun
2020) (Daily Star 2018). These pumps emit about 7 million tons of
CO2 every year.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Against this backdrop, the solar irrigation pump (SIP) is a sus-
tainable irrigation solution in Bangladesh. Consequently, the
Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) commenced
a pilot project in 2013 to install 1500 SIPs by 2018 (Daily Star 2018).
According to IDCOL data, until October 2018, 829 and 311 SIPs were
reported as operational and under construction, respectively, in
Rangpur, Khulna, Rajshahi, Dhaka and Chattogram regions. The
total capacity of these SIPs is about 13 MW, and this installation
varies from one area to another, as shown in Fig. 9. The pump ca-
pacity also varies from one place to another (Fig. 10). For instance,
the average pump capacity in Khulna (13.9 kW) is comparatively
higher than in other regions. For Rangpur, the SIP's capacity varies
between 2.2 and 22 kW. A similar capacity range was also observed
for the Rajshahi region. For Khulna, the range was 5.5 kWe22 kW.
Out of 4 SIPs in Dhaka, three had a capacity of 3.75 kW, and the rest
that of 7.5 kW, whereas, in Chattogram, one SIP's capacity was
3.5 kW and another was 12.5 kW. Predominant positive impacts
were found from these SIPs in the rural areas of Bangladesh. First,
this type of pump is almost emission-free. A study found that on
average diesel-powered irrigation pump emit about 22 kg CO2 per
acre per year [111]. The use of SIPs saves this emission. Second,
using SIP, a farmer can save money from irrigation expenses. For
example, for each bigha of land, a farmer used to pay 3000e4000
BDT (BDT: Bangladesh Currency, 1 USD ¼ 84 BDT) for a diesel- or
electricity-powered pump. In contrast, they have to pay about
2500e2800 BDT for the same amount of land with SIP [110].
Third, the use of SIPs could increase farmers' annual income.
One study in India found that farmers' maximum annual income
increased by 50% [110]. A recent study found that an SIP can irrigate
a large amount of land compared to diesel- or electricity-run
pumps due to its reliability, affordability, and accessibility [111].
Fig. 9. Region-specific installed/under construction solar pump capacity in Bangladesh up to October 2018: (a) reference map [112], (b) solar pump capacity [113].
742
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
The use of SIP thus improves farmers’ livelihood, food security, and
economic benefits.
One of the reasons for this SIP adoption in Bangladesh's rural
community was the government's subsidies. “Bangladesh govern-
ment has given attractive incentives, e.g., providing 50% subsidy
and arranging 35% soft loan with an interest rate of only 6% and ten
years as tenure. Under the program, owners or individual investors
require to invest only 15% of the total cost.” [99].
5. Discussion
The availability of sunshine makes PV-based water pumping,
heating, cooling, and irrigation economically feasible in most
countries, especially where grid connection is not available to
supply energy demand for intensive agricultural processes, such as
Bangladesh. However, higher production cost makes it difficult for
Japan to implement PV-based power generation in a competitive
price market. At the same time, China has started working on
technology to lower production costs, making it a pioneer in the
field for a few years. However, due to rigid policy and politics,
Germany is outstanding among the other European countries in
solar energy generation and its application in cultivation and
greenhouse heating. There is a high potential for solar and wind
energy in many different parts of the world, for example, in India.
However, the lower production of a wind turbine, lack of spare
parts, and specific production locations make it difficult to adapt.
Integrating renewable energy in agriculture and the augmen-
tation of renewable energy installations in agriculture in devel-
oping countries may lead to energy access in off-grid locations,
introduce alternative income options for farmers, and improved
health due to burning fewer fossil fuels. In addition, the transition
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Fig. 10. Box and whiskers plot showing region-specific solar irrigation pump (SIP) capacity in Bangladesh. The horizontal line and cross indicate the median and average value for
that region's SIP within each box, respectively. The lower (and upper) edges of the box are the 25th (75th) percentile. Whiskers represent the upper and lower ranges, and the dots
represent the outliers. Note: In Chattogram, only 2 SIPs were installed, thus not shown here [113].

Table 2 like tax credits, subsidies, rebates, and financial assistance could
Summary of renewable energy applications in agriculture. shift the focus towards renewable technologies, increasing their
Application type Renewable energy types competitiveness in existing market conditions [113]. Renewable
Irrigation and water
Solar-powered water irrigation
energy is involved in the agriculture sector either directly or indi-
pumping
Wind-powered water pumping rectly. For example, if the agri-food value chain is considered, it can

Hybrid power systems pumping be seen that renewable energy is involved in each step from pro-
Cultivation
Solar-powered greenhouse duction to end product commercialization. Fig. 11 shows these
Post-harvest and storage
Solar/geothermal for food drying and storage
typical steps with relevant examples.
Primary fuels
Biomass-based biofuel for transportation
Processing and
Solar/wind-based milling Renewable energy can be used in agriculture to directly provide
purification
Solar thermal-based water purification power on-site, or indirectly by integrating this energy into the

