Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S.K. Musau
June, 2023
Contents
1 Introduction 3
4 Compressible Flow 19
4.1 Basic Equations for Compressible Gases in Steady Flow Conditions . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.2 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.3 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.4 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1
4.2 Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2.1 Isentropic Flow in Converging Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.2 Isentropic Flow in Convergent-Divergent Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2
EMG 3207 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Course Outline
Kinematics of fluid element. Potential flow: Rotational and irrotational flows; circulation and
vorticity; stream functions and velocity potential functions. Potential flow nets. Superposi-
tion of rectilinear flows, source and sink. Vortex motion; free and forced vortex flow. Flow
past a cylinder. Pressure fields and lift forces. Compressibility effects in moving fluids: basic
equations for compressible gases in steady flow conditions; Mach number. One dimensional
isentropic flow in convergent and divergent nozzles. Flows in turbines and pumps; Degree
of reaction: impulse and reaction stages. Velocity triangles and utilization factors, losses
through stages and blade speed ratio. Concept of laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
Lift and drag considerations on bodies moving in a gas.
2. Munson B.R., Young D.F. & Okiishi T.H. (1998) Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
John Wiley and Sons, 3rd Ed.
3. Roberson J.A., Crowe C.T. & Elger D.F. (1999) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, John
Wiley and Sons, 9th Ed.
4. Bansal R.K. (1992) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, R.K. Laxmi Publications,
4th Ed.
5. Massey B.S. (1994) Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd, 5th
Ed.
1 Introduction
This unit deals with the kinematics of fluid flow, compressible flow, fluid machinery and
boundary layer theory.
3
EMG 3207 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
This system of equations (Eq. 1) is called Lagrange. Here we use fluid particle reference
frame. To fully describe the state of the flowing fluid, we need to know the pressure p
and, in the case of a compressible flow, the density ρ. In general, a simpler representation
that describes the flow state at every position and time more closely, without having
to consider each individual particle is used.
For steady flow, it is sufficient to state the magnitude and direction of the velocity
at each position in the space through which the fluid flows, and to make corresponding
statements about the pressure and, if necessary, the density.
For unsteady flow, this information (velocity, pressure and density at each position in space)
4
EMG 3207 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
is stated at all time. Mathematically, the three velocity components u, v, w, the pressure p
and the density ρ are stated as functions of the spatial coordinates x, y, z and the time t.
For u, v, w we obtain the equations
This system of equations (Eq. 2) is called Euler. Here we use spatial fixed reference frame.
The system of equations 1 and 2 are known as the fundamental equations of kinematics.
Another representation of the instantaneous state of the flow of a fluid, is the use of stream-
lines. These run in the direction of the flow at all points; i.e., their tangents everywhere
have the direction of the velocity vector.
The differential equations of the streamlines read
dz w dz w dy v
= , = , = (3)
dy v dx u dx u
5
EMG 3207 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
where L is the local acceleration, i.e, local rate of change at a fixed position, and C is the
convective acceleration, i.e, convective spatial changes due to convection from place to
place.
Similarly, the acceleration in y and z directions are respectively given by
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
= +u· +v· +w· (7)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
= +u· +v· +w· (8)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
In general, the acceleration of a flow field, a, can be expressed as
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a= = +u· +v· +w· = + (v · ∇)v, (9)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂
with nabla operator ∇ = ( ∂x , ∂y , ∂z ) and v · ∇ the scalar product of the velocity vector v
and the nabla operator ∇.
For cartesian coordinate, this yield
du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
a +u· +v· +w·
x dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
a = ay = dv = ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v (10)
+u· +v· +w·
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az dt ∂t
+u· ∂x
+v· ∂y
+w· ∂z
In the case of a steady flow, all partial derivatives with respect to time vanish, so ∂/∂t =
0, while the substantial derivative with respect to time d/dt can indeed be nonzero when
convective changes occur. In unsteady flows both ∂/∂t 6= 0 and d/dt 6= 0.
