ECENE 1-Fundamentals of Industrial Electronics

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8
Semiconductor Diode
/POMJOFBS4UBUJDIoV$IBSBDUFSJTUJDT 8
pn+VODUJPO&RVBUJPO t 'PSXBSEIoV%JPEF
$IBSBDUFSJTUJDT t 3FWFSTFIoV$IBSBDUFSJTUJDT
%JPEF$BQBDJUBODFT8
%JffVTJPO$BQBDJUBODF t %FQMFUJPO$BQBDJUBODF
%JPEFBTB4XJUDI8
5FNQFSBUVSF1SPQFSUJFT 8
1JFDFXJTF-JOFBS.PEFM 8
%JffFSFOU5ZQFTPG%JPEFT 8
4XJUDIJOH%JPEFT t ;FOFS%JPEFT t 5VOOFM%JPEFT
&TBLi DJPEFT t #BDLXBSE%JPEF t 1*/%JPEFT t 4DIPUULZ
%JPEFT t 4VQFS#BSSJFS%JPEFT t 4UFQ3FDPWFSZ
%JPEFT t "WBMBODIF%JPEFT t 7BSJDBQT t 4PMBS
Bogdan M. #BUUFSJFT t 1IPUPEJPEFT t -&%T t -BTFS%JPEFT t (VO
Wilamowski %JPEFT t *.1"55%JPEFT t 1FMUJFS%JPEFT
Auburn University 3FGFSFODFT 8
5IFpnTFNJDPOEVDUPSKVODUJPOTFYIJCJUOPOMJOFBSDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOEUIFZBSFVTFEUP
SFDUJGZBOETIBQFFMFDUSJDBMTJHOBMT&YQPOFOUJBMDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFTPNFUJNFTVTFE
UPCVJMEMPHBSJUINJDBNQMJfiFSTЋ FUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSEFQFOETPOBQQMJFESFWFSTFWPMUBHF
BOEUIFWPMUBHFEFQFOEFOUDBQBDJUBODFDBOCFVTFEUPUVOFGSFRVFODZDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGFMFDUSPOJDDJSDVJUT
5IFSFBSFPWFSEJffFSFOUUZQFTPGEJPEFTVTJOHEJffFSFOUQSPQFSUJFTPGpnKVODUJPOTPSNFUBMoTFNJDPOEVDUPS
KVODUJPOQSPQFSUJFT4PNFPGUIFTFTQFDJBMEJPEFTBSFEFTDSJCFEJO4FDUJPO
8.1 Nonlinear Static I–V Characteristics

5ZQJDBMIoVEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF*ODBTFPGDPNNPOTJMJDPOEJPEFUIF
GPSXBSEEJSFDUJPODVSSFOUJODSFBTFTFYQPOFOUJBMMZBUGJSTU BOEUIFOJUJTMJNJUFECZBOPINJDSFTJT
UBODFPGUIFTUSVDUVSF"WFSZTNBMMDVSSFOUJOUIFSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPOBUGJSTUJODSFBTFTTMJHIUMZXJUI
BQQMJFEWPMUBHFBOEUIFOTUBSUTUPNVMUJQMZOFBSUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF5IFDVSSFOUBUUIFCSFBL
EPXOJTMJNJUFECZUIFPINJDSFTJTUBODFTPGUIFTUSVDUVSF*OHFSNBOJVN TNBMMFOFSHZHBQ EJPEFT
UIFSFDPNCJOBUJPOHFOFSBUJPODPNQPOFOUPGUIFDVSSFOUJTNVDITNBMMFSUIBOUIFEJGGVTJPODPN
QPOFOUT BOEJOBXJEFSBOHFPGSFWFSTFWPMUBHFTUIFDVSSFOUJTBMNPTUDPOTUBOU*OUIFDBTFPGTJMJ
DPOEJPEFT MBSHFSFOFSHZHBQ UIFEJGGVTJPODPNQPOFOUPGUIFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUJTOFHMJHJCMZTNBMM
BOEUIFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUJTDBVTFECZUIFSFDPNCJOBUJPOHFOFSBUJPOQIFOPNFOB BOEUIFDVSSFOUJT
QSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFTJ[FPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFS XIJDIJODSFBTFTTMJHIUMZXJUIUIFWPMUBHF 5IFEJPEF
FRVBUJPO JTOPUWBMJEGPSTJMJDPOEJPEFTJOUIFSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPO5ZQJDBMSFWFSTFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
PGHFSNBOJVNBOETJMJDPOEJPEFTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
8-1
8-2 Fundamentals of Industrial Electronics
i i i
v v v
(a) 1V (b) 1V (c) 1V
i i i
v v v
(d) 1V (e) 1V (f ) 1V
FIGURE 8.1 'PSXBSEDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGWBSJPVTUZQFTPGEJPEFT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPO

EJPEF D 4DIPUULZEJPEF E UVOOFMEJPEF F CBDLXBSEEJPEF BOE G -&%
–10 v –100 v
1 μA 1 nA
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.2 3FWFSTFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPOEJPEF
8.1.1 pn Junction Equation

Ћ FnUZQFTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMIBTBQPTJUJWFJNQVSJUZDIBSHFBUUBDIFEUPUIFDSZTUBMMBUUJDFTUSVD
UVSFЋ JTfiYFEQPTJUJWFDIBSHFJTDPNQFOTBUFECZGSFFNPWJOHFMFDUSPOTXJUIOFHBUJWFDIBSHFT4JNJMBSMZ
UIFpUZQFTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMIBTBMBUUJDFXJUIBOFHBUJWFDIBSHF XIJDIJTDPNQFOTBUFECZGSFF
NPWJOHIPMFT BTJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FOVNCFSPGNBKPSJUZDBSSJFST FMFDUSPOTJOpUZQFBOEIPMFT
JO nUZQF NBUFSJBMT BSF BQQSPYJNBUFMZ FRVBM UP UIF EPOPS PS BDDFQUPS JNQVSJUZ DPODFOUSBUJPOT JF
nn = N%BOEppN"Ћ FOVNCFSPGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFST FMFDUSPOTJOpUZQFBOEIPMFTJOnUZQF DBOCF
GPVOEVTJOHUIFFRVBUJPOT
Semiconductor Diode 8-3
Depletion region
p n
FIGURE 8.3 *MMVTUSBUJPOPGUIFpnKVODUJPO
ni n ni ni

np = ≈ i pn = ≈
pp N A nn N D

Ћ FJOUSJOTJDDBSSJFSDPODFOUSBUJPO ni JTHJWFOCZ
⎛ Vg ⎞ kT
ni2 = ξT 3 exp ⎜ − ⎟ ; VT =
⎝ VT ⎠ q

XIFSF
VTkTqJTUIFUIFSNBMQPUFOUJBM VTN7BU,
TJTUIFBCTPMVUFUFNQFSBUVSFJO,
q¨¦$JTUIFFMFDUSPODIBSHF
k¨¦F7,JTUIF#PMU[NBOOTDPOTUBOU
VgJTUIFQPUFOUJBMHBQ Vg7GPSTJMJDPO
ξJTBNBUFSJBMDPOTUBOU
'PSTJMJDPOJOUSJOTJDDPODFOUSBUJPOniJTHJWFOCZ "2
ni = 3.88 × 1016 T 3 / 2 exp ⎛⎜ −

7000 ⎞
⎟
⎝ T ⎠
'PSTJMJDPOBU, ni¨DN¦
8IFOBpnKVODUJPOJTGPSNFE UIFfiYFEFMFDUSPTUBUJDMBUUJDFDIBSHFTGPSNBOFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEBUUIF
KVODUJPO&MFDUSPOTBSFQVTIFECZFMFDUSPTUBUJDGPSDFTEFFQFSJOUPUIFnUZQFSFHJPOBOEIPMFTJOUPUIF
pUZQFSFHJPO BTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSF#FUXFFOnUZQFBOEpUZQFSFHJPOTUIFSFJTBEFQMFUJPOMBZFS
XJUIBCVJMUJOQPUFOUJBMUIBUJTBGVODUJPOPGJNQVSJUZEPQJOHMFWFMBOEJOUSJOTJDDPODFOUSBUJPOni
⎛N N ⎞ ⎛ nn p p ⎞ ⎛n ⎞ ⎛ pp ⎞
Vpn = VT MO ⎜ A D ⎟ = VT MO ⎜ ⎟ = VT MO ⎜ n ⎟ = VT MO ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ni ⎠ ⎝ ni ⎠ ⎝ np ⎠ ⎝ pn ⎠

Ћ FKVODUJPODVSSFOUBTBGVODUJPOPGCJBTJOHWPMUBHFJTEFTDSJCFECZUIFEJPEFFRVBUJPO
⎡ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎤
i = I s ⎢exp ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎦
log (i)
(c)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.4 $VSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFpnKVODUJPOJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO B EJffVTJPODVSSFOU C

SFDPNCJOBUJPODVSSFOU BOE D IJHIMFWFMJOKFDUJPODVSSFOU
XIFSF
⎛ μ + μn ⎞
I s = Aqni2VT
⎜ n dx p dx ⎟
p
Lp Ln
⎝∫ 0∫ n
0
p
⎠
XIFSF
nnȵND
ppȵNA
μnBOEμpBSFUIFNPCJMJUZPGFMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFT
LnBOELpBSFUIFEJffVTJPOMFOHUIGPSFMFDUSPOBOEIPMFT
AJTUIFEFWJDFBSFB
*OUIFDBTFPGEJPEFTNBEFPGTJMJDPOPSPUIFSTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMXJUIBIJHIFOFSHZHBQ UIF
SFWFSTFCJBTJOHDVSSFOUDBOOPUCFDBMDVMBUFEGSPNUIFEJPEFFRVBUJPO Ћ JTJTEVFUPUIFDBSSJFS
HFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPOQIFOPNFOPO-BUUJDFJNQFSGFDUJPOBOENPTUJNQVSJUJFTBSFBDUJOHBTHFOFSB
UJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPODFOUFSTЋ FSFGPSF UIFNPSFJNQFSGFDUJPOTUIFSFBSFJOUIFTUSVDUVSF UIFMBSHFSUIF
EFWJBUJPOGSPNJEFBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
8.1.2 Forward I–V Diode Characteristics

Ћ FEJPEFFRVBUJPO XBTEFSJWFEXJUIBOBTTVNQUJPOUIBUJOKFDUFEDBSSJFSTBSFSFDPNCJOJOHPOUIF
PUIFS TJEF PG UIF KVODUJPO Ћ F SFDPNCJOBUJPO XJUIJO UIF EFQMFUJPO MBZFS XBT OFHMFDUFE *O GPSXBSE
CJBTFEEJPEF FMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFTBSFJOKFDUFEUISPVHIUIFEFQMFUJPOSFHJPO BOEUIFZNBZSFDPNCJOF
UIFSFЋ FSFDPNCJOBUJPODPNQPOFOUPGUIFGPSXBSECJBTFEEJPEFJTHJWFOCZ
ni ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
irec = qwA exp ⎜ ⎟ = I ro exp ⎜ 2V ⎟
2 τ0 ⎝ 2VT ⎠ ⎝ T ⎠
XIFSF
wJTUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSUIJDLOFTT
τJTUIFDBSSJFSMJGFUJNFJOEFQMFUJPOSFHJPO
no = np exp v
VT
po = pn exp v
VT
x
p(x) = po exp – L x
p n(x) = no exp – L
n
x
Lp Ln
FIGURE 8.5 .JOPSJUZDBSSJFSEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFpnKVODUJPOCJBTFEJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO
Ћ FUPUBMEJPEFDVSSFOUiTiD irec XIFSFiDBOEirecBSFEFfiOFECZ&RVBUJPOTBOEЋ FSFDPNCJOB

UJPODPNQPOFOUEPNJOBUFTBUMPXDVSSFOUMFWFMT BT'JHVSFJMMVTUSBUFT
"MTP JOWFSZIJHIDVSSFOUMFWFMTUIFEJPEFFRVBUJPO JTOPUWBMJE5XPQIFOPNFOBDBVTFUIJT
EFWJBUJPO 'JSTU UIFSF JT BMXBZT BO PINJD SFTJTUBODF UIBU QMBZT BO JNQPSUBOU SPMF GPS MBSHF DVSSFOU
WBMVFTЋ FTFDPOEEFWJBUJPOJTEVFUPIJHIDPODFOUSBUJPOPGJOKFDUFENJOPSJUZDBSSJFST'PSWFSZIJHI
DVSSFOU MFWFMT UIF JOKFDUFE NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS DPODFOUSBUJPOT NBZ BQQSPBDI PS FWFO CFDPNF MBSHFS
UIBO UIFJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPO"OBTTVNQUJPOPGUIFRVBTJDIBSHFOFVUSBMJUZMFBETUPBOJODSFBTF
PGUIFNBKPSJUZDBSSJFSDPODFOUSBUJPOЋ FSFGPSF UIFFffFDUJWFEJPEFDVSSFOUJTMPXFS BTJUDBOCFTFFO
GSPN&RVBUJPOЋ FIJHIDVSSFOUMFWFMJOUIFEJPEFGPMMPXTUIFSFMBUJPO
⎛ v ⎞
ih = I ho exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2VT ⎠
'JHVSF TIPXT UIF EJPEF IoV DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT XIJDI JODMVEF HFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPO EJG
GVTJPO BOE IJHI DVSSFOU QIFOPNFOB 'PS NPEFMJOH QVSQPTFT UIF GPSXBSE EJPEF DVSSFOU DBO CF
BQQSPYJNBUFECZ
⎛ v ⎞
iD = I o exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ηVT ⎠
XIFSFηIBTBWBMVFCFUXFFOBOE/PUFUIBUUIFηDPFffiDJFOUJTBGVODUJPOPGDVSSFOU BTTIPXOJO
'JHVSF*UIBTBMBSHFSWBMVFGPSTNBMMBOEMBSHFDVSSFOUSFHJPOTBOEJUJTDMPTFUPVOJUZJOUIFNFEJVN
DVSSFOUSFHJPO
8.1.3 Reverse I–V Characteristics

Ћ FSFWFSTFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUJOTJMJDPOEJPEFTJTNBJOMZDBVTFECZUIFFMFDUSPOIPMFHFOFSBUJPOJOUIF
EFQMFUJPOMBZFSЋ JTDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFOVNCFSPGHFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPODFOUFSTЋF TF
DFOUFSTBSFGPSNFEFJUIFSCZBDSZTUBMJNQFSGFDUJPOPSEFFQJNQVSJUJFT XIJDIDSFBUFFOFSHZTUBUFTOFBS
UIFDFOUFSPGUIFFOFSHZHBQ0ODFUIFSFWFSTFWPMUBHFJTBQQMJFE UIFTJ[FPGUIFEFQMFUJPOSFHJPOBOEUIF
OVNCFSPGHFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPODFOUFSTJODSFBTFЋ VT UIFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIF
UIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSw v 'PSBTUFQBCSVQUKVODUJPO
εεo (Vpn − v )
w=
qN eff
'PSPUIFSJNQVSJUZQSPfiMFTwDBOCFBQQSPYJNBUFECZ
w = K (Vpn − v )
1/ m

Ћ FSFWFSTFEJPEFDVSSFOUGPSTNBMMBOENFEJVNWPMUBHFTDBOUIFSFGPSFCFBQQSPYJNBUFECZ
qni
irev = Aw(v)
2τo
XIFSFniJTHJWFOCZ&RVBUJPOBOEwCZ&RVBUJPOPSЋ FSFWFSTFDVSSFOUJODSFBTFTSBQJEMZ
OFBSUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFЋ JTJTEVFUPUIFBWBMBODIFNVMUJQMJDBUJPOQIFOPNFOPOЋ FNVMUJQMJDB
UJPOGBDUPSJTPftFOBQQSPYJNBUFECZ
1
M=
1 − ( v / BV )
m
XIFSF
BVTUBOETGPSUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF
mJTBOFYQPOFOUDIPTFOFYQFSJNFOUBMMZ
/PUFUIBUGPSUIFSFWFSTFCJBTJOH CPUIvBOEBVIBWFOFHBUJWFWBMVFTBOEUIFNVMUJQMJDBUJPOGBDUPSM
SFBDIFTBOJOfiOJUFWBMVFGPSvBV
8.2 Diode Capacitances

5XPUZQFTPGDBQBDJUBODFTBSFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBEJPEFKVODUJPO0OFDBQBDJUBODF LOPXOBTEJffVTJPO
DBQBDJUBODF JTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFEJPEFDVSSFOUЋ JTDBQBDJUBODFFYJTUTPOMZGPSUIFGPSXBSECJBTFE
DPOEJUJPOBOEIBTUIFEPNJOBOUFffFDUUIFSF4FDPOEDBQBDJUBODF LOPXOBTUIFEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODF
JTBXFBLGVODUJPOPGUIFBQQMJFEWPMUBHF
8.2.1 Diffusion Capacitance

*OBGPSXBSECJBTFEEJPEF NJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTBSFJOKFDUFEJOUPPQQPTJUFTJEFTPGUIFKVODUJPOЋ PTF
NJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTEJffVTFGSPNUIFKVODUJPOBOESFDPNCJOFXJUIUIFNBKPSJUZDBSSJFST'JHVSF
TIPXTUIFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFKVODUJPOPGVOJGPSNMZEPQFEnUZQF
BOEpUZQFSFHJPOTЋ FFMFDUSPODIBSHFTUPSFEJOUIFpSFHJPODPSSFTQPOETUPUIFBSFBVOEFSUIF
DVSWF BOE JU JT FRVBM UP Q n qnoLn 4JNJMBSMZ UIF DIBSHF PG TUPSFE IPMFT Q p qpoLp Ћ F TUPSBHF
DIBSHFDBOCFBMTPFYQSFTTFEBTQ nInτnBOEQ pIpτp XIFSFInBOEIpBSFFMFDUSPOBOEIPMFDVSSFOUT
BUUIFKVODUJPO τnBOEτpBSFUIFMJGFUJNFTGPSNJOPSJUZDBSSJFST"TTVNJOHττnτpBOELOPXJOH
UIBUIIp InUIFUPUBMTUPSBHFDIBSHFBUUIFKVODUJPOJTQIτЋ FEJffVTJPODBQBDJUBODFDBOUIFO
CFDPNQVUFEBT
dQ d ⎡ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎤ τI B
Cdif = = ⎢ τI o exp ⎜ ⎟⎥ =

dv dv ⎣ ⎝ ηVT ⎠ ⎦ ηVT
Cj
Cjo
v
Vjo
FIGURE 8.6 $BQBDJUBODFoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPSSFWFSTFCJBTFEKVODUJPO
"T POF DBO TFF UIF EJffVTJPO DBQBDJUBODF Cdif JT QSPQPSUJPOBM UP UIF TUPSBHF UJNF τ BOE UP UIF EJPEF
CJBTJOHDVSSFOUIB /PUFUIBUUIFEJffVTJPODBQBDJUBODFEPFTOPUEFQFOEPOUIFKVODUJPOBSFB CVUJUPOMZ
EFQFOETPOUIFEJPEFDVSSFOUЋ FEJffVTJPODBQBDJUBODFTNBZIBWFWFSZMBSHFWBMVFT'PSFYBNQMF GPS
N"DVSSFOUBOEτμT UIFKVODUJPOEJffVTJPODBQBDJUBODFJTBCPVUμ''PSUVOBUFMZ UIJTEJffV
TJPODBQBDJUBODFJTDPOOFDUFEJOQBSBMMFMUPUIFTNBMMTJHOBMKVODUJPOSFTJTUBODFrηVTIB BOEUIFUJNF
DPOTUBOUrCdifJTFRVBMUPUIFTUPSBHFUJNFτ
8.2.2 Depletion Capacitance

Ћ FSFWFSTFECJBTFEEJPEFMPPLTMJLFBDBQBDJUPSXJUIUXPiQMBUFTwGPSNFEPGpUZQFBOEnUZQFSFHJPOT
BOEUIFEJFMFDUSJDMBZFS EFQMFUJPOSFHJPO CFUXFFOUIFNЋ FDBQBDJUBODFPGBSFWFSTFECJBTFEKVODUJPO
DBOUIFOCFXSJUUFOBT
ε
Cdep = A
w
XIFSF
AJTBKVODUJPOBSFB
εJTUIFEJFMFDUSJDQFSNJUUJWJUZPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBM
wJTUIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFS
Ћ FEFQMFUJPOMBZFSUIJDLOFTTwJTBXFBLGVODUJPOPGUIFBQQMJFESFWFSTFCJBTJOHWPMUBHF*OUIFTJNQMFTU
DBTF XJUITUFQBCSVQUKVODUJPO UIFEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODFJT
qN eff εεo 1 1 1
Cj = ; = +
2(Vpn − v) N eff N D N A

Ћ FTUFFQFTUDBQBDJUBODFoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFJOpn nEJPEFTXJUIUIFJNQVSJUZQSPfiMFTTIPXOJO
'JHVSFG*OHFOFSBM GPSWBSJPVTJNQVSJUZQSPfiMFTBUUIFKVODUJPO UIFEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODFCjDBOCF
BQQSPYJNBUFECZ
C j = C jo (Vpn − v )
1/ m

PSVTJOHMJOFBSBQQSPYJNBUJPO BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
⎛ v ⎞
C j = C jo ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ V jo ⎠
8.3 Diode as a Switch

