Lecture 2

EEE 471
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 1
 EEE 471

A General Survey
on Radar Theory
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 2
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Pulsed and
Continuous Wave
(CW) Radars
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 3
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Pulsed and CW Radars
❑ When the type of waveform is used as a classifier of radar
systems, there are two types of radars; pulsed and CW radars.
CW radars continuously emit electromagnetic energy and use
separate transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) antennas.
❑ Unmodulated CW radars can accurately measure the target’s
radial velocity (Doppler shift) and angular position.
❑ CW waveforms can be viewed as pure sinewaves of the form
cos2πfot. Spectra of the radar echo from stationary targets and
clutter will be concentrated around fo .
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 4
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Pulsed and CW Radars
❑ The center frequency for the echoes of a moving target will be
shifted by fd , the Doppler frequency. Thus, by measuring this
frequency difference, CW radars can very accurately extract target
radial velocity.
❑ The continuous nature of CW emission, range measurement is
not possible without some modifications to the radar operations
and waveforms.
❑ The primary use of CW radars is in target velocity search &
track, and in missile guidance operations.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 5

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Pulsed and CW Radars
❑ Pulsed radars use a train of pulsed waveforms (mainly with
modulation). In this category, radar systems can be classified based
on the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), as low PRF, medium PRF,
and high PRF radars.
❑ Low PRF radars are primarily used for ranging where target
velocity (Doppler shift) is not of interest. High PRF radars are mainly
used to measure target velocity.
❑ Continuous wave as well as pulsed radars can measure both
target range and radial velocity by utilizing different modulation
schemes.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 6
 EEE 471

Range
information in
Radars
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 7
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Range
Figure shows a simplified pulsed radar block diagram.

The time control box generates the synchronization timing signals

required throughout the system. A modulated signal is generated
and sent to the antenna by the modulator/transmitter block.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 8
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Range
Switching the antenna between the Tx and Rx modes is controlled by
the duplexer. The duplexer allows one antenna to be used to both
transmit and receive. During transmission it directs the radar
electromagnetic energy toward the antenna. Alternatively, on
reception, it directs the received radar echoes to the Rx. The Rx
amplifies the radar returns and prepares them for signal processing.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 9

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Range
The target’s range (R) is computed by measuring the time delay (Δt). It
takes a pulse to travel the two-way path between the radar and the
target. Since electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
(c=3x108m/s),
c  t
R=
2 (R in meters , Δt in seconds)

(½ is used to account for the two-way time delay)

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 10

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Range
In general, a pulsed radar transmits and receives a train of pulses, as
illustrated by the following figure. The Inter Pulse Period (IPP) is T ,
and the pulse width is τ . The IPP is often referred to as the Pulse
Repetition Interval (PRI).

The inverse of
the PRI is the
PRF
1 1
fr = =
PRI T
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 11
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Range
During each PRI, the radar radiates
energy only for τ seconds and listens for
target returns for the rest of the PRI.

The radar transmitting duty cycle (factor) dt is defined as, dt =
T

The radar average transmitted power is Pav = Pt  dt Pt : radar peak

transmitted power.

The pulse energy is Pav

EP = Pt  = Pav T =
fr
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 12
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Range
The range corresponding to the two-way time delay T is known as the
radar unambiguous range, RU . Consider the case shown in the figure.
▪ Echo 1 represents the radar
return from a target at range
𝒄∆𝒕
𝑹𝟏 = due to pulse 1.
𝟐
▪ Echo 2 could be interpreted as
the return from the same target
due to pulse 2 or the return from
a faraway target at range due to
pulse 1 again.
c  t c (T + t )
In this case, R2 = or R2 =
2 2
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 13
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Range
Clearly, range ambiguity is associated with echo 2. Therefore, once a
pulse is transmitted the radar must wait a sufficient length of time so
that returns from targets at maximum range are back before the next
pulse is emitted. It follows that the maximum unambiguous range
must correspond to half of the PRI,

cT c
Ru = =
2 2 fr

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Range Resolution
➢ Range resolution (ΔR) is a radar metric that describes its ability
to detect targets close to each other as distinct objects.
➢ Radar systems are typically designed to operate between a
minimum range of Rmin and a maximum range of Rmax.
➢ The distance between Rmin and Rmax is divided into M range bins
(gates), each of width ΔR,

