Faculty of Dentistry

Oral Biology I
Enamel
« The protective covering the anatomical crown of teeth to resist the
powerful masticatory forces
« Acellular, inert, non-vital and insensitive tissue
« Ectodermal non-collagenous tissue covering.
« It is the most highly mineralized tissue in the body
J Clinical tips
F Enamel can’t repair or protect itself as dentin
F It acts as isolator that can’t conduct any thermal or
electrical changes
F Pain sensation is not produced by enamel
F Any congenital disease that collagen, enamel is not
affected

Chemical characteristics
• Inorganic content
Ä Represent 96% by wight
Ä In the form of hydroxyapatite crystals composed of calcium
phosphate Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2 and various ions, strontium,
magnesium, lead and fluoride.
Ä Fluoride ions can replace hydroxyl group to form fluorapatite
crystals.
Ä Hydroxyapatite is present in the form of crystallites generally
extended across the full width of the tissue.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
• Organic content
Ä Represents 4 % by wight (1-2 % enamel proteins & 2-3%
water)
Ä Enamel protein (non-callaginous proteins) 90%of enamel
protein is amelogenins and remaining of enamel protein 10%
consist of enamelilin, tuftelin and amelin
Physical characteristics
A. Color
§ Ranges from yellowish white to grayish white
§ The color depends on the degree of translucency
§ The degree of translucency depends on degree of
calcification & homogeneity of enamel.
§ The yellowish white color of enamel is more translucent
§ The grayish white color of enamel is more opaque
B. Thickness
§ Varies from 2.5 mm over the working surfaces (cups tip &
incisal edge) to a feather edge at the cervical line.

J Clinical tips
F Be careful during cavity preparation & tooth
reduction

C. Hardness
§ Apatite crystals is number 5 in hardness in Mohs scale
§ Enamel is the hardest calcified tissue, this is due to
a. High mineral content.
b. Crystalline arrangement.
§ Micro-hardness is grater at surface and cusp tip than ADJ and
cervical line.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
§ Enamel of permanent teeth is harder than that of deciduous
D. Brittleness
§ Enamel is brittle therefore an underlying layer of resilient
dentin is necessary to maintain its integrity

J Clinical tips
F Any undermining enamel must be removed
during cavity preparation

E. Permeability
§ It acts as a semi permeable membrane for some ions of small
molecular size through pores between the crystals.
§ Permeability is mainly from saliva to the outer layer of
enamel, but less from the pulp to the inner enamel layer
across the dentin

Structure of enamel
« Unite structure of enamel is
A. Enamel rod
B. Rod sheath
o It is the peripheral part of the enamel rod and forms an
incomplete envelope around the rod.
o It is formed along the interface between groups of
crystals with different angulation in the rods and inter rod
regions
o It is less calcified than the rod itself because the abrupt
change in crystal orientation harden the tight packing of
crystals, allowing more spaces between them for more

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
organic material to be present, thus it resists
decalcification
C. Inter rod
o It separates the rods from each other
o It is as highly calcified as the enamel rods; however, it
has a different refractive index.

Enamel rods
I. Light microscope (L\M)

§ Either T\S or L\S it appears clear and structureless because of

the tightly packed crystals to allow light to pass through

§ When a longitudinally ground section of enamel is treated with

mild etching solution, each enamel rod demonstrates closely
positioned striations along its length known as cross-striations
or short increments

II. Electron microscope (E\M)

§ Best examined with electron microscope with thinner sections

and grater resolving power.

§ L\S... It appears cylindrical separated by less calcified dark lines

“cross striations”.

§ T\S ... Oval, fish scales, rounded, hexagonal or keyhole with the
head directed occlusally and the tail points cervically.

§ Crystals... At the central part parallel to the long axis of the rod.
Crystals more distant from the central axis flare laterally to an
increasing degree as they approach the rod boundary, they

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
become nearly perpendicular to the rod in the associated inter
rod region.

§ This difference in the angulations of the crystals results in

difference in the refractive indices of the rod and the inter rod
and is a function of Tomes’ processes.

III. Number
§ Number of enamel rods varies in different teeth where it
reaches about 5 million in the lower central incisor and up to 12
million in the upper first molar.
IV. Diameter
§ the diameter of the enamel rods differs from the inner (at ADJ)
the outer surface of enamel.
§ The ratio between the diameter of the rods at the inner and
outer enamel surfaces is 1:2
V. Direction
§ Rod direction in general is perpendicular to the dentin surface.

• In deciduous teeth
o Under cusp tip or incisal edge direction is roughly
vertical
o In the middle third it is oblique (towards the occlusal
surface)
o In cervical third it is horizontal
• In permanent teeth
o Under cusp tip or incisal edge and in the middle
third it is like that of deciduous teeth

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
o in the cervical region rods are directed obliquely
root-wise. This is because the enamel of permanent
teeth ends as a knife edge at the cervix.