Ћ FTXJUDIJOHUJNFPGUIFpnKVODUJPOJTMJNJUFENBJOMZCZUIFTUPSBHFDIBSHFPGJOKFDUFENJOPSJUZDBS
SJFSTJOUPUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFKVODUJPO FMFDUSPOTJOKFDUFEJOpUZQFSFHJPOBOEIPMFTJOKFDUFEJOnUZQF
SFHJPO 8IFOBEJPEFJTTXJUDIFEGSPNGPSXBSEUPSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPO UIFTFDBSSJFSTNBZNPWFGSFFMZ
UISPVHIUIFKVODUJPO4PNFPGUIFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTSFDPNCJOFXJUIUJNF0UIFSTBSFNPWFEBXBZUPUIF
PUIFSTJEFPGUIFKVODUJPOЋ FEJPEFDBOOPUSFDPWFSJUTCMPDLJOHDBQBCJMJUZBTMPOHBTBMBSHFOVNCFSPG
UIFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTFYJTUBOEDBOflPXUISPVHIUIFKVODUJPO"OFYBNQMFPGUIFDVSSFOUoUJNFDIBSBD
UFSJTUJDTPGBEJPEFTXJUDIJOHGSPNGPSXBSEUPSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPOJTTIPXOJO'JHVSF'FXDIBSBDUFS
JTUJDTUIBUBSFTIPXOJOUIFfiHVSFBSFGPSUIFTBNFGPSXBSEDVSSFOUBOEEJffFSFOUSFWFSTFDVSSFOUT+VTU
BftFSTXJUDIJOH UIFTFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUTBSFMJNJUFEPOMZCZFYUFSOBMDJSDVJUSZ*OUIJTFYBNQMF TIPXOJO
'JHVSF NPTUPGUIFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTBSFNPWFEUPUIFPUIFSTJEFPGUIFKVODUJPOCZUIFSFWFSTFDVS
SFOUBOEUIFSFDPNCJOBUJPONFDIBOJTNJTOFHMJHJCMF/PUF UIBUUIFMBSHFSUIFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUflPXTBftFS
TXJUDIJOH UIFTIPSUFSUJNFJTSFRVJSFEUPSFDPWFSUIFCMPDLJOHDBQBCJMJUZЋ JTUZQFPGCFIBWJPSJTUZQJDBM
GPSDPNNPOMZVTFEIJHIWPMUBHFEJPEFT
*OPSEFSUPTIPSUFOUIFTXJUDIJOHUJNF EJPEFTTPNFUJNFTBSFEPQFEXJUIHPMEPSPUIFSEFFQMFWFMJNQV
SJUJFTUPDSFBUFNPSFHFOFSBUJPODFOUFSTBOEUPJODSFBTFUIFDBSSJFSSFDPNCJOBUJPOЋ JTXBZ UIFNJOPSJUZ
DBSSJFSMJGFUJNFTPGTVDITXJUDIJOHEJPEFTBSFTJHOJfiDBOUMZSFEVDFEЋ FTXJUDIJOHUJNFJTTJHOJfiDBOUMZ
TIPSUFS CVUJUJTBMNPTUJOEFQFOEFOUPGUIFSFWFSTFEJPEFDVSSFOUBftFSTXJUDIJOH BT'JHVSFTIPXT
FIGURE 8.7 $VSSFOUT JO EJPEF XJUI MBSHF NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS MJGFUJNFT BftFS TXJUDIJOH GSPN GPSXBSE UP SFWFSTF
EJSFDUJPO
FIGURE 8.8 $VSSFOUT JO EJPEF XJUI TNBMM NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS MJGFUJNFT BftFS TXJUDIJOH GSPN GPSXBSE UP SFWFSTF
EJSFDUJPO
Ћ JTNFUIPEPGBSUJfiDJBMMZJODSFBTJOHSFDPNCJOBUJPOSBUFTIBTTPNFTFWFSFEJTBEWBOUBHFT4VDITXJUDIJOH
EJPEFTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZWFSZMBSHFSFWFSTFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUBOETNBMMCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT
Ћ F CFTU TXJUDIJOH EJPEFT VUJMJ[F NFUBMoTFNJDPOEVDUPS DPOUBDUT Ћ FZ BSF LOPXO BT UIF 4DIPUULZ
EJPEFT *O TVDI EJPEFT UIFSF JT OP NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS JOKFDUJPO QIFOPNFOPO UIFSFGPSF UIFTF EJPEFT
SFDPWFSUIFCMPDLJOHDBQBCJMJUZJOTUBOUBOFPVTMZЋ F4DIPUULZEJPEFTBSFBMTPDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZBSFMB
UJWFMZTNBMM o7 WPMUBHFESPQJOUIFGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO)PXFWFS UIFJSSFWFSTFMFBLBHFDVSSFOU
JTMBSHFS BOEUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFSBSFMZFYDFFETo7-PXFSJOHUIFJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOJO
UIFTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMMFBETUPTMJHIUMZMBSHFSCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT CVUBUUIFTBNFUJNF UIFTFSJFT
EJPEFSFTJTUBODFTJODSFBTFTJHOJfiDBOUMZ
8.4 Temperature Properties

#PUIGPSXBSEBOESFWFSTFEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFOUЋ FTFUFNQFSBUVSFQSPQFS
UJFTBSFWFSZJNQPSUBOUGPSDPSSFDUDJSDVJUEFTJHOЋ FUFNQFSBUVSFQSPQFSUJFTPGUIFEJPEFDBOCFVTFEUP
DPNQFOTBUFGPSUIFUIFSNBMFffFDUTPGFMFDUSPOJDDJSDVJUT%JPEFTDBOCFVTFEBMTPBTBDDVSBUFUFNQFSB
UVSFTFOTPSTЋ FNBKPSUFNQFSBUVSFFffFDUJOBEJPEFJTDBVTFECZUIFTUSPOHUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPG
UIFJOUSJOTJDDPODFOUSBUJPOni &RVBUJPOTBOE BOECZUIFFYQPOFOUJBMUFNQFSBUVSFSFMBUJPOTIJQ
PGUIFEJPEFFRVBUJPO #ZDPNCJOJOH&RVBUJPOTBOEBOEBTTVNJOHUIFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFO
EFODFPGDBSSJFSNPCJMJUJFT UIFWPMUBHFESPQPOUIFGPSXBSECJBTFEEJPEFDBOCFXSJUUFOBT
⎡ ⎛ i ⎞ ⎤
v = η ⎢VT MO ⎜ α ⎟ + Vg ⎥
⎝ ξT ⎠
⎣ ⎦
PSEJPEFDVSSFOU
α
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ T (v / η) − Vg ⎞
i = I o ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎜ o ⎟
⎝ o⎠
T ⎝T VTo ⎠
XIFSF
VgJTUIFQPUFOUJBMHBQJOTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBM
Vg7GPSTJMJDPOBOEVg7GPS(B"T
αJTBNBUFSJBMDPFffiDJFOUSBOHJOHCFUXFFOBOE
Ћ F UFNQFSBUVSF EFQFOEFODF PG UIF EJPEF WPMUBHF ESPQ dvdT DBO CF PCUBJOFE CZ DBMDVMBUJOH UIF
EFSJWBUJWFPG&RVBUJPO
dv v − η (Vg + αVT )

=
dT T
'PS FYBNQMF JO UIF DBTF PG UIF TJMJDPO EJPEF XJUI B 7 ESPQ BOE BTTVNJOH η α BOE
T = 3, UIFdVdTN7¡$
Ћ FSFWFSTFEJPEFDVSSFOUJTBWFSZTUSPOHGVODUJPOPGUIFUFNQFSBUVSF'PSEJPEFTNBEFPGUIFTFNJ
DPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMTXJUIBTNBMMQPUFOUJBMHBQ TVDIBTHFSNBOJVN UIFEJffVTJPODPNQPOFOUEPNJ
OBUFT*OUIJTDBTF UIFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUP
irev ∝ T α exp ⎛⎜ − ⎞
qVg
⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
'PS EJPEFT NBEF PG TJMJDPO BOE TFNJDPOEVDUPST XJUI B IJHIFS FOFSHZ HBQ UIF SFDPNCJOBUJPO JT UIF
EPNJOBOUNFDIBOJTN*OUIJTDBTF SFWFSTFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUP
irev ∝ T α / 2 exp ⎛⎜ − ⎞
qVg
⎟
⎝ 2kT ⎠
6TJOH&RVBUJPO POFNBZDBMDVMBUFUIBUGPSTJMJDPOEJPEFTBUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSFT UIFSFWFSTFMFBLBHF

DVSSFOUEPVCMFTGPSBCPVUFWFSZ¡$
Ћ FCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJTBMTPUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFOUЋ FUVOOFMJOHFffFDUEPNJOBUFTJOEJPEFT
XJUI TNBMM CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHFT Ћ JT FffFDU JT PftFO LOPXO JO MJUFSBUVSF BT UIF ;FOFS CSFBLEPXO
*O TVDI EJPEFT UIF CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHF EFDSFBTFT XJUI UIF UFNQFSBUVSF Ћ F BWBMBODIF CSFBLEPXO
EPNJOBUFTJOEJPEFTXJUIMBSHFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT8IFOUIFBWBMBODIFNFDIBOJTNQSFWBJMTUIFO
UIF CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHF JODSFBTFT o QFS ¡$ 'PS NFEJVN SBOHF CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHFT POF
QIFOPNFOPO DPNQFOTBUFT UIF PUIFS BOE UIF UFNQFSBUVSFJOEFQFOEFOU CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHF DBO CF
PCTFSWFEЋ JT[FSPUFNQFSBUVSFDPFffiDJFOUFYJTUTGPSEJPEFTXJUICSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFTFRVBMUPBCPVU
Vg*OUIFDBTFPGUIFTJMJDPOEJPEF UIJTCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF XJUIB[FSPUFNQFSBUVSFDPFffiDJFOU JT
FRVBMUPBCPVU7
8.5 Piecewise Linear Model

Ћ FOPOMJOFBSEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFPftFOBQQSPYJNBUFECZUIFQJFDFXJTFMJOFBSNPEFMЋ FSFBSFB
GFXQPTTJCMFBQQSPBDIFTUPMJOFBSJ[FUIFEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FQBSBNFUFSTPG
UIFNPTUBDDVSBUFMJOFBSJ[FEEJPEFNPEFMBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSFB BOEUIFMJOFBSJ[FEEJPEFFRVJWBMFOU
DJSDVJUJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFC
Ћ FNPEJfiFEEJPEFFRVBUJPO BMTPDBOCFXSJUUFOBT
⎛ i ⎞
v = ηVT MO ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Io ⎠
'PSUIFCJBTJOHQPJOUVBBOEIB UIFTNBMMTJHOBMEJPEFSFTJTUBODFdv/diDBOCFDPNQVUFEGSPN&RVBUJPO
BT
dv ηVT
r= = Vtho = VB − VT
di IB
BOEJUJTPOMZUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFUIFSNBMQPUFOUJBMVTBOEUIFCJBTJOHDVSSFOUIB /PUFUIBUUIFTNBMM
TJHOBM EJPEF SFTJTUBODF JT BMNPTU JOEFQFOEFOU PO UIF EJPEF DPOTUSVDUJPO PS TFNJDPOEVDUPS NBUFSJBM
VTFE*GPOFSFRVJSFTUIBUUIJTMJOFBSJ[FEEJPEFIBWFUIFIBDVSSFOUGPSUIFVBWPMUBHF UIFOUIFQJFDF
XJTFEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTTIPVMECFBTJO'JHVSFЋ FFRVJWBMFOUЋ FWFOJOBOE/PSUPODJSDVJUTBSF
i i i i
v v v
v
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 8.9 7BSJPVTXBZTPGMJOFBSJ[JOHEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT

rD = ηVT/IB
IB +
Vtho = VB – VT
–
Vtho VB
(a) VT (b)
FIGURE 8.10 -JOFBSJ[BUJPOPGUIFEJPEF B EJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT C FRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBN
TIPXOJO'JHVSF*OBDBTFPGMBSHFTJHOBMPQFSBUJPO UIFEJPEFDBOCFBQQSPYJNBUFECZTIJftJOHUIF
DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUPUIFMFft CZΔV*OUIJTDBTF UIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFCFDPNFTVthoVB¦VTJOTUFBEPG
VthoVB¦VT
8.6 Different Types of Diodes

6TJOHEJffFSFOUQIFOPNFOBJOTFNJDPOEVDUPST JUJTQPTTJCMFUPEFWFMPQNBOZEJffFSFOUUZQFTPGEJPEFT
XJUITQFDJfiDDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT%JffFSFOUEJPEFTIBWFEJffFSFOUTZNCPMT BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF7BSJPVT
UZQFTPGEJPEFTBSFCSJFflZEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTTFDUJPO
8.6.1 Switching Diodes

4XJUDIJOHEJPEFTBSFVTVBMMZTNBMMQPXFSpnKVODUJPOEJPEFTUIBUBSFEFTJHOFEGPSGBTUTXJUDIJOH*O
PSEFSUPSFEVDFUIFTUPSBHFUJNF BOEEJffVTJPODBQBDJUBODFT UIFMJGFUJNFPGFMFDUSPOBOEIPMFTXFSF
QVSQPTFMZSFEVDFECZJOUSPEVDJOHEFFQMFWFMJNQVSJUJFTTVDIBTHPMEPSQMBUJOVN
8.6.2 Zener Diodes

;FOFSEJPEFTVTFUIFSFWFSTFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFUPTUBCJMJ[FWPMUBHFTJOFMFDUSPOJDDJSDVJUTЋ FCSFBL
EPXOWPMUBHFPGpnKVODUJPOEFDSFBTFTXJUIBOJODSFBTFPGUIFJNQVSJUZMFWFM8IFOKVODUJPOJTIFBWZ
Anode
Anode
Anode
Anode
Anode
Anode
Anode
Anode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Zener Schottky Tunnel Photo

Diode LED Varicap SCR
diode diode diode diode
FIGURE 8.11 $PNNPOMZVTFETZNCPMTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT

EPQFE UIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJTDPOUSPMMFECZUIFUVOOFMJOHNFDIBOJTN BOEJUTEFDSFBTFXJUIUFNQFSB

UVSF8JUIMJHIUMZEPQFEKVODUJPOBOEIJHICSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT UIFBWBMBODIFCSFBLEPXOJTUIFEPNJ
OBOUNFDIBOJTNBOEUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJODSFBTFTXJUIUFNQFSBUVSF*OPUIFSXPSET ;FOFSEJPEFT
GPSTNBMMWPMUBHFTIBWFOFHBUJWFUFNQFSBUVSFDPFffiDJFOU BOE;FOFSEJPEFTGPSMBSHFWPMUBHFTIBWFQPTJ
UJWFUFNQFSBUVSFDPFfficJFOU*UJTXPSUIOPUJDJOHUIBUGPSWPMUBHFTFRVBMBCPVUFOFSHZHBQT BCPVU7
GPSTJMJDPO ;FOFSEJPEFTIBWFDMPTFUP[FSPUFNQFSBUVSFDPFffiDJFOUT4VDIUFNQFSBUVSFDPNQFOTBUFE
;FOFSEJPEFTBSFLOPXOBTSFGFSFODFEJPEFT
8.6.3 Tunnel Diodes (Esaki Diodes)

8IFO CPUI TJEFT PG UIF KVODUJPO BSF WFSZ IFBWJMZ EPQFE UIFO GPS TNBMM GPSXBSECJBTJOH WPMUBHFT
o7 BMBSHFUVOOFMJOHDVSSFOUNBZPDDVS'PSMBSHFSGPSXBSEWPMUBHFT o7 UIJTUVOOFMJOH
DVSSFOU WBOJTIFT Ћ JT XBZ UIF DVSSFOUoWPMUBHF DIBSBDUFSJTUJDIBT B OFHBUJWF SFTJTUBODF SFHJPO TPNF
XIFSFCFUXFFOBOE7 'JHVSFE Ћ FHFSNBOJVNBOEPUIFSUIBOTJMJDPOTFNJDPOEVDUPSTBSF
VTFEUPGBCSJDBUFUVOOFMEJPEFT
8.6.4 Backward Diode

Ћ FCBDLXBSEEJPEFIBTTMJHIUMZMPXFSJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOTUIBOUIFUVOOFMEJPEF BOEUIFUVO
OFMJOHDVSSFOUJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPOEPFTOPUPDDVS 'JHVSFF Ћ FCBDLXBSEEJPEFJTDIBSBDUFSJ[FE
CZBWFSZTIBSQLOFFOFBS7 BOEJUJTVTFEGPSEFUFDUJPO SFDUJfiDBUJPOT PGTJHOBMTXJUIWFSZTNBMM
NBHOJUVEFT
8.6.5 PIN Diodes

%JPEFTXJUIIJHICSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFIBWFUIFpinTUSVDUVSFXJUIBOJNQVSJUZQSPfiMFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
E"TJNJMBSpinTUSVDUVSFJTBMTPVTFEJONJDSPXBWFDJSDVJUTBTBTXJUDIPSBTBOBUUFOVBUJOHSFTJT
UPS'PSSFWFSTFCJBTJOH TVDINJDSPXBWFpinEJPEFSFQSFTFOUTBOPQFODJSDVJUXJUIBTNBMMQBSBTJUJD
KVODUJPODBQBDJUBODF*OUIFGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPOUIJTEJPEFPQFSBUFTBTBSFTJTUPSXIPTFDPOEVDUBODFJT
QSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFCJBTJOHDVSSFOU"UWFSZIJHIGSFRVFODJFTFMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFTXJMMPTDJMMBUFSBUIFS
UIBOflPXЋ FSFGPSF UIFNJDSPXBWFpinEJPEFFYIJCJUTMJOFBSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTFWFOGPSMBSHFNPEVMBU
JOHWPMUBHFT
8.6.6 Schottky Diodes

Ћ FTXJUDIJOHUJNFPGBpnKVODUJPOGSPNGPSXBSEUPSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPOJTMJNJUFECZUIFTUPSBHFUJNF
PGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOKFDUFEJOUPUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFKVODUJPO.VDIGBTUFSPQFSBUJPOJTQPTTJCMFJOUIF
4DIPUULZ EJPEF XIFSF NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS JOKFDUJPO EPFT OPU FYJTU "OPUIFS BEWBOUBHF PG UIF 4DIPUULZ
EJPEFJTUIBUUIFGPSXBSEWPMUBHFESPQJTTNBMMFS o7 UIBOJOUIFTJMJDPOpnKVODUJPOЋ JTEJPEF
VTFTUIFNFUBMoTFNJDPOEVDUPSDPOUBDUGPSJUTPQFSBUJPO4DIPUULZEJPEFTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZSFMBUJWFMZ
TNBMMSFWFSTFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF SBSFMZFYDFFEJOH7
8.6.7 Super Barrier Diodes

Ћ FNBKPSESBXCBDLPG4DIPUULZEJPEFTJTUIFJSMPXCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF#ZDPNCJOJOHpnKVODUJPOTXJUI
4DIPUULZDPOUBDU JUJTQPTTJCMFUPNBLFTVQFSCBSSJFSEJPEFTXIFSFWPMUBHFESPQJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO
Js EFUFSNJOFE CZ 4DIPUULZ DPOUBDU CVU GPS SFWFSTF EJSFDUJPO TQFDJBMMZ QSPfiMFE pn KVODUJPO <> MPXFS
FMFDUSJDBl fiFME4DIPUULZDPOUBDU SFTVMUJOHJONVDIMBSHFSCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT
log(N) log(N) log(N)
p-type p-type p-type
x x x
(a) n- type (b) n- type (c) n- type
log(N) log(N) log(N)
p-type p-type p-type
x x x
n- type n- type n- type

(d) (e) (f )
FIGURE 8.12 *NQVSJUZQSPfiMFTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT B TUFQKVODUJPO C MJOFBSKVODUJPO D EJffVTJPOKVODUJPO

E QJOKVODUJPO F IZQFSBCSVQUKVODUJPO BOE G pipnKVODUJPO
8.6.8 Step-Recovery Diodes

8IFOpnKVODUJPOJTCJBTFEJOGPSXBSEEFUFDUJPO UIFONJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTBSFJOKFDUFEUPCPUITJEFTPGUIF
KVODUJPO&MFDUSPOTBSFJOKFDUFEJOUPnUZQFSFHJPOBOEFMFDUSPOTBSFJOKFDUFEJOUPpUZQFSFHJPO8IFO "2
EJPEFTXJUDIFTJOSFWFSTFEJSFDUJPOT JOKFDUFENJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTflPXCBDLUISPVHIUIFKVODUJPODSFBU
JOHMBSHFUFNQPSBSZSFWFSTFDVSSFOUЋ JTDVSSFOUEFDBZTXJUIUJNFBTUIFOVNCFSPGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFST
EFDSFBTFT XJUI UJNF Ћ F TUFQSFDPWFSZ EJPEFT IBWF TVDI JNQVSJUZ QSPfiMF UIBU UIF CVJMUJO QPUFOUJBMT
QVTINJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTBXBZGSPNUIFKVODUJPO TPMBSHFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUflPXTPOMZGPSBWFSZTIPSUUJNF
BftFSTXJUDIJOHBOEUIFOUIJTDVSSFOUESPQTWFSZSBQJEMZHFOFSBUJOHWFSZTIBSQDVSSFOUQVMTF8IFO3'
TJHOBMJTBQQMJFEUPUIJTEJPEF NBOZIJHIFSIBSNPOJDGSFRVFODJFTBSFHFOFSBUFEЋ FTFTUFQSFDPWFSZ
EJPEFTBSFVTFEGPSGSFRVFODZNVMUJQMJDBUJPO
8.6.9 Avalanche Diodes

Ћ FEFTUSVDUJWFUIFSNBMCSFBLEPXOJOIJHIQPXFSEJPEFTPDDVSXIFOUIFMFBLBHFDVSSFOU XIJDIJTBO
FYQPOFOUJBMGVODUJPOPGUIFUFNQFSBUVSF TUBSUTUPJODSFBTF-PDBMMZ MBSHFSDVSSFOUDSFBUFTMBSHFMPDBM
IFBU EJTTJQBUJPO XIJDI MFBET UP GVSUIFS UFNQFSBUVSF JODSFBTF BOE BT B DPOTFRVFODF UIF EFTUSVDUJWF
UIFSNBMCSFBLEPXO8IFOUIFCSFBLEPXOJTDPOUSPMMFECZBWBMBODIFNFDIBOJTN UIFCSFBLEPXOWPMU
BHFJODSFBTFTMPDBMMZXJUIUFNQFSBUVSF*OUIFIPUUFSQBSUPGUIFEJPEF UIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJODSFBTFT
UIFDVSSFOUTUPQTUPflPXJOUIJTSFHJPO BOEUIFSFHJPODPPMTEPXOЋ FSFGPSF IJHIQPXFSBWBMBODIF
EJPEFTDBOTVTUBJOMBSHFSFWFSTFDVSSFOUTXJUIPVUEFTUSVDUJPOЋ FBWBMBODIFNFDIBOJTNJTBMTPVTFEUP
HFOFSBUFUSVMZSBOEPNOPJTFBOE PGDPVSTF UIFTFBSFMPXQPXFSBWBMBODIFEJPEFT
8.6.10 Varicaps
Ћ FUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSJOpnKVODUJPOEFQFOETPOUIFBQQMJFEWPMUBHF BOEUIJTQIFOPNFOPO
DBO CF VTFE BT WPMUBHFDPOUSPMMFE DBQBDJUPS UP UVOF IJHIGSFRVFODZ FMFDUSPOJD DJSDVJUT $BQBDJUBODFo
WPMUBHFSFMBUJPOTIJQEFQFOETPOUIFJNQVSJUZQSPfiMFPGUIFKVODUJPO*OBUZQJDBMKVODUJPOXJUIBOJNQV
SJUZQSPfiMFBTTIPXOJO'JHVSFBPSC DBQBDJUBODFEPFTOPUDIBOHFNVDICVUXJUIUIFIZQFSBCSVQU
KVODUJPO BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFF UIFWBMVFPGDBQBDJUBODFNBZDIBOHFTFWFSBMUJNFT
8.6.11 Solar Batteries