Grinding of corn and wheat and milling of grain- existing conventional energy supply chain [114]. According to
hulling paddy IRENA [114], to understand the renewable energy integration in
Heating and cooking
Biomass-for cooking Solar thermal for heating
Climate-controlled
Egg farming
agriculture, it is essential to explore the different agri-food chain
sheds systems, such as the production stage, post-harvest, and storage
processing, and marketing stage (see Fig. 11). The solar/wind-based
irrigation system, bio-fueled machinery, and PV-based cropping
from non-renewable energy to renewable energy in developed system at different food production stages offer several benefits.
countries would reduce the environmental impact and offer better These include: (i) independent energy generation in rural areas; (ii)
health in high-density areas. The main applications of RE in agri- reduction of fossil fuel uses; (iii) alleviated energy security con-
culture for both developed and developing countries are summa- cerns; and (iv) expanded farm and food processing revenues [114].
rized in Table 2. In applying RE in agriculture, a number of factors Before consumption and operating stages, agricultural products
functioned as drivers, enablers, and barriers (for definition, see undergo a certain degree of transformation between harvesting
Ref. [13]); these are listed in Table 3. and storage stages. During this post-harvest storage stage, energy is
Overall, the transition to a more sustainable, renewable energy- required to preserve food, reduce post-harvest losses, and extend
based electricity generation in agriculture leads to more advanced food availability over a more extended period. The application of
nations and a better quality of life for their residents. Policy actions LED illumination for increasing the storage life of vegetables and

Table 3
Drivers, enablers, and barriers to renewable energy adoption in agriculture.

Types Factors Developed Countries Developing Countries References

Drivers 1) Government Subsidy No Yes [114]

2) Environmental Awareness Yes No [97]
3) Economic Yes Yes [83,111]
4) Social Yes Yes [110,112]
Enablers 1) Environmental issues Yes Yes [114,115]
2) Regional energy hub/community involvement Yes Often [116]
3) National electricity rule Yes Yes [117]
4) Information Yes Yes [100]
5) Tax incentives and interest free scheme Yes No [97]
Barriers 1) Higher costs Often Yes [52]
2) Decentralized energy Yes No [59]
3)Investment uncertainty Yes Yes [50]
4) Under-sizing of RE technology Yes Often [54,59]

743
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

Fig. 11. Renewable energy application in the agri-food value chain [118].

herbs has attracted great interest. For example, it has been reported degradation and their measurement techniques [133]. For instance,
that the storage life of leafy vegetables increases with the use of the cause of degradation can be identified by measuring the PV
low-intensity illumination compared to storing them in a dark panel's dark current, hot spots, and transmittance [134]. Besides, it
place [113]. However, the lack of access to reliable and affordable is sometimes possible to correlate the visual and electrical degra-
energy is a crucial challenge for the food processing industry, dations of a field-aged PV module. Thus, choosing the appropriate
predominantly in the developing world. type of PV panel for a given installation location, such as desert,
In line with this study, a recent work found that two most crucial marine, and cold environments, is crucial.
challenges towards solar powered technology adoption in agricul-
ture are high initial costs and battery storage units and related
technologies [119]. Lefore et al. (2021) reported that if solar-based 5.1. Challenges to be faced
irrigation can be ensured for both men and women smallholder
farmers with different levels of wealth and income, it could act as Adopting renewable energy systems in agriculture has attracted
the driver of renewable energy application in agriculture [120]. A a great deal of interest worldwide, mainly due to several benefits
study in the USA found that multi-level and multi-sector policy towards attaining sustainable agriculture, such as improving water
integration is important for evolving solar energy application in usage efficiency, on-site energy generation, food security, and
agriculture [121]. Thus, it could act as an enabler towards renew- mitigating global warming effects. Although this is true for the
able applications in agriculture. developed world, developing countries still face several challenges.
On the other hand, APV's challenges would be the impact and Using renewable energy for developing agricultural ecosystems
variability of environmental resources in a specific geographical imposes the following economic, technical, contractual, and infor-
location. For example, the lifetime of the PV module is highly mational challenges for the developing economies.
affected by desert and ocean weather conditions, which are typi-
cally more unstable than terrestrial environments. Several research
5.1.1. Economic challenges
groups worldwide have focused on investigating the degradation
sources of PV modules [122e124] and the variation of solar module

A primary challenge to implementing a renewable energy-based
output power due to unstable weather conditions, such as those
agriculture system lies in the high installation costs, which re-
encountered in marine and desert environments. This may also
sults in a long payback period. For example, installing and
cause an operational problem at a power utility line, such as
maintaining an off-grid photovoltaic system on a farm by a local
excessive frequency and voltage shift [125]. Several studies have
farmer is an expensive development. Typically, small farms
also been conducted to examine the conversion efficiency of PV
cannot afford such installation without substantial government
panels, surface corrosion of their glass material, and the degrada-
support or direct investment.
tion of their optical properties [126,127]. Thus, it is important to

High initial costs and long payback periods to recover upfront
determine how the output power of the solar module decreases
investments may imply a high level of perceived risk for in-
over time. It was found that the output power of a crystalline-
vestors. Besides, in developing countries, the energy sources
silicon PV panel could be reduced by up to 60% over twelve years
dedicated to rural areas are typically implemented far away
[128,129]. It has also been shown that crystalline-silicon PV cells are
from the agricultural regions. Thus, they do not offer sufficient
susceptible to a mixture of losses in hot and humid conditions,
incentives to energy-resources investors who have invested
including short circuit current losses [130]. For instance, another
significant capital in setting up transmission and distribution
study based on field aged mono- and polycrystalline silicon-based
electricity networks. A renewable-energy-based agricultural
solar panel degradation has been assessed. An annual module
development initiative becomes too costly for local financial
performance degradation rate of around 2.4% per year was found
institutions in developing countries to finance in the long run.
[131]. In addition, dust particles have a severe effect on the field-
Furthermore, low-income farmers in developing countries are
installed solar panel, which differ depending on the environ-
typically unable to invest in large-scale renewable energy
mental conditions in which they are located. For example, wind
developments.
speed disperses dust particles to accumulate on the PV panel in the

Wind-, agrophotovoltaic- and photovoltaic-based greenhouses
desert area. For instance, due to frequent dust storms, dust accu-
have demonstrated clear viability in horticulture, enabling
mulation on the PV module surface is a major obstacle in the Gulf
farmers to reduce their electricity bills through on-site energy
region [132]. Several methods have been reported in the literature
generation. However, it is still uncertain how the associated high
to understand better the cause of PV panel performance
sunk setting-up costs, long-term commitment, highly
744
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
unpredictable net profit, and policy-stimulated incentives could
steer farmers' decisions to release agricultural lands.