A potential flow is frictionless and irrotational. The velocity of a potential flow is derivable
from a scalar velocity potential φ as
v = ∇φ (11)
Mathematically, the necessary and sufficient condition that a vector field which is single-
valued (in this case v) can be derived from a scalar potential function φ is that the curl of
6
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
∇ × v = 0. (12)
For simplicity, we restrict the analysis to one cartesian component as shown below,
The z component of ∇ × v is
∂v ∂u
ζz = ∇ × v = − ,
∂x ∂y
i.e
∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂v ∂u
= − . (13)
u v ∂x ∂y
vx+∆x − vx
,
∆x
or
vx+∆x − vx ∂v
lim = , (14)
∆x→0 ∆x ∂x
7
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
uy+∆y − uy
− ,
∆y
or
uy+∆y − uy ∂u
lim − =− , (15)
∆y→0 ∆y ∂y
The average angular velocity of the square ∆x∆y, ωz is the average of angular velocity of
lines ∆x and ∆y,
1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = − . (16)
2 ∂x ∂y
Therefore, comparing Eqs (13) and (16), results in
ζz = 2ωz ,
The concept of circulation is very important in the theory of lifting surfaces such as airfoils,
hydrofoils and blades of rotodynamic machines.
For an incompressible steady flow (density is constant), the principle of mass conservation
(continuity) take the following form:
∇·v =0
or
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
+ + = 0. (17)
∂x ∂y ∂z
8
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Stream function
A stream function, ψ, depends upon the position coordinates, i.e,
ψ = f (x, y),
∂ψ ∂ψ
vx = , and vy = − . (18)
∂y ∂x
The condition for potential flow Eq. (12) can be stated for a two dimensional flow (xy plane)
as
∂vy ∂vx
ωz = − = 0. (19)
∂x ∂y
Thus, in term of the stream function is
∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
− − = 0, (20)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
and
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
+ 2 = 0, (21)
∂x2 ∂y
This is the Laplace equation for the stream function, which must be satisfied for the flow
to be potential.
Velocity Potential
The condition of irrotational is a necessary and sufficient one for the velocity to be derivable
from a scalar velocity potential, φ, as
v = ∇φ, (22)
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
vx = , vy = , vz = . (23)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1
The value of stream function represents the flow rate between a given streamline described by the stream
function and a referenced boundary. Therefore, its definition must ensures that the continuity equation is
satisfied.
9
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Therefore, for a flow that is both incompressible and irrotational, Eq. (17) and (22) can be
combined to yield
∇ · ∇φ = 0, ⇒ ∇2 φ = 0 (24)
so that
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ = 0, (26)
∂x2 ∂y 2
Therefore, a potential flow must also satisfy the Laplace equation for the velocity potential.
∂ψ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ψ
= and =− (27)
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
These equations are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations and they enabled the stream
function to be calculated if the velocity potential is known and vice versa in a potential flow.
Example
The fact that, for a potential flow, both the stream function and the velocity potential
satisfy the Laplace equation indicates that ψ and φ are interchangeable (Cauchy-Riemann
equations)and that the lines of constant ψ, i.e. streamlines, and the lines of constant φ,
called equipotential lines, are mutually perpendicular. This means that, if streamlines are
plotted, points can be marked on them which have the same value of φ and can be joined
to form equipotential lines. Thus a flow net of streamlines and equipotential lines is formed
(see figure below for illustration).
10
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
The basic flow patterns in which the streamlines are straight lines are
• Rectilinear flow,
• Sink flow.
Rectilinear Flow
The convention for numbering the streamlines is that the stream function is considered
to increase to the left of the observer looking in the direction of flow as shown in the figure
above.
If the velocity of the rectilinear flow v is inclined to the x axis at an angle α, then its
components are
vx = v cos α and vy = v sin α.
Since in a uniform flow v is constant and in a straight line flow α is constant, then Eq. (34)
becomes
ψ = vy cos α − vx sin α + constant. (30)
The constant of integration is made zero by choosing the reference streamline ψ0 = 0 to pass
through the origin, so that when x = 0 and y = 0, ψ = ψ0 = 0. Thus
11
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Since vx and vy are constant, then ∂vx /∂y and ∂vy /∂x are both zero and, therefore, the flow
is potential.
