TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

Comparative Analysis of Solar Cells and Photocells:

Construction, Operation, Applications, and Circuit Implementations

By
STEPHEN JOHN S. DULLER

A Research Paper Submitted to Mr. ROBERTO A. RODRIGUEZ

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
EMAC 2: AC MACHINERIES

COLLEGE OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLGY

 Introduction
Solar cells and photo cells are two types of devices that convert light energy into electrical
energy. Solar cells are used to generate electricity from sunlight, while photo cells are used in
various applications such as automatic streetlights, automatic door openers, and burglar alarms.
In this research, we will discuss the construction, operating principle, application, and circuit
example of both solar cells and photo cells.

ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive comparative analysis of solar cells and photo
cells, elucidating their construction, operating principles, applications, and circuit examples. By
examining the fundamental differences and similarities between these two photoelectric devices, the
research will enhance our understanding of their usefulness in various domains, such as renewable energy,
sensor technology, and automation.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
1. To provide detailed diagrams and explanations that elucidate the construction of solar
cells and photo cells.
2. To outline the operating principles underlying the conversion of light into electrical
energy in both types of cells.
3. To explore the wide-ranging applications of solar cells and photo cells in industries such
as renewable energy, lighting, sensing, and automation.
4. To provide practical circuit examples that showcase how solar cells and photo cells can
be integrated into electronic systems for specific purposes.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
This research will involve a comprehensive review of existing literature on solar cells and
photocells. It will include analysis of construction materials, manufacturing processes, and key
components. The operating principles will be elucidated with a focus on the photovoltaic effect
and the photoelectric effect for solar cells and photocells, respectively. The applications section
will feature case studies from various fields, demonstrating the versatility of these devices.
Additionally, practical circuit examples will be presented, featuring sample schematics and
explanations.
EXPECTED CONTRIBUTIONS:
This research will serve as a valuable resource for engineers, researchers, and students interested
in photovoltaic and photoelectric technologies. By comparing and contrasting solar cells and
photocells, it will provide insights into their strengths and weaknesses, enabling better-informed
decisions in choosing the right technology for specific applications. Furthermore, the circuit
examples will offer practical guidance for implementing these devices in real-world projects.
 SOLAR CELL
CONSTRUCTION:
A solar cell is a p-n junction diode made of a thin layer of p-type semiconductor grown on a relatively
thicker n-type semiconductor. A few finer electrodes are applied on the top of the p-type semiconductor
layer, which do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below the p-type layer, there is a p-n
junction. A current collecting electrode is provided at the bottom of the n-type layer. The entire assembly
is encapsulated by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any mechanical shock.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter the junction through the very thin
p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a
number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction.
The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction. Similarly,
the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once the newly created free
electrons come to the n-type side, they cannot further cross the junction because of the barrier potential of
the junction. Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction because of the same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes
higher in one side, i.e., the n-type side of the junction and the concentration of holes becomes more in
another side, i.e., the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up, which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction, there
will be a tiny current flowing through it.
APPLICATION:
 RESIDENTIAL SOLAR PANELS:
o Solar cells are commonly used on rooftops to generate electricity for homes. Residential
solar panels can significantly reduce or eliminate a household's dependence on
conventional grid electricity. This not only reduces electricity bills but also helps reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.

 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATIONS:

o Businesses and industrial facilities also utilize solar cells to generate clean electricity.
Solar installations on commercial and industrial properties can provide a reliable and
cost-effective source of power, lowering energy costs and contributing to sustainability
goals.

 STREETLIGHTS:
o Solar-powered streetlights use solar cells to collect energy during the day and store it in
batteries for nighttime illumination. This reduces the need for grid electricity, making
street lighting more energy-efficient and cost-effective.

 OFF-GRID AND REMOTE POWER:

o Solar cells are essential for providing electricity in off-grid and remote areas where
access to conventional power sources is limited or non-existent. This includes powering
remote cabins, telecommunications infrastructure, water pumps, and even entire off-grid
communities.

 SOLAR-POWERED VEHICLES:
o Solar cells are integrated into some vehicles, such as solar-powered cars, boats, and
drones. While these vehicles may not solely rely on solar power for all their energy
needs, the incorporated solar panels can supplement and extend the range of electric
vehicles or power auxiliary systems.

 SATELLITES AND SPACE EXPLORATION:

o Solar cells are crucial for powering satellites, space probes, and spacecraft. In space,
where sunlight is abundant, solar cells are the primary source of electricity. These cells
are highly efficient and are designed to withstand the extreme conditions of space.

 PORTABLE SOLAR CHARGERS:

o Portable solar chargers and power banks use small solar panels to harness energy from
the sun and store it in built-in batteries. These devices can charge mobile phones, laptops,
and other electronic gadgets, providing a convenient source of power when on the go.

 GRID-TIED SOLAR SYSTEMS:

o Solar farms and large-scale solar power plants generate electricity from solar cells and
feed it directly into the grid. This contributes to a cleaner and more sustainable energy
mix, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels for electricity generation.