The costs of renewable energy sources could become economic
if leveraging government grants can be secured for capital costs.
However, renewables' cost-effectiveness can be problematic,
especially those requiring significant infrastructure develop-
ment and technically skilled laborers for ongoing maintenance,
who are not easily obtainable in developing countries.
5.1.2. Technical challenges

A proper system design with appropriate site planning is easy to
obtain in developed countries. A well-designed agro-
photovoltaic system must provide technical benefits, such as
reliability and stable output energy, which is difficult to achieve
in the developing world.

Renewables will likely become cost-competitive over the next
25 years, and this is a positive sign for the upgrading of existing
energy infrastructures. An effective quality control process and
the absence of technical standards in developing countries are
the two major farm integration challenges to adopting renew-
able energy solutions in agriculture.

Small-scale farms could unite by taking advantage of a “Swarm
Electrification” network [13]. Cooperation amongst hydro,
biomass, and solar renewable energy providers and the wind
farm providers will considerably improve the economics of
agrophotovoltaic projects. However, grid integration of these
off-grid networks is still a challenge in developing countries.

With the recent developments and vast progress in deploying
renewable energy sources and energy storage systems, their
application in agriculture becomes more feasible. However, the
main challenge remaining is the lack of appropriate training
programs and skilled personnel.
5.1.3. Contractual challenges

Currently, there are no widely adopted standards and specifi-
cations that regulate renewable energy generating products. The
level of awareness of solar energy's environmental and socio-
economic benefits is marginal among the citizens and
decision-makers in developing countries at both the political
and administrative levels. The flow of information on the
development, dissemination, and applications of solar energy
resources and technologies are still inadequate.

The public in developing countries is still unable to motivate the
local and national government to take pivotal initiatives for the
development, dissemination, diffusion, and application of
renewable energy resources and technologies.
5.1.4. Information challenges

The lack of appropriate personnel with sufficient training in
developing countries, most of the solar products are imported
from other developing countries such as China, with no stan-
dards or specifications regulating these products, resulting in
the influx of large quantities of low-quality solar systems and
services. This low-quality solar installation leads consumers to
lose trust in the suppliers.

Public awareness of the economic and environmental benefits of
renewable energy sources and technologies is generally low in
developing countries, thus lagging far behind developed coun-
tries in forming a comprehensive energy policy. Since such an
745
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
approach is crucial for adopting energy-efficient renewable
energy technologies, less attention has been paid to this area in
developing countries.

While many offset funds are available to support carbon
reduction projects in developing countries, wind, biomass, and
hydro are still considered less viable in urban settings than
combined heat and power (CHP), district heating systems, and
building-mounted solar systems. The viable integration of
renewable energy technologies in agriculture remains a poten-
tial option to be explored.

Landowners, ranchers, and farmers often receive re-
imbursements to provide their lands and reduce gas emissions
and fossil fuel usage.
Excluding a few developed countries, present government pol-
icies are not reasonably supportive of firms adopting renewable
energy generation and continue to resist feed-in tariffs. However,
the pressure to actively engage the agricultural sector in carbon
emission reduction and the affordability of renewables in the future
could open the way for the development of viable agrophotovoltaic
systems. All these challenges are summarized in Fig. 12.
5.2. Policy implications
In light of the review, both developed and developing countries
such as Australia, the USA, Italy, Germany, Japan, Turkey, China,
India, and Bangladesh have taken various measures to increase
renewable energy applications in agriculture. However, one of the
critical factors in developing countries that impacts the broader
application of renewable energy relates to multi-level governance
and corruption [135]. The lack of public awareness of climate
change and its mitigation strategy is another barrier to developing
renewable energy and its application in agriculture. Besides, local
governments’ inadequate policy creation and lack of provision of
licenses and project implementation in renewable energy devel-
opment led to the unsuccessful application of its uses in agriculture.
Overall, the challenges related to economic, technical, contrac-
tual, and information-oriented factors hamper the dissemination of
RE application in agriculture. The following recommendations
could formulate new rules and regulations, strategies, and mea-
sures to employ renewable energy projects in agriculture.

For developing countries, enlightening the rural population
about the benefits of renewable energy application in agricul-
ture through properly designed educational training programs
should be initiated.

Local and national governments of developing countries should
develop, foster, and exploit region-specific available renewable
energy sources and integrate the feasible ones into the national
energy plan.

Tax reductions, incentives, or subsidies should be provided to
people interested in employing renewable energy in their
agricultural work for both developed and developing econo-
mies. These strategies were found successful in deploying solar
home systems in the developing world [136].

Developed nations' governments should ensure different pros-
pects to the farmer's communities and permit them to select
suitable renewable energy sources for their use in agriculture.