The velocity potential is obtained from
∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy = vx dx + vy dy. (32)
∂x ∂y
Therefore, Z Z
φ= v cos αdx + v sin αdy + constant, (33)
Examples
1. Derive an expression of stream function for a uniform, straight line flow in the direction
Ox, velocity u as shown in the diagram below.
2. Derive an expression of stream function for a uniform, straight line flow in the direction
Oy, velocity v as shown in the diagram below.
3. Derive an expression of stream function for a combined flow consisting of uniform flow
u = 10 m/s along Ox and uniform flow v = 20 m/s along Oy, as shown in the diagram
below.
In a radial flow, since the velocity passes through the origin and is a function of θ only,
12
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
q
vr = (35)
2πr
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
vθ = − and vr = .
∂r r ∂θ
Therefore,
dψ = rvr dθ − vθ dr. (36)
Integrating,
qθ
ψ= + constant. (38)
2π
If, ψ = ψ0 = 0 when θ = 0, the constant of integration becomes zero and
qθ
ψ= for a source, (39)
2π
qθ
ψ=− for a sink. (40)
2π
Combination of Rectilinear and a Source Flow
The simplest case of combining flow patterns is that in which a source is added to a uniform
rectilinear flow, as shown in the diagram below;
This is accomplished by additions of the stream functions of the two types of flow. The
stream function for a rectilinear flow parallel to the x axis is
ψR = uy = ur sin θ,
13
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
A flow pattern equivalent to that of an ideal fluid passing a stationary cylinder, with its axis
perpendicular to the direction of flow, is obtained by combining a doublet and a rectilinear
flow, as shown in figure below;
NB: A doublet is obtained by combination of a source and a sink. Its stream function is
m
ψD = − sin θ,
2πr
where m = qds, is the strength of the doublet, q is the rate of flow per unit depth and ds is
the distance between them (sink and source).
Therefore, the resulting stream function for the flow past a cylinder is
m
ψC = ψD + ψR = − sin θ + ur sin θ,
2πr
or
m
ψC = ur − sin θ. (42)
2πr
Since the distance between the two stagnation points S is the diameter of the cylinder, i.e 2a,
where a is the radius, and the flow at stagnation point is zero, it follows that the streamline
passing through S is ψ0 = 0. Thus
m
ψ0 = ua − sin θ = 0, (43)
2πa
14
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
so that
m = 2πua2 .
It occur when there is flow over a spinning cylinder (spinning about its axis at relatively high
rpm). The flow is synthesized by addition of non-lifting flow over a cylinder and a vortex
of strength Γ as shown above. The resulting streamlines pattern are not symmetrical about
the horizontal axis through point O. Hence the cylinder will experience a resulting finite
normal force acting upward (lifting force). However, the streamlines are symmetrical about
the vertical axis through O, and as a result the drag force will be zero.
Note that because a vortex of strength Γ has been added to the flow, the circulation about
the cylinder is now finite and equal to Γ.
It can be shown that, the coefficient of lift, cl is given by
Γ
cl =
RU∞
1 2
L = ρ∞ U∞ Acl (45)
2
Here, ρ∞ is the density of fluid, U∞ is the flow velocity, and the plan form area A = 2R.
Therefore Eq. 119 can be rewritten as
1 2 Γ
L = ρ∞ U∞ 2R = ρ∞ U∞ Γ (46)
2 RU∞
15
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Equations 120 is called Kutta-Joukowski theorem and gives the lift per unit span for
a circular cylinder with circulation Γ. It is named after the German mathematician M.
Wilheim Kutta (1867-1944) and Russian physicist Nikolai E. Joukowski (1847-1921), who
independently obtained it in the first decade of 19th century (around 1900-1910).
Example
Consider the lifting flow over a circular cylinder with a diameter of 0.5 m. The free stream ve-
locity is 25 m/s, and the maximum velocity on the surface of the cylinder is 75 m/s(clockwise).
