Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Mechanical & Civil Engineering - Notes
Basic Mechanical & Civil Engineering - Notes
ENGINEERING
UNIT-I
THERMAL ENGINEERING
I.C engines
An internal combustion engine is heat engine where combustion of fuel with air takes
place inside the engine cylinder.
CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINE
The four stroke-cycles refers to its use in petrol engines, gas engines, light, oil engine and heavy
oil engines in which the mixture of air fuel are drawn in the engine cylinder. Since ignition in
these engines is due to a spark, therefore they are also called spark ignition engines.
SUCTION STROKE
In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-air mixture is sucked in the engine
cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead centre (T.D.C.) to bottom dead centre (B.D.C.).
The exhaust valve remains closed throughout the stroke.
COMPRESSION STROKE
In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke. The piston
moves towards (T.D.C.) and compresses the enclosed fuel-air mixture drawn. Just
before the end of this stroke the operating plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and
combustion takes place at constant pressure.
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE
In this stroke both the valves remain closed during the start of this stroke but when the piston
just reaches the B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens. When the mixture is ignited by the spark plug
the hot gases are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and thus the
work is obtained in this stroke.
EXHAUST STROKE
This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the gases from which the work has been collected
become useless after the completion of the expansion stroke and are made to escape through
exhaust valve to the atmosphere. This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke. The
piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder;
this is also called scavenging.
Gudgeon pin
It’s used to connect the piston and the smaller end of the connecting rod. It is also
called as piston pin.
carburetor
A carburetor is a device which is used to mix air and petrol in the required proportion
before the air fuel mixture is admitted to cylinder.
SUCTION STROKE
With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during this stroke, the inlet valve opens
and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust valve
however remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1
COMPRESSION STROKE
The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke is compressed to high pressure
and temperature as the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet and exhaust valves do
not open during any part of this stroke. This operation is represented by 1-2
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE
As the piston starts moving from T.D.C to B.D.C, the quantity of fuel is injected into the hot
compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel) starts burning at constant pressure
shown by the line 2-3.
At the point 3 fuel supply is cut off. The fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke but in
actual practice the ignition of the fuel starts before the end of the compression stroke. The hot
gases of the cylinder expand adiabatically to point 4. Thus doing work on the piston.
EXHAUST STROKE
The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases escape to the atmosphere
through the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes and the
cycle is completed. This stroke is represented by the line 1-5.
The four-strokes complete one cycle which may repeat again to produce power.
Lubrication system
Lubrication system is used to reduce frictional losses between moving parts of
an engine.
To prevent damage to the engine parts such as cylinder walls, cylinder head,
etc.at high temperature
To improve overall efficiency of an engine
To prevent abnormal ignition of air-fuel mixture
1) 1st Stroke
To start with let us assume the piston to be at its B.D.C. position. The arrangement of the ports is
such that the piston performs two jobs simultaneously. As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C.
position it closes the transfer port and the exhaust port. The charge (mixture, of the air and
petrol) which is already there in the cylinder, as the result of the previous running of the engine
is compressed at the same time with the upward movement of the piston vacuum is created in the
crank case (which is gas tight). As son as the inlet port is uncovered; the fresh change in sucked
in the crank case. The charging is continued until the crank case and the space in the cylinder
beneath the piston is filled with the charge. As the end of third stroke, the piston reached the
T.D.C. position.
2) 2nd Stroke
Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke, the compressed charge is ignited by
means of a spark produced at the spark plug. Pressure is exerted on the crank of the piston due to
the combustion of the piston is pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power.
The downward movement of the will first close the inlet port and then it will compress the
charge already sucked in the crank case.
Just the end of power stroke, the piston uncovered the exhaust port and the transfer port
simultaneously the expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and the same time the
fresh charge which is already compressed in the crank case, rushed into the cylinder through the
transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
The fresh charge coming into the cylinder also helps in exhausting the burnt gases out of the
cylinder through the exhaust port. This is known as scavenging.
1st Stroke
As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C. position, it closes the transfer and the exhaust port.
The air which is already there in the cylinder is compressed. At the same time with the
upward movement of the piston, vacuum is created in the crank case. As soon as the inlet
port is uncovered the fresh air is sucked in the crank case. The charging is continued until the
crank case and the space in the cylinder beneath the piston in filled with the air
2nd Stroke
Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke a very fine spray of diesel is injected
into the compressed air (which is at a very high temperature). The fuel ignites spontaneously.
Pressure is exerted on the crown of the piston due to the combustion of the air and the piston is
pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power. The downward movement of the
piston will first close the inlet port and then it will compress the air already sucked in the crank
case. Just at the end of power stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port
simultaneously. The expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and at the same time
the fresh air which is already compressed in the crank case, rushes into the cylinder through the
transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
Scavenging
The transfer port is opened and some percentage of air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder to
push out the exhaust gasses. In this process some of the fresh charge is lost to the atmosphere
which is called scavenging
There is one power stroke for There is one power stroke for one
two revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
For the same power, engine size For the same power, engine size is
is large Small
Inlet and exhaust valves are Inlet port , exhaust port and transfer
present port are present
Boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced above atmospheric pressure by the
application of heat.
Tell the Difference between fire tube and water tube boiler
Water pass through the tubes Hot flue gases pass through the
tubes
Simple vertical boilers of the fire tube type boiler in small plants requiring small quantities of
steam and where floor area is limited. The most common applications are steam rollers, pile
drivers, portable hoisting rigs etc. Cochran boiler, as shown, provides an excellent example
of the improved design of vertical, multi-tubular, internally fired natural circulation boiler.
It consists of
1. Boiler shell with hemispherical crown,
2. Furnace, fire box and grate
3. Combustion chamber and flue pipes
4. Smoke box and chimney
5. Connections for boiler mountings and accessories.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
The unit consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome shaped top where the space is provided for
steam. The shell is formed of steel plates joined together with rivets. The fuel is burnt on grate in
the furnace provided at the bottom most part of the boiler. Thegrate consists of iron bars which
are arranged with space between them. The spacing allows the air to pass onto the fuel for
combustion. The fire box is hemispherical so that the un burnt fuel, if any, is deflected back to
the grate and complete combustion is achieved.An ash pit is attached beneath the furnace for
collecting ash after regular intervals. The coal, on burning, produces hot flue gases and these hot
products of combustion from the fire box enter through the small flue pipe into the combustion
chamber which is lined with fire bricks on the outer walls of the boiler. The lining prevents the
shell from being damaged due to the overheating. The unburnt fuel is deflected back to the grate
and complete combustion is achieved in combustion chamber where the high temperatures are
maintained.
The hot gases passing through the horizontal smoke tubes give their heat to the water and in
doing so convert water into steam which gets accumulated in the upper portion of the shell from
where it can be supplied to the user. Finally the flue gases are discharged to the atmosphere
through the smoke box and the chimney. The smoke box door enables the cleaning and
inspection of the smoke box and fire tubes. Through a manhole provided at the crown of the
shell, a man can enter the boiler for periodic cleaning and maintenance of the boiler. The
Cochran boiler is compact in design and there is good external and internal accessibility. Its
efficiency is up to 70 to 75%.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
WORKING
The boiler barrel is cylindrical shell and consists of large number of flue tubes. The barrel
comprise of a rectangular fire box at one end and a smoke box at the other end. The coal is
introduced in fire box through fire hole and is made to burn on the grate. Water is filled into
cylindrical boiler shell up to about ¾ level. Hot gases which are generated as a result of coal
burning rise and get deflected by fixed fire brick lining. The hot flue gases heats water and then
reach the smoke box at the other end. Finally flue gasses pass to atmosphere through short
chimney. The steam produced is stored in steam space and steam dome. A throttle valve is
provided in steam dome. The throttle valve is controlled by regulating rod from outside. For
super heating, steam passes through throttle valve to the super heater.