J Clinical tips
F During cavity preparation in deciduous dentition,
the cervical margin of the box must be beveled to
prevent fracture of enamel margin
VI. Course
§ the course of individual enamel rods is wavy from the ADJ
outwards, but just before they reach the outer enamel
surface it becomes straight.
§ Under the cusp tips and incisal ridges, the course of the
enamel rods is more complicated where they become
twisted to give maximum strength to the areas which are
more subjected to the masticatory forces. The enamel in
these areas is called gnarled enamel

Hunter Schreger bands

o An optical phenomenon produced by changes in rod direction.
o They are seen most clearly in longitudinal ground sections
viewed by reflected light and are found in the inner two thirds of
the enamel.
o These bands appear as dark (diazones) and light (parazones)
o Scanning electron microscopy clearly reveals the difference in
orientation of groups of rods within these zones.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
Hypocalcified structures of enamel
I. Incremental lines of enamel
1. Cross striation (short increments)

o When a longitudinally ground section of enamel is treated

with mild etching solution each enamel rod demonstrates
closely positioned striations along its length known as
cross-striations or short increments.

o These are thought to be formed by the daily rhythm of the

ameloblast laying down more and less mineralized enamel.
The striations are approximately 4 µm apart. This distance
represents one day of enamel deposition.

o Scanning electron microscopy reveals alternating

constrictions and expansions

2. Incremental lines of Retzius

o Brownish bands appear in the ground section of enamel.

o It represents the weekly rhythm of enamel formation

“periods of activity alternating with periods of rest”.

o Metabolic disturbance leads to prolonged periods of rest

and broadening of the incremental lines.

o In L/S

Ä At the middle and cervical parts: they run obliquely in

upward and outward direction to reach the enamel surface
and become represented as a series of transverse
depressions (perikymata).

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
Ä At cusp tips and incisal ridges: these bands form semicircle
as they do not reach the surface.

o In C/S: Seen as concentric rings.

3. Neonatal line

o The neonatal line is a dark stria of Retzius that occurs at

the time of birth due to the stress of birth.
o The neonatal line is usually the darkest and thickest stria of
Retzius.
o Present only in deciduous teeth and first permanent molars
(enamel develops partly before and partly after birth).
o Separate enamel formed before birth from enamel formed
after birth.
o The quality of prenatal enamel is better than the postnatal
enamel (more protected condition and constant nutrition of
the fetus).
II. Amelodentinal junction (ADJ)
o The junction between enamel and dentin is seen as a
scalloped line with convexities of the scallops directed
towards the dentin.
o It was believed that these scallops provide undercuts that
provides the firm attachment between enamel and dentin.
o However, the elevations of the scallops occasionally seem to
be absent and, in this case, the ADJ appears smooth and still
enamel and dentin are firmly attached.
o It seems that the cause of the firm attachment between
enamel and dentin is due to the interdigitation at the ADJ
between the fibrils of the first formed layer of dentin and the

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
fibrils of the organic matrix of the first formed layer of enamel,
and consequently the interdigitation between the
hydroxyapatite crystals that are deposited during the
mineralization of both structures.
III. Enamel tufts
o Enamel tufts are less mineralized areas of enamel in the
inner third of enamel adjacent to the DEJ. They resemble
tufts of grass.
o They are wavy due to the waviness of the adjacent rods.
Occur developmentally because of abrupt changes in the
direction of groups of rods that arise from different regions of
the scalloped ADJ.
o Project from ADJ for a short distance into enamel (1/5-1/3),
they appear to be branched and contain greater
concentration of enamel proteins than the rest of enamel.
o Best seen in transverse thick sections of enamel.
IV. Enamel spindles
o The enamel spindles appear as short, straight, thin, dark
structures which extend for only short distances into enamel.
o They are residual tubules formed when odontoblastic
processes extend across the ADJ on during odontogenesis
before enamel mineralization
o In ground sections, the odontoblastic processes disintegrate
and are replaced by air which appears dark in transmitted
light.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
V. Enamel lamellae
o Enamel lamellae are fissure-like defects and extend for
varying depth from the surface of enamel and consist of linear
longitudinal oriented defects.
o 3 types of enamel lamellae are present, type A, B & C

Enamel Type A Type B Type C

Lamella

Stimulus Mild stimulus Moderate stimulus Sever stimulus

Time of During enamel After enamel After eruption

incidence formation but before formation bur before
complete eruption
mineralization

Extension Enamel Reach ADJ May cross to dentin

Content Enamel matrix Cells of enamel Organic materials

organ and maybe form saliva
cementum

Tooth Unerupted Unerupted Erupted

Occurrence Less common Less common More common

J Clinical tips
F Enamel spindle or enamel tufts don’t consider a threat
against enamel integrity, while enamel spindle is a threat
as it may initiate or aid in caries spread.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
Surface structures in Enamel
1. Outer Structureless enamel

« In the surface layer of enamel, no rod is visible, and the

crystals are arranged parallel to one another and perpendicular
to the incremental lines of Retzius.
« The high degree of mineralization of the outer 15 µm of the
enamel probably reflects events occurring during the late
maturation stage as well as post-eruptive mineral accumulation
from saliva.
« Commonly occur at the cervical area more than the cusp tip or
incisal edge.
« Found in all deciduous teeth and 70% of permanent teeth.

2. perikymata

« It is the external manifestation of the incremental lines of

Retzius. Represented as shallow furrows where the striae of
Retzius end in the outer surface of enamel.
« Continuous around the tooth and parallel to the CEJ. There are
30 perikymata/mm in cervical area and decrease toward the
occlusal surface.

3. Rod end

« They are concave depression vary in depth and shape. They are
shallow at the cervical region and deepen near the incisal or
occlusal surface

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy

 Faculty of Dentistry
Oral Biology I
4. Cracks:

« They are narrow fissure like structure found on almost all enamel
surfaces and extend for varying distance.
« They are the outer edge of enamel lamellae. Completely
disappear by careful decalcification

5. Afibrillar cementum:

« Its presence is restricted to localized areas of reduced enamel

epithelium degeneration.
« The enamel exposed because of epithelial degeneration
provides a surface on which cementoblasts from the dental
follicle can deposit cementum.

Enamel Menatalla M. Elhindawy