 SOLAR WATER HEATERS:

o Solar thermal systems, which use solar collectors (not photovoltaic cells) to heat water,
are another application of solar energy. Solar water heaters are used in homes and
 businesses to provide hot water for various purposes, including bathing and space
heating.

Solar cells continue to evolve and improve in efficiency, making them an increasingly important
component of the global transition to clean and sustainable energy sources. They play a vital role in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the effects of climate change.

CIRCUIT EXAMPLE:
A simple solar cell circuit consists of a solar cell, a diode, and a load. The diode is connected in
parallel with the solar cell to prevent the flow of current from the battery to the solar cell when there
is no sunlight. The load is connected in series with the solar cell to consume the power generated by
the solar cell

When sunlight falls on the solar cell, it generates electrical energy, and the diode allows this energy to
flow to the connected load, where it can be used immediately to power a device or charge a battery.
The diode ensures that the energy generated by the solar cell doesn't flow back into the solar cell
when it's not generating power, preventing any power loss or damage to the solar cell.

This basic solar cell circuit can be expanded and customized for various applications, such as adding
charge controllers for more complex systems, connecting multiple solar cells in series or parallel to
increase voltage or current, and incorporating inverters to convert DC electricity to AC for grid-tied
applications. The exact configuration and components used in a solar cell circuit depend on the
specific requirements of the system and the intended use of the generated electricity.
 PHOTO CELL
CONSTRUCTION:
A photo cell is a light-sensitive module that can be used by connecting to an electrical or electronic
circuit in an extensive range of applications. It is made up of a photoconductive material that changes
its resistance when light falls on it. The photoconductive material is sandwiched between two
electrodes, and the entire assembly is encapsulated in a protective casing.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
When light falls on the photoconductive material, its resistance decreases, and the current starts
flowing through it. The amount of current flowing through the photo cell depends on the intensity of
light falling on it.

APPLICATION:
 AUTOMATIC STREETLIGHTS:
o Photoresistors are used in street lighting systems to automatically control when
streetlights should turn on and off. When the ambient light levels decrease, such as during
the evening or at night, the resistance of the photoresistor increases, triggering the
streetlights to illuminate. As daylight returns, the resistance decreases, and the streetlights
switch off, saving energy.

 AUTOMATIC DOOR OPENERS:

o Automatic door openers, such as those in supermarkets, shopping malls, or hospitals, use
photoresistors to detect the presence of a person approaching the door. When a person
interrupts the light falling on the photoresistor by approaching the door, it triggers the
door to open, providing a hands-free entry.
  BURGLAR ALARMS:
o Photoresistors can be integrated into security systems as light sensors. When an intruder
covers or obstructs the photoresistor, thus reducing the amount of light reaching it, the
resistance of the photoresistor increases, and this change in resistance can be used to
trigger an alarm or alert system.

 OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND GARDEN LIGHTING:

o Photoresistors are commonly used in outdoor lighting systems, like garden lights, to
automatically turn on when it gets dark and turn off when it becomes daylight. This is not
only convenient but also energy-efficient.

 PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT METERS:

o Photoresistors are used in photographic light meters to measure the intensity of light and
help photographers set the appropriate exposure settings for their cameras.

 SUNLIGHT TRACKING SYSTEMS:

o In solar energy systems, photoresistors can be used to track the position of the sun. By
constantly monitoring the sunlight's intensity, the system can adjust the position of solar
panels or collectors to maximize energy capture.

 AUTOMATED DISPLAY DIMMING:

o Photoresistors are used in electronic devices, such as calculators and watches, to
automatically adjust the brightness of the display based on ambient lighting conditions.
This feature helps conserve battery life and ensures that the display is visible under
various lighting conditions.

Photoresistors are versatile components that are widely used for their light-sensing capabilities.
They play a significant role in automation, energy conservation, and security in various
applications.

CIRCUIT EXAMPLE:
A simple photo cell circuit consists of a photo cell, a resistor, and a load. The resistor is connected in
series with the photo cell to limit the current flowing through the photo cell. The load is connected in
parallel with the photo cell to consume the power generated by the photo cell

How the Circuit Works:

When light falls on the photo cell, its resistance decreases, allowing more current to flow through it.
The series resistor limits this current, preventing it from becoming excessive and potentially damaging the
photo cell.
The load, which is connected in parallel with the photo cell, is activated or powered when the photo cell
detects sufficient light. The load consumes power or performs a specific action based on the light level.
Applications of such a circuit could include automatic lighting control, where the photo cell triggers lights
to turn on when it gets dark and off when it becomes light again. This is commonly seen in outdoor
lighting systems or streetlights. The circuit can also be used in various control systems where the intensity
of light affects the operation of a specific device or process.
 CONCLUSION

In summary, solar cells are designed for energy generation and electricity production from sunlight, while
photo cells (photoresistors) are designed for light-sensing and control applications. Both have their unique
characteristics and serve essential roles in various technological and practical applications that benefit
from harnessing and responding to light.

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