The free stream conditions are those at standard sea level conditions (ρ∞ = 1.22 kg/m3 ).
Calculate lift per unit span on the cylinder.
In a vortex flow, the streamlines are concentric circles, as shown in the figure below;
The characteristic of a vortex flow is that the radial component of velocity vr = 0 and
v = vθ . This is so because, there cannot be any flow across streamlines.
The are two fundamental types of vortex flow distinguished by the nature of flow; rota-
tional (forced) vortex and irrotational (free) vortex.
Free Vortex
Consider, in a free vortex flow, an element of fluid between streamlines ψ and ψ + dψ as
shown in the figure below;
Since it is irrotational, the vorticity and circulation across the stream must be equal to
16
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
zero. The circulation round the element, starting from A in the anticlockwise direction, is
so that
vθ dr + rdvθ = 0, (50)
This equation defines the relationship between the velocity and radius for a free vortex. It
shows that the velocity increases towards the centre of the vortex and tends to infinity when
radius tends to zero.
The constant in Eq. (51) can be determined by evaluating the circulation around the cen-
tre, i.e, along any of the concentric streamlines. The circulation around a circular streamline
is I
ΓC = vds = circumference × tangential velocity = 2πrvθ . (52)
The circulation is constant for any streamline (and the whole flow vortex field) since rvθ =
constant. It is used to measure the intensity of the vortex and is known as the vortex
strength. Thus Eq. (51) can be rewritten as
ΓC
rvθ = . (53)
2π
The stream function can be obtained from
dψ = vr rdθ − vθ dr.
Since vr = 0, Z
ψ=− vθ dr (54)
17
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
ΓC
ψ=− ln r,
2π
for anticlockwise rotation. The sign for the above expression becomes positive for clockwise
rotation.
Forced Vortex
Consider the same diagram used in the analysis of free vortex. The circulation around a
segmental element is
ΓABCD = −(vθ dr + rdvθ )dθ.
but rotation ω is the angular velocity, which at any radius r is related to the tangential
velocity vθ by
vθ
ω= ,
r
it follows that for a forced vortex the vorticity
ζ = −2ω,
But for ψ = 0 at r = 0,
1
ψ = − ωr2 ,
2
18
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
dp v2
=ρ ,
dr r
where ρ=density, v =tangential velocity, r =radius. Hence, evaluate the pressure gradient for
such a flow defined by ψ = 2 ln r, where ψ =stream function, at a radius of 2 m and fluid
density of 103 kg m−3 .
4 Compressible Flow
A flow is said to be compressible when the density is varying. For most fluids used in
engineering, density changes are negligible, and therefore, they are considered to be incom-
pressible. However, this assumption is not valid for gases, since large variations of density
can be produced as a result of the changes of pressure.
The compressibility of a fluid flow is defined by the Mach number, M, of the flow.
For incompressible flows, the unknown parameters are usually pressure and velocity. For
compressible flows, density becomes an additional variable to be solved. Furthermore, sig-
nificant variations in fluid temperature may occur as a result of density or pressure changes.
We therefore, require four equations in order to solve the four unknown, i.e:
1. Continuity equation,
2. Momentum equation,
3. Energy equation,
4. Equation of state.
19
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
∂v ∂A ∂ρ
ρA + ρv + Av = 0, (58)
∂s ∂s ∂s
or
∂
(ρAv), (59)
∂s
which is the continuity equation in differential form. It can be integrated to get
The forces acting on the body are pressure and body forces. Thus, the net force acting on
the control volume in direction of flow is given as
∂p ∂A ∂p δs
F = pA − p + δs A+ δs + δA p + − W cos α,
∂s ∂s ∂s 2
20
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
F = ma,
∂v ∂p ∂A ∂p δs
ρAδs = pA − p + δs A+ δs + δA p + − ρgAδs cos α, (61)
∂t ∂s ∂s ∂s 2
and ignoring higher order terms,
∂v ∂p
ρ = − − ρg cos α.
∂t ∂s
But
∂v ∂v ∂s ∂v δz ∂z
= =v , and cos α = = in the limit δs → 0.
