Dual nature of matter and radiation

Electron emission:

Work function (Φ0): the minimum energy required by the free electron to just leave the metal surface is
known as the work function of the metal.

Types of electron emissions

(1) Thermionic emission: the process of emission of electrons when a metal is heated. The electrons
emitted in this way are known as thermions.

(2) Photo-electric emission: the process of emission of electrons when light of suitable frequency is
incident on a metal surface is known as photo-electric effect.

(3) Secondary emission: the process of emission of free electrons when highly energetic electron beam
is incident on a metal surface is called secondary emission.

(4) Field emission: The process of emission of free electrons when a strong electric field is applied
across the metal surface is known as field emission.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect:

The experimental arrangement to study photoelectric effect is as shown in fig. It consist of an evacuated
glass/quartz tube having photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic light from a
source S passes through the quartz window W and falls on the plate C(Emitter) . The electrons are
emitted by the plate C and are collected by A (Collector), by the electric field created by the battery. The
battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C and A, the polarity of which can be
reversed by a commutator. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the
electrons are attracted to it which causes flow of electric current in the circuit that is measured by micro
ammeter. Potential differences between the plates are measured by the voltmeter.
Effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current: Photo electric current (number of photoelectrons
per second) is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiations, provided the frequency of
incident radiations is greater than the threshold frequency. The variation of photo electric current with
intensity of incident radiation is as shown in the fig.

Effect of potential on photoelectric current: When light of suitable frequency (greater than threshold
frequency) falls on the photo sensitive cathode C photo electrons are emitted. The electrons get
accelerated towards A which is at a higher potential with respect to C and give the current called
photoelectric current. When all photoelectrons emitted by cathode C reaches the plate A, the photo
electric current has the maximum value which is known as saturation current. Saturation current will not
increase with the increase in positive potential of plate A because number of electrons emitted is equal
to the number of electrons reaching A. Now the potential of plate A is decreased such that it attains
negative potential with respect to C. When the potential applied to the plate is increased to a certain
valueV0 at which no photo electrons reach the plate A (I.e. Photoelectric current becomes zero) this
minimum value of negative potential is called cut off potential or stopping potential. At this stage maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons must be equal to the energy acquired by an electron while passing
through the potential difference V 0.
 ½ Mv2max = eV0 OR KE max = eV0.

Thus, (i) saturation current depends upon the intensity of the incident radiation.

(ii) For the given beam of incident radiation, the intensity of incident radiation does not affect the
stopping potential.

(iii) Emitted photoelectrons may have different kinetic energies. Maximum K.E of emitted
photoelectrons does not depend upon intensity of incident radiation.

Effect of frequency of incident light:

The intensity of incident light is kept constant but the frequency of incident light is changed so that in
each case the saturation current is exactly the same. Now for the given frequency (ν1) of the incident
light, the positive potential at plate A is decreased to zero, it is found that photoelectric current
decreases. Now the plate A is given negative potential which is increased till the photoelectric current
becomes zero, let this value of negative potential be V 01. The experiment is repeated with the incident
light of same intensity but of frequency ν2 > ν1. It is found that the stopping potential is higher than V 01.
Let it be V02. Thus the value of stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.

Ratio of stopping potential is given by V 02/V01 = ν1/ν2. (For ν1 and ν2 > ν0)

Graph for frequency and stopping potential: When a graph is plotted between the frequencies of the
incident light and stopping potential, it is found to be a straight line not passing through the origin. It
shows that there is a minimum value of frequency (ν 0) of incident light below which photoelectric
emission is not possible. This is known as threshold frequency or cutoff frequency. Threshold frequency
will be more for materials having higher work function.
Laws of Photoelectric emission:

(1) For a given substance, there is a minimum frequency of incident light called threshold frequency (ν0)
below which no photoelectric emission takes place, whatsoever the intensity of incident light may be.
I.e. for every substance, the value of threshold frequency is different.

(2) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second (photoelectric current) by a substance is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light, provided the frequency of incident light is greater than the
threshold frequency.