Ћ F TFNJDPOEVDUPS pn KVODUJPO JMMVNJOBUFE CZ MJHIU XJMM HFOFSBUF B WPMUBHF PO JUT UFSNJOBMT 4VDI B
EJPEFJTLOPXOBTBTPMBSCBUUFSZPSQIPUPWPMUBJDDFMMЋ FNBYJNVNWPMUBHFPGBTPMBSDFMMJTMJNJUFECZ
GPSXBSEpnKVODUJPODIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
8.6.12 Photodiodes
*G pn KVODUJPO JT FMJNJOBUFE XJUI MJHIU UIFO UIF SFWFSTF KVODUJPO DVSSFOU JT QSPQPSUJPOBM UP UIF MJHIU
JOUFOTJUZ BU UIF KVODUJPO Ћ JT QIFOPNFOPO JT VTFE JO QIPUPEJPEFT *G UIF SFWFSTFMZ CJBTFE DPMMFDUPS
KVODUJPOJTJMMVNJOBUFEXJUIMJHIU UIFOUIJTQIPUPDVSSFOUJTBNQMJfiFECFUBUJNFTCZUIFUSBOTJTUPSBOE
BTBSFTVMUQIPUPUSBOTJTUPSJTCFUBUJNFTNPSFTFOTJUJWFUIBOUIFQIPUPEJPEF1IPUPUSBOTJTUPSTBSFTMPXFS
UIBOQIPUPEJPEFT BOEBTBSFTVMUPOMZQIPUPEJPEFTBSFVTFEJOPQUJDBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOT
8.6.13 LEDs
*GBEJPEFJTCJBTFEJOUIFGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO JUNBZFNJUMJHIU*OPSEFSUPPCUBJOIJHIFNJTTJPOFffiDJFODZ
UIFMJHIUFNJUUJOHEJPEF -&% TIPVMECFNBEFPVUPGBTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMXJUIBEJSFDUFOFSHZ
CBOETUSVDUVSFЋ JTXBZFMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFTDBOSFDPNCJOFEJSFDUMZCFUXFFOWBMFODFBOEDPOEVDUJPO
CBOET Ћ F TJMJDPO EJPEFT EP OPU FNJU MJHIU CFDBVTF UIF TJMJDPO IBT JOEJSFDU CBOE TUSVDUVSF BOE UIF
QSPCBCJMJUZPGBEJSFDUCBOEUPCBOESFDPNCJOBUJPOJTWFSZTNBMM5ZQJDBMMZ -&%TBSFGBCSJDBUFEVTJOH
WBSJPVTDPNQPTJUJPOTPG(By"M¦y"Tx1¦xЋ FXBWFMFOHUIPGHFOFSBUFEMJHIUJTJOWFSTFMZQSPQPSUJPOBMUP
UIFQPUFOUJBMHBQPGKVODUJPONBUFSJBM
8.6.14 Laser Diodes

8IFOJO-&%TUIFMJHIUJOUFOTJUZJTFOIBODFECZUIFBEEJUJPOPGNJDSPNJSSPST UIFOMBTFSBDUJPONBZ
PDDVS-BTFSEJPEFTIBWFBCFUUFSFffiDJFODZBOEUIFZHFOFSBUFDPIFSFOUMJHIU
8.6.15 Gun Diodes

Ћ FTFBSFPUIFSNJDSPXBWFEJPEFTUIBUHFOFSBUFNJDSPXBWFTJHOBMTЋ FHVOEJPEFVTFTNBUFSJBMMJLF
HBMMJVNBSTFOJEF XIFSFGPSDFSUBJOFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEFMFDUSPOWFMPDJUZEFDSFBTFTXJUIFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEЋ JT
QIFOPNFOPOMFBETUPHSPVQJOHNPWJOHFMFDUSPOTJOQBDLTBOEUPUIFHFOFSBUJPOPGNJDSPXBWFGSFRVFO
DJFTPOJUTUFSNJOBMT
8.6.16 IMPATT Diodes

"OPUIFS JOUFSFTUJOH iEJPEFw TUSVDUVSF IBT UIF JNQVSJUZ QSPfiMF TIPXO JO 'JHVSF G 8IFO SFWFSTF
CJBTJOH FYDFFET UIF CSFBLEPXO WPMUBHF UIJT FMFNFOU HFOFSBUFT B NJDSPXBWF TJHOBM XJUI B GSFRVFODZ
SFMBUFEUPUIFFMFDUSPOUSBOTJFOUUJNFUISPVHITUSVDUVSF4VDIBEJPEFJTLOPXOBTBO*.1"55 *.1BDU
"WBMBODIF5SBOTJU5JNF EJPEF
8.6.17 Peltier Diodes

.PWJOHFMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFTBSFBMTPDBSSZJOHUIFSNBMFOFSHZ*OPSEFSUPFffiDJFOUMZUSBOTGFSIFBU UIF
TFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUFSJBMNVTUIBWFMBSHFNPCJMJUZBOEBTTNBMMBTQPTTJCMFUIFSNBMDPOEVDUJWJUZ1FMUJFS
EJPEFTBSFDPNQPTFEPGpUZQFBOEnUZQFCBSTDPOOFDUFEJOTVDIBXBZUIBUDVSSFOUTUISPVHIpUZQF
BOEnUZQFCBSTflPXJOPQQPTJUFEJSFDUJPOT4JODFIPMFTNPWFJOUIFTBNFEJSFDUJPOBTDVSSFOU BOEFMFD
USPOTNPWFJOUIFPQQPTJUFEJSFDUJPOPGDVSSFOU UIFNBKPSJUZPGDBSSJFST CPUIFMFDUSPOBOEIPMFT NPWF
JOUIFTBNFEJSFDUJPOJOEJffFSFOUCBSTDBSSZJOHIFBU1FMUJFSEJPEFTBSFVTFEGPSUIFSNPFMFDUSJDDPPMJOH
Ћ FSF BSF NBOZ PUIFS UXPUFSNJOBM CVML TFNJDPOEVDUPS EFWJDFT UIBU DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE EJPEFT
Ћ FSNJTUPST BSF NBEF PVU PG TFNJDPOEVDUPST XJUI TNBMM FOFSHZ HBQ oF7 BOE UIFJS DPOEVD
UBODF JODSFBTFT FYQPOFOUJBMMZ XJUI UFNQFSBUVSF 1IPUPSFTJTUPST BSF NBEF GSPN TFNJDPOEVDUPST XJUI
MBSHFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSMJGFUJNFBOEUIFJSSFTJTUBODFTDIBOHFXJUIJMMVNJOBUJPO1IPUPSFTJTUPSTIBWFWFSZ
TMPXSFTQPOTF1JF[PSFTJTUPSTBSFTFOTJUJWFUPUIFJOEVDFETUSFTTЋ FZDBOCFPWFSUJNFTNPSFTFOTJ
UJWFUIBOUIJOfiMNUFOTPNFUFST.BHOFUPSFTJTUPSTDIBOHFUIFJSSFTJTUBODFXJUINBHOFUJDfiFMEЋ FNPTU
QPQVMBSNBHOFUPSFTJTUPSTUSVDUVSFJTUIF$PSCJOPSJOH
References
"4(SPWF Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices +PIO8JMFZ4POT /FX:PSL "2
4.4[F Modern Semiconductor Device Physics +PIO8JMFZ4POT /FX:PSL
( 8 /FVEFDL The PN junction Diode WPM ** Modular Series on Solid-State Devices "EEJTPO
8FTMFZ 3FBEJOH ."
34.VMMFSBOE5*,BNJOT Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits OEFEO +PIO8JMFZ4POT
/FX:PSL
&4:BOH Microelectronic Devices .D(SBX)JMM /FX:PSL
#(4USFFUNBO Solid State Electronic Devices UIFEO 1SFOUJDF)BMM &OHMFXPPE$liffs, NJ
%"/FBNFO Semiconductor Physics and Devices *SXJO #PTUPO ."
#.8JMBNPXTLJ Solid-State Electronics o
#-"OEFSTPOBOE3-"OEFSTPO Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices .D(SBX)JMM #VSS
3JEHF *-
9
Bipolar Junction Transistor
&CFSTo.PMM.PEFM 9
(VNNFMo1PPO.PEFM 9
$VSSFOU(BJOTPG#JQPMBS5SBOTJTUPST 9
)JHI$VSSFOU1IFOPNFOB 9
4NBMM4JHOBM.PEFM9
5FDIOPMPHJFT 9
*OUFHSBUFE/1/#JQPMBS5SBOTJTUPS t -BUFSBMBOE7FSUJDBM
1/P TSBOTJTUPST
.PEFM1BSBNFUFST 9
Bogdan M. ćFSNBM4FOTJUJWJUZ t 4FDPOE0SEFS&ČFDUT t 41*$&.PEFMPGUIF
#JQPMBS5SBOTJTUPS
Wilamowski
Auburn University
4J(F)#5T 9
0QFSBUJPO1SJODJQMFBOE1FSGPSNBODF"EWBOUBHFTPWFS
Guofu Niu 4J‫ڀ‬#+5 t *OEVTUSZ1SBDUJDFBOE'BCSJDBUJPO5FDIOPMPHZ
Ћ F CJQPMBS KVODUJPO USBOTJTUPS #+5 JT IJTUPSJDBMMZ UIF fiSTU TPMJETUBUF BOBMPH BNQMJfiFS BOE EJHJUBM
TXJUDI BOEGPSNFEUIFCBTJTPGJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUT *$ JOUIFT4UBSUJOHJOUIFFBSMZT UIF
.04'&5 IBE HSBEVBMMZ UBLFO PWFS QBSUJDVMBSMZ GPS NBJOTUSFBN EJHJUBM *$T )PXFWFS JO UIF T
UIF JOWFOUJPO PG TJMJDPOoHFSNBOJVN CBTF IFUFSPKVODUJPO CJQPMBS USBOTJTUPS 4J(F )#5 CSPVHIU UIF
CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSCBDLJOUPIJHIWPMVNFDPNNFSDJBMQSPEVDUJPO NBJOMZGPSUIFOPXXJEFTQSFBEXJSF
MFTTBOEXJSFMJOFDPNNVOJDBUJPOTBQQMJDBUJPOT5PEBZ 4J(F)#5TBSFVTFEUPEFTJHOSBEJPGSFRVFODZ
JOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUTBOETZTUFNTGPSDFMMQIPOFT XJSFMFTTMPDBMBSFBOFUXPSL 8-"/ BVUPNPCJMFDPMMJ
TJPOBWPJEBODFSBEBS XJSFMFTTEJTUSJCVUJPOPGDBCMFUFMFWJTJPO NJMMJNFUFSXBWFSBEJPT BOENBOZNPSF
BQQMJDBUJPOT EVFUPJUTPVUTUBOEJOHIJHIGSFRVFODZQFSGPSNBODFBOEBCJMJUZUPJOUFHSBUFXJUI$.04GPS
SFBMJ[JOHEJHJUBM BOBMPH BOE3'GVODUJPOTPOUIFTBNFDIJQ
#FMPX XF XJMM fiSTU JOUSPEVDF UIF CBTJD DPODFQUT PG #+5 VTJOH B IJTUPSJDBMMZ JNQPSUBOU FRVJWBMFOU
DJSDVJUNPEFM UIF&CFSTo.PMMNPEFMЋ FOUIF(VNNFMo1PPONPEFMXJMMCFJOUSPEVDFE BTJUJTXJEFMZ
VTFEGPSDPNQVUFSBJEFEEFTJHO BOEJTUIFCBTJTPGNPEFSO#+5NPEFMTMJLFUIF7#*$ .FYUSBN BOE
)*$6.NPEFMT$VSSFOUHBJO IJHIDVSSFOUQIFOPNFOB GBCSJDBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFT BOE4J(F)#5TXJMM
UIFOCFEJTDVTTFE
9.1 Ebers–Moll Model

"O/1/#+5DPOTJTUTPGUXPDMPTFMZTQBDFE1/KVODUJPOTDPOOFDUFECBDLUPCBDLTIBSJOHUIFTBNF
QUZQFSFHJPO BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFBЋ FESBXJOHJTOPUUPTDBMFЋ FFNJUUFSBOECBTFMBZFSTBSF
UIJO UZQJDBMMZ MFTT UIBO μN BOE UIF DPMMFDUPS JT NVDI UIJDLFS UP TVQQPSU B IJHI PVUQVU WPMUBHF
TXJOH'PSGPSXBSENPEFPQFSBUJPO UIFFNJUUFSoCBTF &# KVODUJPOJTGPSXBSECJBTFE BOEUIFDPM
MFDUPSCBTF $# KVODUJPOJTSFWFSTFCJBTFE.JOPSJUZDBSSJFSTBSFJOKFDUFEGSPNUIFFNJUUFSUPCBTF
9-1
N P N
E
C
(a)
C
(b)
E
IEF ICF = αF IEF
E C
(c) IER = αR IER ICR
FIGURE 9.1 B $SPTTTFDUJPOBMWJFXPGBO/1/#+5 C DJSDVJUTZNCPM D UIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUNPEFM
USBWFMBDSPTTUIFCBTF BOEBSFUIFODPMMFDUFECZUIFSFWFSTFCJBTFE$#KVODUJPOЋ FSFGPSF UIFDPMMFD

UPSDVSSFOUJTUSBOTQPSUFEGSPNUIF&#KVODUJPO BOEUIVTJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIF&#KVODUJPODVSSFOU
*OUIFGPSXBSEoBDUJWFNPEF UIFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIF&#KVODUJPOJTEFTDSJCFECZUIF
XFMMLOPXOEJPEFFRVBUJPO
⎡ ⎛V ⎞ ⎤
I EF = I E0 ⎢exp ⎜ BE ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎦
XIFSF
I&JTUIF&#KVODUJPOTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOU
V5kTqJTUIFUIFSNBMQPUFOUJBM BCPVUN7BUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSF
Ћ FDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUJTUZQJDBMMZTNBMMFSUIBOUIFFNJUUFSDVSSFOUJT I$'α'I&' XIFSFα'JTUIFGPSXBSE

DVSSFOUHBJO
6OEFS SFWFSTF NPEF PQFSBUJPO UIF $# KVODUJPO JT GPSXBSE CJBTFE BOE UIF &# KVODUJPO JT SFWFSTF
CJBTFE-JLFJOUIFGPSXBSENPEF UIFGPSXBSECJBTFE$#KVODUJPODVSSFOUHJWFTUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOU
⎡ ⎛V ⎞ ⎤
I CF = I C 0 ⎢exp ⎜ BC ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎦
XIFSFI$JTUIF$#KVODUJPOTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOU4JNJMBSMZI&3α3 I3 XIFSFα3JTUIFSFWFSTFDVSSFOU
HBJO6OEFSHFOFSBMCJBTJOHDPOEJUJPOT JUDBOCFQSPWFOUIBUUPfiSTUPSEFS BTVQFSQPTJUJPOPGUIFBCPWF
EFTDSJCFEGPSXBSEBOESFWFSTFNPEFFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUTDBOCFVTFEUPEFTDSJCFUIFUSBOTJTUPSPQFSB
UJPO BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFCЋ FGPSXBSEUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUJPOJTEFTDSJCFECZ&RVBUJPO BOEUIF
Bipolar Junction Transistor 9-3
SFWFSTFUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUJPOJTEFTDSJCFECZ&RVBUJPO'SPNUIF,JSDIPČTDVSSFOUMBXPOFDBOXSJUF
I$ I$'¦I$3 I&I&'¦I&3 BOEI#I&¦I$6TJOH&RVBUJPOTBOEUIFFNJUUFSBOEDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUT
DBOCFEFTDSJCFEBT
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
I E = a11 ⎜ exp BE − 1 ⎟ − a12 ⎜ exp BC − 1 ⎟
⎝ VT ⎠ ⎝ VT ⎠

⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
I C = a21 ⎜ exp BE − 1 ⎟ − a22 ⎜ exp BC − 1 ⎟
⎝ VT ⎠ ⎝ VT ⎠

XIJDIBSFLOPXOBTUIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVBUJPOT<>Ћ F&CFSTo.PMMDPFffiDJFOUTaijBSFHJWFOBT
a11 = I E0 a12 = α R I C0 a21 = α F I E0 a22 = I C0

Ћ F&CFSTo.PMMDPFffiDJFOUTBSFBWFSZTUSPOHGVODUJPOPGUIFUFNQFSBUVSF
Vgo
aij = K xT m exp
VT
XIFSF
K xJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFKVODUJPOBSFBBOEJTJOEFQFOEFOUPGUIFUFNQFSBUVSF
VHP7JTUIFCBOEHBQWPMUBHFJOTJMJDPO FYUSBQPMBUFEUP,
mJTBNBUFSJBMDPOTUBOUXJUIBWBMVFCFUXFFOBOE
8IFOCPUI&#BOE$#KVODUJPOTBSFGPSXBSECJBTFE UIFUSBOTJTUPSJTDBMMFEUPCFXPSLJOHJOUIFTBUVSBUJPO
SFHJPO$VSSFOUJOKFDUJPOUISPVHIUIFDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPONBZBDUJWBUFUIFQBSBTJUJDUSBOTJTUPSTJOJOUFHSBUFE
DJSDVJUTCZVTJOHBQUZQFTVCTUSBUF XIFSFUIFCBTFBDUTBTUIFFNJUUFS UIFDPMMFDUPSBTUIFCBTF BOEUIF
TVCTUSBUFBTUIFDPMMFDUPS*OUZQJDBMJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUT CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSTNVTUOPUPQFSBUFJOTBUVSBUJPO
Ћ FSFGPSF GPSUIFJOUFHSBUFECJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSUIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVBUJPOTDBOCFTJNQMJfiFEUPUIFGPSN
⎛ V ⎞
I E = a11 ⎜ exp BE − 1 ⎟
⎝ VT ⎠

⎛ V ⎞
I C = a21 ⎜ exp BE − 1 ⎟
⎝ VT ⎠
XIFSFaaα'Ћ JTFRVBUJPODPSSFTQPOETUPUIFDJSDVJUEJBHSBNTIPXOJO'JHVSFD
9.2 Gummel–Poon Model

*OSFBMCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST UIFDVSSFOUWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFNPSFDPNQMFYUIBOUIPTFEFTDSJCFE
CZUIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVBUJPOT5ZQJDBMDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS QMPUUFEJO
TFNJMPHBSJUINJDTDBMF BSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF"UTNBMMCBTFFNJUUFSWPMUBHFT EVFUPUIFHFOFSBUJPOo
SFDPNCJOBUJPOQIFOPNFOB UIFCBTFDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUP
VBE
I BL ∝ exp
2VT
log (IC)
log (IB)
VBE
exp
VT
IC IB
VBE
exp
2VT
VBE
FIGURE 9.2 $PMMFDUPSBOECBTFDVSSFOUTBTBGVODUJPOPGCBTFoFNJUUFSWPMUBHF
"MTP EVFUPUIFCBTFDPOEVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPOBUIJHIMFWFMJOKFDUJPOT UIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUGPSMBSHFS

WPMUBHFTDBOCFFYQSFTTFECZUIFTJNJMBSSFMBUJPO
VBE
I CH ∝ exp
2VT
/PUF UIBUUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUGPSBXJEFSBOHFJTHJWFOCZ
VBE
I C = I s exp
VT
Ћ FTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOUJTBGVODUJPOPGEFWJDFTUSVDUVSFQBSBNFUFST
qAni2VTμ B
Is = wB

∫ 0
N B (x )dx

XIFSF
q¨¦$JTUIFFMFDUSPODIBSHF
AJTUIFFNJUUFSoCBTFKVODUJPOBSFB
niJTUIFJOUSJOTJDDPODFOUSBUJPO ni¨BU,
μ#JTUIFNPCJMJUZPGUIFNBKPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOUIFUSBOTJTUPSCBTF
w #JTUIFFČFDUJWFCBTFUIJDLOFTT
N# x JTUIFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGJNQVSJUJFTJOUIFCBTF
/PUF UIBUUIFTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOUJTJOWFSTFMZQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFUPUBMJNQVSJUZEPTFJOUIFCBTF*OUIF
USBOTJTUPSXJUIUIFVOJGPSNCBTF UIFTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOUJTHJWFOCZ
qAni2VTμ B
Is =
wB N B
8IFOBUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUFTJOUIFSFWFSTFBDUJWFNPEF FNJUUFSBOEDPMMFDUPSBSFTXJUDIFE UIFOUIF

DVSSFOUPGTVDIBCJBTFEUSBOTJTUPSJTHJWFOCZ
VBC
I E = I s exp
VT
/PUF UIBUUIFITQBSBNFUFSJTUIFTBNFGPSGPSXBSEBOESFWFSTFNPEFTPGPQFSBUJPOЋ F(VNNFMo1PPO

USBOTJTUPSNPEFM<>XBTEFSJWFEGSPNUIF&CFSTo.PMMNPEFMVTJOHUIFBTTVNQUJPOUIBUaaIT'PS
UIF(VNNFMo1PPONPEFM &RVBUJPOTBSFTJNQMJfiFEUPUIFGPSN
⎛ 1 V V ⎞
IE = Is ⎜ exp BE − exp BC ⎟
⎝ αF VT VT ⎠