∂t ∂s ∂t ∂s δs ∂s
Therefore,
∂v 1 ∂p ∂z
v + +g = 0. (62)
∂s ρ ∂s ∂s
Integration of Eq. (62) yields
v2
Z
1 ∂p
+ ds + gz = constant.
2 ρ ∂s
The second term in the above equation can only be integrated if the relationship between p
and ρ is known. For incompressible flow, ρ is constant and, thus
v2 p
+ + gz = constant,
2 ρ
∆Q − ∆W = ∆E. (63)
The total (internal, kinetic and potential) energy of a unit mass of fluid at point 1, E1 is
given by
v12
E1 = cv T1 + + gz1 ,
2
21
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
and at point 2, E2
v22
E2 = cv T2 + + gz2 .
2
Therefore,
v22 v2
∆E = (cv T2 + + gz2 ) − (cv T1 + 1 + gz1 ). (64)
2 2
The work done is Z 2
∆W = pδV,
1
∆W = p2 V2 − p1 V1 ,
It gives the relationship between pressure, density and temperature for a pure substance.
The perfect gas law is given as
p = ρRT. (71)
22
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
The flow of compressible fluid in a duct is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer,
electromagnetic, etc. If all these parameters are included in the equations of motion, then
a lot of mathematical complexities arise. An isentropic flow is where there is no heat
transfer involved and the entropy remains constant. Therefore, the effect of area alone is
considered.
Using continuity equation (60) and momentum equation (62), it is possible to show that
dA
dp(1 − M 2 ) = ρv 2 , (72)
A
and
dv dA
(M 2 − 1) = , (73)
v A
where M is the Mach number given by
v
M= ,
c
where c is the velocity of sound and is defined by
2 ∂p
c = .
∂ρ isentropic
From Eqs (72) and (73), if M<1 (subsonic flow), then the term (1 − M 2 ) is always
positive and (M 2 − 1) always negative and thus an increase in area is always accompanied
by an increase in pressure and a decrease in velocity.
If M>1 (supersonic flow), then the term (1 − M 2 ) is always negative and (M 2 − 1) always
positive and thus an increase in area is always accompanied by an decrease in pressure and
a increase in velocity. These are illustrated in the figure below:
Therefore, a flow cannot be accelerated from rest to a velocity greater than the velocity
of sound (M > 1) in a converging duct regardless of the pressure difference imposed. To
achieve a supersonic speed, a converging-diverging nozzle is used.
23
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
v2
h0 = h + .
2
24
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
25
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
For a constant reservoir pressure pr , it is desired to determine the rate of mass flow
through the nozzle as a function of back pressure pb imposed on the nozzle. The are several
possibilities of flow depending on the magnitude of the back pressure:
4. pb can be reduced further, therefore accelerating the velocity at the nozzle exit until
the exit velocity equals the velocity of sound, i.e M = 1 at the exit.
NB: The flow cannot be accelerated beyond sonic conditions as observed earlier in a con-
verging nozzle.
Changes in conditions downstream are communicated to the reservoir through a wave
traveling through the fluid at the velocity of sound. For subsonic flow, changes are commu-
nicated faster than the velocity of the fluid and the reservoir adjusts itself by sending more
fluid. Since the nozzle is able to adjust itself to the back pressure, pexit = pb for subsonic
flow.
When M = 1 at the exit plane, the flow is said to be choked and reduction in pb cannot
result into any increase in ṁ.
When pb equal to the reservoir pressure, then the pressure distribution in the nozzle is
uniform and there will be no flow induced in the nozzle.
26
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
By reducing the pressure slightly, flow is introduced and is subsonic in both converging
and diverging section. The pressure will decrease in the converging section and increase in
the diverging section.
Further reduction in back pressure causes the velocity to increase at the throat and reach
a sonic condition. Now the pressure wave in the subsonic flow which was communicating
with the reservoir to tell it to release more flow can not pass the throat. Thus any further
decrease in back pressure is not communicated to the reservoir and the mass flow remain the
same. The nozzle is said to be choked. When this happens, there are two possibilities:
• Either the flow continues to accelerate to supersonic flow and thus in the diverging
section the pressure drops resulting in what we call the Laval nozzle.