For both developed and developing nations, decentralized
renewable energy applications in agriculture should be
encouraged. Simultaneously, the promotional activities should
highlight the demerits of fossil fuel use to demotivate the people
involved in agriculture.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
Fig. 12. Challenges to renewable energy applications in agriculture predominantly in the developing world [117].
6. Conclusion
Globally, the agri-food chain today consumes about one-third of
total global energy production. Overall, the agriculture and agri-food
industries are often highly energy-intensive, particularly in devel-
oped countries, due to the reliance on fossil fuels for operating farm
equipment, generating electricity for powering fans and pumps, and
refrigeration food supplies. Conventional fossil fuel sources are
currently being rapidly depleted due to global population growth
and the growing energy demands in the agri-food production chain.
The highest share of on-farm energy, for instance, is required for
irrigation by groundwater pumping. As a solution to this problem,
the use of locally available renewable energy sources, together with
energy-efficient technologies, has become increasingly attractive for
minimizing the impacts of rising energy costs on agri-food profit-
ability and competitiveness and contributing to climate protection.
Renewable energy such as solar, wind, and geothermal can be uti-
lized through several well-proven established and new technologies,
depending on site-specific conditions and needs. Such technologies
can be either integrated into existing agricultural operations or
designed in innovative projects.
The solar module has no moving components, and the inverters
are housed in soundproof boxing. Hence, there is hardly any noise
generated from the “agrivoltaic” system, which can be built very
close to loading centers located in an urban area. This system could
reduce the difficulty of transmission and, at the same time, can
improve the module efficiency by reducing line losses. Moreover,
solar or wind-powered water pumping systems are cost-effective
compared to diesel-powered engines in manufacturing and oper-
ation, yet despite the enormous benefits of solar-powered irriga-
tion system, they are still underused compared to other systems.
Still, competition of land between energy and food production and
the political will are the main limitations in making the co-
production system viable, and it can be argued that additional
research is essential to investigate the influences of renewable
energy sources on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of agricultural
products, which is necessary to outline its economic and ecological
performance. Therefore, this LCA assessment could help discover
the appropriate pathways, policy frameworks in developing and
developed countries, and encourage farmers to adopt renewable
energy-based farming systems. Future research could also consider
746
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
the challenges identified in this study, such as economic and
technical, to improve further the possibility of renewable energy
applications in the developing world.
In developing countries with sufficient solar irradiance, such as
Bangladesh, agrophotovoltaic systems and solar irrigation pumps
(SIP) could be two sustainable renewable energy applications in
agriculture. The latter is already in the deployment stage in many
developing countries including Bangladesh, whereas, the former is
yet to be deployed. These two technologies have potential as they
offer multiple benefits. For instance, SIP could irrigate cultivated
land and at the same time the remaining power could be fed into
the grid. However, the application of APVs in developing countries
needs further research. On the other hand, developed nations could
use any renewable energy-based technologies in agriculture
depending on their location and their needs. In doing so, environ-
mental factors and many other parameters should be taken into
account for proper system design in addition to the appropriate
policies, rules and regulations.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Md Momtazur Rahman: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Software, Formal analysis, Writing e original draft. Imran Khan:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis,
Writing e original draft, Supervision. David Luke Field: Visuali-
zation, Writing e review & editing. Kuaanan Techato: Funding
acquisition, Visualization. Kamal Alameh: Visualization, Writing e
review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Prince of Songkla University and
the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation,
Thailand, under the Reinventing University Project (Grant Number
REV64008).
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al. Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749

References Brookhaven National Laboratory: Upton, NY, USA, 2002.