⎛ V 1 V ⎞
I C = I s ⎜ exp BE − exp BC ⎟
⎝ VT α R VT ⎠

Ћ FTFFRVBUJPOTSFRVJSFPOMZUISFFDPFffiDJFOUT XIJMFUIF&CFSTo.PMMSFRVJSFTGPVSЋ FTBUVSBUJPODVS

SFOU IT JT DPOTUBOU GPS B XJEF SBOHF PG DVSSFOUT Ћ F DVSSFOU HBJO DPFffiDJFOUT α' BOE α3 IBWF WBMVFT
TNBMMFS CVUDMPTFUPVOJUZ0ftFOJOTUFBEPGVTJOHUIFDVSSFOUHBJOBTαI$I& UIFDVSSFOUHBJOβBTB
SBUJPPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUUPUIFCBTFDVSSFOUβI$I#JTVTFEЋ FNVUVBMSFMBUJPOTIJQTCFUXFFOα
BOEβDPFffiDJFOUTBSFHJWFOCZ
βF αF βR αR
αF = βF = αR = βR =
βF + 1 1 − αF βR + 1 1 − αR
Ћ F (VNNFMo1PPO NPEFM XBT JNQMFNFOUFE JO 41*$& <> BOE PUIFS DPNQVUFS QSPHSBNT GPS DJSDVJU
BOBMZTJT5PNBLFUIFFRVBUJPOTNPSFHFOFSBM UIFNBUFSJBMQBSBNFUFSTη'BOEη3XFSFJOUSPEVDFE
⎡ V ⎛ 1⎞ V ⎤
I C = I s ⎢exp BE − ⎜ 1 + ⎟ exp BC ⎥
⎣ ηFVT ⎝ βR ⎠ ηRVT ⎦

Ћ FWBMVFTPGη'BOEη3WBSZGSPNPOFUPUXP
9.3 Current Gains of Bipolar Transistors

Ћ FUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUHBJOβ JTMJNJUFECZUXPQIFOPNFOBCBTFUSBOTQPSUFffiDJFODZBOEFNJUUFSJOKFDUJPO
FďDJFODZćFFČFDUJWFDVSSFOUHBJOβDBOCFFYQSFTTFEBT

= + +
β β* β5 β3
XIFSF
β*JTUIFUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUHBJODBVTFECZFNJUUFSJOKFDUJPOFffiDJFODZ
β5JTUIFUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUHBJODBVTFECZCBTFUSBOTQPSUFffiDJFODZ
β3JTUIFSFDPNCJOBUJPODPNQPOFOUPGUIFDVSSFOUHBJO
"TPOFDBOTFFGSPN&RVBUJPO TNBMMFSWBMVFTPGβ* β5 BOEβ3EPNJOBUFЋ FCBTFUSBOTQPSUFffiDJFODZ

DBOCFEFfiOFEBTBSBUJPPGJOKFDUFEDBSSJFSTJOUPUIFCBTF UPUIFDBSSJFSTUIBUSFDPNCJOFXJUIJOUIFCBTF
ćJTSBUJPJTBMTPFRVBMUPUIFSBUJPPGUIFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTMJGFUJNFUPUIFUSBOTJUUJNFPGDBSSJFSTUISPVHI
UIFCBTFЋ FDBSSJFSUSBOTJUUJNFDBOCFBQQSPYJNBUFECZBOFNQJSJDBMSFMBUJPOTIJQ
w# ⎛N ⎞
τUSBOTJTU = η = MO ⎜ #& ⎟
V5μ # + η ⎝ N #$ ⎠
XIFSF
μ#JTUIFNPCJMJUZPGUIFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOCBTF
w #JTUIFCBTFUIJDLOFTT
N#&JTUIFJNQVSJUZEPQJOHMFWFMBUUIFFNJUUFSTJEFPGUIFCBTF
N#$JTUIFJNQVSJUZEPQJOHMFWFMBUUIFDPMMFDUPSTJEFPGUIFCBTF
Ћ FSFGPSF UIFDVSSFOUHBJOEVFUPUIFUSBOTQPSUFfficJFODZJT

τMJGF ⎛ L# ⎞
β5 = = + η ⎜w ⎟
τUSBOTJU ⎝ #⎠
XIFSFL#√V5 μ#τMJGFJTUIFEJČVTJPOMFOHUIPGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOUIFCBTF
Ћ FDVSSFOUHBJOβ* EVFUPUIFFNJUUFSJOKFDUJPOFffiDJFODZ JTHJWFOCZ
w&
β* =
μ#
∫
w#
N &FGG x dx

μ &
∫
N # x dx

XIFSF
μ#BOEμ&BSFNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSNPCJMJUJFTJOUIFCBTFBOEJOUIFFNJUUFS
N# x JTUIFJNQVSJUZEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFCBTF
N&FČJTUIFFČFDUJWFJNQVSJUZEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFFNJUUFS
Ћ FSFDPNCJOBUJPODPNQPOFOUPGUIFDVSSFOUHBJOβ3JTDBVTFECZUIFEJČFSFOUDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFSFMB
UJPOTIJQPGCBTFBOEDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUTBTDBOCFTFFOJO'JHVSFЋ FTMPXFSCBTFDVSSFOUJODSFBTFJT
EVFUPUIFSFDPNCJOBUJPOQIFOPNFOPOXJUIJOUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSPGUIFCBTFFNJUUFSKVODUJPO4JODF
UIFDVSSFOUHBJOJTBSBUJPPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUUPUIBUPGUIFCBTFDVSSFOUUIFSFMBUJPOGPSβ3DBOCF
GPVOEBT
βR = K R0 I C1−(1/ ηR )

"TDBOCFTFFOGSPN'JHVSF UIFDVSSFOUHBJOβJTBGVODUJPOPGUIFDVSSFOUЋ JTHBJODVSSFOUSFMB

UJPOTIJQJTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSFЋ FSBOHFPGBDPOTUBOUDVSSFOUHBJOJTXJEFGPSCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST
XJUIBUFDIOPMPHZDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZBMPXFSOVNCFSPGHFOFSBUJPOoSFDPNCJOBUJPODFOUFST
8JUIBOJODSFBTFPGUIFDPMMFDUPSoCBTFWPMUBHF UIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSQFOFUSBUFTEFFQFSJOUPUIFCBTF
ćFSFGPSF UIFFČFDUJWFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFCBTFEFDSFBTFTćJTMFBETUPBOJODSFBTFPGUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOU
HBJOXJUIBQQMJFEDPMMFDUPSWPMUBHFT'JHVSFJMMVTUSBUFTUIJTQIFOPNFOPOLOPXOBT&BSMZTFČFDUćF
FYUFOTJPOTPGUSBOTJTUPSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT EPUUFEMJOFTJO'JHVSF BSFDSPTTJOHUIFWPMUBHFBYJTBUUIF
QPJOUV" XIFSFV"JTLOPXOBTUIF&BSMZWPMUBHFЋ FDVSSFOUHBJOβ BTBGVODUJPOPGUIFDPMMFDUPSWPMU
BHFJTVTVBMMZFYQSFTTFECZVTJOHUIFSFMBUJPO
log (IC )
FIGURE 9.3 Ћ FDVSSFOUHBJOβBTUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOU
IC
VCE
VA
FIGURE 9.4 $VSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS
⎛ V ⎞
β = β0 ⎜ 1 + CE ⎟
⎝ VA ⎠
"TJNJMBSFRVBUJPODBOCFEFfiOFEGPSUIFSFWFSTFNPEFPGPQFSBUJPO
9.4 High Current Phenomena

Ћ FDPODFOUSBUJPOPGNJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJODSFBTFTXJUIUIFSJTFPGUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUT8IFOUIFDPODFO
USBUJPOPGNPWJOHDBSSJFSTFYDFFETBDFSUBJOMJNJU UIFUSBOTJTUPSQSPQFSUZEFHFOFSBUFT5XPQIFOPNFOB
BSFSFTQPOTJCMFGPSUIJTMJNJUBUJPOЋ FfiSTUJTSFMBUFEUPUIFIJHIDPODFOUSBUJPOPGNPWJOHDBSSJFST FMFD
USPOTJOUIFOQOUSBOTJTUPS JOUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSEFQMFUJPOSFHJPOćJTJTLOPXOBTUIF,JSLFČFDUćF
TFDPOEQIFOPNFOPOJTDBVTFECZBIJHIMFWFMPGDBSSJFSTJOKFDUFEJOUPUIFCBTF8IFOUIFDPODFOUSBUJPO
PGJOKFDUFENJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTJOUIFCBTFFYDFFETUIFJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOUIFSF UIFOUIFCBTFDPO
EVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPOMJNJUTUIFUSBOTJTUPSTQFSGPSNBODF
5P VOEFSTUBOE UIF ,JSL FČFDU DPOTJEFS UIF /1/ USBOTJTUPS JO UIF GPSXBSEBDUJWF NPEF XJUI UIF
CBTFoDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOSFWFSTFMZCJBTFEЋ FEFQMFUJPOMBZFSDPOTJTUTPGUIFOFHBUJWFMBUUJDFDIBSHFPG
UIFCBTFSFHJPOBOEUIFQPTJUJWFMBUUJDFDIBSHFPGUIFDPMMFDUPSSFHJPO#PVOEBSJFTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFS
BSFTVDIUIBUUIFUPUBMQPTJUJWFBOEOFHBUJWFDIBSHFTBSFFRVBM8IFOBDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUUIBUDBSSJFTUIF
OFHBUJWFMZDIBSHFEFMFDUSPOTĘPXTUISPVHIUIFKVODUJPO UIFFČFDUJWFOFHBUJWFDIBSHFPOUIFCBTFTJEFPG
KVODUJPOJODSFBTFT"MTP UIFQPTJUJWFMBUUJDFDIBSHFPGUIFDPMMFDUPSTJEFPGUIFKVODUJPOJTDPNQFOTBUFE
CZ UIF OFHBUJWF DIBSHF PG NPWJOH FMFDUSPOT Ћ JT XBZ UIF DPMMFDUPSoCBTF TQBDF DIBSHF SFHJPO NPWFT
UPXBSEUIFDPMMFDUPS SFTVMUJOHJOBUIJDLFSFČFDUJWFCBTF8JUIBMBSHFDVSSFOUMFWFM UIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIF
Base Emitter
p n+
IB
n
Collector !
FIGURE 9.5 $VSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDU
CBTFNBZCFEPVCMFEPSUSJQMFEćJTQIFOPNFOPO LOPXOBTUIF,JSLFČFDU CFDPNFTWFSZTJHOJĕDBOU

XIFOUIFDIBSHFPGNPWJOHFMFDUSPOTFYDFFETUIFDIBSHFPGUIFMJHIUMZEPQFEDPMMFDUPSN$Ћ FUISFTIPME
DVSSFOUGPSUIF,JSLFČFDUJTHJWFOCZ
I max = qAν sat N C

XIFSFνTBUJTUIFTBUVSBUJPOWFMPDJUZGPSFMFDUSPOT νTBUDNTGPSTJMJDPO
Ћ FDPOEVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPOJOUIFCBTF PSIJHIMFWFMJOKFDUJPO TUBSUTXIFOUIFDPODFOUSBUJPOPG
JOKFDUFEFMFDUSPOTJOUPUIFCBTFFYDFFETUIFMPXFTUJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOJOUIFCBTFN#NJOЋ JTPDDVST
GPSUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUINBYHJWFOCZ
qAVTμ B N Bmax (2 + 0.9η)

I max < qAN Bmax ν =
wB
Ћ FBCPWFFRVBUJPOJTEFSJWFEVTJOH GPSUIFFTUJNBUJPOPGUIFCBTFUSBOTJFOUUJNF

ćFIJHIDVSSFOUQIFOPNFOBBSFTJHOJĕDBOUMZFOMBSHFECZUIFDVSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDUćFUZQJDBM
DSPTTTFDUJPOPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FIPSJ[POUBMflPXPGUIFCBTFDVSSFOU
SFTVMUTJOUIFWPMUBHFESPQBDSPTTUIFCBTFSFHJPOVOEFSUIFFNJUUFSćJTTNBMMWPMUBHFEJČFSFODFPOUIF
CBTFoFNJUUFSKVODUJPODBVTFTBTJHOJĕDBOUEJČFSFODFJOUIFDVSSFOUEFOTJUJFTBUUIFKVODUJPOćJTJTEVF
UPUIFWFSZOPOMJOFBSKVODUJPOoDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT"TBSFTVMU UIFCBTFoFNJUUFSKVODUJPO
IBTWFSZOPOVOJGPSNDVSSFOUEJTUSJCVUJPOBDSPTTUIFKVODUJPO.PTUPGUIFDVSSFOUflPXTUISPVHIUIF
QBSUPGUIFKVODUJPODMPTFTUUPCBTFDPOUBDU'PSUSBOTJTUPSTXJUIMBSHFSFNJUUFSBSFBT UIFDVSSFOUDSPXE
JOHFČFDUJTNPSFTJHOJĕDBOUćJTOPOVOJGPSNUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUEJTUSJCVUJPONBLFTUIFIJHIDVSSFOU
QIFOPNFOB TVDIBTUIFCBTFDPOEVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPOBOEUIF,JSLFČFDU TUBSUGPSTNBMMFSDVSSFOUT
UIBOHJWFOCZ&RVBUJPOTBOEćFDVSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDUJTBMTPSFTQPOTJCMFGPSUIFDIBOHF
PGUIFFČFDUJWFCBTFSFTJTUBODFXJUIBDVSSFOU"TBCBTFDVSSFOUJODSFBTFT UIFMBSHFSQBSUPGUIFFNJUUFS
DVSSFOUĘPXTDMPTFSUPUIFCBTFDPOUBDU BOEUIFFČFDUJWFCBTFSFTJTUBODFEFDSFBTFT
9.5 Small Signal Model

4NBMMTJHOBMUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMTBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSUIFEFTJHOPGBO"$DJSDVJUЋ FTNBMMTJHOBMFRVJWB
MFOUDJSDVJUPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFBЋ FMVNQFEDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JHVSFB
JTPOMZBOBQQSPYJNBUJPO*OSFBMUSBOTJTUPST SFTJTUBODFTBOEDBQBDJUBODFTIBWFBEJTUSJCVUFEDIBS
BDUFS'PSNPTUEFTJHOUBTLT UIJTMVNQFENPEFMJTBEFRVBUF PSFWFOUIFTJNQMFFRVJWBMFOUUSBOTJTUPS
NPEFMTIPXOJO'JHVSFCDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEЋ FTNBMMTJHOBMSFTJTUBODFT rπBOErP BSFJOWFSTFMZ
QSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUT BOEUIFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFgNJTEJSFDUMZQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIF
USBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUT
(1 – XCJC) CBC RC
C
CCS
RB XCJCCBC B CBC
B + S +
rπ v1 gmv1 ro rπ v1 gmv1 ro
– CBE – CBE
RE E
(a) E (b)
FIGURE 9.6 #JQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSFRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNT B 41*$&NPEFM C TJNQMJfiFENPEFM
ηFVT ηFVTβF V I
rπ = = ; r0 = A ; g m = C
IB IC IC ηFVT
XIFSF
η'JTUIFGPSXBSEFNJTTJPODPFffiDJFOU SBOHJOHGPSNUP
V5JTUIFUIFSNBMQPUFOUJBM V5N7BUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSF
4JNJMBSFRVBUJPOTUP DBOCFXSJUUFOGPSUIFSFWFSTFUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUJPOBTXFMM

Ћ F TFSJFT CBTF FNJUUFS BOE DPMMFDUPS SFTJTUBODFT R# R & BOE R$ BSF VTVBMMZ OFHMFDUFE GPS TJNQMF
BOBMZTJT 'JHVSFC )PXFWFS GPSIJHIGSFRVFODZBOBMZTJTJUJTFTTFOUJBMUPVTFBUMFBTUUIFCBTFTFSJFT
SFTJTUBODFR #Ћ FTFSJFTFNJUUFSSFTJTUBODFR &VTVBMMZIBTBDPOTUBOUBOECJBTJOEFQFOEFOUWBMVFЋ F
DPMMFDUPSSFTJTUBODFR$NBZTJHOJfiDBOUMZWBSZXJUIUIFCJBTJOHDVSSFOUЋ FWBMVFPGUIFTFSJFTDPMMFD
UPSSFTJTUBODFNBZMPXFSCZPOFPSUXPPSEFSTPGNBHOJUVEFJGUIFDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOCFDPNFTGPSXBSE
CJBTFE " MBSHF TFSJFT DPMMFDUPS SFTJTUBODF NBZ GPSDF UIF USBOTJTUPS JOUP UIF TBUVSBUJPO NPEF 6TVBMMZ
IPXFWFS XIFOUIFDPMMFDUPSoFNJUUFSWPMUBHFJTMBSHFFOPVHI UIFFČFDUPGUIFDPMMFDUPSSFTJTUBODFJTOPU
TJHOJfiDBOUЋ F41*$&NPEFMBTTVNFTBDPOTUBOUWBMVFGPSUIFDPMMFDUPSSFTJTUBODFR$
Ћ FTFSJFTCBTFSFTJTUBODFR#NBZTJHOJfiDBOUMZMJNJUUIFUSBOTJTUPSQFSGPSNBODFBUIJHIGSFRVFODJFT
%VFUPUIFDVSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDUBOEUIFCBTFDPOEVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPO UIFTFSJFTCBTFSFTJTUBODFJTB
GVODUJPOPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUI$<>
RB0 − RBmin
RB = RBmin +
0.5 + 0.25 + (iC / I KF )
XIFSF
I,'JTβ'IJHIDVSSFOUSPMMPČDVSSFOU
R#JTUIFCBTFSFTJTUBODFBUWFSZTNBMMDVSSFOUT
R #NJOJTUIFNJOJNVNCBTFSFTJTUBODFBUIJHIDVSSFOUT
"OPUIFSQPTTJCMFBQQSPYJNBUJPOPGUIFCBTFTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFR# BTUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFCBTFDVSSFOUI# JT<>
tan z − z 1 + (1.44 I B / π 2 I RB ) − 1
RB = 3 ( RB0 − RBmin ) + RBmin z=
z tan2 z (24/π 2 ) (I B /I RB )
XIFSFI3#JTUIFCBTFDVSSFOUGPSXIJDIUIFCBTFSFTJTUBODFGBMMTIBMGXBZUPJUTNJOJNVNWBMVF
Ћ FCBTFoFNJUUFSDBQBDJUBODFC#&JTDPNQPTFEPGUXPUFSNTUIFEJČVTJPODBQBDJUBODF XIJDIJTQSP
QPSUJPOBMUPUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOU BOEUIFEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODF XIJDIJTBGVODUJPOPGUIFCBTFoFNJUUFS
WPMUBHFV#&Ћ FC#&DBQBDJUBODFJTHJWFOCZ
− m JE
IC ⎛ v ⎞
CBE = τ F + CJE0 ⎜ 1 − BE ⎟
ηFVT ⎝ VJE 0 ⎠
XIFSF
V+&JTUIFCBTFoFNJUUFSKVODUJPOQPUFOUJBM
τ'JTUIFCBTFUSBOTJUUJNFGPSUIFGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO
C+&JTCBTFoFNJUUFS[FSPCJBTKVODUJPODBQBDJUBODF
m+&JTUIFCBTFoFNJUUFSHSBEJOHDPFffiDJFOU
Ћ FCBTFoDPMMFDUPSDBQBDJUBODFC#$JTHJWFOCZBTJNJMBSFYQSFTTJPOBT&RVBUJPO*OUIFDBTFXIFO
UIFUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUFTJOUIFGPSXBSEBDUJWFNPEF JUDBOCFTJNQMJfiFEUP
− m JC
⎛ v ⎞
CBC = CJC 0 ⎜ 1 − BC ⎟
⎝ VJC0 ⎠
XIFSF
V+$JTUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOQPUFOUJBM
C+$JTUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPS[FSPCJBTKVODUJPODBQBDJUBODF
m+$JTUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSHSBEJOHDPFffiDJFOU
*OUIFDBTFXIFOUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJTJOUIFJOUFHSBUFEGPSN UIFDPMMFDUPSoTVCTUSBUFDBQBDJUBODF
C$4IBTUPCFDPOTJEFSFE
− m JS
⎛ v ⎞
CCS = CJS0 ⎜ 1 − CS ⎟
⎝ V ⎠ JS0
XIFSF
V+4JTUIFDPMMFDUPSoTVCTUSBUFKVODUJPOQPUFOUJBM
C+4UIFDPMMFDUPSoTVCTUSBUF[FSPCJBTKVODUJPODBQBDJUBODF
m+4JTUIFDPMMFDUPSoTVCTUSBUFHSBEJOHDPFffiDJFOU
8IFOUIFUSBOTJTUPSFOUFSTTBUVSBUJPO PSJUPQFSBUFTJOUIFSFWFSTFBDUJWFNPEF &RVBUJPOTBOE

TIPVMECFNPEJfiFEUP
I S exp (v BE / ηFVT )
− m JE
⎛ v ⎞
CBE = τF + CJE0 ⎜ 1 − BE ⎟
ηFVT ⎝ VJE0 ⎠
I S exp (vBC / ηRVT )

− m JC
⎛ v ⎞
CBC = τR + CJC0 ⎜ 1 − BC ⎟
ηRVT ⎝ VJC0 ⎠

9.6 Technologies
Ћ FCJQPMBSUFDIOPMPHZXBTVTFEUPGBCSJDBUFUIFfiSTUJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUTNPSFUIBOZFBSTBHP"TJNJMBS
TUBOEBSECJQPMBSQSPDFTTJTTUJMMVTFE*OSFDFOUZFBST GPSIJHIQFSGPSNBODFDJSDVJUTBOEGPS#J$.04UFDI
OPMPHZ UIFTUBOEBSECJQPMBSQSPDFTTXBTNPEJfiFECZVTJOHUIFUIJDLTFMFDUJWFTJMJDPOPYJEBUJPOJOTUFBEPG
UIFQUZQFJTPMBUJPOEJČVTJPO"MTP UIFEJČVTJPOQSPDFTTXBTTVCTUJUVUFECZUIFJPOJNQMBOUBUJPOQSPDFTT
MPXUFNQFSBUVSFFQJUBYZ BOE$7%
9.6.1 Integrated NPN Bipolar Transistor