• Or the flow decelerates so that the flow in the diverging section is subsonic and the
pressure increases.
27
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
The direction of fluid flow in relation to the plane of impeller rotation distinguishes different
classes of rotodynamic machines. This include:
1. Axial flow machines - The flow is perpendicular to the impeller, i.e the flow is along its
axis of rotation.
2. Centrifugal/radial - The fluid approaches the impeller axially but it turns at the ma-
chine inlet so that the flow through the impeller is in the plane of the impeller rotation.
3. Mixed flow machines - The flow is partly axial and partly radial.
The real flow through an impeller is three-dimensional, i.e the velocity of the fluid is a
function of three positional coordinates. The velocity distribution, therefore is very complex
and depend upon the number of blades, their shapes and thickness and the width of the
impeller.
The one dimensional theory simplify the problem by making the following assumptions:
1. The blades are infinitely thin and the pressure difference across them is replaced by
imaginary body forces acting on the fluid and producing torque.
2. The number of blades is infinitely large, so that the variation of velocity across blade
passages is reduced and tends to zero (axisymmetrical flow), i.e
∂v
= 0.
∂θ
3. There is no variation of velocity in the meridional plane, i.e across the width of the
impeller. Thus,
∂v
= 0.
∂z
The result of these assumptions is that the flow velocity is a function of radius alone, i.e
v = f (r).
28
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
This is the general expression for the energy transfer between the impeller and the fluid based
on the one-dimensional theory.
Consider a centrifugal impeller rotating with constant angular velocity ω, as shown below;
At inlet, the fluid moving with an absolute velocity v1 enters the impeller through a
cylindrical surface of radius r1 and may make an angle α1 with the tangent at that radius.
At outlet, the fluid leaves the impeller through a cylindrical surface of radius r2 , absolute
velocity v2 and may make an angle α2 with the tangent at that radius.
From Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,
where ṁvw1 r1 and ṁvw2 r2 are the angular momentum entering and leaving the impeller per
second, respectively.
The work done in unit time is given by:
Work done per second, Et = torque × angular velocity = ṁ(vw2 r2 − vw1 r1 )ω.
29
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Since the flow at inlet and outlet is through cylindrical surfaces and the velocity compo-
nents normal to them are vf 1 and vf 2 , the continuity equation applied to inlet and outlet
is
m = ρ1 πr1 b1 vf 1 = ρ2 πr2 b2 vf 2 ,
30
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
2. The blade angle at inlet β1 is such that the blade meets the relative velocity tangentially.
This assumption is known as ’no shock’ condition.
1. The fluid leaves the impeller with a relative velocity tangential to the blade at outlet.
Thus, β20 = β2 . Thus from the velocity triangle at outlet,
u2 − vw2
cot β2 = ,
vf 2
so that
vw2 = u2 − vf 2 cot β2 .
The changes in velocity from inlet to outlet take place at the same radius and, hence
u1 = u2 = u = ωr.
31
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
vf 1 = vf 2 = vf .
It is obtained from
m = ρvf π(R22 − R12 ).
2. The blade is set at an angle such that it meets the relative fluid velocity tangentially.
This equation applies to any particular radius r and is not necessarily constant over the
range from R1 to R2 . However, the blade can be twisted so that the increase in u with radius
is counterbalanced by an equal decrease in vf cot β20 and, hence the equation is constant
throughout.
Exercise
In these approaches, the number of blades is considered to be finite. For this method we
define:
32
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
2. Blade solidity, σ - The ratio of the blade chord c to the pitch. It is the measure of the
closeness of blades.
c
σ=
s
If the blades are close to one another, the flow between them may be treated as conduits.
Whereas if the blades are very far apart, they must be treated as bodies in external flows.
In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very far apart, i.e s → ∞ and σ → 0.