Rmax − Rmin
M=
R

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Range Resolution
Targets separated by at least ΔR will be completely resolved in range,
as illustrated in the figure. Targets within the same range bin can be
resolved in cross range (azimuth) utilizing signal processing
techniques.
Consider two targets located at
ranges R1 and R2 , corresponding to
time delays t1 and t2 , respectively.
Denote the difference between
those two ranges as ΔR:
( t2 − t1 )  t
R = R2 − R1 = c =c
2 2
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 16
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Range Resolution
Let’s try to answer the following question: What is the minimum time
(δt) such that target-1 at R1 and target-2 at R2 will appear entirely
resolved in range (different range bins)? In other words, what is the
minimum ΔR?
𝒄𝝉
First, assume that the two targets are separated by , τ is the pulse
𝟒
width. In this case, when the pulse trailing edge strikes target 2, the
Leading-edge would have traveled
backward a distance c.τ , and the
returned pulse would be composed
of returns from both targets, as
shown in the figure.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 17
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Range Resolution
𝒄𝝉
If the two targets are at least apart, then as the pulse trailing edge
𝟐
strikes the first target, the leading edge will start to return from target
2, and two distinct returned pulses will be produced, as illustrated by
𝒄𝝉
the following figure. Thus, ΔR should be greater or equal to .
𝟐

Since the radar bandwidth

𝟏
is equal to ,
𝝉
c c
R = =
2 2B
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 18
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Range Resolution
c c
R = =
2 2B
➢ Radar users and designers alike seek to minimize ΔR to enhance
radar performance.
➢ As suggested by the above equation, one must minimize the pulse
width to achieve satisfactory range resolution.
➢ However, this will reduce the average transmitted power and

increase the operating bandwidth. P = P 
av t
T
➢ Achieving acceptable range resolution while maintaining adequate
average transmitted power can be accomplished by using pulse
compression techniques.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 19
 EEE 471

Doppler
Frequency
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 20
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Doppler Frequency
➢ Radars use Doppler frequency to extract target radial velocity
(range rate) and distinguish between moving and stationary
targets or objects such as clutter.
➢ The Doppler phenomenon describes the shift in the center
frequency of an incident waveform due to the target motion
concerning the radiation source.
➢ Depending on the direction of the target’s motion, this
frequency shift may be positive or negative. A waveform incident
on a target has equiphase wavefronts separated by the
wavelength (λ).
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 21
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Doppler Frequency
A closing target will cause the reflected equiphase wavefronts to
compress and become closer to each other, resulting in a shorter
wavelength of the reflected waveform.

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Doppler Frequency
Alternatively, an opening or receding target (moving away from
the radar) will cause the reflected equiphase wavefronts to
expand, resulting in a longer wavelength of the reflected
waveform.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 23

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Doppler Frequency
Consider a pulse of width (seconds) incident on a target that is
moving toward the radar at velocity, as shown below.

Define ‘d ’ as the distance (in meters) that the target moves into the
pulse during the interval Δt ,
d = v t (Δt is equal to the time between the pulse leading edge
striking the target and the trailing edge striking the target.)
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 24
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Doppler Frequency
Since the pulse is moving at the speed of light and the trailing edge
has moved distance ‘cτ-d ’ , then

c  = c t + v t  c   c t − v t
→ =
c   = c t − v t  c  c t + v t
c −v
 =  τ: incident pulse
c +v τ’ : reflected pulse
𝒄−𝒗
In practice, the factor is often referred to as the time dilation
𝒄+𝒗
factor. Notice that if v=0, then τ’= τ . In a similar fashion, one can
compute for an opening target. In this case,   = c + v 
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz
c −v 25
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Doppler Frequency
To derive an expression for Doppler frequency, consider the
illustration shown in the figure. It takes Δt seconds for the leading
edge of pulse 2 to travel a
𝒄
distance ‘ − 𝐝’ to strike the
𝒇𝒓
target. Over the same time
interval, the leading edge of
pulse 1 travels the same distance
cΔt. d = v t
c
− d = c t
fr
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 26
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Doppler Frequency
c
d = v t − d = c t
fr

Solving for Δt yields, c fr cv f r

t = →d =
c+v c+v

The reflected pulse spacing is now s-d

and the new PRF is 𝒇′𝒓 , where

It follows that the new PRF is related to the original PRF by

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Doppler Frequency

Since the number of cycles does not

change, the frequency of the reflected
signal will go up by the same factor.
′
Denoting the new frequency by 𝒇𝟎 , it
follows that
(𝒇𝟎 : the carrier frequency of the incident signal)
′
The Doppler Frequency fd is defined as the difference 𝒇𝟎 − 𝒇𝟎 . More
precisely,

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Doppler Frequency

Since v<<c and c=λf0 , then

2v 2v
fd  f0 =
c 
Above equation indicates that the Doppler shift is
proportional to the target velocity.
Thus, one can extract fd from range rate (target radial
velocity) and vice versa.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 29
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Doppler Frequency
2v 2v This result can also be derived by using a
fd  f0 =
c  different approach.
Figure shows a closing target with
velocity v. Let R0 refer to the range
at time t0 (time reference). Then the
range to the target at any time t is
R ( t ) = R0 − v ( t − t0 )
The signal received by
the radar is xr ( t ) = x ( t − ( t ) ) x(t) : transmitted signal,
2
 ( t ) = ( R0 − vt + vt0 )
c
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 30
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Doppler Frequency
xr ( t ) = x ( t − ( t ) ) 2
 ( t ) = ( R0 − vt + vt0 )
c
Merging above two equations results in,