Ћ FTUSVDUVSFPGUIFUZQJDBMJOUFHSBUFECJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FUZQJDBMJNQVSJUZ
QSPfiMFPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FFNJUUFSEPQJOHMFWFMJTNVDIIJHIFSUIBO
UIFCBTFEPQJOH TPMBSHFDVSSFOUHBJOTBSFQPTTJCMF TFF&RVBUJPO Ћ FCBTFJTOBSSPXBOEJUIBT
BOJNQVSJUZHSBEJFOU TPUIFDBSSJFSUSBOTJUUJNFUISPVHIUIFCBTFJTTIPSU TFF&RVBUJPO $PMMFDUPS
DPODFOUSBUJPOOFBSUIFCBTFDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOJTMPX UIFSFGPSF UIFUSBOTJTUPSIBTBMBSHFCSFBLEPXO
WPMUBHF MBSHF &BSMZ WPMUBHF V"' BOE DPMMFDUPSoCBTF EFQMFUJPO DBQBDJUBODF JT MPX )JHI JNQVSJUZ DPO
DFOUSBUJPOJOUIFCVSJFEMBZFSMFBETUPBTNBMMDPMMFDUPSTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFЋ FFNJUUFSTUSJQTIBWFUPCF
BTOBSSPXBTUFDIOPMPHZBMMPXT SFEVDJOHUIFCBTFTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFBOEUIFDVSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDU*G
MBSHFFNJUUFSBSFBJTSFRVJSFE NBOZOBSSPXFNJUUFSTUSJQTJOUFSMBDFEXJUICBTFDPOUBDUTIBWFUPCFVTFE
JOBTJOHMFUSBOTJTUPS4QFDJBMBUUFOUJPOIBTUPCFUBLFOEVSJOHUIFDJSDVJUEFTJHO TPUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPS
KVODUJPOJTOPUGPSXBSECJBTFE*GUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOJTGPSXBSECJBTFE UIFOUIFQBSBTJUJD1/1
USBOTJTUPSTBDUJWBUFЋ JTMFBETUPBOVOEFTJSFEDJSDVJUPQFSBUJPOЋ VT UIFJOUFHSBUFECJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST
NVTUOPUPQFSBUFJOSFWFSTFPSJOTBUVSBUJPONPEFT
5 μm
B E C
p n+ n+
p+ p+
5 μm
n-Epi
n+-Buried layer
p– Substrate
FIGURE 9.7 /1/CJQPMBSTUSVDUVSF
1020 Emitter
n+
1019
n+
Base
1018 Buried
N
Epi
1017
p
1016
n
1 2 3 4
μm
FIGURE 9.8 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGBUZQJDBMCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS

B C E C B
n+ p p p n+
p+ p+
n-Epi
n+-Buried layer
(a) p–-Substrate
E B
p n+
p+ p+
n-Epi
(b) p–-Substrate
C
FIGURE 9.9 *OUFHSBUFE1/1USBOTJTUPST B MBUFSBM1/1USBOTJTUPS C TVCTUSBUF1/1USBOTJTUPS
E
E
E
E B B
β1 ~
= β1β2
B
B
β2
C
C C
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 9.10 *OUFHSBUFE1/1USBOTJTUPST B MBUFSBMUSBOTJTUPS C TVCTUSBUFUSBOTJTUPS D DPNQPTFEUSBOTJTUPS
9.6.2 Lateral and Vertical PNP Transistors

Ћ FTUBOEBSECJQPMBSUFDIOPMPHZJTPSJFOUFEGPSUIFGBCSJDBUJPOPGUIF/1/USBOTJTUPSTXJUIUIFTUSVDUVSF
TIPXOJO'JHVSF6TJOHUIFTBNFQSPDFTT PUIFSDJSDVJUFMFNFOUT TVDIBTSFTJTUPSTBOE1/1USBOTJTUPST
DBOCFGBCSJDBUFEBTXFMM
Ћ FMBUFSBMUSBOTJTUPS TIPXOJO'JHVSFB VTFTUIFCBTFQUZQFMBZFSGPSCPUIUIFFNJUUFSBOEDPMMFDUPSGBC
SJDBUJPOTЋ FWFSUJDBMUSBOTJTUPS TIPXOJO'JHVSFC VTFTUIFQUZQFCBTFMBZFSGPSUIFFNJUUFS BOEUIFQUZQF
TVCTUSBUFBTUIFDPMMFDUPSЋ JTUSBOTJTUPSJTTPNFUJNFTLOPXOBTUIFTVCTUSBUFUSBOTJTUPS*OCPUIUSBOTJTUPST UIF
CBTFJTNBEFPGUIFOUZQFFQJUBYJBMMBZFS4VDIUSBOTJTUPSTXJUIBVOJGPSNBOEUIJDLCBTFBSFTMPX"MTP UIFDVS
SFOUHBJOβPGTVDIUSBOTJTUPSTJTTNBMM/PUF UIBUUIFWFSUJDBMUSBOTJTUPSIBTUIFDPMMFDUPSTIPSUFEUPUIFTVCTUSBUF
BT'JHVSFCJMMVTUSBUFT8IFOB1/1USBOTJTUPSXJUIBMBSHFDVSSFOUHBJOJTSFRVJSFE UIFOUIFDPODFQUPGUIF
DPNQPTJUFUSBOTJTUPSDBOCFJNQMFNFOUFE4VDIBDPNQPTJUFUSBOTJTUPS LOPXOBMTPBTUIFTVQFSCFUBUSBOTJTUPS
DPOTJTUTPGB1/1MBUFSBMUSBOTJTUPS BOEUIFTUBOEBSE/1/USBOTJTUPSJTDPOOFDUFE BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFD
Ћ FDPNQPTFEUSBOTJTUPSBDUTBTUIF1/1USBOTJTUPSBOEJUIBTBDVSSFOUHBJOβBQQSPYJNBUFMZFRVBMUPβQOQβOQO
9.7 Model Parameters

*UJTFTTFOUJBMUPVTFQSPQFSUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMTJOUIFDPNQVUFSBJEFEEFTJHOUPPMTЋ FBDDVSBDZPGTJNV
MBUJPO SFTVMUT EFQFOET PO UIF NPEFMT BDDVSBDZ BOE PO UIF WBMVFT PG UIF NPEFM QBSBNFUFST VTFE *O
UIJTTVCDIBQUFS UIFUIFSNBMBOETFDPOEPSEFSFČFDUTJOUIFUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMBSFEJTDVTTFEćF41*$&
CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMQBSBNFUFSTBSFBMTPEJTDVTTFE
9.7.1 Thermal Sensitivity

"MMQBSBNFUFSTPGUIFUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMBSFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFOU4PNFQBSBNFUFSTBSFWFSZTUSPOH
GVODUJPOTPGUFNQFSBUVSF5PTJNQMJGZUIFNPEFMEFTDSJQUJPO UIFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPGTPNF
QBSBNFUFSTJTPGUFOOFHMFDUFE*OUIJTDIBQUFS UIFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPGUIFUSBOTJTUPSNPEFM
JTEFTDSJCFECBTFEPOUIFNPEFMPGUIF41*$&QSPHSBN<o>%FWJBUJPOTGSPNUIFBDUVBMUFNQFSB
UVSFEFQFOEFODFXJMMBMTPCFEJTDVTTFE5IFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPGUIFKVODUJPODBQBDJUBODF
JTHJWFOCZ
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ V (T ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
CJ (T ) = CJ ⎨1 + mJ ⎢ 4.0 × 10 −4 (T − TNOM ) + ⎜ 1 − J ⎟⎥ ⎬
⎩⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ VJ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
XIFSF T/0. JT UIF OPNJOBM UFNQFSBUVSF XIJDI JT TQFDJfiFE JO UIF 41*$& QSPHSBN JO UIF 015*0/4
TUBUFNFOUЋ FKVODUJPOQPUFOUJBMV+ T JTBGVODUJPOPGUFNQFSBUVSF
T ⎛ T ⎞ T
VJ (T ) = VJ − 3VT ln ⎜ ⎟ − EG (T ) + EG T
TNOM ⎝ TNOM ⎠ NOM

Ћ FWBMVFPG JOUIFNVMUJQMJDBUJPODPFffiDJFOUPGBCPWFFRVBUJPOJTGSPNUIFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODF
PGUIFFČFDUJWFTUBUFEFOTJUJFTJOUIFWBMFODFBOEDPOEVDUJPOCBOETćFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPGUIF
FOFSHZHBQJTDPNQVUFEJOUIF41*$&QSPHSBNGSPN
7.02 × 10−4 T 2
EG (T ) = EG −
T + 1108
Ћ FUSBOTJTUPSTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOUBTBGVODUJPOPGUFNQFSBUVSFJTDBMDVMBUFEBT
⎡ E (T − TNOM ) ⎤
XTI
⎛ T ⎞
I s (T ) = I s ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎢ G ⎥
⎝ TNOM ⎠ ⎣ VTTNOM ⎦
XIFSFE(JTUIFFOFSHZHBQBUUIFOPNJOBMUFNQFSBUVSFЋ FKVODUJPOMFBLBHFDVSSFOUTI4&BOEI4$BSF
DBMDVMBUFEVTJOH
XTI − XTB
⎛ T ⎞ ⎡ E (T − TNOM ) ⎤
I SE (T ) = I SE ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎢ G ⎥
⎝ TNOM ⎠ ⎣ ηEVTTNOM ⎦
BOE
XTI − XTB
⎛ T ⎞ ⎡ E (T − TNOM ) ⎤
I SC (T ) = I SC ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎢ G ⎥
⎝ TNOM ⎠ ⎣ ηCVTTNOM ⎦
Ћ FUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFODFPGUIFUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUHBJOTβ'BOEβ3BSFNPEFMFEJOUIF41*$&BT
XTB XTB
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
βF (T ) = βF ⎜ βR (T ) = βR ⎜
⎝ TNOM ⎟⎠ ⎝ TNOM ⎟⎠
Ћ F41*$&NPEFMEPFTOPUHJWFBDDVSBUFSFTVMUTGPSUIFUFNQFSBUVSFSFMBUJPOTIJQPGUIFDVSSFOUHBJOβ
BUIJHIDVSSFOUT'PSIJHIDVSSFOUMFWFMTUIFDVSSFOUHBJOEFDSFBTFTTIBSQMZXJUIUIFUFNQFSBUVSF BTDBO
CFTFFOGSPN'JHVSF"MTP UIFLOFFDVSSFOUQBSBNFUFST*,' *,3 *,#BSFUFNQFSBUVSFEFQFOEFOU
BOEUIJTJTOPUJNQMFNFOUFEJOUIF41*$&QSPHSBN
9.7.2 Second Order Effects

Ћ FDVSSFOUHBJOβJTTPNFUJNFTNPEFMFEJOEJSFDUMZCZVTJOHEJČFSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDPMMFDUPSBOE
CBTFDVSSFOUT< >
I s (T ) ⎛ V V ⎞ I (T ) ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
IC = ⎜ exp BE − exp BC ⎟ − s ⎜ exp BC − 1⎟ − I SC (T ) ⎜ exp BC − 1⎟
Qb ⎝ ηFVT ηRVT ⎠ βR (T ) ⎝ ηRVT ⎠ ⎝ ηCVT ⎠

XIFSF
1 + 1 + 4Q X
Qb =
2 (1 − (VBC / VAF ) − (VBE /VAR ) )

BOE
I s (T ) ⎛ V ⎞ I (T ) ⎛ V ⎞
QX = ⎜ exp BE − 1⎟ + s ⎜ exp BC − 1⎟
I KF ⎝ ηFVT ⎠ I KR ⎝ ηRVT ⎠

Is ⎛ VBE ⎞ ⎛ VBE ⎞ Is ⎛ VBC ⎞ ⎛ VBC ⎞

IB = ⎜⎝ exp η V − 1⎟⎠ + I SE ⎜⎝ exp η V − 1⎟⎠ + β ⎜⎝ exp η V − 1⎟⎠ + I SC ⎜⎝ exp η V − 1⎟⎠
βF F T E T R R T C T

XIFSF
I4&JTUIFCBTFoFNJUUFSKVODUJPOMFBLBHFDVSSFOU
I4$JTUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOMFBLBHFDVSSFOU
η&JTUIFCBTFoFNJUUFSKVODUJPOMFBLBHFFNJTTJPODPFffiDJFOU
η$JTUIFCBTFoDPMMFDUPSKVODUJPOMFBLBHFFNJTTJPODPFffiDJFOU
Ћ FGPSXBSEUSBOTJUUJNFτ'JTBGVODUJPOPGCJBTJOHDPOEJUJPOT*OUIF41*$&QSPHSBNUIFτ'QBSBNFUFS
JTDPNQVUFECZVTJOH
⎡ ⎛ I CC ⎞ VBC ⎤ ⎛ VBE ⎞
τ F = τ F0 ⎢1 + X TF ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎥ I CC = I S ⎜ exp − 1⎟
⎣ ⎝ I CC + I TF ⎠ 1.44VTF ⎦ ⎝ ηFVT ⎠

"UIJHIGSFRVFODJFTUIFQIBTFPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUTIJftTЋ JTQIBTFTIJft JTDPNQVUFEJOUIF41*$&

QSPHSBNJOUIFGPMMPXJOHXBZ
I C (ω) = I C exp ( jωPTF τF )

XIFSFP 5'JTBDPFffiDJFOUGPSFYDFTTQIBTFDBMDVMBUJPO
/PJTFJTVTVBMMZNPEFMFEBTUIFUIFSNBMOPJTFGPSQBSBTJUJDTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFT BOEBTTIPUBOEflJDLFS
OPJTFGPSDPMMFDUPSBOECBTFDVSSFOUT
4kT Δf
iR2 =
R
XIFSFK'BOEA'BSFUIe flJDLFSOPJTFDPFfficJFOUT.PSFEFUBJMFEJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUOPJTFNPEFMJOH
⎛ K I AF ⎞
iB2 = ⎜ 2qI B + F B ⎟ Δf
⎝ F ⎠

iC2 = 2qI C Δf

JTHJWFOJOUIFCJQPMBSOPJTFDIBQUFSPGUIJTIBOECPPL
9.7.3 SPICE Model of the Bipolar Transistor

Ћ F41*$&NPEFMPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSVTFTTJNJMBSPSJEFOUJDBMFRVBUJPOTBTEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTDIBQUFS
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VTFEJOUIJTDIBQUFS
Ћ F41*$& 4JNVMBUJPO1SPHSBNXJUI*OUFHSBUFE$JSDVJU&NQIBTJT<> XBTEFWFMPQFENBJOMZGPSUIF
BOBMZTJTPGJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUT%VSJOHUIFBOBMZTJT JUJTBTTVNFEUIBUUIFUFNQFSBUVSFTPGBMMDJSDVJUFMF
NFOUTBSFUIFTBNFЋ JTJTOPUUSVFGPSQPXFSJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUTXIFSFUIFKVODUJPOUFNQFSBUVSFTNBZ
EJČFSCZ,PSNPSFćJTJTPCWJPVTMZOPUUSVFGPSDJSDVJUTDPNQPTFEPGUIFEJTDSFUFFMFNFOUTXIFSF
UIFKVODUJPOUFNQFSBUVSFTNBZEJČFSCZ,BOENPSFćFTFUFNQFSBUVSFFČFDUT XIJDIDBOTJHOJĕ
DBOUMZBČFDUUIFBOBMZTJTSFTVMUT BSFOPUJNQMFNFOUFEJOUIF41*$&QSPHSBN
"MUIPVHIUIF41*$&CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMVTFTNPSFUIBOQBSBNFUFST NBOZGFBUVSFTPGUIF
CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSBSFOPUJODMVEFEJOUIFNPEFM'PSFYBNQMF UIFSFWFSTFKVODUJPODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSF
EFTDSJCFECZ&RVBUJPOЋ JTNPEFMEPFTOPUHJWFBDDVSBUFSFTVMUT*OUIFSFBMTJMJDPOKVODUJPO UIF
MFBLBHFDVSSFOUJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFS XIJDIJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPV N
"MTP UIF41*$&NPEFMPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSBTTVNFTUIBUUIFSFJTOPKVODUJPOCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF
"NPSFBDDVSBUFNPEFMPGUIFSFWFSTFKVODUJPODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTJTEFTDSJCFEJOUIFEJPEFTFDUJPOPGUIJT
IBOECPPLЋ FSFWFSTFUSBOTJUUJNFτ3JTWFSZJNQPSUBOUUPNPEFMUIFTXJUDIJOHQSPQFSUZPGUIFMVNQFE
CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS BOEJUJTBTUSPOHGVODUJPOPGUIFCJBTJOHDPOEJUJPOBOEUIFUFNQFSBUVSF#PUIQIF
OPNFOBBSFOPUJNQMFNFOUFEJOUIF41*$&NPEFM
9.8 SiGe HBTs

5IFQFSGPSNBODFPGUIF4JCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSDBOCFHSFBUMZFOIBODFEXJUIQSPQFSFOHJOFFSJOHPG
UIFCBTFCBOEHBQQSPGJMFVTJOHBOBSSPXFSCBOEHBQNBUFSJBM 4J(F BOBMMPZPG4JBOE(F4USVDUVSF
XJTF B4J(F)#5JTFTTFOUJBMMZB4J#+5XJUIB4J(FCBTF*UTPQFSBUJPOBOEDJSDVJUMFWFMQFSGPSNBODF
BEWBOUBHFTDBOCFJMMVTUSBUFEXJUIUIFFOFSHZCBOEEJBHSBNJO'JHVSF<>)FSFUIF(FDPOUFOU
JTMJOFBSMZHSBEFEGSPNUIFFNJUUFSUPXBSEUIFDPMMFDUPSUPDSFBUFBMBSHFBDDFMFSBUJOHFMFDUSJDGJFME
UIBU TQFFET VQ UIF NJOPSJUZ DBSSJFS USBOTQPSU BDSPTT UIF CBTF UIVT NBLJOH UIF USBOTJTUPS TQFFE
NVDIGBTUFSBOEUIFDVUPGGGSFRVFODZNVDIIJHIFS&WFSZUIJOHFMTFCFJOHUIFTBNF UIFQPUFOUJBM
CBSSJFSGPSFMFDUSPOJOKFDUJPOJOUPUIFCBTFJTSFEVDFE UIVTFYQPOFOUJBMMZFOIBODJOHUIFDPMMFDUPS
DVSSFOU5IFCBTFDVSSFOUJTUIFTBNFGPS4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5 BTUIFFNJUUFSJTUZQJDBMMZNBEFUIF
TBNF #FUB JT UIVT IJHIFS JO 4J(F )#5 'JHVSF DPOGJSNT UIFTF FYQFDUBUJPOT FYQFSJNFOUBMMZ
XJUIUIFEBUBGSPNBUZQJDBMGJSTUHFOFSBUJPO4J(F)#5UFDIOPMPHZ5IFNFBTVSFEEPQJOHBOE(F
QSPGJMFTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF5IFNFUBMMVSHJDBMCBTFXJEUIJTPOMZON BOEUIFOFVUSBMCBTF
XJEUIJTBSPVOEON'JHVSFTIPXTUIFFYQFSJNFOUBMDVUPGGGSFRVFODZf 5JNQSPWFNFOUGSPN
VTJOHBHSBEFE4J(FCBTF XIJDIBMTPEJSFDUMZUSBOTMBUFTJOUPNBYJNVNPTDJMMBUJPOGSFRVFODZfNBY
JNQSPWFNFOU
TABLE 9.1 1BSBNFUFSTPG41*$&#JQPMBS5SBOTJTUPS.PEFM

/BNF 41*$& 5ZQJDBM 41*$&
6TFE &RVBUJPOT /BNF 1BSBNFUFS%FTDSJQUJPO 6OJU 7BMVF %FGBVMU
IT *4 4BUVSBUJPODVSSFOU " ¦ ¦
I4& *4& #o&MFBLBHFTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOU " ¦
I4$ *$4 #o$MFBLBHFTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOU " ¦
β' #' 'PSXBSEDVSSFOUHBJO
β3 #' 3FWFSTFDVSSFOUHBJO
η' /' 'PSXBSEDVSSFOUFNJTTJPODPefficienU
o
η3 /3 3FWFSTFDVSSFOUFNJTTJPODPefficienU
o
η& /& #o&MFBLBHFFNJTTJPODPefficienU
η$ /$ #o$MFBLBHFFNJTTJPODPefficienU
V"' 7"' 'PSXBSE&BSMZWPMUBHF 7 ȷ
V"3 7"3 3FWFSTF&BSMZWPMUBHF 7 ȷ
I,' *,' β'IJHIDVSSFOUSPMMPČDPSOFS " ȷ
I,3 *,3 β3IJHIDVSSFOUSPMMPČDPSOFS " ȷ
I3# *3# $VSSFOUXIFSFCBTFSFTJTUBODFGBMMTCZIBMG " ȷ
R# 3# ;FSPCBTFSFTJTUBODF Ω
R#NJO 3#. .JOJNVNCBTFSFTJTUBODF Ω 3#
R& 'JHVSF 3& &NJUUFSTFSJFTSFTJTUBODF Ω
R$ 'JHVSF 3$ $PMMFDUPSTFSJFTSFTJTUBODF Ω
C+& $+& #o&[FSPCJBTEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODF ' ¦
C+$ $+$ #o$[FSPCJBTEFQMFUJPODBQBDJUBODF ' ¦
C+4 $+4 ;FSPCJBTDPMMFDUPSoTVCTUSBUFDBQBDJUBODF ' ¦
V+& 7+& #o&CVJMUJOQPUFOUJBM 7
V+$ 7+$ #o$CVJMUJOQPUFOUJBM 7
V+4 7+4 4VCTUSBUFKVODUJPOCVJMUJOQPUFOUJBM 7
m+& .+& #o&KVODUJPOFYQPOFOUJBMGBDUPS
m+$ .+$ #o$KVODUJPOFYQPOFOUJBMGBDUPS
m+4 .+4 4VCTUSBUFKVODUJPOFYQPOFOUJBMGBDUPS
X$+$ 'JHVSF 9$+$ 'SBDUJPOPG#o$DBQBDJUBODFDPOOFDUFEUP
JOUFSOBMCBTFOPEF TFF'JHVSF
τ' 5' *EFBMGPSXBSEUSBOTJUUJNF T ¦
τ3 53 3FWFSTFUSBOTJUUJNF T ¦
X5' 95' $PefficienUGPSCJBTEFQFOEFODFPGτ'
V5' 75' 7PMUBHFGPSτ'EFQFOEFODFPOV#$ 7 ȷ
I5' *5' $VSSFOUXIFSFτ'f I$ V#$ TUBSUT "
P5' 15' &YDFTTQIBTFBUfreq πτ' )[ EFH
X5# 95# 'PSXBSEBOESFWFSTFCFUBUFNQFSBUVSFFYQPOFOU
E( &( &OFSHZHBQ F7
X5* o 95* 5FNQFSBUVSFFYQPOFOUGPSFČFDUPOIT
K' ,' 'MJDLFSOPJTFDPefficienU
A' "' 'MJDLFSOPJTFFYQPOFOU
F$ '$ $PefficienUGPSUIFGPSXBSECJBTFEEFQMFUJPO
DBQBDJUBODFGPSNVMB
T/0. o 5/0. /PNJOBMUFNQFSBUVSFTQFcifieEJO015*0/ ,
TUBUFNFOU
ΔEg,Ge (x = 0)
ΔEg,Ge (x = Wb)
e– p-SiGe
Ec
base
n+ Si
emitter h+
Ev
Ge
n-Si
collector
p-Si
FIGURE 9.11 &OFSHZCBOEEJBHSBNPGBHSBEFECBTF4J(F)#5BOEBDPNQBSBCMZDPOTUSVDUFE4J#+5
10–2
AE = 0.8 × 2.5 μm2 IC