In section 3.6.1, it was shown that lift is dependent on circulation. From Eqs (119) and
(120),
1
Γ = U∞ Acl . (82)
2
Consider the circulation around a single blade as shown below;
I I B I C I D I A
ΓABCD = vds = vds + vdl + vds + vdl. (83)
A B C D
But, I C I A I B I D
vdl = − vdl, vds = −vw1 s1 , and vds = vw2 s2 .
B D A C
33
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
I I B I C I D I E I F I E
ΓACDF = vds = vds + vds + vdl + vds + vds + vdl. (85)
A B C D E F
But,
I D I A I B I F I C I E
vdl = − vdl, vds + vds = Γb , and vds + vds = Γb ,
C F A E B D
so that,
Γ = ΓACDF = Γb + Γb = 2Γb . (86)
In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very close, i.e the solidity σ is significant.
The geometrically identical blades are arranged at the same distance from one another and
positioned in the same way with respect to the direction of flow to form a cascade.
A straight cascade (applied in an axial flow impeller) is where the blades are arranged
along a straight line. While circular cascade (applied in a centrifugal impeller) is where
the blades are arranged around the circumference.
Cascade can also be classified according to the way the operate as follows:
34
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
1. Impulse Cascade - when velocities upstream and downstream of a cascade are the
same in magnitude, so that the change in momentum is due to change in direction.
From Bernoulli’s equation there will be no pressure difference between upstream and
downstream side of the cascade.
2. Reaction Cascade - The pressure difference exists due to absolute velocities upstream
and downstream not being the same.
Straight Cascade
Consider a stationary straight cascade of height Z, as shown below:
Let the upstream fluid velocity v1 making an angle α1 with the line of the cascade be
deflected so that the downstream velocity v2 makes an angle α2 . The deflection is
ε = α2 − α1 .
The fluid velocities v1 and v2 are resolved into components parallel and normal to the cascade,
vt and vn , respectively. Applying Bernoulli’s equation, the pressure difference is given by
1
p1 − p2 = ρ(v22 − v12 ). (92)
2
vn1 = vn2 = vn .
Thus, the change in velocity is entirely due to change of tangential velocity component, i.e
v22 = vt2
2
+ vn2 , and v12 = vt1
2
+ vn2 ,
35
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
The rate of change of momentum across the cascade is again due to a change in vt and,
therefore, gives rise to a force in the direction of cascade, Ft , i.e
The force F being perpendicular to the mean direction of flow is the lift on the blade.
Exercise
36
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
1. The velocities in the blade passages and at the impeller outlet are not uniform owing
to the presence of blade and the real flow being three dimensional. This results in a
diminished velocity of whirl component and, hence, reduces Euler’s head.
2. There are losses of energy due to friction, separation and wakes associated with the
development of boundary layers.
The viscous effects are contained within a thin layer adjacent to the surface, the thickness
is exaggerated for clarity. In the diagram, vw = 0 is the flow velocity at the surface which is
zero (no slip condition), Tw is the wall temperature (the temperature of the fluid immediately
at the surface is equal to temperature of surface), δ is the velocity boundary-layer thickness,
37
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
Definitions
1. Displacement thickness, δ ∗
Consider point y1 above the boundary layer as shown below
38
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
The actual mass flow (per unit depth) across the vertical line connecting y = 0 and
y = y1 , mB is Z y1
mB = ρudy (98)
0
If there were no boundary layer, so that the speed would be ue everywhere, then the
mass flow, mideal , would be Z y1
mideal = ρe ue dy (99)
0
The difference between the two, will bring a ”missing mass flow”, i.e given as
Z y1
∗ ρu
⇒δ = 1− dy δ ≤ y1 → ∞
0 ρ e ue
2. Momentum thickness , θ
Consider the same diagram for analysis of displacement thickness.
The momentum flow across a small segment dy, MB is given by
The same elemental mass, outside the boundary layer has a momentum, M ideal given
by
Mideal = ue dm = ρuue dy (103)
The total decrement in momentum flow across the vertical line from y = 0 to y = y1
result in a missing momentum given as
Missing momentum = ρe u2e θ, i.e
Z y1
ρe u2e θ = (ρuue − ρu2 )dy (104)
0
Z y1
ρu u
⇒θ= 1− dy δ ≤ y1 → ∞
0 ρ e ue ue
39
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
3. Energy thickness, δ E
Assignment 1: show that
Z y1 2 !