(3) The maximum K.E of the photoelectrons increases with the increase in the frequency of the incident
light provided the frequency of incident light is greater than the threshold frequency. (Max K.E is
independent of intensity of incident light)

(4) The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

Photoelectric effect and wave theory of light:

Photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of wave theory of light because:

(1) As per wave theory of light, the electric field component of light increases with increase in intensity of
light. So when light falls on a metal surface, K.E should increase with the increase in intensity of light.
But it is observed that maximum K.E is independent of intensity of light.

(2) As per wave theory of light, there is no role of minimum and threshold frequency of the incident light
in the emission of photoelectrons from the metallic surface.

(3) As per wave theory of light, the energy is uniformly distributed over the wave fronts of the incident
light. When light falls on the surface of the metal, the energy of incident light is absorbed by a large
number of electrons so the energy absorbed per electron will be very small. Thus each electron will
some time to have enough energy to come out of the metallic surface. But it is observed that electrons
are emitted from the metallic surface as soon as light is incident on it.
 Thus wave theory is unable to explain the basic facts of photo electric effect.

Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

As per Einstein, an incident photon having energy ‘hⱱ’ ejects electron from a metal having work
function, Φ0= hν0 and imparts kinetic energy to it. Einstein proposed a theory based up on Plank’s
hypothesis of quanta. According to Einstein, when a photon of energy ‘hⱱ’ falls on a metal surface, the
energy of photon is used in two ways.

(i) A part of energy is used by an electron to just cross the surface barrier so that it may come out of
metal surface. This part of energy is equal to the work function (Φ 0) of the metal.

(ii) The remaining part of the energy is used to giving a velocity to the emitted photo electron. This part of
energy is equal to the K.E of the emitted photo electron.

According to law of conservation of energy hⱱ = Φ0 +1/2 mv2 -----------------(1)

If ν is just equal to threshold frequency ν 0, then the free electron emitted from the metal surface will not
have any K.E. Hence equation (1) becomes hν 0 = Φ0, which is the work function of the metal.
Substituting this value in equation (1)

hⱱ = hν0 + ½ mv2.

OR

1/2mv2 = h (ν-ν0), which is Einstein’s photo electric equation.

Photons: It is a packet of energy or quantum of energy ejected at the speed of light by an emitter.

(1) A photon travels with the speed of light in vacuum.

(2) A photon has zero rest mass.

(3) Photons do not have any change so they are electrically neutral.

(4) Photons are not deviated by magnetic and electric fields.

Wave nature of matter:

The waves associated with moving material particles are known as de-Broglie waves or matter waves.
Wave theory of electromagnetic radiation explains the phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarization, whereas quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation successfully explains the
photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, blackbody radiation, X-ray spectra etc. This shows radiation have
dual nature wave and quantum or particle nature. I.e. the material particle can behave both as wave as
well as particle. According to de-Broglie, a moving material particle can associated with a wave. In other
words, a wave can guide the motion of the particle. Matter waves can travel in vacuum hence they are
not mechanical waves and they are not electromagnetic waves because they are not produced by
accelerated charged particle.
De-Broglie relation:

According to quantum theory, energy of photon E = hν -----------------(1)

According to Einstein E = mc2 --------------(2)

From equations (1) and (2) mc2 = hν =hc/λ, where λ is de-Broglie wave length

Therefore mc = h/λ or λ = h/mc -----------------(3)

But mc = p, the momentum of photon. I.e. λ = h/p

If instead of a photon, we have a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v, then equation (3)
becomes λ = h/mv.

If the particle is at rest, then the de-Broglie wavelength is infinite, such a wave cannot be observed. If the
material particle moving with a velocity comparable to the velocity of light, then the mass of the particle
changes according to the relation m = m0 / √(1-v2/c2).

Macroscopic objects like ball, stone, cars etc. do not show wave like properties. This is because their
mass is large and speed is small and the value of λ is extremely small that it is beyond any
measurement.

De-Broglie wavelength λ of an electron moving through a potential difference (V)

K.E acquired electron is given by ½ mv2 = eV or m2v2 = 2meV

mv = √2meV Using relation for de-Broglie wave length λ = h/mv

λ = h/√2meV Substituting the values of h, m, e we get.

λ = 1.227/√V nm or λ = 12.27/√V Å

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