Power plant
Power plant is an assembly of equipment that produces electrical energy.
A prime mover is a device that is used to convert energy from any natural source into
mechanical energy.
Function of economizer
There are four main circuits in any thermal power plant and these are
This circuit deals mainly with feeding the boiler with coal for combustion purposes and taking
care of the ash that is generated during the combustion process and includes equipment that is
used to handle the transfer and storage of coal and ash.
We know that air is one of the main components of the fire triangle and hence necessary for
combustion. Since lots of coal is burnt inside the boiler it needs a sufficient quantity of air which is
supplied using either forced draught or induced draught fans. The exhaust gases from the combustion
are in turn used to heat the ingoing air through a heat exchanger before being let off in the
atmosphere. The equipment which handles all these processes fall under this circuit.
Feed Water & Steam Circuit
This section deals with supplying of steam generated from the boiler to the turbines and to handle the
outgoing steam from the turbine by cooling it to form water in the condenser so that it can be reused
in the boiler plus making good any losses due to evaporation etc.
Cooling Water Circuit
This part of the thermal power plant deals with handling of the cooling water required in the system.
Since the amount of water required to cool the outgoing steam from the boiler is substantial, it is
either taken from a nearby water source such as a river, or it is done through evaporation if the
quantity of cooling water available is limited.
Advantages
A portion of the steam generated can be used as a process steam in different industries
Steam engines and turbines can work under 25 % of overload continuously Fuel used is
cheaper
Cheaper in production cost in comparison with that of diesel power stations
Disadvantages
Maintenance and operating costs are high
Long time required for erection and putting into action
A large quantity of water is required
Great difficulty experienced in coal handling
Presence of troubles due to smoke and heat in the plant
Unavailability of good quality coal
Maximum of heat energy lost
Problem of ash removing
1. Fuel- The isotope of Uranium U-235 is used as the basic nuclear fuel. It is used inform of
pallets. The uranium oxide (UO2) pallets are arranged in tubes known as
fuel rods. These pellets are backed at high temperature up to 1400°C. The pellets are inserted
into zirconium alloy thin tubes or stainless steel tubes to get the fuel rods. Thus the fuel rods
are arranged to form the fuel assemblies in reactor core.
2. Moderator and coolant- Water or graphite is used as a moderator. This ismaterial of core
which uses to slow down the speed of released neutrons that can be undergo other fission.
Water is also used as coolant. It circulates from the core to transfer the heat.
3. Control rods- As in the nuclear fission reaction, the nuclear explosion also cantakes place if
the reaction is not controlled. So the control rods control the rate of nuclear reaction to avoid
the nuclear explosion. The neutron-absorbing material like cadmium, hafnium or boron etc is
used to make the control rods. The rate of nuclear reaction can be increased or decreased by
inserting or withdrawn the control rods from the core according to the requirement of process.
4. Pressure vessel- The pressure vessel is a robust steel vessel that contains thereactor core and
moderator or coolant. It can be also in the form of pressure tubes. If the tubes are used then
these are series of tubes that holds the fuel.
5. Steam generator- The cooling system contains the steam generator. The heatfrom the reactor
comes in the steam generator from the primary coolant and then it is used to make steam for
the turbine.
6. Containment- It works as protector. It protects the reactor form outside intrusionand the
effects of harmful radiation. This is a meter thick concrete and steel structure around the
reactor core.
WORKING
In the nuclear power plant, the released heat of a nuclear fission reaction is used to turns a steam
turbine and it produce electric power.
The nuclear fission of uranium-235 occurs by bombardment of neutrons on nuclear fuel uranium
and thus the decaying process takes place.
The absorption of neutrons by the atom of nuclear fuel uranium causes the splitting of uranium
into smaller atoms.
The uranium pellets are arranged as long rods. These rods are collected together to form bundles.
The bundles are dropped in water of a pressure vessel.
The control rods prevent the overheating by absorbing neutrons to control the rate of nuclear
reaction. If more energy is required then the rods are lifted out from the bundle to absorb few
electrons.
The control rods can be lowered into the uranium bundle for reducing the level of heat. The heat
from the fission of uranium bundle turns the water in to steam.
This steam turns a turbine and thus generator starts spin and produces the electric energy.
As the high energy neutrons are emitted so these are directly absorbed by the other uranium atom
in fast reactors.
This tendency is greater in isotope Uranium-238 than Uranium-235. This is the main reason to
use much larger fraction of U-235 is used as fuel in fast reactors. While in slow reactors or
thermal reactors, the speed of produced neutrons is in control so that neutrons are absorbed by the
correct isotope of uranium-235.
Advatages
The reaction does not produce pollutants or hazardous smoke of green house gases like carbon
dioxide.
The reactor is able of generating huge amount of energy by using negligible amount of fuel.
The waste of nuclear reactor is negligible.
Disadvantages
Although the waste is very small but it is more dangerous than the by products of many other
fossil fuels. The residue needs to be buried deep down in earth for thousands of year so the
radioactivity can diminish. It should also be kept safe from earth quake, floods and terrorist
attack.
The source of energy is although reliable but to maintain the safety of the plant is very expensive.
In case of any accident, the nuclear power station can result into a disaster.
The nuclear energy is no doubt a very useful source to meet the energy requirement but it also create
issues of mishandling. However, energy is the backbone of our society and there is no way to escape
the every increasing need. It is also suggested that the states that use nuclear reactors to fulfillthere
needs must behave responsibly and discard the wastage properly.
Casting processes
Forming processes
Machining processes &Joining processes
Metal Forming
Hot Working
Hot working is defined as the forming of metals above their recrystallization temperature. (600°-
700 °C) Example of hot working of metals: Forging, Extrusion, Hot rolling etc.
Cold Working
Cold working is the forming of metals below their recrystallization temperature. (600°-below)
Example of hot working of metals: Shearing, Drawing, Squeezing, Bending etc.
Rolling Process
It is a metal forming process to get plates, sheets, and various sections of rods by passing the
metal between rotating rollers.
ROLLING PROCESS
Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional area or shaping a metal piece through
the deformation caused by a pair of rotating in opposite directions metal rolls.
The amount of deformation “R” achieved in a flat rolling operation (thickness reduction) is
determined by the relationship:
R = 100% * (H – H0)/H0
A machine used for rolling metal is called rolling mill. A typical rolling mill consists of a pair of rolls
driven by an electric motor transmitting a torque through a gear and pair of cardans. The rolls are
equipped with bearings and mounted in a stand with a screw-down mechanism. A force applied to the
rolls in vertical direction is called roll separating force. A rolling mill is characterized by the maximum
values of its roll separating force and the torque.
The maximum amount of deformation (thickness reduction) which may be achieved in a single rolling
pass is determined by the maximum roll separating force, maximum torque, work roll diameter,
friction coefficient and mechanical strength of the rolled material and its width.
Low roll diameter results in low roll contact area and consequently in low absolute value of the roll
separating force and the torque required for achieving a certain thickness reduction. However such
rolls are susceptible to bending and causing non-uniform widthwise strip thickness distribution
(convex crown). Complex rolling mill designs employing back-up rolls are used to diminish the
bending effect
TYPES
Hot rolling is a rolling operation carried out at a temperature exceeding the recrystallization
temperature and permitting large amount of deformation.
Cold rolling is a rolling operation carried out at room temperature. Cold rolling is
commonlyconducted after hot rolling when good surface quality and low thickness tolerance are
needed. Cold rolling causes material strengthening and may be followed by annealing.
Forging
It is a forming process where the product of desired shape and size is obtained by pressing or
hammering.
FORGING PROCESS
Forging is a compressive metal forming process, involving shaping a metal piece by hammer, press or
rolls.
Hammer forging (drop forging) is forming a preheated work piece by using impactenergy of
the falling hammer forcing the metal to fill the space between the punch (a part attached to the
hammer) and the forging die (a part attached to the anvil).