ρu u
δE = 1− dy (105)
0 ρe ue ue
The flow in a boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent. As far as boundary layer is
concerned, the transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at Reynold numbers above 105
based on mean fluid velocity and distance measured from the entry to the duct. In this
section we shall consider properties of the laminar boundary layer.
For simplicity, we shall consider two-dimensional flow along a plane portion of the surface.
This plane is taken as xz-plane, with x-axis in the direction of flow. The velocity distribution
is independent of z, and velocity has no z-component. We also assume that the flow is steady.
The exact Navier-Stokes equations and continuity equations are then
2
∂ vx ∂ 2 vx
∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p
vx + vy =− +ν + , (106)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
2
∂ vy ∂ 2 vy
∂vy ∂vy 1 ∂p
vx + vy =− +ν + , (107)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (108)
∂x ∂y
Here vx and vy denotes the velocity components in x and y directions, respectively, p is the
pressure and ν is the kinematic viscosity.
Since the boundary layer is very thin, it is clear that the flow in it takes place mainly parallel
to the surface, i.e, the velocity component vy is small compared to vx .
The velocity varies rapidly along y-axis, an appreciable change in it occurring at distances of
the order of the thickness δ of the boundary layer. Along x-axis, the velocity varies slowly, an
appreciable change in it occurring only over at distances of the order of length l characteristic
to the problem (the dimension of the body). Hence y-derivatives of the velocity are large
in comparison to x-derivatives. Therefore, ∂ 2 vx /∂x2 may be neglected in comparison with
40
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
∂ 2 vx /∂y 2 . Also comparing Eqs. 106 and 107, it can be seen that derivative ∂p/∂y is small in
comparison with ∂p/∂x, i.e it can be assume that ∂p/∂y = 0. This implies that pressure is
a function of x only, i.e p(x) and instead of writing ∂p/∂x, it is written as a total derivative
dp(x)/dx. This derivative can be be expressed in terms of velocity of the main stream U (x).
Since we have potential flow outside the boundary layer, Bernoulli’s Equation, p + (1/2)ρU 2
= constant, hold, whence (1/ρ)dp/dx = −U dU/dx.
Thus we obtain the equations of motion in the laminar boundary layer in the form of Prandtl’s
Equation:
∂ 2 vx
∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p dU
vx + vy −ν =− =U , (109)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ρ ∂x dx
∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (110)
∂x ∂y
Consider the incompressible, two-dimensional flow over a flat plate at 00 angle of attack as
shown below:
For such flow density is constant, µ is constant and dp/dx = 0 (because the inviscid flow
over a flat plate at 00 angle of attack yields a constant pressure over the surface). Energy
equation is not needed to calculate the velocity field for an incompressible flow.
Hence the boundary layer equations, reduces to
∂ 2 vx
∂vx ∂vx
vx + vy −ν =0 (111)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (112)
∂x ∂y
The independent variables (x,y) are transformed to (ξ, η), where
yp √
ξ = x, η= Rex , and ψ(x, y) = νxU f (η) (113)
x
41
EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes DeKUT
and u = ∂ψ/∂y and v = −∂ψ/∂x (stream function definitions). A similarity solution can be
obtained as
2f 000 + f f 00 = 0 (114)
The wall shear stress, τw is generally expressed in terms of nondimensional local skin friction
coefficient, cf as
τw
cf = (115)
(1/2)ρU 2
which can be shown to be
0.664
cf = √ (116)
Rex
where Rex is the local Reynolds number. The total drag force on the top surface of entire
plate is the integrated contribution of τw (x) from x = 0 to x = c. Letting Cf denote the skin
friction drag coefficient, we obtain
Z c
1
Cf = cf dx, (117)
c 0
It can also be shown that for turbulent flow, the boundary thickness δ is given by
δ = 0.37xRex−1/5 (121)
42