RBI = 5–8 kΩ/
Collector and base currents (A)
10–4 VCB = 0.0 V SiGe HBT
Si BJT IB
10–6
4.51×
10–8
10–10
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Emitter–base voltage (v)
FIGURE 9.12 &YQFSJNFOUBMDPMMFDUPSBOECBTFDVSSFOUTWFSTVT&#WPMUBHFGPS4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5
9.8.1 Operation Principle and Performance Advantages over Si BJT

*ONPEFSOUSBOTJTUPST QBSUJDVMBSMZXJUIUIFVTFPGQPMZTJMJDPOFNJUUFS CFUBNBZCFTVffiDJFOU*GTP
UIFIJHIFSCFUBQPUFOUJBMPG4J(F)#5DBOUIFOCFUSBEFEGPSSFEVDFECBTFSFTJTUBODF VTJOHIJHIFS
CBTFEPQJOHЋ FVOJRVFBCJMJUZPGTJNVMUBOFPVTMZBDIJFWJOHIJHICFUB MPXCBTFSFTJTUBODF BOEIJHI
DVUPČGSFRVFODZNBLFT4J(F)#5BUUSBDUJWFGPSNBOZSBEJPGSFRVFODZ 3' DJSDVJUT#SPBECBOEOPJTF
JTOBUVSBMMZSFEVDFE BTMPXCBTFSFTJTUBODFSFEVDFTUSBOTJTUPSJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHF BOEIJHICFUBBT
XFMMBTIJHIf 5SFEVDFTUSBOTJTUPSJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOU<>&YQFSJNFOUBMMZ fOPJTFBUUIFTBNFCBTF
DVSSFOUXBTGPVOEUPCFBQQSPYJNBUFMZUIFTBNFGPS4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5<>$POTFRVFOUMZ fOPJTF
JTPftFOOBUVSBMMZSFEVDFEJO4J(F)#5DJSDVJUTGPSUIFTBNFCJBTJOHDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOU BTUIFCBTFDVS
SFOUJTPftFOTNBMMFSEVFUPBIJHIFSCFUB BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF CZVTJOHUIFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZBTB
fiHVSFPGNFSJU
10.0
1021
SiGe HBT (trapezoidal profile)
As Xj (EB) = 35 nm
Dopant concentration (cm–3)

1020 WB(metallurgical) = 90 nm 7.5
Poly
Germanium (%)
As
1019 Ge
5.0
P
1018
B 2.5
1017
1016 0
0 200 400 600 800
Depth (nm)
FIGURE 9.13 .FBTVSFEEPQJOHBOE(FQSPfiMFTPGBNPEFSO4J(F)#5
60
50
Cutoff frequency (GHz)
40 SiGe HBT
1.7×
5.0×
30
20
Si BJT AE = 0.5×2.5 μm2
10 RBI = 5–8 kΩ/
VCB = 1.0 V
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Collector current (mA)
FIGURE 9.14 &YQFSJNFOUBMDVUPČGSFRVFODZWFSTVTDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUGPSUIF4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5
Ћ FTF UPHFUIFSXJUIDJSDVJUMFWFMPQUJNJ[BUJPODBOMFBEUPFYDFMMFOUMPXQIBTFOPJTFPTDJMMBUPSTBOE
GSFRVFODZTZOUIFTJ[FSTTVJUBCMFGPSCPUIXJSFMFTTBOEXJSFMJOFDPNNVOJDBUJPODJSDVJUT"OPUIFSMFTT
PCWJPVTBEWBOUBHFGSPNHSBEJOH(FJTUIFDPMMFDUPSTJEFPGUIFOFVUSBMCBTFUIBUIBTMFTTJNQBDUPOUIF
DPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUUIBOUIFFNJUUFSTJEFPGUIFOFVUSBMCBTF$POTFRVFOUMZ BTUIFDPMMFDUPSWPMUBHFWBSJFT
BOEUIFDPMMFDUPSTJEFPGUIFOFVUSBMCBTFJTTIJftFEUPXBSEUIFFNJUUFSEVFUPJODSFBTFE$#KVODUJPO
EFQMFUJPOMBZFSUIJDLOFTT UIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUJTJODSFBTFEUPBNVDIMFTTFSFYUFOUUIBOJOBDPNQBSBCMZ
DPOTUSVDUFE4J#+5 MFBEJOHUPBNVDIIJHIFSPVUQVUJNQFEBODFPS&BSMZWPMUBHFЋ Fβ¨V"QSPEVDUJT
UIVTNVDIIJHIFSJO4J(F)#5UIBOJO4J#+5
9.8.2 Industry Practice and Fabrication Technology

Ћ FTUBOEBSEJOEVTUSZQSBDUJDFUPEBZJTUPJOUFHSBUF4J(F)#5XJUI$.04UPGPSNB4J(F#J$.04
UFDIOPMPHZЋ FBCJMJUZUPJOUFHSBUFXJUI$.04JTBMTPBTJHOJfiDBOUBEWBOUBHFPG4J(F)#5PWFS***o7
)#5.PEFSO4J(F#J$.04DPNCJOFTUIFBOBMPHBOE3'QFSGPSNBODFBEWBOUBHFTPGUIF4J(F)#5
100
SiGe LN1
80 SiGe LN2
SiGe control
60 Si BJT
fC (kHz)
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
J (mA/μm2)
C
FIGURE 9.15 &YQFSJNFOUBMMZNFBTVSFEDPSOFSGSFRVFODZBTBGVODUJPOPGDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUEFOTJUZGPSUISFF4J(F

)#5TXJUIEJČFSFOUCBTF4J(FEFTJHOT BOEBDPNQBSBUJWFMZDPOTUSVDUFE4J#+5
BOEUIFMPXFSQPXFSMPHJD IJHIJOUFHSBUJPOMFWFM BOENFNPSZEFOTJUZPG4J$.04 JOUPBTJOHMFDPTU

FČFDUJWFTZTUFNPODIJQ 4P$ TPMVUJPO5ZQJDBMMZ 4J(F)#5TXJUINVMUJQMFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFTBSF
PČFSFEUISPVHIUIFTFMFDUJWFDPMMFDUPSJNQMBOUBUJPO UPQSPWJEFNPSFĘFYJCJMJUZJOUIFDJSDVJUEFTJHO
Ћ FGBCSJDBUJPOQSPDFTTPG4J(F)#5BOEJUTJOUFHSBUJPOXJUI$.04IBTCFFODPOTUBOUMZFWPMWJOH
JOUIFQBTUUXPEFDBEFT BOEWBSJFTGSPNDPNQBOZUPDPNQBOZ#FMPXBSFTPNFDPNNPOGBCSJDBUJPO
FMFNFOUTBOENPEVMFTTIBSFECZNBOZ JGOPUBMM DPNNFSDJBMfiSTUHFOFSBUJPO BMTPNPTUXJEFTQSFBEJO
NBOVGBDUVSJOHBUQSFTFOU 4J(FUFDIOPMPHJFT
"TUBSUJOH/ TVCDPMMFDUPSBSPVOEΩTRVBSFPOBQUZQFTVCTUSBUFBU¨DN UZQJDBMMZQBU
UFSOFEUPBMMPX$.04JOUFHSBUJPO
"IJHIUFNQFSBUVSF MJHIUMZEPQFEOUZQFDPMMFDUPS BSPVOEoμNUIJDLBU¨DN
1PMZTJMJDPO fiMMFE EFFQ USFODIFT GPS JTPMBUJPO GSPN BEKBDFOU EFWJDFT UZQJDBMMZ μN XJEF BOE
oμNEFFQ
0YJEe fiMMFETIBMMPXUSFODIFTPS-0$04GPSMPDBMEFWJDFJTPMBUJPO UZQJDBMMZoμNEFFQ
Dielectric
Copper
E B C
SiGe N Tungsten
P STI
N collector
Deep trench Oxide
isolation N+ subcollector removed
P substrate
FIGURE 9.16 4USVDUVSFPGBNPEFSO4J(F)#5

"OJNQMBOUFEDPMMFDUPSSFBDIFTUISPVHIUPUIFTVCDPMMFDUPS UZQJDBMMZBUoΩμN

" DPNQPTJUF 4J(F FQJMBZFS DPOTJTUJOH PG B oON 4J CVČFS B oON CPSPOEPQFE 4J(F
BDUJWFMBZFS XJUIPSXJUIPVU$EPQJOHUPIFMQTVQQSFTTCPSPOPVUEJČVTJPO BOEBoON4JDBQ
Ћ FJOUFHSBUFECPSPOEPTFJTUZQJDBMMZo¨DN
" WBSJFUZ PG FNJUUFSoCBTF TFMGBMJHONFOU TDIFNF EFQFOEJOH PO UIF EFWJDF TUSVDUVSF BOE 4J(F
HSPXUIBQQSPBDI"MMPGUIFNVUJMJ[FTPNFTPSUPGTQBDFSUIBUJToONXJEF
.VMUJQMFTFMGBMJHOFEDPMMFDUPSJNQMBOUBUJPOTUPBMMPXNVMUJQMFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFTPOUIFTBNF
DIJQ
1PMZTJMJDPO FYUSJOTJD CBTF VTVBMMZ GPSNFE EVSJOH 4J(F HSPXUI PWFS TIBMMPX USFODI PYJEF BOE
BEEJUJPOBMTFMGBMJHOFEFYUSJOTJDJNQMBOUBUJPOUPMPXFSCBTFSFTJTUBODF
"TJMJDJEFEFYUSJOTJDCBTF
"oONUIJDLIFBWJMZEPQFE ¨DN QPMZTJMJDPOFNJUUFS FJUIFSJNQMBOUFEPSin situ
EPQFE
" WBSJFUZ PG NVMUJQMF MFWFM CBDLFOEPGMJOF NFUBMMJ[BUJPO TDIFNFT VTJOH "M PS $V UZQJDBMMZ
CPSSPXFEGSPNUIFQBSFOU$.04QSPDFTT
Ћ FTFUFDIOPMPHJDBMFMFNFOUTDBOBMTPCFTFFOJOUIFFMFDUSPOJDJNBHFPGBTFDPOEHFOFSBUJPO4J(F)#5
TIPXOJO'JHVSF
References
+ + &CFST BOE + . .PMM -BSHF TJHOBM CFIBWJPS PG CJQPMBS USBOTJTUPST Proceedings IRE
o %FDFNCFS
),(VNNFMBOE)$1PPO "OJOUFHSBMDIBSHFDPOUSPMNPEFMPGCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSTBell System
Technical Journal o .BZ
-8/BHFMBOE%01FEFSTPO 41*$& 4JNVMBUJPO1SPHSBNXJUI*OUFHSBUFE$JSDVJU&NQIBTJT
6OJWFSTJUZPG$BMJGPSOJB #FSLFMFZ &3-.FNP/P&3-. "QSJM
1 "OUPHOFUUJ BOE ( .BTTPCSJP Semiconductor Device Modeling with SPICE .D(SBX)JMM
/FX:PSL
"7BEJNJSFTLV The SPICE Book +PIO8JMFZ4POT )PCPLFO /+
"2 "4(SPWF Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices +PIO8JMFZ4POT /FX:PSL
4.4[F Physics of Semiconductor Devices OEFEO +PIO8JMFZ4POT /FX:PSL
( 8 /FVEFDL The PN junction Diode 7PM ** Modular Series on Solid-State Devices "EEJTPO
8FTMFZ 3FBEJOH ."
34.VMMFSBOE5*,BNJOT Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits OEFEO +PIO8JMFZ4POT
/FX:PSL
&4:BOH Microelectronic Devices .D(SBX)JMM /FX:PSL
#(4USFFUNBO Solid State Electronic Devices SEFEO 1SFOUJDF)BMM &OHMFXPPE$MJČT /+
%"/FBNFO Semiconductor Physics and Devices 3JDIBSE%*SXJO #PTUPO ."
+ % $SFTTMFS BOE ( /JV Silicon–Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor "SUFDI )PVTF
#PTUPO ."
(/JV /PJTFJO4J(F)#53'UFDIOPMPHZ1IZTJDT NPEFMJOHBOEDJSDVJUJNQMJDBUJPOTProceedings
of the IEEE o 4FQUFNCFS
10
Field Effect Transistors
*OUSPEVDUJPO 10
.045SBOTJTUPS 10
.044USVDUVSFBOEćSFTIPME7PMUBHF t .045SBOTJTUPS$VSSFOU
$IBSBDUFSJTUJDT t 4FDPOE0SEFS&ČFDUTPOB.045SBOTJTUPS
+VODUJPO'JFME&ffFDU5SBOTJTUPS 10
Bogdan M. 4UBUJD*OEVDUJPO5SBOTJTUPS 10
ćFPSZPG4*50QFSBUJPOGPS4NBMM$VSSFOUT t ćFPSZPG4*5GPS
Wilamowski -BSHF$VSSFOUT t #JQPMBS.PEFPG0QFSBUJPOPGUIF4*5
Auburn University
-BUFSBM1VODIЋ SPVHI5SBOTJTUPS 10
J. David Irwin 1PXFS.045SBOTJTUPST 10
Auburn University 3FGFSFODFT10
10.1 Introduction
Ћ FSFBSFTFWFSBMEJffFSFOUUZQFTPGfiFMEFffFDUUSBOTJTUPST '&5T FBDIPGXIJDIIBTBEJffFSFOUPQFSB
UJPOBM QSJODJQMF 'PS FYBNQMF UIFSF BSF NFUBM PYJEF TFNJDPOEVDUPS .04 USBOTJTUPST KVODUJPO fiFME
FffFDUUSBOTJTUPST +'&5T TUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPST 4*5T UIFQVODIUISPVHIUSBOTJTUPST 1)5T BOE
PUIFST"MMPGUIFTFEFWJDFTFNQMPZUIFflPXPGNBKPSJUZDBSSJFSTЋ FNPTUQPQVMBSPOFBNPOHUIJTHSPVQ
JTUIF.04USBOTJTUPS XIJDIJTQSJNBSJMZVTFEJOJOUFHSBUFEDJSDVJUT<5 / 4>*ODPOUSBTU UIF
+'&5JTOPUTVJUBCMFGPSJOUFHSBUJPOBOETPJUJTQSJNBSJMZGBCSJDBUFEBTBOJOEJWJEVBMEFWJDF<& 3>
"MM'&5TIBWFWFSZMBSHFJOQVUSFTJTUBODFPOUIFPSEFSPGΩЋ F.04USBOTJTUPSUZQJDBMMZPQFSBUFT
XJUIWFSZTNBMMDVSSFOUT</>BOEUIVTGPSQPXFSFMFDUSPOJDTBQQMJDBUJPOTUIPVTBOETPG.04USBOTJT
UPSTBSFDPOOFDUFEJOQBSBMMFM"+'&5VTVBMMZPQFSBUFTXJUIMBSHFSDVSSFOUT#PUI+'&5BOE.04USBO
TJTUPSTIBWFSFMBUJWFMZTNBMMUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFT BOEUIJTNFBOTUIBUUIFZDBOOPUDPOUSPMDVSSFOUflPX
BTFffFDUJWFMZBTCJQPMBSKVODUJPOUSBOTJTUPST #+5T 4JODFUIFQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUPSTBSFPGUIFTBNFPSEFS
PGNBHOJUVEF #+5TDBODIBSHFBOEEJTDIBSHFUIFTFDBQBDJUPSTNVDIGBTUFSBOETP#+5TBSFNPSFTVJU
BCMFGPSIJHIGSFRVFODZPQFSBUJPOT#FDBVTFDVSSFOUflPXJO.04USBOTJTUPSTJTWFSZDMPTFUPUIFTJMJDPO
TVSGBDFXIFSFTVSGBDFTUBUFTDBOflVDUVBUFXJUIUJNF .04EFWJDFTIBWFBSFMBUJWFMZIJHIFSOPJTFMFWFM
FTQFDJBMMZBUMPXGSFRVFODJFT
10.2 MOS Transistor

Ћ F .04 USBOTJTUPS DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE B DBQBDJUPS JO XIJDI UIF BQQMJFE WPMUBHF UP UIF HBUF ( XPVME
BUUSBDUDBSSJFST FMFDUJPOTJO/.04BOEIPMFTJO1.04 GSPNUIFTFNJDPOEVDUPSTVCTUSBUFЋ JTMBZFS
PGBDDVNVMBUFEDBSSJFSTOFBSUIFTVSGBDFDPOEVDUTDVSSFOUCFUXFFOTPVSDFBOEESBJO<5>*GUIFWPMU
BHFPOUIFHBUFJTJODSFBTFE UIFONPSFDBSSJFT FMFDUSPOTPSIPMFT XJMMCFBDDVNVMBUFEOFBSUIFTVSGBDF
DBVTJOHBMBSHFSDVSSFOUUPflPX BTJOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSF*OPSEFSUPCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOEUIFQSPDFTTPG
DBSSJFSBDDVNVMBUJPOVOEFSUIFHBUF UIF.04TUSVDUVSFNVTUCFBOBMZ[FEJOEFUBJM
10-1
+
G
S D
FIGURE 10.1 Ћ FQSJODJQMFPGPQFSBUJPOGPSB/.04USBOTJTUPS XIFSFFMFDUSPOTBSFBDDVNVMBUFECZUIFQPTJUJWF

HBUFWPMUBHF
10.2.1 MOS Structure and Threshold Voltage

'JHVSFTIPXTUIFDSPTTTFDUJPOPGUIF.04CBOETUSVDUVSFXJUIBQUZQFTJMJDPOTVCTUSBUF/PUFUIBU
UIF'FSNJMFWFMIBTBEJffFSFOUMPDBUJPOJOFWFSZNBUFSJBM*ONFUBMT UIFSFJTOPGPSCJEEFOFOFSHZHBQ
BOd UIF'FSNJMFWFMEFmJTPOUIFFEHFPGUIFDPOEVDUJPOCBOE"MCFSU&JOTUFJOSFDFJWFEIJT/PCFM1SJ[F
GPSUIFQIPUPFMFDUSJDFffFDU JOXIJDIIFXBTBCMFUPNFBTVSFUIFFOFSHZSFRVJSFEUPGSFFBOFMFDUSPOGSPN
NFUBMUPUIFWBDVVNЋ JTFOFSHZJTOPXLOPXOBTUIFXPSLGVODUJPOϕm8PSLGVODUJPOTGPSWBSJPVT
NBUFSJBMTBSFTIPXOJO5BCMF
*UJTJNQPSUBOUUPOPUFUIBUUIF'FSNJMFWFMTJOTFNJDPOEVDUPSTNBZEFQFOEPOUIFEPQJOHMFWFMN
BOEPOUIFUZQFPGJNQVSJUJFTQSFTFOU*OUIFOUZQFNBUFSJBM UIF'FSNJMFWFMEFsJTBCPWFUIFDFOUFSPG
UIFFOFSHZHBQEiBOEJOUIFQUZQFNBUFSJBM UIF'FSNJMFWFMEFsJTCFMPXEi BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Ћ FXPSLGVODUJPOϕsGPSJOUSJOTJD JF VOEPQFE TJMJDPOJTF7 BTMJTUFEJO5BCMF BOEUIFFOFSHZ
OFFEFEUPGSFFBOFMFDUSPOGSPNUIFQUZQFTJMJDPOJT
⎛N ⎞
φ s = + φ F XIFSF φ F = VT MO ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ ni ⎠

BOEUIJTFOFSHZJTEFQFOEFOUPOUIFBDDFQUPSEPQJOHMFWFMNABOEJOUSJOTJDDBSSJFSDPODFOUSBUJPOni"U
SPPNUFNQFSBUVSFJOTJMJDPOniDN¦4JNJMBSMZ JOUIFOUZQFTJMJDPO
⎛N ⎞
φ s = − φ F XIFSF φF = VT MO ⎜ D ⎟
⎝ ni ⎠

Evac Evac
qφm
qφs
EFm
EC
Ei
qφF
EFs
EV
Metal
Oxide
Silicon
p-type
FIGURE 10.2 Ћ FMPDBUJPOPG'FSNJMFWFMTJONFUBMBOEJOUIFTJMJDPO

Field Effect Transistors 10-3
TABLE 10.1 8PSL'VODUJPOTϕmGPS7BSJPVT.BUFSJBMT

4J Q 4J O 4J "M .P "V $V
ϕm F7
BOE ND JT UIF EPOPS EPQJOH MFWFM 8IFO QPTJUJWF WPMUBHF VG JT BQQMJFE UP UIF HBUF UIF NFUBMT CBOE
TUSVDUVSFXJMMNPWFEPXOCZqVG BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF BOEUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSJOUIFTJMJDPOXJMMCF
GPSNFE
'JHVSFTIPXTUIFDBTFXJUIUIFHBUF NFUBM CJBTJOHFYBDUMZBUUIFUISFTIPMEBTUIFBDDVNVMBUJPO
MBZFSPGDBSSJFSTBUUIFTJMJDPOTVSGBDFJTKVTUCFJOHGPSNFEЋ JTQBSUJDVMBSTUBUF DBMMFETUSPOHJOWFSTJPO
JTPOFJOXIJDIUIFTJMJDPOTVSGBDFJTOPXBOUZQFMFWFMXJUIUIFTBNFFMFDUSPODPODFOUSBUJPOBTUIFIPMF
DPODFOUSBUJPOJOUIFCVMLQUZQFTJMJDPO*UBMTPNFBOTUIFWPMUBHFESPQPOUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSJT
Vd = φ F