Press forging achieves more uniform internal structure due to transmitting deformation to the
interior layers of the work piece. This effect is particularly important when large shafts or other
thick parts are forged.
Upset forging is a forging operation which is employed for manufacturing head ofbolts,
valves, artillery shells and other parts where increase of cross section dimensions of the
workpiece is desired.
It is a process in which the hot metal in plastic state is plunged through the hole of
required shape to get different sections of rod
EXTRUSION PROCESS
The process of extrusion is simply forcing a billet of metal through a shaped die to produce a
continuous length of constant section similar to the die profile. There are two basic extrusion
processes
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion.
Direct extrusion is by far the most widely used process. Indirect extrusion more efficient and produced
higher quality products.
Extrusion presses are generally hydraulically operated and the process is generally completed in a
horizontal elevation. An extrusion press can have a capacity of over 200 MN for extruding stiffer
metals such as titanium or steel. Hot metal extrusion involves preheating the billet prior to extrusion to
reduce the work required to extrude the section.
The term extrusion is usually applied to both the process, and the product obtained, when a hot
cylindrical billet of aluminum is pushed through a shaped die (forward or direct extrusion, see Figure.
The resulting section can be used in long lengths or cut into short parts for use in structures, vehicles
or components. Also, extrusions are used for the starting stock for drawn rod, cold extruded and forged
products. While the majority of the many hundreds of extrusion presses used throughout the world are
covered by the simple description given above it should be noted that some presses accommodate
rectangular shaped billets for the purpose of producing extrusions with wide section sizes. Other
presses are designed to push the die into the billet. This latter modification is usually termed "indirect"
extrusion.
Wire Drawing
It is a deforming process in which the metal rod or wire with larger diameter is pulled through a
die hole to produce a wire of smaller diameter
DRAWING PROCESS
It is a process of cold forming a flat blank of sheet metal into a hollow vessel without much
wrinkling, trimming, or fracturing. The process involves forcing the sheet metal blank into a die cavity
with a punch. The punch exerts sufficient force and the metal is drawn over the edge of the die
opening and into the die as shown in fig. In forming a cup, however, the metal goes completely into
the die.
The metal being drawn must possess a combination of ductility and strength so that it does not rupture
in the critical area (where the metal blends from the punch face to the vertical portion of the punch).
The metal in this area is subjected to stress that occurs when the metal is pulled from the flat blank
into the die.
OPERATION
A setup similar to that used for blanking is used for drawing with the difference that the punch and die
are given necessary rounding at the corners to permit smooth flow of metal during drawing. The blank
of appropriate dimensions is place within the guides on the die plate. The punch descends slowly on
the blank and metal is drawn into the die and the blank is formed into the shape of cup as punch
reaches the bottom of the die. When the cup reaches the counter
– bored portion of the die, the top edge of the cup formed around the punch expands a bit due to the
spring back. On the return stroke of the punch, the cup is stripped off the punch by this counter – bored
portion.
The term shallow drawing is used when the height of cup formed is less than half its diameter. When
drawing deeper cup (height greater that ½ diameter) the chances of excessive wrinkle formation at the
edges of blank increases. To prevent this, a blank holder is normally provided, see Fig. As the drawing
process proceeds the blank holder stops the blank from increasing in thickness beyond a limit and
allows the metal to flow radially. The limiting thickness is controlled by the gap between the die and
the blank holder, or by the spring pressure in the case of a spring loaded blank holder.
Some lubricant is generally used over the face of the blank to reduce friction and hence drawing load.
Welding Process
It is defined as the process of joining two similar or dissimilar materials
Arc welding is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an
electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes
through ionized gas.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature may
reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining them.
When a long join is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool
melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Arc welding is performed by striking an arc between a coated-metal electrode and the base metal.
Once the arc has been established, the molten metal from the tip of the electrode flows together with
the molten metal from the edges of the base metal to forma sound joint. This process is known as
fusion.
The coating from the electrode forms a covering over the weld deposit, shielding it from
contamination Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Therefore the process is called shielded metal arc
welding. The main advantages of shielded metal arc welding are that high-quality welds are made
rapidly at a low cost.
The welding electrode (the stick or rod) has an inner core of metal similar to the material that is being
welded. This core also has a diameter that is proportional to the material – as the work-piece gets
thicker, so too should the rod. The inner of the rod is surrounded by a welding flux. When the molten
material solidifies, the flux forms a separate layer on top that can later be knocked away with the
chipping hammer.
When a filler metal is required for better bonding, filling rod (wire) is used either as outside material
fed to the arc region or as consumable welding electrode, which melts and fills the weld pool. A
chemical composition of filler metal is similar to that of work piece.
Molten metal in the weld pool is chemically active and it reacts with the surrounding atmosphere. As a
result weld may be contaminated by oxide and nitride inclusions deteriorating its mechanical
properties. Neutral shielding gases (argon, helium) and/or shielding fluxes are used for protection of
the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Shields are supplied to the weld zone in form of a flux
coating of the electrode or in other forms.
Welding Rods
In addition to the differences in diameter described above, welding rods vary in other characteristics.
(Despite “general purpose” welding rods being sold at every hardware store, in fact rods should always
be matched to the application.) The flux on welding rods serves these functions:
Mild steel
Cast iron
Stainless steel
Copper, bronze, brass, etc
High tensile steel
ADVANTAGES
Strong and tight joining
Cost effectiveness
Simplicity of welded structures design
Welding processes may be mechanized and automated.
DISADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS
Metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their interface by
producing coalescence with one or more gas flames (such as oxygen and acetylene), with or without
the use of a filler metal.
Gas Welding is a welding process utilizing heat of the flame from a welding torch. The torch mixes
a fuel gas with Oxygen in the proper ratio and flow rate providing combustion process at a required
temperature. The hot flame fuses the edges of the welded parts, which are joined together forming a
weld after Solidification.
The flame temperature is determined by a type of the fuel gas and proportion of oxygen in the
combustion mixture: 4500°F - 6300°F (2500°C - 3500°C). Depending on the proportion of the fuel
gas and oxygen in the combustion mixture, the flame may be chemically neutral (stoichiometric
content of the gases), oxidizing (excess of oxygen), and carburizing (excess of fuel gas).
Filler rod is used when an additional supply of metal to weld is required. Shielding flux may be used
if protection of weld pool is necessary. Most of commercial metals may be welded by Gas Welding
excluding reactive metals (titanium, zirconium) and refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum).
Oxyacetylene gas welding is commonly used to permanently join mild steel. A mixture of oxygen and
acetylene burns as an intense / focused flame, at approximately 3,500 degrees centigrade. When the
flame comes in contact with steel, it melts the surface forming a molten pool, allowing welding to take
place. Oxyacetylene can also be used for brazing, bronze welding, forging / shaping metal and cutting.
This type of welding is suitable for the prefabrication of steel sheet, tubes and plates.
Flame temperature differs according to the type of oxygen and fuel to fuel ratio. Velocity of flame
travel through adjacent unburned gas is called as flame propagation rate. It affects the size and
temperature of the primary flame. This also influences the maximum velocity at which gases might be
made to flow from the torch tip without causing a flame standoff or backfire. In case of flame standoff
combustion occur some distance from the torch tip instead of right at the tip whereas in case of
backfire there is recession of flame into the torch tip.
The oxyfuel procedure requires cylinder of oxygen and fuel gas (Figure 8). Each cylinder is fixed
along a regulator and two pressure gauges (one for the pressure in cylinder and the other one for the
pressure of gas being fed to the torch).
Natural gas/methane, butane, propane or hydrogen might be used with oxygen but oxy acetylene
welding (OAW) in which acetylene is utilized with oxygen is most broadly used welding method
because of its high flame temperature. The oxyacetylene flame might also be utilized for all types of
brazing processes. Oxyacetylene flame might be carbursing (excess acetylene with oxygen) that is blue
with a red and orange end, an oxidising frame (excess of oxygen) resultant in short hoisy, hissing inner
cone. Oxidizing flame tends to burn the metal being welded. However the neutral flame (perfect
mixture of oxygen & acetylene) which has a quiet, blue white inner cone is best suitable for most
welding procedure.