[35] W.S. Subhani, et al., Anti-solvent engineering for efficient semitransparent
CH3NH3PbBr3 perovskite solar cells for greenhouse applications, J. Energy
[1] M. Ram, et al., Global Energy System Based on 100% Renewable Energyd-
Chem. 34 (2019) 12e19.
Power Sector. Lappeenranta University of Technology and Energy Watch
[36] A. Vadiee, V. Martin, Energy analysis and thermoeconomic assessment of the
Group, 2017. Lappeenranta, Finland.
closed greenhouseeThe largest commercial solar building, Appl. Energy 102
[2] FAO, Energy, 28.09.2020], 2020. Available from: http://www.fao.org/energy/
(2013) 1256e1266.
home/en/.
[37] E. Ravishankar, et al., Achieving net zero energy greenhouses by integrating
[3] T. Maraseni, et al., An assessment of direct on-farm energy use for high value
semitransparent organic solar cells, Joule 4 (2) (2020) 490e506.
grain crops grown under different farming practices in Australia, Energies 8
[38] R.H.E. Hassanien, M. Li, F. Yin, The integration of semi-transparent photo-
(11) (2015) 13033e13046.
voltaics on greenhouse roof for energy and plant production, Renew. Energy
[4] T. Fellmann, et al., Major challenges of integrating agriculture into climate
121 (2018) 377e388.
change mitigation policy frameworks, Mitig. Adapt. Strategies Glob. Change
[39] H. Mahamudul, et al., Temperature regulation of photovoltaic module using
23 (3) (2018) 451e468.
phase change material: a numerical analysis and experimental investigation,
[5] N. Gilbert, One-third of our greenhouse gas emissions come from agriculture,
Int. J. Photoenergy 2016 (2016).
Nature 31 (2012) 10e12.
[40] S. Gorjian, et al., A review on opportunities for implementation of solar
[6] Y. Yang, et al., Distributed coordination of EV charging with renewable en-
energy technologies in agricultural greenhouses, J. Clean. Prod. 285 (2021),
ergy in a microgrid of buildings, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 9 (6) (2017)
124807.
6253e6264.
[41] M. Kacira, Greenhouse production in US: status, challenges, and opportu-
[7] P. Beraldi, et al., A stochastic programming approach for the optimal man-
nities, in the proceedings of GIGR International Symposium: Sustainable
agement of aggregated distributed energy resources, Comput. Oper. Res. 96
Bioproduction-Water, Energy, and Food. Tokyo, 19-23 September (2011).
(2018) 200e212.
[42] G. Russo, et al., Environmental analysis of geothermal heat pump and LPG
[8] IEA, Global energy review 2019, in IEA flagship report (2020) 1e50. Paris.
greenhouse heating systems, Biosyst. Eng. 127 (2014) 11e23.
[9] IRENA, Renewable Energy Technologies, International Renewable Energy
[43] L. Huang, R. Zheng, Energy and economic performance of solar cooling sys-
Agency, New York, USA, 2018b.
€ nnichsen, Renewable energy - consumption of the top countries 2019 tems in the hot-summer and cold-winter zone, Buildings 8 (3) (2018) 37.
[10] N. So
[44] G.K. Ntinas, et al., Carbon footprint and cumulative energy demand of
(2020).
greenhouse and open-field tomato cultivation systems under Southern and
[11] A. Government, Australian Energy Update D.o.t.E.a.E, in: 2019, Australia
Central European climatic conditions, J. Clean. Prod. 142 (2017) 3617e3626.
Government, Energy Statistics and Analysis Section, 2019. Canberra,
[45] R. Uren ~ a-S
anchez, et al., Greenhouse tomato production with electricity
Australia.
generation by roof-mounted flexible solar panels, Sci. Agric. 69 (4) (2012)
[12] BPDB, Annual Report 2019-2020, in: P. division (Ed.), Ministry of Power,
233e239.
Energy and Mineral Resources., 2020. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[46] T. Wang, et al., Integration of solar technology to modern greenhouse in
[13] S. Mekhilef, et al., The application of solar technologies for sustainable
China: current status, challenges and prospect, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
development of agricultural sector, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 18 (2013)
70 (2017) 1178e1188.
583e594.
[47] C.S. Allardyce, et al., The influence of greenhouse-integrated photovoltaics on
[14] I. Khan, Drivers, enablers, and barriers to prosumerism in Bangladesh: a
crop production, Sol. Energy 155 (2017) 517e522.
sustainable solution to energy poverty? Energy Res. Social Sci. 55 (2019)
[48] C.J. Emmott, et al., Organic photovoltaic greenhouses: a unique application
82e92.
for semi-transparent PV? Energy Environ. Sci. 8 (4) (2015) 1317e1328.
[15] K. Singh, Quantitative Social Research Methods, 2007 (Sage).
[49] F. Yang, et al., Visibly transparent organic photovoltaic with improved
[16] R.B. Brown, Doing Your Dissertation in Business and Management: the Re-
transparency and absorption based on tandem photonic crystal for green-
ality of Researching and Writing, 2006. Sage.
house application, Appl. Opt. 54 (34) (2015) 10232e10239.
[17] J. Valentine, et al., Food vs. fuel: the use of land for lignocellulosic ‘next
[50] S. Schindele, et al., Implementation of agrophotovoltaics: techno-economic
generation’energy crops that minimize competition with primary food
analysis of the price-performance ratio and its policy implications, Appl.
production, Gcb Bioenergy 4 (1) (2012) 1e19.
Energy 265 (2020), 114737.
[18] D.C. Jordan, S.R. Kurtz, Photovoltaic degradation ratesdan analytical review,