,OPXJOHUIFWPMUBHFESPQVd UIFUIJDLOFTTwPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSDBOCFGPVOEGSPN
ε o ε SiVd εε φ
w= 2 = 4 o Si F
qN qN

XIFSF
ε Si = 11.8 ε o = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −14 F/cm

BOENJTUIFJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOJOUIFTJMJDPOTVCTUSBUFЋF DIBSHFPGJPOJ[FEJNQVSJUJFTJOUIF
EFQMFUJPOMBZFSJT
Qd = qNw = 4ε Si ε oφ F qN = 6.68 . 10 −31φ F N

qφs
qVG
qφs
E∞
do x
qφF qφF
qφF
Oxide
qφm
w
Silicon
p-type
depletion
EFm
Silicon
layer
Metal
FIGURE 10.3 .04CBOETUSVDUVSFXJUIQPTJUJWFWPMUBHFPOUIFHBUFVGJOQUZQFTJMJDPO

TABLE 10.2 4VSGBDF$IBSHFTJO4JMJDPOGPS7BSJPVT$SZTUBM0SJFOUBUJPOT

$SZTUBM0SJFOUBUJPO 〈〉 〈〉 〈〉
/VNCFSPGTVSGBDFTUBUFTQssq DN¦ r r
4VSGBDFDIBSHFQss $ r¦ r¦ r¦
0OUPQPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSDIBSHF UIFSFFYJTUTBTJMJDPOTVSGBDFDIBSHFQssUIBUEFQFOETPOUIFTJMJDPO
DSZTUBMPSJFOUBUJPOBTJOEJDBUFEJO5BCMF
4JODFUIF.04TUSVDUVSFDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBTBDBQBDJUPS LOPXMFEHFPGUIFDIBSHFJOTJMJDPOQd Qss
ZJFMETUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHWPMUBHF
Qd + Qss
V=
Cox
Ћ F.04TUSVDUVSFVOJUDBQBDJUBODFJT
ε ox ε o = 3.45 .10 - > (F/cm2 )

−9
C ox =
dox dox (μm)
XIFSFdoxJTUIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFPYJEFBOEεox*OBEEJUJPOUPUIFFMFDUSJDBMDIBSHFT UIFWPMUBHFESPQ
POUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSVdϕFBOEUIFEJffFSFODFJOUIFXPSLGVODUJPOTTIPVMEBMTPCFDPOTJEFSFEJO
EFUFSNJOJOHUIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHF
φms = φm − φ s = φm − (3.8 + sφ F ) = φm − 3.8 − s φ F

XIFSFUIFTZNCPMsJOEJDBUFTUIFTJHO XIJDIJT
⎛ 1 for n channel (p-type impurities)⎞

s=⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 for p channel (n-type impurities)⎠

*ODPODMVTJPO UIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFGPSB.04TUSVDUVSFJTHJWFOCZ
sQ d − Q ss + sq F imp
V th = + sφ F + φms
C ox
/PUFUIBUUIFFffFDUJWFDIBSHFDBOCFDPOUSPMMFECZJPOJNQMBOUBUJPOVTJOHFimpEPTF DN¦ XIJDIDBOCF

NBEFGSPNQUZQFPSOUZQFJNQVSJUJFT BOEBTBSFTVMU UIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFDBOCFQSPQFSMZBEKVTUFE
Example 10.1
Calculate the threshold voltage Vth for a MOS transistor with a p+ polysilicon gate and a p-type substrate
with NA = 1016 cm−3. Assume a <100> crystal orientation and a dox = 0.1 μm. Find the implantation dose
required for adjusting the threshold voltage to Vth = +2 V. Specify if boron or phosphor should be used
for implantation. The calculations required for this example are
N 1016
φF = V T ln = 0.0258 ln = 0.347 2φF = 0.694
ni 1.51010
⎛ 1 for n channel (p - type substrate)⎞

s=⎜ = +1
⎝ −1 for p channel (n - type substrate)⎟⎠
φms = φm − φ s φ s = 3.8 + sφF
φms = 4.5 − (3.8 + sφF ) = 4.5 − (3.8 + 0.347) = 0.353

−31 −31 −8
Q d = qNw = 4ε Si ε o φF qN = 6.68 ⋅10 φF N = 6.68 ⋅10 ⋅ 0.347 ⋅10 = 4.8145 ⋅10
16
<100 > −9
Q SS ⎯⎯⎯
→ 3.3 ⋅10
−9
ε ox ε o 3.45 ⋅10 3.45 ⋅10 −9
C ox = = = 3.45 ⋅10 −8 (F/cm2 )
d ox d ox ( μ m) 0 .1
Qd Q 4.8145 − 0.32
V th = s + s2φF + φms − ss = + 0.694 + 0.353 = 2.35
Cox Cox 3.45
Since the requirement specifies a Vth = 2 V, this value must be lowered by 0.35 V:
qF imp ΔVthCox 0.35 ⋅ 3.45 ⋅10 −8

ΔVth = Fimp = = = 7.54 ⋅1010 atm /cm2
Cox q 1.6 ⋅10 −19
Ћ FUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFPCUBJOFEGSPN&RVBUJPOJTWBMJEGPSUIFDBTFJOXIJDIUIFTVCTUSBUFIBTUIF
TBNFQPUFOUJBMBTUIFTPVSDFGPSUIF.04USBOTJTUPS*GUIFTVCTUSBUFJTCJBTFEXJUIBOBEEJUJPOBMWPMUBHF
VSB UIFOEVFUPUIFTVCTUSBUFCJBTJOH UIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFXJMMDIBOHFCZ

ΔVth =
2ε Si ε oqN
Cox ( φ F + VSB − φ F = γ ) ( φ F + VSB − φ F )
10.2.2 MOS Transistor Current Characteristics

%FQFOEJOHPOUIFWBMVFPGUIFESBJOTPVSDFWPMUBHFVDS UIF.04USBOTJTUPSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFEFTDSJCFE
CZEJffFSFOUGPSNVMBT'PSTNBMMWBMVFTPGVDS LOPXOBTUIFiMJOFBSwPSiUSJPEFwSFHJPO UIFDVSSFOUJT
BTUSPOHGVODUJPOPGUIFESBJOWPMUBHF BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF'PSMBSHFWBMVFTPGVDSLOPXOBTUIF
iDVSSFOUTBUVSBUJPOwPSiQFOUPEFwSFHJPO UIFDVSSFOUJTBMNPTUJOEFQFOEFOUPGUIFESBJOWPMUBHFЋ F
DVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFPftFOBQQSPYJNBUFECZUIFGPSNVMB
⎧⎪K ⎡( Δ )V DS − 0.5VDS
2
⎤ (1 + λVDS ) for VDS ≤ Δ
ID = ⎨ ⎣ ⎦
⎪⎩0.5K (Δ) (1 + λVDS ) for VDS ≥ Δ
2

VGS
ID
VGS – Vth = Δ <VDS VGS – Vth = Δ > VDS
Linear Current
region saturation
region
Slope = λID
ID = 0.5 KV 2DS
VDS
FIGURE 10.4 0VUQVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPS.04USBOTJTUPST
XIFSFΔTIPXTIPXNVDIUIFHBUFWPMUBHFVGSFYDFFETUIFUISFTIPMEWPMUBHFVth JF
Δ = V GS − V th

W W
K = K′ = μCox
L L
Ћ FλQBSBNFUFSEFTDSJCFTUIFTMPQFPGUIFPVUQVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTJOUIFDVSSFOUTBUVSBUJPOSFHJPOЋ F
UZQJDBMWBMVFTPGUIFλQBSBNFUFSBSFUP<7¦>'PSTNBMMTJHOBMBOBMZTJT B.04USBOTJTUPSJOUIF
DVSSFOUTBUVSBUJPOSFHJPODBOCFEFTDSJCFECZUXPQBSBNFUFSTrmBOEro
1 Δ 1 1
rm = = = =
g m 2I D K Δ 2KI D

ro =
λI D
'JHVSF TIPXT B TNBMMTJHOBM FRVJWBMFOU NPEFM PG UIF .04 USBOTJTUPS 'PS UIF WPMUBHFDPOUSPMMFE
DJSDVJU UIFJOQVUDBQBDJUBODFTOFFEOPUUPCFJODMVEFE JF JOQVUDBQBDJUBODFJTBQBSUPGUIFQSFWJPVT
TUBHF"TTVNJOHUIBUUIFMPBEJOHDBQBDJUBODFCJTUIFDBQBDJUBODFPGUIFJEFOUJDBMUSBOTJTUPSPGUIFOFYU
TUBHFCCoxWL UIFNBYJNVNGSFRVFODZPGPQFSBUJPOJT
W 2μI D
2μCox ID
1 L CoxW
fmax = ≈ =
2π(rm || ro )C 2 πCoxWL 2πL

G D
+
VGS C
VGS gm VGS
rm ro
–
FIGURE 10.5 4NBMMTJHOBMFRVJWBMFOUNPEFMGPSB.04USBOTJTUPS

Example 10.2
Consider the NMOS transistor described in Example 10.1 with Vth = +2 V. Neglecting the channel length
modulation (), and assuming the following parameters: electron mobility λ = 0.03, μ = 600 cm2/Vs, L = 2 μm
and W = 20 μm, calculate
a. Drain current for VGS = 4 V and VDS = 1 V
b. Drain current for VGS = 4 V and VDS = 10 V
c. Maximum frequency for VGS = 4 V and VDS = 10 V
W 20
a. K = μC ox = 600 ⋅ 3.45 ⋅ 10 −8 = 0.2 ⋅ 10 −3 = 200 μA / V 2
L 2
⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
ID = K ⎢(VGS − Vth )VDS − DS ⎥ (1+ λVDS ) = 200 ⋅10 −6 ⎢2 ⋅1− ⎥ (1+ 0.03) = 309 μA
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
K 200 ⋅10 −6
b. ID =
2
(VGS − Vth ) (1+ λVDS ) =
2
2
( 4 − 2) (1+ 0.3) = 520 μA
2

1 1
c. rm = = = 2.19 kΩ
2KID 2 ⋅ 200μ ⋅ 520μ

1 1
ro = = = 64.1kΩ
λID 0.03 ⋅ 520μ
C = C oxWL = 3.45 ⋅10 −8 ⋅ 2 ⋅10 −4 ⋅ 20 ⋅10 −4 = 13.8 fF

1 1
f max = = = 5.45 GHz
2π(rm || ro ) C 2π(2.19 kΩ || 64.1kΩ )13.8 fF

/PUFUIBUPOMZUIFHBUFPYJEFDBQBDJUBODFXBTJODMVEFE4JODFBMMPUIFSKVODUJPOQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFT
XFSFJHOPSFE UIFDBMDVMBUFENBYJNVNGSFRVFODZfmaxJTTJHOJfiDBOUMZMBSHFSUIBOUIFBDUVBMPOF
10.2.3 Second-Order Effects on a MOS Transistor

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TVDIBTDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPO DBSSJFSWFMPDJUZMJNJUBUJPO TVSGBDFNPCJMJUZEFHSBEBUJPO TVCUISFTI
PMEDPOEVDUJPO FUD<5>Ћ FTFFffFDUTXJMMOPXCFEFTDSJCFEXJUITPNFEFUBJM
10.2.3.1 Channel Length Modulation

Ћ FFffFDUPGDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPOJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSd
EFQFOETPOUIFESBJOTVCTUSBUFWPMUBHFBOEJTEFTDSJCFECZBOFRVBUJPOUIBUJTTJNJMBSUP&RVBUJPO
ε o ε SiVD
d=
qN

G
S D
n+ n+
Depletion layer
Leff d
L
p-substrate
FIGURE 10.6 $IBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPO
"TBDPOTFRVFODF UIFFffFDUJWFDIBOOFMMFOHUILeffJTTIPSUFSUIBOUIFEJTUBODFLCFUXFFOUIFJNQMBOUFE
TPVSDFBOEESBJOSFHJPOT BOE UIFSFGPSF JOTUFBEPG&RVBUJPO UIFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFDPFffiDJFOUK
TIPVMECFFYQSFTTFEBT
W W W 1 W⎛ η ⎞
K = K′ = K′ = K′ ≈ K ′ ⎜1 + VD ⎟
Leff εε V L ⎛ η ⎞ L ⎝ L ⎠
L − 2 o Si D ⎜⎝ 1 − L VD ⎟⎠
qN

"TJOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSF UIFFffFDUPGDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPOCFDPNFTNPSFTJHOJfiDBOUXJUIUIF
SFEVDUJPOJODIBOOFMMFOHUIЋ VT UIFUFYUCPPLGPSNVMB JF &RVBUJPO VTJOHUIFλQBSBNFUFSUP
EFTDSJCFUIFFffFDUPGDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPO BOEBMTPFNQMPZFEJOUIFCBTJD4QJDF.04USBOTJTUPS
NPEFMT -FWFMBOE-FWFM JTOPUDPSSFDU&RVBUJPOJNQMJFTUIBUGPSBHJWFOESBJOWPMUBHF UIF
SBUJPCFUXFFOdBOELeffJTBMXBZTUIFTBNFIPXFWFS DMFBSMZUIJTDBOOPUCFUSVFGPSEJffFSFOUDIBOOFM
MFOHUIT8JUIMPOHFSUSBOTJTUPSDIBOOFMT UIFFffFDUPGDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPOJTMFTTTJHOJfiDBOUBOE
UIFPVUQVUSFTJTUBODFBDUVBMMZJODSFBTFTXJUIUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUIL
"T&RVBUJPOJOEJDBUFT UIFDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPODBOCFSFEVDFEPOMZCZJODSFBTJOHUIF
JNQVSJUZ DPODFOUSBUJPO N JO UIF TJMJDPO 8JUIPVU B TJHOJfiDBOU JODSFBTF JO JNQVSJUJFT UIFSF XPVME
CFBQVODIUISPVHIFffFDUJOBTIPSUDIBOOFMUSBOTJTUPS1VODIUISPVHIPDDVSTXIFOUIFEFQMFUJPO
MBZFSUIJDLOFTTdCFDPNFTFRVBMUPUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUIL BTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSF6OGPSUVOBUFMZ
BMBSHFSJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOJOUIFTVCTUSBUFMFBETUPMBSHFQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFT BOEUIFSFGPSFB
SFEVDUJPOJOUIFUSBOTJTUPSTJ[FEPFTOPUSFTVMUJOBTJNJMBSSFEVDUJPOPGUIFQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFT'PS
FYBNQMF JUJTJOUFSFTUJOHUPOPUFUIBUBTJHOJfiDBOUSFEVDUJPOJOUIFTJ[FPGUSBOTJTUPSTJOUIFMBTUEFDBEF
GSPNμNUPμNEJEOPUSFTVMUJOBOZOPUJDFBCMFJODSFBTFJOUIFDPNQVUFSDMPDLGSFRVFODJFT
0GDPVSTF UIFSFBSFBMTPPUIFSGBDUPSTUIBUBSFMJNJUJOHDMPDLGSFRVFODJFT0OFPGUIFNPTUJNQPSUBOU
MJNJUBUJPOTJTBOBCJMJUZUPEJTTJQBUFIFBU TJODFQPXFSEJTTJQBUJPOJODPNQVUFSDIJQTJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUP
DMPDLGSFRVFODZ
10.2.3.2 Effect of Carrier Velocity Saturation

.PTUPGUIFUFYUCPPLFRVBUJPOTBSFEFSJWFEXJUIBOBTTVNQUJPOUIBUUIFNPCJMJUZPGDBSSJFSTJTDPO
TUBOUBOEJOEFQFOEFOUPGUIFFMFDUSJDBMfiFME"DUVBMMZ JOTJMJDPO UIFNBYJNVNDBSSJFSWFMPDJUZGPS
CPUIFMFDUSPOTBOEIPMFTJTvsatDNTμNT"TJOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSF UIFDSJUJDBMfiFMEJO
XIJDIUIFWFMPDJUZTBUVSBUFTJTBCPVU7μN/PUFUIBUUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUIJONPEFSO.04USBOTJTUPST
JTTJHOJfiDBOUMZTNBMMFSUIBOμNЋ FSFGPSF FWFOSFEVDJOHUIFTVQQMZWPMUBHFCFMPX7QSPEVDFT
BOBWFSBHFFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEJO.04USBOTJTUPST XIJDIJTTJHOJfiDBOUMZMBSHFSUIBO7μN'PSUVOBUFMZ
MBSHFFMFDUSJDBMfiFMETFYJTUOFBSUIFESBJOBOETJHOJfiDBOUMZTNBMMFSFMFDUSJDBMfiFMETBSFOFBSUIFTPVSDF
BOEUIFTFTNBMMFSFMFDUSJDfiFMETTIBQFUIFUSBOTJTUPSDVSSFOUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT TP&RVBUJPOTBSF
μm
vsat ≈ 1011 s
v v = vsat
μm
s
μE
v=
V
μm
V
1 μm E
FIGURE 10.7 $BSSJFSTWFMPDJUZBTBGVODUJPOPGUIFFMFDUSJDBMĕFMEJOTJMJDPO
TUJMMJOVTFFWFOJGUIFESBJODVSSFOUJOUIFDVSSFOUTBUVSBUJPOSFHJPOOPMPOHFSJTEFTDSJCFECZBRVB
ESBUJDFRVBUJPO
n
I D _ (VGS − Vth )

XIFSFnIBTWBMVFCFUXFFOBOE
10.2.3.3 Carrier Mobility Degradation near the Surface

Ћ FLFZGFBUVSFPG.04USBOTJTUPSPQFSBUJPOJTUIFGBDUUIBUNPTUPGUIFDVSSFOUflPXTOFBSUIFTJMJDPO
TVSGBDFBOE BTBSFTVMUPGDSZTUBMJNQFSGFDUJPOT DBSSJFSNPCJMJUJFTOFBSUIFTVSGBDFBSFSFEVDFEЋ JT
FffFDUCFDPNFTFWFONPSFTJHOJfiDBOUXJUIJODSFBTFEHBUFWPMUBHFXIFOBMBSHFFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEJTDSFBUFE
QFSQFOEJDVMBS UP UIF EJSFDUJPO PG DVSSFOU flPX "T B DPOTFRVFODF XJUI MBSHFS HBUF WPMUBHFT B MBSHFS
OVNCFSPGDBSSJFSTBSFBDDVNVMBUFEOFBSUIFTVSGBDF)PXFWFS UIFTFDBSSJFSTBSFNPWJOHTMPXFSEVF
UPTVSGBDFNPCJMJUZEFHSBEBUJPOBOEUIFGBDUUIBUUIFESBJODVSSFOUJTOPUJODSFBTJOHBTGBTUBTXPVME
CFQSFEJDUFECZ&RVBUJPOXJUIBRVBESBUJDSFMBUJPOTIJQ*OBEEJUJPOUPNPCJMJUZEFHSBEBUJPOJO
UIFUSBOTWFSTFFMFDUSJDfiFME JF UIFHBUFWPMUBHF UIFSFJTBTUSPOHEFHSBEBUJPOEVFUPUIFMPOHJUVEJOBM
FMFDUSJD fiFME JF UIF ESBJO WPMUBHF "T B SFTVMU FYQFSJNFOUBM DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT GPS TIPSUDIBOOFM .04
USBOTJTUPSTFYIJCJUBMNPTUMJOFBSEFQFOEFODFXJUIHBUFWPMUBHF 'JHVSF "2
10.2.3.4 Subthreshold Conduction

"TJMMVTUSBUFEJO4FDUJPO BTUIFHBUFWPMUBHFJODSFBTFT DBSSJFSTHSBEVBMMZBDDVNVMBUFOFBSUIFTVS
GBDF Ћ F BTTVNQUJPO UIBU TVEEFOMZ UIFSF JT B TUSPOH TVSGBDF JOWFSTJPO XIFSF UIF DPODFOUSBUJPO PG
NJOPSJUZDBSSJFSTOFBSUIFTVSGBDFJTFYBDUMZUIFTBNFBTUIFDPODFOUSBUJPOPGDBSSJFSTJOUIFTVCTUSBUF
JTWFSZBSUJfiDJBM#FMPXBOEOFBSUIFUISFTIPME UIFESBJODVSSFOUJOB.04USBOTJTUPSJTEFTDSJCFECZBO
FYQPOFOUJBMSFMBUJPOTIJQ
⎛ V − Vth − ηVT ⎞

I D = I ON exp ⎜ GS ⎟⎠ for VGS < Vth + ηVT
⎝ ηVT
XIFSF
K
I ON =

( ηVT )

ID
Subthreshold Strong
conduction inversion
VGS – Vth – ηVT

ID = ION exp
ηVT
ID = K (VGS – Vth)2
2
IO N = K (ηVT)
2
2
VGS
Vth
ηVT
FIGURE 10.8 %SBJODVSSFOUWFSTVTUIFHBUFTPVSDFWPMUBHFJOTVCUISFTIPMEDPOEVDUJPOBOEUIFTUSPOHJOWFSTJPO