 2v   2 R0 2v
xr ( t ) = x  1 +  t − 0  ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
 0 = constant phase
→ 0 = + t0
 c   c c
Define the compression 2v
 = 1+
or scaling factor γ by c Then above equation becomes
as follows,
xr ( t ) = x (  t − 0 )
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 31
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Doppler Frequency
xr ( t ) = x (  t − 0 )
Above equation represents a time-compressed version of the return signal
from a stationary target (v=0). Hence, based on the scaling property of the
Fourier transform, the spectrum of the received signal will be expanded in
frequency to a factor of γ . Consider the special case when
x ( t ) = y ( t ) cos (0t ) ω0 is the radar center frequency in rad/s.
The received signal xr(t) is then given by
xr ( t ) = y (  t − 0 ) cos ( 0t − 0 ) scaling property of FT
F 1  
x ( at ) ⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯ →
⎯ X 
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz
F −1
a a 32
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Doppler Frequency
xr ( t ) = y (  t − 0 ) cos ( 0t − 0 )
The Fourier transform of the received signal xr(t) is
1       (for simplicity the effects of the
X r ( ) =  Y  − 0  + Y  + 0  
2       constant phase ψ0 are ignored)
Therefore, the bandpass spectrum of the received signal is now centered at
γω0 instead of ω0 . The difference between the two values corresponds to
the amount of Doppler shift incurred due to the target motion,
d = 0 − 0  f d = f 0 −  f 0
d : Doppler fr. ( rad / s ) scaling property of FT
f d : Doppler fr. (1/ s = Hz ) F 1  
x ( at ) ⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯ →
⎯ X 
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz
F −1
a a 33
 EEE 471
Doppler Frequency
d = 0 − 0  f d = f 0 −  f 0
Substituting the value of γ in the above equation yields
2v 2v 2v
 = 1+ fd = f0 =
c c 
This is the same result as obtained before.
2v 2v
fd  f0 =
c 

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 EEE 471
Doppler Frequency
It can be shown that for a receding target,
2v
fd = −

Doppler frequencies for closing and receding targets are as
follows

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Doppler Frequency
2v 2v 2v 2v
f d  f0 = fd = f0 =
c  c 
In both equations above, the target radial velocity with respect to the
radar is equal to v , but this is not always the case. In fact, the amount of
Doppler frequency depends on the target velocity component in the
direction of the radar (radial velocity).
Figure shows three targets
all having velocity v : target 1
has zero Doppler shift; target
2 has maximum Doppler
frequency as defined in
2v 2v
fd = f0 =
Fall 2023 c  Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 36
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Doppler Frequency
The amount of Doppler frequency
of target 3 is ,
2v cos 
fd =

where vcosθ is the radial velocity,
and θ is the total angle between the radar line of sight and the target.
Thus, a more general expression for fd that accounts for the total angle
between the radar and the target is 2v
fd = cos 

and for an opening target −2v
fd = cos 

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 37
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Doppler Frequency
2v −2v
fd = cos  fd = cos 
 
In these equations cosθ= cosθe cosθa . In the equation; θe is the elevation
angle and θa is the azimuth angle.

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Coherence

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Coherence
A radar is said to be coherent if the phase of any two transmitted pulses is
consistent. There is a continuity in the signal phase from one pulse to the
next, as illustrated in Figure (a). One can view coherence as the radar’s
ability to maintain an integer multiple wavelengths between the
equiphase wavefront from the end of one pulse to the equiphase
wavefront at the beginning of the next pulse, as illustrated by Figure (b).

Phase continuity between consecutive pulses.

Maintaining an integer multiple of wavelengths

between the equiphase wavefronts of any two
successive pulses guarantees coherency.

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Coherence

➢ Coherency can be achieved using a STAble Local Oscillator (STALO).

A radar is said to be coherent-on-receive or quasi-coherent if it stores
a record of the phases of all transmitted pulses in its memory.
➢ In this case, the Rx phase reference is usually the most recent
transmitted pulse phase.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 41
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Coherence
➢ Coherence also refers to the radar’s ability to accurately measure
(extract) the received signal phase.
➢ Since Doppler represents a frequency shift in the received signal,
then only coherent or coherent-on-receive radars can extract Doppler
information.
➢ This is because the instantaneous frequency of a signal is
proportional to the time derivative of the signal phase. More
precisely,
1 d fi: instantaneous frequency
fi =  (t )
2 dt ψ(t): signal phase

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Coherence
For example, consider the following signal:
x ( t ) = cos ( 0t − 0 )
2v a constant phase
 = 1+
c
It follows that the instantaneous frequency of x(t) is
fi =  f 0 0 = 2 f0  ω0: radar center frequency

2v
 = 1+  2v  2v
c fi = f 0 1 +  = f0 +
 c  
Doppler shift
c=f

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 43