[51] A. Goetzberger, A. Zastrow, On the coexistence of solar-energy conversion
Prog. Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 21 (1) (2013) 12e29.
and plant cultivation, Int. J. Sol. Energy 1 (1) (1982) 55e69.
[19] S. Chattopadhyay, et al., All India survey of photovoltaic module degradation
[52] A. Agostini, M. Colauzzi, S. Amaducci, Innovative agrivoltaic systems to
2014: survey methodology and statistics, in: 2015 IEEE 42nd Photovoltaic
produce sustainable energy: an economic and environmental assessment,
Specialist Conference (PVSC), IEEE, 2015.
Appl. Energy 281 (2020), 116102.
[20] V. Sharma, S. Chandel, A novel study for determining early life degradation of
[53] E. Hassanpour Adeh, J.S. Selker, C.W. Higgins, Remarkable agrivoltaic influ-
multi-crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules observed in western Hima-
ence on soil moisture, micrometeorology and water-use efficiency, PLoS One
layan Indian climatic conditions, Sol. Energy 134 (2016) 32e44.
13 (11) (2018) p. e0203256.
[21] PVEducation, 2019.
[54] A. Weselek, et al., Agrophotovoltaic systems: applications, challenges, and
[22] M. Dhimish, A. Alrashidi, Photovoltaic degradation rate affected by different
opportunities, A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39 (4)
weather conditions: a case study based on pv systems in the UK and
(2019) 35.
Australia, Electronics 9 (4) (2020) 650.
[55] S. Sacchelli, et al., Trade-off between photovoltaic systems installation and
[23] S.A. Tabatabaei, D. Formolo, J. Treur, Analysis of performance degradation of
agricultural practices on arable lands: an environmental and socio-economic
domestic monocrystalline photovoltaic systems for a real-world case, Energy
impact analysis for Italy, Land Use Pol. 56 (2016) 90e99.
Proc. 128 (2017) 121e129.
[56] A. Monti, B. Martinez Romera, Fifty shades of binding: appraising the
[24] J.M. Pearce, Photovoltaicsda path to sustainable futures, Futures 34 (7)
enforcement toolkit for the EU's 2030 renewable energy targets, Review of
(2002) 663e674.
European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 29 (2) (2020)
[25] P.P. Barker, J.M. Bing, Advances in solar photovoltaic technology: an appli-
221e231.
cations perspective, in: IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting,
[57] S. Ravi, D.B. Lobell, C.B. Field, Tradeoffs and synergies between biofuel pro-
2005, IEEE, 2005.
duction and large solar infrastructure in deserts, Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (5)
[26] H.T. Nguyen, et al., The application of LiDAR to assessment of rooftop solar
(2014) 3021e3030.
photovoltaic deployment potential in a municipal district unit, Sensors 12 (4)
[58] M. Trommsdorff, Agrophotovoltaics: High Harvesting Yield in Hot Summer
(2012) 4534e4558.
of 2018 [cited 2021 24 November], 2018. Available from: https://www.ise.
[27] P. Fairley, Big solar's big surge, IEEE Spectrum 52 (1) (2014) 41e44.
fraunhofer.de/en/press-media/press-releases/2019/agrophotovoltaics-hight-
[28] K. Calvert, J.M. Pearce, W.E. Mabee, Toward renewable energy geo-
harvesting-yield-in-hot-summer-of-2018.html.
information infrastructures: applications of GIScience and remote sensing
[59] P.R. Malu, U.S. Sharma, J.M. Pearce, Agrivoltaic potential on grape farms in
that build institutional capacity, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 18 (2013)
India, Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 23 (2017) 104e110.
416e429.
[60] H. Marrou, et al., Microclimate under agrivoltaic systems: is crop growth rate
[29] J. Ryan, Harvesting Sunshine More Lucrative than Crops at Some U.S. Farms,
affected in the partial shade of solar panels? Agric. For. Meteorol. 177 (2013)
2016. North Carolina, USA.
117e132.
[30] H. Dinesh, J.M. Pearce, The potential of agrivoltaic systems, Renew. Sustain.
[61] D. Majumdar, M.J. Pasqualetti, Dual use of agricultural land: introducing
Energy Rev. 54 (2016) 299e308.
‘agrivoltaics’ in phoenix metropolitan statistical area, USA, Landsc. Urban
[31] J. Xue, Photovoltaic agriculture-New opportunity for photovoltaic applica-
Plann. 170 (2018) 150e168.
tions in China, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 73 (2017) 1e9.
[62] C. Dupraz, et al., Combining solar photovoltaic panels and food crops for
[32] M.E. Loik, et al., Wavelength-selective solar photovoltaic systems: powering
optimising land use: towards new agrivoltaic schemes, Renew. Energy 36
greenhouses for plant growth at the food-energy-water nexus, Earth's Future
(10) (2011) 2725e2732.
5 (10) (2017) 1044e1053.
[63] S. Amaducci, X. Yin, M. Colauzzi, Agrivoltaic systems to optimise land use for
[33] M.F. Peretz, et al., Testing organic photovoltaic modules for application as
electric energy production, Appl. Energy 220 (2018) 545e561.
greenhouse cover or shading element, Biosyst. Eng. 184 (2019) 24e36.
[64] Y. Elamri, et al., Rain concentration and sheltering effect of solar panels on
[34] V.M. Fthenakis, Could CdTe PV Modules Pollute The Environment? National
cultivated plots, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 22 (2) (2018) 1285e1298.
Photovoltaic Environmental Health and Safety Assistance Center,
[65] M. Hansen, The Drying of Foods [cited 2020 20/08/2020], 2010. Available