Brazing
Brazing is a joining process wherein metals are bonded together using a filler metal with a
melting (liquids) temperature greater than 450°C(840 °F), but lower than the melting
temperature of the base metal.
Filler metals are generally alloys of silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), gold Au), copper (Cu), cobalt
(Co) or nickel (Ni)ss
Soldering
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the work piece.
SOLDERING
Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third metal (solder) ata
relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the solder but below the melting point
of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the molten solder into the gap between the work pieces
is driven by the capillary force. The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint.
The parent materials are not fused in the process. Soldering is a joining process that occurs at
temperatures below 450 °C (842 °F). It is similar to brazing in the fact that filler is melted and drawn
into a capillary to form a join, although at a lower temperature. Because of this lower temperature and
different alloys used as fillers, the metallurgical reaction between filler and work piece is minimal,
resulting in a weaker joint.
Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy solders melt at
temperatures below 840°F (450°C); brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above this point. The
difference between soldering and welding processes is more sufficient: in the welding processes edges
of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler metal) or pressed to each other without any
filler material; soldering joins two parts without melting them but through a soft low melting point
solder. Soldering joints have relatively low tensile strength of about 10000 psi (70 MPa).
Soldering methods
Hand soldering
Iron soldering
Torch soldering
Wave soldering
Reflow soldering
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion Large
sections cannot be joined
Fluxes may contain toxic components
Soldering joints cannot be used in high temperature applications Low
strength of joints.
BRAZING
Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at atemperature
above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the
molten filler material into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The filler
material cools down and solidifies forming a strong metallurgical joint, which is usually stronger than
the parent (work piece) materials. The parent materials are not fused in the process.
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and drawn into a capillary formed by the
assembly of two or more work pieces. The filler metal reacts metallurgically with the work piece(s)
and solidifies in the capillary, forming a strong joint.
Unlike welding, the work piece is not melted. Brazing is similar to soldering, but occurs at
temperatures in excess of 450 °C (842 °F). Brazing has the advantage of producing less thermal
stresses than welding, and brazed assemblies tend to be more ductile than weldments because alloying
elements cannot segregate and precipitate
Brazing is similar to Soldering. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy brazing filler
materials melt at temperatures above 840°F (450°C); soldering filler materials (solders) melt at
temperatures below this point.
The difference between brazing and welding processes is more sufficient in the welding processes
edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler metal) or pressed to each other
without any filler material; brazing joins two parts without melting them but through a fused filler
metal.
Copper filler alloys: BCuP-2 (Cu-7P), BCuP-4 (Cu-6Ag-7P). Used for brazing Copper alloys,
steels, Nickel alloys.
Aluminum filler alloys: Al-4Cu-10Si, Al-12Si, Al-4Cu-10Si-10Zn, 4043 (Al-5.2Si), 4045
(Al-10Si). Used for brazing Aluminum alloys.
Magnesium filler alloys: BMg-1 (Mg-9Al-2Zn), BMg-2 (Mg-12Al-5Zn). Used for brazing
Magnesium alloysNickel filler alloys: BNi-1 (Ni-14Cr-4Si-3.4B-0.75C), BNi-2 (Ni-7Cr-4.5Si-
3.1B-3Fe), BNi-3 (Ni-4.5Si-3.1B). Used for brazing Nickel alloys, cobalt alloys, Stainless
steels. Silver brazing alloys: BAg-4 (40Ag-30Cu-28Zn-2Ni), BAg-5 (45Ag-30Cu-25Zn),
BAg-6 (50Ag-34Cu-16Zn), BAg-7 (56Ag-22Cu-17Zn-5Sn). Used for most of metals and
alloys except aluminum and magnesium alloys.
Brazing methods
Torch brazing utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas with
Oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion process at a required
temperature.
Furnace brazing uses a furnace for heating the work pieces.
Vacuum brazing is a type of furnace brazing, in which heating is performed invacuum.
Induction brazing utilizes alternating electro-magnetic field of high frequency forheating the
work pieces together with the flux and the filler metal placed in the joint region.
Resistance brazing uses a heat generated by an electric current flowing through thework
pieces.
Dip brazing is a brazing method, in which the work pieces together with the fillermetal are
immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The filler material melts and flows into the joint.
Infrared brazing utilizes a heat of a high power infrared lamp.
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Moulding
Moulding refers to the process of making a mould by using a moulding box, sand and other moulding
tools. It also refers to the casting
Pattern
A pattern is a model of the object to be cast.
PATTERN
In sand casting a few different types of patterns may be used in the process.
Solid Pattern
This is a one piece pattern representing the geometry of the casting. It is an easy pattern to
manufacture, but determining the parting line between cope and drag is more difficult for the foundry
worker.
Split Pattern
The split pattern is comprised of two separate parts that when put together will represent the
geometry of the casting. When placed in the mold properly the plane a which the two parts are
assembled should coincide with the parting line of the mold. This makes it easier to manufacture a
pattern with more complicated geometry. Also mold setup is easier since the patterns placement
relative to the parting line of the mold is predetermined.
Match Plate Pattern
The match plate pattern is typically used in high production industry runs for casting manufacture. A
match plate pattern is a two piece pattern representing the casting, and divided at the parting line,
similar to the split pattern. In the match plate pattern, however, each of the parts are mounted on a
plate. The plates come together to assemble the pattern for the casting process. The match plate pattern
is more proficient and makes alignment of the pattern in the mold quick and accurate.
The cope and drag pattern is also typical in casting manufacture for high production industry runs. The
cope and drag pattern is the same as the match plate pattern in that it is a two piece pattern
representing the casting and divided at the parting line. Each of the two halves are mounted on a plate
for easy alignment of the pattern and mold. The difference between the cope and drag pattern and the
match plate pattern is that in the match plate pattern the two halves are mounted together, where as in
the cope and drag pattern the two halves are separate. The cope and drag pattern enables the cope
section of the mold, and the drag section of the mold to be created separately and latter assembled
before the pouring of the casting.
PATTERN MATERIAL
Some materials used for making patterns are:
Wood
Metals and alloys
Plastic
Plaster of Paris
Plastic
Rubbers
Wax and resins.
A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout neat its base. Cupolas
are used only for melting cast irons, and although other furnaces are also used the largest tonnage of
cast iron is melted in cupolas.
It consists of a large shell of steel plate lined with refractory. The charge, consisting or iron, Coke, flux
and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up the
height of the cupola.
The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap (including risers, runners, and sprues left over from
previous castings). Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace. Forced air is introduced through openings
near the bottom of the shell for combustion of the coke.
The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts with coke ash and other impurities to form
slag. The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from reaction with the environment inside the
cupola and reducing heat loss. As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs, the furnace is
periodically tapped to provide liquid metal for the pour.
CONSTRUCTION
A cupola or cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries that can be used to melt cast
iron,ni-resist iron and some bronzes. The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a
cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from 1.5 to 13 feet (0.5 to 4.0 m). [1]
The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged vertically, usually supported by four
legs. The overall look is similar to a large smokestack.
The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top
where gases escape can be open or fitted with a cap to prevent rain from entering the cupola. To
control emissions a cupola may be fitted with a cap that is designed to pull the gases into a device to
cool the gases and remove particulate matter.
The shell of the cupola, being usually made of steel, has refractory brick and plastic[note 1] refractory
patching material lining it. The bottom is lined in a similar manner but often a clay and sand mixture
("bod") may be used, as this lining is temporary.Finely divided coal ("sea coal") can be mixed with the
clay lining so when heated the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the
opening up of the tap holes.[3] The bottom lining is compressed or 'rammed' against the bottom doors.
Some cupolas are fitted with cooling jackets to keep the sides cool and with oxygen injection to make
the coke fire burn hotter.
OPERATION
The furnace is filled with layers of coke and ignited with torches. Some smaller cupolas may be
ignited with wood to start the coke burning. When the coke is ignited, air is introduced to the coke bed
through ports in the sides called tuyeres.
When the coke is very hot, solid pieces of metal are charged into the furnace through an opening in the
top. The metal is alternated with additional layers of fresh coke. Limestone is added to act as a flux.
As the heat rises within the stack the metal is melted. It drips down through the coke bed to collect in a
pool at the bottom, just above the bottom doors. During the
melting process a thermodynamic reaction takes place between the fuel and the blast air. The carbon
in the coke combines with the oxygen in the air to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide
further burns to form carbon dioxide.
Some of the carbon is picked up by the falling droplets of molten metal which raises the carbon
content of the iron. Silicon carbide and ferromanganese briquettes may also be added to the charge
materials. The silicon carbide dissociates and carbon and silicon enters into the molten metal.
Likewise, the ferromanganese melts and is combined into the pool of liquid iron in the 'well' at the
bottom of the cupola. Additions to the molten iron such as ferromanganese, ferrosilicon, Silicon
carbide and other alloying agents are used to alter the molten iron to conform to the needs of the
castings at hand.
After the cupola has produced enough metal to supply the foundry with its needs, the bottom is
opened, or 'dropped' and the remaining materials fall to the floor between the legs. This material is
allowed to cool and subsequently removed. The cupola can be used over and over. A 'campaign' may
last a few hours, a day, weeks or even months.
When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the bottom door is knocked down
so that the bottom plates swing open. This enables the cupola remains to drop to the floor or into a
bucket. They are then quenched and removed from underneath the cupola.
CUPOLA ZONES
It is the zone where combustion takes place. It extends from the top of the tuyeres to a surface
boundary below which all the Oxygen of air is consumed by combustion, chemical reaction that
takes place in the zone is
Reducing zone
It extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the initial coke bed. The CO2 produced
in the combustion zone moves up and is reduced to CO. The temperature also drops to 1650°C.
C02 + C2 -» CO – Heat
Preheating zone
It includes all the layers of cupola charges placed above the melting zone to the top of the last
charge. The layers of charges are heated by the out-going gases. The temperature in the zone may
be up to 1050°C.
Stack:
It is the zone beyond the pre-heating zone, through which the hot gases go to the atmosphere
Moulding board
Shovel
Riddle
Rammer
Trowels
Types Of Moulding
Bench moulding
Floor moulding
Pit moulding
Machine moulding
Green sand moulding
Dry sand moulding
Plaster moulding
Carbon-di-oxide moulding
Loam sand moulding
Green Sand
Green sand is a special type of sand used to make mould. The sand contains binders water and addit
PREPARATION OF GREEN SAND MOULDING
First the moulding board is cleaned by a brush and kept on the table.
Inside walls of the drag are cleaned thoroughly and the drag is kept centrally on the moulding
board.
The lower half of the pattern is cleaned and kept centrally inside the drag.
Now, green sand is brought by a shovel and filled to the top level of the drag box. With the
rammer, the sand is packed tightly inside the drag box around the pattern and side walls.
Excessive sand is leveled off with a strike off bar and vent holes are made.
Now the drag with pattern and packed sand is turned upside down and placed firmly on the
moulding board. Now the top surface of the drag box shows sand with the pattern inside.
Now dry sand or parting sand is sprinkled on and around the pattern. This is done to avoid the
sticking of sand at the parting surface. Now, preparation of one half of the moulding box (drag)
is over.
Now, the top half of the moulding box (cope) is taken and inside walls are cleaned thoroughly.
The cope is placed directly above the drag and aligned properly with the help of the dowel
pins.
Now the top half of the pattern is placed inside the cope box directly above the bottom half of
the pattern at the parting line.
Other tools like sprue pin, runners, risers are kept at correct positions inside the cope box
Now the cope is filled with green sand and rammed tightly and excessive sand is leveled off with a
stike off bar. Vent holes are made with a vent wire. Now the preparation of the cope box is over.
Now the cope and drag are separated to remove the pattern from the sand cavity with the help of draw
spike.
Other tools like runner, riser, sprue pin are also removed.
Now the cope is fitted again on the top of the drag and the molten metal should be poured through the
sprue hole. The metal will go through the sprue hole to the runner to the gate and finally to mould
cavity.
If the molten metal is poured excessively, it will come through the riser outside.
.
CHAPTER-III
MACHINING OPERATIONS
The different types of machining process are turning, shaping, drilling, milling, boring,
grinding etc.
Types Of Tool
Types Of Lathe
Speed lathe
Center lathe or engine lathe
Bench lathe
Tool room lathe
Turret and capstan lathe
Special purpose lathe
Copying lathe
Parts Of Lathe
Bed
Head stock
Tail stock
Carriage
Tool post
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various
operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools
that are applied to the work piece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, Thermal spraying/ parts
reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being
the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most
solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce
three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The material can be held in place by either one
or two centers, at least one of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate varying material
lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a
chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs.
COMPONENTS OF LATHE
Bed:
Usually made of cast iron. Provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the main components
are mounted.
Headstock:
Mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways, usually at the left end. Using a chuck, it
rotates the work.
Gearbox:
Inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio by moving levers.
Spindle:
Hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts that are upto
2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a time.
Chuck:
3-jaw (self centering) or 4-jaw (independent) to clamp part being machined. Allows the
mounting of difficult work pieces that are not round, square or triangular.
Tailstock:
Fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards any position the headstock to fit the
length of the work piece. An optional taper turning attachment would be mounted to it.
Carriage:
Moves on the outer ways. Used for mounting and moving most the cutting tools.
Cross Slide:
Mounted on the traverse slide of the carriage, and uses a hand wheel to feed tools into the
workpiece.
The lathe on which you will work is a machine used to cut metal. The spindle carrying the
work is rotated whilst a cutting tool, which is supported in a tool post, is made to travel in a certain
direction depending on the form of surface required. If the tool moves parallel to the axis of the
rotation of the work a cylindrical surface is produced as in Fig 2 (a) , whilst if it moves at right
angles to this axis it produces a flat surface as in Fig 2 (b).
Figure 2c. Taper Turning Figure 2d. Parting Off / Under Cutting
Tool Post:
Compound Rest:
Feed Rod:
Has a keyway, with two reversing pinion gears, either of which can be meshed with the
mating bevel gear to forward or reverse the carriage using a clutch.
The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hand or power. The
carriage has the following parts.
Saddle
Cross slide
Compound rest
Tool post
Apron
Straight turning
Facing
Chamfering
Knurling
In up milling process, the work piece is feed in the opposite direction as that of the cutter’s
tangential velocity
Down Milling
In down milling process, the work piece is feed in the same direction as that of the
cutter’s tangential velocity.
The Horizontal Milling Machine is a very robust and sturdy machine. A variety of cutters are
available to removed/shape material that is normally held in a strong machine vice. This
horizontal miller is used when a vertical miller is less suitable. For instance, if a lot of material has
to be removed by the cutters or there is less of a need for accuracy - a horizontal milling machine is
chosen.
The cutter can be changed very easily. The arbor bracket is removed by loosening nuts and bolts
that hold the arbor firmly in position. The arbor can be slid off the over arm. The spacers are then
removed as well as the original cutter. The new cutter is placed in position, spacers slid back onto
the arbor and the arbor bracket tightened back in position.
FUNCTION
Column
The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gear box, the clutches, the shafts, the pumps, and
the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a selected
speed.
Knee
The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or down
motion along the Z axis.
Saddle
The saddle consists of two slide ways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at 90º to each
other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes by means of lead screws.
Table
The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top of the table
are some T-slots for the mounting of workpiece or clamping fixtures.