747
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
from: http://www.hedon.info/OptionsForDryingOnASmallScale?bl¼y.
[66] H. Garg, Solar energy: fundamentals and applications, in: Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, 2000.
[67] C.B. Pardhi, J.L. Bhagoria, Development and performance evaluation of
mixed-mode solar dryer with forced convection, International journal of
energy and environmental engineering 4 (1) (2013) 23.
[68] J.F. Kreider, F. Kreith, Solar energy handbook. New York, McGraw-Hill (1981).
[69] D. Whitfield, Solar dryer systems and the internet: important resources to
improve food preparation, in Proceedings of International Conference on
Solar Cooking, Kimberly 26-29 November, South Africa. (2000). https://
images2.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20100218025401/solarcooking/images/5/
58/Whitfield_Kimberly_Dryer_Paper.pdf. (Accessed 25 November 2021).
[70] A. Sharma, C. Chen, N.V. Lan, Solar-energy drying systems: a review, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (6e7) (2009) 1185e1210.
[71] M. Hossain, et al., Feasibility of solar pump for sustainable irrigation in
Bangladesh, International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering
6 (2) (2015) 147e155.
[72] Y. Wong, K. Sumathy, Solar thermal water pumping systems: a review,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 3 (2e3) (1999) 185e217.
[73] M. Aliyu, et al., A review of solar-powered water pumping systems, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 87 (2018) 61e76.
[74] A.R.a.A. Jain, Solar for Irrigation: A Comparative Assessment of Deployment
Strategies, in: C. Report (Ed.), 2018.
[75] C. Kanojia, Solar power to revolutionise Bangladesh irrigation, in the
Financial Express (2019). https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/solar-
power-to-revolutionise-bangladesh-irrigation-1552917511. (Accessed 20
November 2021).
[76] N.T. Prasad, Over 181,000 Solar Water Pumps Installed in India, 2020.
[77] E. Mizuno, Overview of wind energy policy and development in Japan,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 40 (2014) 999e1018.
[78] A. Agency, Turkey aims for 20,000 MW installed wind energy capacity by
2023, in Daily Sabah (2019). Istanbul, https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/
2019/10/17/turkey-aims-for-20000-mw-installed-wind-energy-capacity-
by-2023. (Accessed 5 June 2021).
[79] G.L. Johnson, Wind energy systems, Prentice Hall & Kansas State University
(2006).
[80] X. Liu, et al., Projected impacts of climate change on hydropower potential in
China, in: Hydrology and Earth System Sciences (Online), 2016, 20(PNNL-SA-
111934).
[81] IEA, Renewable energy policy of bangladesh, e.a.m.r. Ministry of power,
BPDB, Dhaka, 2018.
[82] H. Huang, Z. Yan, Present situation and future prospect of hydropower in
China, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (6e7) (2009) 1652e1656.
[83] N.K. Sharma, P.K. Tiwari, Y.R. Sood, A comprehensive analysis of strategies,
policies and development of hydropower in India: Special emphasis on small
hydro power, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 18 (2013) 460e470.
[84] J. Liu, et al., Water conservancy projects in China: achievements, challenges
and way forward, Global Environ. Change 23 (3) (2013) 633e643.
[85] A. Suwa, How Things Work: Micro Hydroelectricity in Japan, in Our World,
2009.
[86] Y. Lecler, Small and Micro-scale Hydropower in Japan, 2017.
[87] Luis Carrasco Jose , A.P., hydropower (Large-scale), in: Sustainable Sanitation
and Water Management Toolbox: Willisau, Switzerland, 2005.
[88] I. Yüksel, Hydropower for sustainable water and energy development,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (1) (2010) 462e469.
[89] J.C. Intriago Zambrano, et al., Water lifting water: a comprehensive spatio-
temporal review on the hydro-powered water pumping technologies, Water
11 (8) (2019) 1677.
[90] K. Johnson, B. Hadjerioua, R.U. Martinez, Small Hydropower in the United
States. ORNL/TM-2015/326, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN,
2015.
[91] M. Suzuki, Renewable Energy [cited 2021 17/11/2021], 2020. Available from:
https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/japan-renewable-
energy.
[92] A. Curry, Germany faces its future as a pioneer in sustainability and
renewable energy, Nature (Career Guide) (2019). https://www.nature.com/
articles/d41586-019-00916-1#:~:text¼Germany%20has%20historically%
20been%20a,the%20private%20and%20public%20sector. (Accessed 7 June
2021).
[93] A. Voss, R. Madlener, Auction schemes, bidding strategies and the cost-
optimal level of promoting renewable electricity in Germany, Energy J. 38
(2017) (KAPSARC Special Issue).
[94] R. Hinrichs-Rahlwes, Paving the way towards sustainable energy security:
lessons learnt from Germany, Renew. Energy 49 (2013).
[95] G. Buckman, M. Diesendorf, Design limitations in Australian renewable
electricity policies, Energy Pol. 38 (7) (2010) 3365e3376.
[96] N. Lenaghan, Egg farmers flock to solar power, in Financial Review (2018).
https://www.afr.com/property/egg-farmers-flock-to-solar-power-
20180209-h0vuiv. (Accessed 20 November 2021).
[97] G. energy, VIDEO: Turning to Solar e an Apple Farmer's Story, 2018.
[98] J. Wagstaff, Sundrop Farms: mixture of sunlight and seawater leading the
way, in The Weekly Times (2017). https://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au/
agribusiness/decisionag/sundrop-farms-mixture-of-sunlight-and-seawater-
leading-the-way/news-story/8928aff10d54c5d9a56024e72a6c0377.
(Accessed 2 June 2021).
748
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
[99] S. Corsetti, E. Delahunty, Northern Victorian piggery taps into its manure for
energy, in ABC News (2017). Australia, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-
09-20/power-prices-puts-piggery-on-the-path-to-poo-power/8962770#:
~:text¼A%20family%2Downed%20piggery%20in,hundreds%20of%
20thousands%20of%20dollars. (Accessed 2 June 2021).
[100] B. Fitzgerald, West Australian dairy farm uses solar panels to cut power bill,
in ABC News (2015). Australia, https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2015-09-
28/capel-dairy-solar/6798238. (Accessed 2 June 2021).