Arbor
The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end of an arbor is
of left hand helix.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The work piece is holding on the worktable of the machine. The table movement controls the feed
of work piece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle or arbor and revolves at
high speed. Except for rotation the cutter has no other motion. As the workpiece advances, the
cutter teeth remove the metal from the surface of workpiece and the desired shape is produced.
Figure shows a vertical milling machine which is of similar construction to a horizontal milling
machine except that the spindle is mounted in the vertical position.
Tool head-The tool head houses the spindle. The tool head is located at the end of the Ram.The
tool head also contains the motor.
Column-The column of the milling machine, along with the base, are the major
structuralcomponents. They hold, align, and support the rest of the machine.
Table-Holds and secures the workpiece for machining.
Saddle-The saddle it attached to the knee. The saddle provides the in and out, or Y axistravel of the
table.
Knee-The knee supports the saddle and the table. The knee can be moved up and down
forworkpiece positioning.
Ram-The ram allows the Tool head to slide in and out. The ram gives the machine greatercapacity
and flexibility. It is recommended that the tool head be kept as close to the column as possible
during heavy milling work.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The workpiece is holding on the worktable of the machine. The table movement controls the feed of
workpiece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle or arbor and revolves at
high speed. Except for rotation the cutter has no other motion. As the workpiece advances, the
cutter teeth remove the metal from the surface of workpiece and the desired shape is produced.
Milling Machine
Plain Milling
Plain milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter parallel to the machining
surface. It can be carried out either on a horizontal machine or a vertical machine as shown in
figure.
End Milling
End Milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter perpendicular to the machining
surface as shown in figure.
Gang Milling
Milling Set Up
Correct use of holding device and a good set up are of crucial importance in achieving a safe,
accurate, and efficient operation of the machine. Large workpiece can be mounted directly onto
the machine table by means of tenons and screws while small work pieces are usually held by
machine vice as shown in figure 20. In either case, a dial indicator is used for alignment checking
Vice Alignment
In the setting up of the vice onto the machine table, the fix jaw of the vice must be set parallel to
the machine table using a Parallel Bar and a Dial Indicator as illustrated in figure 21. Adjustments
can only be made by using a hide face hammer to correct its position such that a near zero
indicator movement is achieved at all positions along the parallel bar
Any Four Operations Performed On Milling Machine
Plain milling
Face milling
Side and face milling
Straddle milling
Apron:
Attached to the front of the carriage, it has the mechanism and controls for moving the
carriage and crossslide.
1. Base:
The base of the machine is a large cast iron material on which is mounted a cylindrical vertical
column. The base is provided with T-slots, which help the work piece to be clamped rigidly to the
base of the machine.
2. Vertical column:
The column is a long, cylindrical shaped part fastened rigidly to the base. The column carries a
radial arm that can be raised or lowered by means of an electric motor and can be clamped to any
desired position. The radial arm can also be rotated (swiveled) in a complete circle around the
column.
3. Drill head:
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and carries a driving motor and a mechanism for
revolving an feeding (power feed) the drill bit into the workpiece. The drill head can be moved
horizontally on the guide ways provided in the radial arm, and can be clamped to any desired
position.
With the combination of the movements of radial arm the drill head, it is possible to move the drill
bit, and hence generate a hole at any desired position without moving the work piece.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and heavy work pieces.
Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type.
The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill head and motor. Fig
shows the line sketch of radial drilling machine.
The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of elevating screw provided
on the side of the column, which is driven by a motor.
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide ways provided the radial
arm can also be swiveled around the column.
The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, which carries the drill
bit. A drill head may be moved on the arm manually or by power.
Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism.
Radial drilling machines are used for drilling medium or large diameter holes up to 50 mm in
heavy work pieces.
Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Counter boring
Counter sinking
Spot facing
Tapping
Twist drill
Reamer
Boring tool
Countersinking tool
Drill nomenclature comprises the various parts and important geometric parameters of
cutting point. They are shown in Figure defined below.
Shank
The shank is the part of drill which is held in machine spindle and driven by it.
Tang
Flattened end of shank, intended to fit into a slot in the drill holder.
Neck
There is large number of special drills manufactured against order to meet specific
requirements. Such drills can be classed as special drills.
Body
Flutes
Web
The central portion of the body which separates the flutes and runs through entire length of drill.
The edges formed by intersection of flank and face, and correspond to the cutting edge of a single
point tool.
Land
The diameter over the surface of the body which is situated behind the land.
Margin
Narrow surface along the groove which keeps the drill aligned.
Heel
The edges formed by the intersection of flute surface and body clearance.
UNIT-III
MECHANICS
Stress.
when a body is subjected to a system of external forces, it undergoes a deformation. At
the same time, by virtue of its strength it offers resistance against this deformation. This
internal resistance offered by the body to counteract the applied load is called the
stress. Stress=Force/Area. Unit for stress is N/m2
Strain.
Strain is defined as change in dimension produced by the external force on the body.
Strain =
A – Elastic limit
B – Yield point
Types Of Stress
Tensile stress
Compressive
stress Shear stress
Types Of Strain.
Tensile strain
Compressive strain
Shear strain
Volumetric strain
Lateral strain
Tangential stress.
When the force is applied along the surface of the body then the stress applied is called as
Tangential stress.
(ii) Compressive stress: when external force causes shortening of the body in the
direction of force it is called as compressive force. The stress developed in the
body due to the compressive force is called as compressive stress (fc).
i. Tensile strain: Due to the application of load(pull) the length of the member
increases from “l” to(l+dl). The ratio of the increase in length to the original
length is called tensile strain.
Tensile strain (et) =
ii. Shear strain: if the element ABCD is subjected to shearing stresses on faces AB
and CD, it undergoes deformation. Let the horizontal displacement of the upper
face of the block be “dl”. The ratio of transverse displacement to the distance
from the lower face is called shear strain.
Shear strain =
= =
iii. Volumetric strain: The change in volume of an elastic body due to external
force in unit original volume.
iv. Compressive strain: Due to the application of load (push), the length decreases
from l to (l-dl). The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is called
compressive strain (ec).
Stress
Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area which brings the body to its original state
from the deformed state.
Strain
Strain is defined as the change in dimension produced by the external force on the body
Strain =
When a ductile material is subjected to tension test, it passes through the following
a) Limit of proportionality (A): This is the stage up to which the material behaves
Hooke’s law that is the strain is proportional to the stress. Therefore up to this limit the
stress-strain curve is a straight line.
b) Elastic limit (B): This is the limit up to which the strain produced will disappear
completely on the removal of load. It can be noted from the figure that between limit of
proportionality and elastic limit the strain is not proportional to the stress.
c) Yield point (C): At this stage the material is in semi plastic condition and the strain
increases even without any increase in the stress. Even for a small increase in stress the
increase in strain is very large. Beyond the yield point C, and the ultimate load point D,
the cross sectional area decreases in the same proportion as the length increases.
d) Ultimate load point (D): This is the maximum stress the material takes during the test.
At this stage waist is formed in the material and there after the extension continuous
without any increase in load.
Bulk Modulus
K = (PV)/v
P= pressure P = F/A
V = original volume
V = change in volume
Rigidity Modulus.
It is defined as the ratio between the tangential stress to the shearing strain within the
elastic limits.
Yield Strength.
The value of stress at the yield point is called yield strength of that material.
α+ β =
Y=
σ= -1 Poisson ratio= σ
σ=
Modulus Of Elasticity.
Stress/Strain = Constant= Modulus of
elasticity There are three modulus of elasticity
Young’ s Modulus(Y)
Bulk Modulus ( k)
Rigidity Modulus ( N )
Centre of gravity.
The point at which the entire mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated. It is an
imaginary point. In case of plane figures of uniform material having the same thickness, the
weight of the body is proportional to the area. Hence the centre of gravity can be considered
to be the point at which the entire area of the figure is assumed to be concentrated. Elasticity
When an external force acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. The property by
which a body returns to its original shape after the removal of external load is called
Elasticity
Determine the young’s modulus of the material of a mild steel rod of 12mm diameter
and 200mm length elongates 0.085mm under on axial pull of 10KN.
Load P = 10KN
= 10,000.N
Cross – sectional areaof the rod A =
A steel rod of 20mm diameter and 3m long is subjected to an axial pull of 45KN.xTake ‘E’
= 210 GN/m.
Find the centre of gravity of the lamina shown fig.
The given lamina may be split up into two rectangles ABCD and CEFG as shown in fig
Find the centre of gravity of the lamina shown in fig.
UNIT – IV
BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
(i) Un burnt or Sun dried bricks- UN burn or sun dried with the help of heat received from sun
after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the constructions of temporary and
cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains.
(ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are classified
into the following four categories.
a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape. The surface and
edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. The comply all the qualities of good
bricks and used for superior work of permanent nature
b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface
of bricks is some what rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks are commonly used
at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they burnt in clamps. These bricks are
not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks give dull
sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places
where rainfall is not heavy.
d. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour. These
bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundation, floors, roads, etc because of the fact that
the over burnt bricks have compacted structure and hence, they are some times found stronger than
even first class bricks.
Qualities of Good Brick:
(i) Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges.
(ii) Bricks should be uniform shape and should be of standard size.
(iii) Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
(iv) Bricks when broken should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free from
voids.
(v) Bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class bricks and 22
percent by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in coldwater for a period of 24 hours.
(vi) Bricks should be sufficiently hard no impression, should be left on brick surface, when it is
scratched with finger nail.
(vii) Bricks should be low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
(viii) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one meter.
(ix) Bricks, when soaked in water for 24hours, should not show deposits of white salts when
allowed to dry in shade.
(x) No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2
Special Types:
Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and to suit the requirements of the location where they
are to be used. Special form of bricks may be needed due to structural
consideration or for ornamental decoration as defined by the architect. Specially moulded bricks
avoid the cumbersome process of cutting and rounding the rectangular bricks to the desired shape.
Some of the special types of bricks commonly used are given below.
4. Squint Bricks: These bricks are made in a variety of shapes and are used to the construction of
a cute and obtuse squint quoins.
b. Bull Nosed Bricks: These bricks are used to form rounded quoins.
c. Perforated Bricks: These bricks may be standard size bricks produced with perforations
running through their thickness. Perforated bricks are easy to burn and their light weight makes it
possible to cut down the weight of the structure and effect in foundations. The aperture of the
perforations is such that it gives maximum amount of ventilation. But does not permit the entry of
rats or mice. These bricks are used for constructing load bearing walls of low buildings, panel
walls for multistoried buildings and for providing partition walls.
d. Hallow Bricks: These bricks are made of clay and are provided with one or more cavities.
Hallow bricks are light in weight and are used to increase insulation against heat and dampness.
They are used for the construction of load bearing walls, partition walls
or panel walls to multistoried buildings.
e. Circular Bricks: These bricks have internal and external faces curved to meet the requirement
of the particular curve and radius of the wall. These bricks are used for wells, towers etc.
f. Plinth cornice and String Course Brick: These bricks are moulded in several patterns with the
object of adding architectural beauty to the structure and at the same time to helping to throw the
rack water off the face of the walls.
g. Coping Bricks: These bricks are manufactured in a variety of shapes to set the thickness of the
wall and are throated on the underside to throw off rain water.
h. Paving Bricks: These bricks are specially made for paving the surface of streets and highways.
These bricks are usually made
from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the two. They are unaffected by weather and ordinary traffic
wear. They are loaded on the bed of sand which in term rests on foundation of stone or concrete.
The bricks are laid by grouting with cement mortar or asphalt. They are machine moulded and are
burnt in a continuous kiln to ensure high degree of verification.
A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the construction work.
a) Absorption
b) Crushing strength or compression strength
c) Hardness
d) Presence soluble salts
e) Shape and size
f) Soundness
g) Structure
a) Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
b) Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out by placing it
in compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of
brick is 35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
c) Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
d) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after
immerted in water for 24 hours.
e) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
f) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
g) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
THE FUNCTION OF ALL INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Functions of Ingredients:
a) Lime: Lime is the important ingredient of cement and its proportion is to be maintained
carefully. Lime in excess makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and
disintegrate. On the other hand, if lime is in deficiency the strength of the cement is decreased and
it causes cement to set quickly .
b) Silica: This also an important ingredient of cement and it gives or imparts quick setting property
to imparts strength to cement.
c) Alumina: This ingredient imparts quick setting properly to cement. Express alumina weakens
the cement.
d) Calcium Sulphate: This ingredient is in the form of gypsum and its function is to increase the
initial setting time of cement.
e) Magnesia: The small amount of this ingredient imparts hardness and colour to cement.
f) Sulphur: A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound cement. If it is in excess, it
causes the cement to become unsound.
g) Alkalies: Most of the alkalies present in raw material are carried away by the flue gases during
heating and only small quantity will be left. If they are in excess in cement, efflorescence is
caused.
In addition to ordinary cement, the following are the other varieties of cement.
a. Acid Resistance Cement: This is consists of acid resistance aggregates such as quartz,
quartzite’s, etc, additive such as sodium fluro silicate (Na2SiO6) and aqueous solution of sodium
silicate. This is used for acidresistant and heat resistant coating of installations of
chemical Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of unseed oil or 2 percent of ceresil, its resistance to
water is increased and known as acid water resistant cement.
b. Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag as obtained from blast furnace in the manufacture
of pig iron and it contains basic elements of cement, namely alumina, lime
and silica. The properties of this cement are more or less the same as those of ordinary cement and
prove to be economical as the slag, which is waste product, is used in its manufacture
c. Coloured Cement: Cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral
pigments with ordinary cement. The amount of colouring may vary from 5 to 10 percent and
strength of cement if it is exceeds 10 percent. Chromium oxide gives brown, red or yellow for
different proportions. Coloured cements are used for finishing of floors, external surfaces, artificial
marble, windows.
d. Expanding Cement : This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like
sulpho – aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Hence this cement expands where as
other cement shrinks. Expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures
and also for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
e. High alumina Cement: This cement is produced by grinding clinkers formed by calcining
bauxite and lime. The total content should not be less than 32 percent and the ratio by weight of
alumina to lime should be between
0.85 and 1.30.
Advantages
1. Initial setting time is about 31/2 hours therefore, allows more time for mixing and placing
operations.
2. It can stand high temperatures.
3. It evolves great heat during setting therefore not affected by frost.
4. It resists the action of acids in a better way.
5. It lets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength.
Disadvantages:
1. It is costly
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as it sets soon.
3. Extreme care is to taken to see that it does not come in contact with even traces of lime or
ordinary cement.
f. Hydrophobic Cement: This type of cement contains admixtures, which decreases the wetting
ability of cement grains. The usual hydrophobic admixtures are acidol napthene soap, oxidized
petrolatum etc when hydrophobic cement is used, the fire pores in concrete are uniformly
distributed and thus the frost resistance and the water resistance of such concrete are considerably
increased.
g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable heat is produced during the setting action of cement. In order
to reduce the amount of heat, this type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tri
calcium aluminates C3A and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C2s. This type of cement is
used for mass concrete works because it processes less compressor strength.
h. Quick Setting Cement: This cement is prepared by adding a small percentage aluminum
sulphate which reduce the percentage of gypsum or retarded for setting action and accelerating the
setting action of cement. As this cement hardness less than 30 minutes, mixing and placing
operations should be completed. This cement is used to lay concrete under static water or running
water.
i. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has same initial and final setting times as that of
ordinary cement. But it attains high strength in early days due to
Advantages:
1.Construction work may be carried out speedily.
2.Formwork of concrete can be removed earlier.