[101] H.R.a.M. Roser, Energy, 2018.
[102] H. Ritchie, Renewable Energy, 2017 (OurWorldInData.org).
[103] D. Holm, J. McIntosh, Renewable energyethe future for the developing
world, Renewable Energy Focus 9 (1) (2008) 56e61.
[104] W. Liu, et al., Understanding the waterefoodeenergy nexus for supporting
sustainable food production and conserving hydropower potential in China,
Front. Environ. Sci. 7 (2019) 50.
[105] S. Piao, et al., The impacts of climate change on water resources and agri-
culture in China, Nature 467 (7311) (2010) 43e51.
[106] C. Yu, International comparison and inspiration of energy agriculture
development strategy, Chinese Rural Economy 7 (2007) 76e80.
[107] Sebastien Postic, Charlotte Vailles et Marion Afriat, Renewable Energies in
china: from a Proactive Political Approach to Bottlenecks in the Field, Ideas
for development, Paris, France, 2017.
[108] B. Lin, Z. Jiang, Estimates of energy subsidies in China and impact of energy
subsidy reform, Energy Econ. 33 (2) (2011) 273e283.
[109] Z. Peidong, et al., Opportunities and challenges for renewable energy policy
in China, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (2) (2009) 439e449.
[110] M. Wazed, S. Ahmed, Micro hydro energy resources in Bangladesh: a review,
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2 (4) (2008) 1209e1222.
[111] M.A.H. Mondal, L.M. Kamp, N.I. Pachova, Drivers, barriers, and strategies for
implementation of renewable energy technologies in rural areas in Bangla-
deshdAn innovation system analysis, Energy Pol. 38 (8) (2010) 4626e4634.
[112] M.o. World, Political Map of Bangladesh, 2020. Available from: https://www.
mapsofworld.com/bangladesh/bangladesh-political-map.html.
[113] IDCOL, Solar Irrigation Program, Infrastructure Development Company
Limited, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2020.
[114] M.A. Hossain, Solar pump irrigation for sustainable crop production in
Bangladesh, in: Daly Asian Age, 2020. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[115] M. Dairy, Sustainability, 25/01/2021], 2020. Available from: https://
meredithdairy.com/sustainability/.
[116] D. Cole, Crookwell 2 Wind Farm Gives Back to the Community, in Goulburn
Post, 2017 (New south wales, Australia).
[117] Chris Briggs, K.N. Franziska Mey, Joseph Wyndham, Final Report: Irrigators e
the Flow-On Benefits of Regionally Embedded Generation, 2018 (Institute for
Sustainable Futures, UTS: Final Report, prepared for Energy Consumers
Australia).
[118] GIZ, Sustainable Energy for Foode Massive Open Online Course, 26/10/
2020], 2017. Available from: https://gc21.giz.de/ibt/var/app/wp385P/2624/
wp-content/uploads/2015/03/170202_PA_MOOC_Reader.pdf.
[119] S. Gorjian, et al., The advent of modern solar-powered electric agricultural
machinery: a solution for sustainable farm operations, J. Clean. Prod. (2021),
126030.
[120] N. Lefore, A. Closas, P. Schmitter, Solar for all: a framework to deliver in-
clusive and environmentally sustainable solar irrigation for smallholder
agriculture, Energy Pol. 154 (2021), 112313.
[121] A.S. Pascaris, Examining existing policy to inform a comprehensive legal
framework for agrivoltaics in the US, Energy Pol. 159 (2021), 112620.
[122] C. Yuan, et al., Marine environmental damage effects of solar cell panel, in:
2010 Prognostics and System Health Management Conference, IEEE, 2010.
[123] M. Saidan, et al., Experimental study on the effect of dust deposition on solar
photovoltaic panels in desert environment, Renew. Energy 92 (2016)
499e505.
[124] B. Ahmed, et al., Degradation analysis of mc-Si PV modules after long term
exposure under desert climate, in: 2018 Twentieth International Middle East
Power Systems Conference (MEPCON), IEEE, 2018.
[125] S. Shivashankar, et al., Mitigating methods of power fluctuation of photo-
voltaic (PV) sourceseA review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 59 (2016)
1170e1184.
[126] D. Thevenard, et al., Uncertainty in long-term photovoltaic yield predictions,
A report (No. 2010-122) presented to Natural Resources Canada (2010)
1e52. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/canmetenergy/
files/pubs/2010-122.pdf. (Accessed 19 November 2021).
[127] C. Osterwald, et al., Degradation analysis of weathered crystalline-silicon PV
modules, in: Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, 2002, IEEE, 2002.
[128] M.R. Maghami, et al., Power loss due to soiling on solar panel: a review,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 59 (2016) 1307e1316.
[129] P. Sanchez-Friera, et al., Analysis of degradation mechanisms of crystalline
silicon PV modules after 12 years of operation in Southern Europe, Prog.
Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 19 (6) (2011) 658e666.
[130] H. Han, et al., Degradation analysis of crystalline silicon photovoltaic mod-
ules exposed over 30 years in hot-humid climate in China, Sol. Energy 170
(2018) 510e519.
[131] D.A. Quansah, M.S. Adaramola, G. Takyi, Degradation and longevity of solar
photovoltaic modulesdan analysis of recent field studies in Ghana, Energy
Science & Engineering 8 (6) (2020) 2116e2128.
M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, D.L. Field et al.
[132] Z.A. Darwish, et al., Impact of some environmental variables with dust on
solar photovoltaic (PV) performance: review and research status, Int. J. En-
ergy Environ. 7 (4) (2013) 152e159.
[133] M.M. Rahman, I. Khan, K. Alameh, Potential measurement techniques for
photovoltaic module failure diagnosis: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
151 (2021), 111532.
[134] A. Rabii, M. aidi Jr., A. Bouazzi, Investigation of the degradation in field-aged
749
Renewable Energy 188 (2022) 731e749
photovoltaic modules, in: 3rd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Energy
Conversion, 2003. Proceedings of, IEEE, 2003.
[135] J. Marquardt, How power affects policy implementation: lessons from the
Philippines, J. Curr. Southeast Asian Aff. 36 (1) (2017) 3e27.
[136] I. Khan, Impacts of energy decentralization viewed through the lens of the
energy cultures framework: solar home systems in the developing econo-
mies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 119 (2020), 109576.