3. It is light in weight.
4. It is not damaged easily.
5. This cement requires short period of curing.
6. Use of this cement also higher permissible stresses in the design.
7. Structural member constructed with this cement may be loaded earlier.
j. Sulphate Resisting Cement: In this cement percentage of tricalcium aluminates is kept below 5
to 6 percent and it results in the increase in resisting power against sulphate. This cement is used
for structure which are likely to be damaged by sever alkaline condition such as canal linings,
culverts, siphons etc.
k. White Cement: This is a variety of ordinary cement and it is prepared form such raw materials
which are practically free from colouring oxides of Iron, manganese or chromium. For burning of
this cement, oil fuel is used instead of coal. It is used for floor
finish; plaster work, ornamental works etc.
USES OF CEMENT
Steel contains carbon upto a maximum of 1.5 percent. Based on the carbon content, steel are
classified into,
(i) Low carbon steel (Mild steel) with carbon content 0.25 percent.
(ii) Medium carbon or medium hard steel with carbon content between 0.25 – 0.70 percent
(iii) High carbon steel or hard steel having carbon content 0.70 – 1.5 percent.
Uses of Low carbon steel (Mild steel): Low carbon or mild steel is used in structural works such
as trusses, angles and plates. It is also used in RCC works as plain or twisted rods.
Uses of Medium hard steel: It is used in the manufacture of rails, chisels, hammers, boiler plates
etc.
Uses of hard steel: It is used in earth moving or mining equipments. Used for manufacturing
cutting steel.
Torsteel rods : (i) Torsteel rods are twisted or torsioned deformed rods. (ii) Ordinary steel rods
are round plain bars made of mild steel. (iii) Both plain bars and tor steel rods are used in RCC
roof slabs, beams, columns
Plastic is one the recent engineering materials, which has appeared in the market all over the
world. Plastic is an organic substance and it consists of natural or synthetic binder or resins with or
without moulding compounds. Plastics are the compounds of carbon with other elements such as
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
Properties:
Uses of Plastics:
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two
components of mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are some times referred to
as matrix the durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depends on quantity and quality
of the matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass is able to bind
the bricks or stones firmly.
Properties :
The important properties of a good mortar mix are mobility, placeability and water retention. The
mobility is used toindicate the consistency of mortar mix, which may range from stiff to fluid The
mobility of mortar depends upon composition of mortar and mortar mixes to be used for masonry
work, finishing works, etc are made sufficiently mobile. The placeability or the ease with which
the mortar mix can be placed with minimum cost in a thin and uniform layer over the surface
depends on the mobility of mortar. The placeablity of mortar mix should be such that a strong bond
is developed with the surface of the bed. A good mortar mix should posses the ability if retaining
adequate humidity during the transportation and laying over the porous bed. If water retention
power of mortar mix is low it separates into layers during transportation and when it comes contact
with the porous bed like brick, wood, etc, it gives away its water to
that surface. Thus the mortar becomes poor in a amount of water and remaining water proves to be
insufficient for its hardening. Hence required strength of mortar will not be achieved with such a
mortar mix will.
Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
4. To form joints of pipes
5. To improve the appearance of structure.
a) Cement Mortar:
(i) It is a mixture of ordinary portland cement and coarse sand in predetermined proportions.
(ii) The proportions of cement and sand depends on the nature of plastering work.
(iii) The usual mix for cement mortar for plastering varies from 1:3 for the surfaces in cntact with
water to 1:4 to 1:6 for other surfaces.
b) Lime mortar:
(i) Equal volumes of lime and fine sand are thoroughly mixed.
(ii) Either fat lime or poor lime may be used in lime mortar.
(iii) The mixture is ground in a mortar mill by adding required quantity of water to form a paste of
required consistency and workability
b) Header Bond
(i) All bricks are arranged in header courses. It is used forcurved surfaces since the length Will be
less.
c) English Bond:
(i) It is most commonly used type of bond.
(ii) It is the strongest type of bond.
(iii) It is used for all wall thicknesses.
(iv) English bond consists of headersand Stretchers in alternative courses of elevation.
(v) A queen closer is placed next to the quoin header in eachheader course to the full thickness of
wall. Each alternative header lies centrally over a stretcher of the stretcher course.
d) Flemish Bond:
Headers are distributed evenly as shown.
The peculiarities of a Flemish bond are as follows.
1. In every course headers and stretchers are placed alternatively.
2. The queen closer is put next to the queen header in alternate course to develop the lap
3. Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.
4. The Flemish bond may be either a double Flemish or Single Flemish bond.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE
MASONRY
a) Rubble Masonry:
In this type stones of irregular shapes and sizes are used
It is ether broken to specified size with a hammer or used as it is.it is classified as
follows:
(i) Random rubble masonry:
It is the cheapest form of stone masonry
It is further classified into coursed and uncoursed
In course stone masonry the stone in a course are of equal heights In
uncoursed stone masonry the stones are irregular in shape Larger
stones are laid and the gaps are filled up with small stones
Pre-stressed concrete:
In this type of concrete, high tensile steel wires are used as reinforcement instead of mild
steel bars.
There are two types of pre stressing namely pre tensioning and post tensioning.
In pre tensioning method the wires are initially stressed and the concrete is built around the
wires. The wires are released after the concrete attains its strength.
In post tensioning, the wires are placed inside the concrete and then stressed.
2. State highway: It connects district headquarters and important cities within the
state
3. Major district road: It connects important towns within the district
4. Other district road: It connects villages with towns
5. Village road: It connects village to village or to nearby railway station
BRIDGE
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle such as an vale, road, railway,
canal, river without closing the way beneath. The required passage may be road, railway,
canal, pipeline, cycle track or pedestrians.
Foundations: Foundation forms the lowest part of a bridge. The type of foundation
depends upon the nature of the subsoil, velocity of water. Well foundation is the most
commonly adopted bridge foundation.
Bank connections: Bank connection like wing walls and return walls provide a
connection between the bridge abutments and road approach.
Approaches: These are the length of communication route at both ends of the bridge.
Hand rails: Hand rails are provided on both sides of a bridge to prevent any vehicle from
falling into the stream.
Guard stones: It indicates the presence of a bridge to the road users approaching the
bridge at a distance. It is available on both sides of the bridge. They guide the vehicle for
a safe entry onto the bridge.
Rigid dams:
These dams are constructed using rigid construction materials.
The construction materials used are, stone or brick or reinforced cement concrete.
A gravity dam is defined as a structure which is designed in such a way that its
own weight resists external forces.
It is more durable and has maximum rigidity.
It requires less maintenance compared to other types.
This type can be constructed of masonry or concrete.
Nowadays, concrete dams are prevalent.
Arch Dam:
Arch dams are curved in plan.
This structure less Massive
when compared to gravity dam
The forced exerted by the stored water on upstream side will be transferred by the
abutments of the arch dam.
This dam is suitable for narrow valleys but major requirements are sound
abutments.
An arch dam is economical only when the length of dam is less than its height.
Buttress dam:
A buttress dam has relatively thin sections when compared to a gravity dam.
It consists of a sloping section buttresses and a base slab. The sloping membrane
(Face slab) first takes the water load and transfer to the buttresses which are
specific intervals.
The buttresses in turn transfer the load to the base slab which forms the
foundation part of the dam.
Earth Dam:
Earth dams are made of soil with minimum processing using primitive equipment
These are built in areas where the foundation is not strong enough to bear the
weight of a gravity dam.
As the construction material of the dam is ordinary soil which is cheaply available
the cost of construction of this dam is less than rigid dam.
Rock Fill Dam:
Rock fill dams are made of loose rocks and boulders piled in the river bed.
A slab of reinforced concrete is often laid on the upstream face to make it water tight.
There are more stable than earthen dams and les stable than gravity dams.
The dam section generally consists of dry ruble stone masonry on the upstream side and
loose rock fill on the downstream side.