SFHJPOT
VT kTqJTUIFUIFSNBMQPUFOUJBMBOEηEFQFOETPOUIFEFWJDFHFPNFUSZBOEMJFTCFUXFFOBOE
Ћ FTVCUISFTIPMEDPOEVDUJPOJTUIFSFBTPOXIZ.04USBOTJTUPSTBSFBDUVBMMZOFWFSDPNQMFUFMZUVSOFE
0''BOEUIFSFJTBMXBZTTPNFDVSSFOUMFBLUISPVHI.04USBOTJTUPST8IFOUIFQPQVMBS$.04UFDIOPM
PHZXBTfiSTUEFWFMPQFE POFPGUIFVOEFSMZJOHBTTVNQUJPOTXBTUIBUBMPOHUIFQPXFSQBUI UIFSFXPVME
OFWFSCFFWFOPOF.04USBOTJTUPSJOUIF0''TUBUF TPQPXFSXPVMEOPUCFUBLFOGSPNQPXFSTVQQMZ
8IJMFBUSBOTJTUPSDBOCFJOUIF0''TUBUF UIFSFJTBMFBLBHFDVSSFOUDBVTFECZUIFTVCUISFTIPMEDPO
EVDUJPOJO$.047-4*DJSDVJUT XIJDIDBOCFWFSZTJHOJĕDBOUJOTJUVBUJPOTXIFSFUIFOVNCFSPG.04
USBOTJTUPSTFYDFFETPOFCJMMJPO
10.3 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Ћ FQSJODJQMFPGPQFSBUJPOGPSB+'&5JTRVJUFEJffFSFOUUIBOUIBUPGB.04USBOTJTUPS<4 />Ћ FDVS
SFOUflPXTUISPVHIBUIJOTFNJDPOEVDUPSMBZFSUIBUJTTVSSPVOEFECZBHBUFNBEFPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSNBUF
SJBMPGUIFPQQPTJUFUZQF BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FHBUFoDIBOOFM TPVSDF KVODUJPOJTCJBTFEJOUIF
SFWFSTFEJSFDUJPO TPUIFSFJTOPHBUFDVSSFOUЋ FUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOSFHJPOTDPOUSPMTDVSSFOUflPX
CFUXFFOTPVSDF4BOEESBJO%Ћ FUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOSFHJPOTJTUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFHBUFWPMUBHF
ε o ε SiVchannel
d=
qN

"TJOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSFB UIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSdJTDPOTUBOUPOMZJGUIFSFJTOPWPMUBHF
BQQMJFECFUXFFOTPVSDFBOEESBJO8JUIBQQMJFEESBJOWPMUBHF UIJTJTTVFCFDPNFTNVDINPSFDPNQMJ
DBUFECFDBVTFUIFDIBOOFMXJEUIJTBOPOMJOFBSGVODUJPOPGEJTUBODF BOEUIFSFJTBOPOMJOFBSWPMUBHF
ESPQBMPOHUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUI"TBDPOTFRVFODF UIFSFJTBEJffFSFOUHBUFDIBOOFMWPMUBHFBOEBEJffFS
FOUEFQMFUJPOMBZFSUIJDLOFTTdBMPOHUIFDIBOOFM BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFC8JUIBOZGVSUIFSJODSFBTF
JO UIF HBUF WPMUBHF UIF DIBOOFM JT QJODIFE Pff BOE POMZ B EFQMFUJPO MBZFS FYJTUT CFUXFFO QPJOU Y JO
'JHVSFDBOEUIFESBJO%*OUIBUSFHJPO UIFPQFSBUJPOPGB+'&5JTWFSZJOUFSFTUJOH*OUIFOUZQF
+'&5DBTFTIPXOJO'JHVSF FMFDUSPOTJOUIFDIBOOFMDMPTFUPUIFTPVSDFBSFCFJOHQVTIFEBXBZCZ
UIFOFHBUJWFHBUFWPMUBHFЋ JTJTXIZUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSJTGPSNFE#VUUIFMBSHFQPTJUJWFESBJOWPMU
BHFDSFBUFTBOFMFDUSJDfiFMECFUXFFOQPJOUYBOEESBJO BOEUIJTFMFDUSJDfiFMETXJQFTBMMFMFDUSPOTUIBU
p+ ID
S n D 2a
VDS
p+
(a) L
p+ ID
S n D
VDS
p+
(b)
p+ ID
S n D
x
VDS
p+
(c)
FIGURE 10.9 $SPTTTFDUJPOTPGBOODIBOOFM+'&5XJUIĕYFEHBUFWPMUBHFBOEEJČFSFOUESBJOTPVSDFWPMUBHFT

$IBSBDUFSJTUJDTPOUIFSJHIUTJEFPGUIFĕHVSFTIPXUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHNPEFTPGPQFSBUJPOT
IBWFSFBDIFEQPJOUYUISPVHIUIFQJODIPffSFHJPOOFBSUIFESBJO*OUFSFTUJOHMZ XIFOJOUIJTNPEFPG
PQFSBUJPO UIFESBJOWPMUBHFEPFTOPUIBWFBEJSFDUFffFDUPOUIFESBJODVSSFOU BOEUIFESBJODVSSFOU
JTEFUFSNJOFECZUIFUSJBOHVMBSTIBQFPGUIFDIBOOFMSFHJPOUPUIFMFftPGQPJOUY0GDPVSTF JOBNBO
OFSBOBMPHPVTUPUIBUPGUIF.04USBOTJTUPS UIF+'&5BMTPFYQFSJFODFTTFDPOEPSEFSFffFDUTGSPNUIF
DIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPO8JUIBOJODSFBTFJOESBJOWPMUBHF UIFQPJOUYJTNPWFEUPUIFMFft XIJDI
SFEVDFTUIFFffFDUJWFSFTJTUBODFPGUIFiUSJBOHVMBSMJLFDIBOOFMSFHJPOwBOESFTVMUTJOBTMJHIUJODSFBTF
JOESBJODVSSFOU
Ћ FHFPNFUSZPGUIF+'&5JTVTVBMMZNPSFDPNQMJDBUFEUIBOUIFPOFTIPXOJO'JHVSF"MTP JO
NPTU+'&5EFWJDFT UIFSFJTBOPOMJOFBSJNQVSJUZEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFDIBOOFMЋ FSFGPSF BEFSJWBUJPOPG
UIFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTXPVMECFFJUIFSUPPTJNQMJTUJDPSUPPDPNQMJDBUFE"TBDPOTFRVFODF
WBSJPVT BQQSPYJNBUJPO GPSNVMBT BSF CFJOH VTFE Ћ F NPTU QPQVMBS FRVBUJPOT GPS EFUFSNJOJOH +'&5
ESBJODVSSFOUTBSF
if VGS < VP ID = 0

⎧ ⎡⎛ ⎞ VDS ⎛ VDS ⎞ ⎤
2
⎪2I DSS ⎢⎜ VGS
− 1⎟ − 0.5 ⎜ ⎥ (1 + λVDS ) for VDS ≤ VGS − VP
⎪ ⎢⎣⎝ VP ⎠ VP ⎝ VP ⎟⎠ ⎥
if VGS ≥ VP ID = ⎨ ⎦
⎪
2
⎛ ⎞
⎪ IDSS ⎜ VGS − 1⎟ (1 + λVDS ) for VDS ≥ VGS −VP
⎩ ⎝ VP ⎠

XIFSFVPJTUIFQJODIPff WPMUBHFBOEIDSSJTUIFESBJODVSSFOUGPSUIFDBTFJOXIJDIUIFHBUFJTDPOOFDUFE
XJUITPVSDFBOEBSFMBUJWFMZMBSHFESBJOWPMUBHFJTBQQMJFE#PUIVPBOEIDSSDBOCFSFMBUFEUPUIF+'&5
HFPNFUSZBTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Ћ FQJODIPff vPMUBHFVPDBOCFDBMDVMBUFEBT
qa2 N
VP =
2εε 0
BOE UIF ESBJO DVSSFOU IDSS DBO CF DBMDVMBUFE GSPN 0INT MBX CZ EJWJEJOH VP CZ UIF SFTJTUBODF PG UIF
DIBOOFMCFUXFFOTPVSDFBOEESBJOЋ FOPOMJOFBSEJTUSJCVUJPOPGUIFSFTJTUBODFJTVTVBMMZBTTVNFEUP
CFNBOZUJNFTMBSHFSUIBOUIFSFTJTUBODFXJUIPVUUIFBQQMJFEESBJOWPMUBHF BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFB
ρL
Rchannel = 3
2aW
XIFSFaJTIBMGPGUIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFDIBOOFM LJTUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUI BOEWJTUIFDIBOOFMXJEUI
VP 2aW 2aW 2aW

I DDS = = VP σ = VP qμN
3 ρL 3L 3L

Example 10.3
An n-channel junction JFET has a uniformly doped channel 2 μm thick, 20 μm wide, and 20 μm long with
ND = 0.5 · 1016 cm−3. Determine the pinch-off voltage as well as the drain current for VGS = −1 V and VDS = 10 V.
Assume μn = 500 cm2/Vs. Neglect the channel-length modulation effects.
Since the gate concentration is not given, the increase in potential is neglected:
qa2ND 1.6 ⋅10 −19 (10 −4 )2 0.5 ⋅1016

VP = = = 3.83 V
2εε 0 2 ⋅11.8 ⋅ 8.85 ⋅10 −14
2 ⋅10 −4 ⋅ 20 ⋅10 −4

IDDS = VP
2aW
3L
qμN =
20 ⋅10 −4 ( )
1.6 ⋅10 −19 ⋅ 500 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅1016
3.83
3
= 1.0 mA

For VGS = −1 V in a n-channel JFET, the pinch-off voltage must be negative, e.g., VP = −3.83 V, and neglect-
ing the channel length modulation effect λ = 0:
⎛ −1− ( −3.83) ⎞
2 2
⎛V ⎞
ID = IDDS ⎜ GS −1⎟ = 1.0 mA⎜ ⎟ = 0.55mA
⎝ VP ⎠ ⎝ −3.83 ⎠

/PUF UIF TJNJMBSJUJFT JO &RVBUJPOT GPS UIF .04 USBOTJTUPS BOE &RVBUJPO GPS UIF +'&5
"DUVBMMZ JGUIFQJODIPff vPMUBHFVPBOEUIFESBJOJOJUJBMDVSSFOUIDSSBSFSFQMBDFECZ
2I DSS
Vth = VP and K = "2
VP2
UIFO UPDBMDVMBUFUIFESBJODVSSFOUJOB+'&5 XFOFFEOPUFNQMPZUIF+'&5FRVBUJPOT BOEVTF

JOTUFBEUIFXFMMLOPXOFRVBUJPOTGPS.04USBOTJTUPSTXPSLJOHJOUIFEFQMFUJPONPEF
⎧⎪K ⎡(VGS − Vth ) VDS − 0.5V 2DS ⎤ (1 + λVDS ) for V ≤ VGS − Vth
ID = ⎨ ⎣ ⎦ DS

⎪⎩ 0.5K (VGS − Vth ) (1 + λVDS ) for VDS ≥ VGS − Vth
2

#FDBVTFDVSSFOUflPXJO+'&5TJTGBSGSPNUIFTVSGBDF +'&5TIBWFBTJHOJfiDBOUMZTNBMMFSfOPJTFMFWFM
BOE UIFZ BSF B QSFGFSSFE DIPJDF GPS MPXOPJTF BNQMJfiFST "OPUIFS BEWBOUBHF PG UIF +'&5 JT UIBU JU JT
SFMBUJWFMZTBGFUPFYDFFEHBUFTPVSDFPSHBUFESBJOCSFBLWPMUBHFT*OUIFDBTFPG.04USBOTJTUPST MBSHF
HBUFWPMUBHFTNBZSFTVMUJOBQFSNBOFOUCSFBLUISPVHIPGUIFPYJEF MFBEJOHUPUIFEFTUSVDUJPOPGUIF
USBOTJTUPS*UJTIPXFWFSWFSZEJffiDVMUUPJOUFHSBUFTFWFSBM+'&5TJOUPPOFDIJQ"OPUIFSEJTBEWBOUBHFPG
UIF+'&5JTUIBUUIFHBUFWPMUBHFTIPVMEBMXBZTIBWFBQPMBSJUZPQQPTJUFUIBUPGUIFESBJOWPMUBHF BOEUIJT
NBLFTJUBMNPTUJNQPTTJCMFUPGBCSJDBUFEJHJUBMDJSDVJUTVTJOH+'&5T
10.4 Static Induction Transistor

4UBUJDJOEVDUJPOEFWJDFTXFSFJOWFOUFECZ+/JTIJ[BXB</54>Ћ FEFWJDFIBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTTJNJMBS
UPUIBUPGUIFWBDVVNUSJPEF*UTGBCSJDBUJPOJTSFMBUJWFMZEJffiDVMUBOE+BQBOJTBDUVBMMZUIFPOMZDPVOUSZ
XIFSFBGBNJMZPGTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOEFWJDFTXBTTVDDFTTGVMMZGBCSJDBUFE<8>
Ћ FDSPTTTFDUJPOPGUIFTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPS 4*5 JTTIPXOJO'JHVSF*OUIJTODIBOOFM
TUSVDUVSF UIFHBUFJTCJBTFEXJUIBOFHBUJWFQPUFOUJBMBOEUIFESBJOIBTBTJHOJfiDBOUMZMBSHFQPTJUJWF
QPUFOUJBM Ћ FSF BSF UXP SFWFSTFCJBTFE KVODUJPOT POF CFUXFFO HBUF BOE TPVSDF BOE TFDPOE CFUXFFO
HBUFBOEESBJO#FDBVTFO¦SFHJPOTIBWFBWFSZMPXDPODFOUSBUJPOPGJNQVSJUJFT DN¦PSCFMPX XJUI
WFSZTNBMMBQQMJFEWPMUBHFTPSTJNQMZUIFKVODUJPOTCVJMUJOQPUFOUJBM UIFTFO¦SFHJPOTBSFEFQMFUFEPG
DBSSJFST"TBDPOTFRVFODF HBUFESBJOWPMUBHFTGPSNBSFMBUJWFMZDPNQMFYQPUFOUJBMTVSGBDF4BNQMFTPG
TVDITVSGBDFTGPSBHBUFWPMUBHFFRVBM¦7BOEBESBJOWPMUBHFFRVBM 7BSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
/PUFUIBUHBUFBOEESBJOWPMUBHFTDSFBUFPQQPTJUFFMFDUSJDfiFMETOFBSUIFTPVSDF8JUIBOJODSFBTFJOHBUF
WPMUBHF UIFIFJHIUPGUIFQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSJODSFBTFT BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF XIJMFUIFMBSHFSESBJO
Drain
n+
n–
Gate p+ p+ p+ p+
n–
n+
Source
FIGURE 10.10 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGUIFTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPS
–10 –10
0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
0 10 50 0 10 0
20 30 40 20 20 10
30 10 20 30 40 30
40 0 50 40
FIGURE 10.11 1PUFOUJBMEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPSXJUIBHBUFWPMUBHFPG¦7BOEBESBJO

WPMUBHFPG 7
0 –1 –2
–3
–4
–5
3 VGS
–10
IDS (A)
2
–15
–20
–25
1
VDS
100 200 300 400 (V)
FIGURE 10.12 5ZQJDBMDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPSUIF4*5
WPMUBHFMFBETUPBMPXFSJOHPGUIFQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFS5ZQJDBMDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPSUIF4*5
BSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
10.4.1 Theory of SIT Operation for Small Currents

$POTJEFS ĕSTU B EFSJWBUJPO PG UIF GPSNVMB GPS UIF POFEJNFOTJPOBM FMFDUSPO DVSSFOU ĘPX UISPVHI B
QPUFOUJBMXJUIBQBSBCPMJDTIBQF*OUIFnDIBOOFMEFWJDF UIFFMFDUSPODVSSFOUJTEFTDSJCFECZBEJffFS
FOUJBMFRVBUJPOUIBUJODMVEFTCPUIESJft aOEEJffVTJPOPGDBSSJFST</ 84.>
dϕ(x ) dn(x )
J n = −qn(x )μn + qDn "2
dx dx
kT
XIFSFDnμnVTBOEVT = q #ZNVMUJQMZJOHCPUITJEFTPGUIFFRVBUJPOCZ<18>
⎛ ϕ(x ) ⎞
exp ⎜ −
⎝ VT ⎟⎠

BOESFBSSBOHJOH
⎛ ϕ(x ) ⎞ d ⎡ ⎛ ϕ(x ) ⎞ ⎤
J n exp ⎜ − ⎟ = qDn ⎢n(x )exp ⎜ − ⎥
⎝ VT ⎠ dx ⎣ ⎝ VT ⎟⎠ ⎦

"ftFSJOUFHSBUJPOGSPNTPVSDFxSUPESBJOxD
⎛ ϕ(x D ) ⎞ ⎛ ϕ(x S ) ⎞
n(x D )exp ⎜ − − n(x S )exp ⎜ −
⎝ VT ⎟⎠ ⎝ VT ⎟⎠
J n = qDn xD
⎛ ϕ(x ) ⎞
∫
xS
exp ⎜ −
⎝ VT ⎟⎠
dx

#ZJOTFSUJOH
ϕ(x S ) = 0 n(x S ) = N S

ϕ(x D ) = VD n(x D ) = N D

&RVBUJPOSFEVDFTUP
qDn N S
Jn = xD

⎛ ϕ(x ) ⎞
∫
xS
exp ⎜ −
⎝ VT ⎟⎠
dx

&RVBUJPOJTWFSZHFOFSBMBOEJUEFTDSJCFTUIFDVSSFOUflPXPWFSBQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSXJUIBTIBQF
HJWFOCZφ x Ћ JTFRVBUJPODBOCFVTFEOPUPOMZJO4*5EFWJDFTCVUBMTPJOCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSTPSJUDBO
CFVTFEUPDBMDVMBUFUIFTVCUISFTIPMEDPOEVDUJPOJOB.04USBOTJTUPS
/PUFUIBUCFDBVTFPGUIJTFYQPOFOUJBMSFMBUJPOTIJQ POMZUIFTIBQFPGUIFQPUFOUJBMEJTUSJCVUJPOOFBS
UIFUPQPGUIFQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSJTJNQPSUBOU BOEJOUIF4*5 UIJTTIBQFDBOCFBQQSPYJNBUFE TFF'JHVSF
CZRVBESBUJDFRVBUJPOTBMPOHUIFxEJSFDUJPOBOEBDSPTTUIFyEJSFDUJPOPGUIFDIBOOFM
⎛ ⎛ x ⎞ 2 ⎛ y ⎞ 2⎞
ϕ( y , x ) = Φ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝⎝ L⎠ ⎝W ⎠ ⎠

XIFSF L JT UIF FffFDUJWF DIBOOFM MFOHUI W JT UIF FffFDUJWF DIBOOFM XJEUI BOE Φ JT UIF IFJHIU PG UIF
QPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSJOUIFDFOUFSPGUIFDIBOOFM6TJOH BOEJOUFHSBUJOH fiSTUBMPOHUIFDIBO
OFMBOEUIFOBDSPTTJU MFBETUPBTJNQMFGPSNVMBGPSUIFESBJODVSSFOUPGB4*5BTBGVODUJPOPGUIFIFJHIU
PGQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFS
W ⎛ Φ⎞
I D = qD p N S Z exp ⎜ ⎟
L ⎝ VT ⎠

XIFSFΦJTUIFQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSIFJHIUJOSFGFSFODFUPUIFTPVSDFQPUFOUJBM BOENSJTUIFFMFDUSPODPO
DFOUSBUJPOBUUIFTPVSDF Ћ FWLSBUJPEFTDSJCFTUIFTIBQFPGUIFQPUFOUJBMTBEEMFJOUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIF
CBSSJFS BOEZJTUIFMFOHUIPGUIFTPVSDFTUSJQ
4JODFUIFCBSSJFSIFJHIUΦDBOCFBMJOFBSGVODUJPOPGHBUFBOEESBJOWPMUBHFT
W ⎛ aV + bVDS + Φ 0 ⎞
I D = qD p N S Z exp ⎜ GS ⎟⎠
L ⎝ VT

Ћ FBDUVBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIF4*5EFWJDFPOBMPHBSJUINJDTDBMFBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF*OEFFE
GPSBTNBMMDVSSFOUSBOHF UIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTIBWFBOFYQPOFOUJBMDIBSBDUFS CVUUIJTJTOPUUSVFGPSMBSHF
DVSSFOUTXIFSFUIFTQBDFDIBSHFGPSNPWJOHFMFDUSPOTBffFDUTUIFQPUFOUJBMEJTUSJCVUJPO
10.4.2 Theory of SIT for Large Currents

'PSMBSHFDVSSFOUMFWFMT UIF4*5DVSSFOUJTDPOUSPMMFECZUIFTQBDFDIBSHFPGUIFNPWJOHDBSSJFST<18
.8>*OUIFPOFEJNFOTJPOBMDBTF UIFQPUFOUJBMEJTUSJCVUJPOJTEFTDSJCFECZUIF1PJTTPOFRVBUJPO
d 2ϕ ρ(x ) I
=− = DS
dx2 ε Si ε o Av(x )
0–1 –2
–3–4
–5 –6
–7
–9
10–1
–11
–13
10–2
VG = –15
10–3
IDS (A)
10–4
10–5
10–6
10–7
200 400 600

VDS (V)
FIGURE 10.13 $IBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPSGPSBTNBMMDVSSFOUSBOHF
XIFSFAJTUIFFffFDUJWFEFWJDFDSPTTTFDUJPOBOEv x JTUIFDBSSJFSWFMPDJUZ'PSBTNBMMFMFDUSJDBMfiFME
v x μ& x BOEUIFTPMVUJPOPG JT
9 2 A
ID = VDS με Si ε o 3
8 L
'PSBMBSHFFMFDUSJDBl fiFME v x vsatBOE
A
I D = VDSv sat ε Si ε o
L
XIFSFLJTUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUIBOEvsatȵμNTJTUIFDBSSJFSTBUVSBUJPOWFMPDJUZ*OQSBDUJDBMEFWJDFT
UIFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFSFMBUJPOTIJQJTEFTDSJCFECZBOFYQPOFOUJBMSFMBUJPOTIJQ GPSTNBMMDVSSFOUT B
RVBESBUJDSFMBUJPOTIJQ BOEfiOBMMZGPSMBSHFWPMUBHFT CZBOBMNPTUMJOFBSSFMBUJPOTIJQ 4*5
DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTESBXOJOMJOFBSBOEMPHBSJUINJDTDBMFTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSFTBOE SFTQFDUJWFMZ
10.4.3 Bipolar Mode of Operation of the SIT

Ћ FCJQPMBSNPEFPGPQFSBUJPOGPSUIF4*5XBTfiSTUSFQPSUFEJO</8B>4FWFSBMDPNQMFYUIFPSJFT
GPSUIFCJQPMBSNPEFPGPQFSBUJPOXFSFEFWFMPQFE</55 /0$> CVUBDUVBMMZUIFTJNQMFGPSNVMB
XPSLTXFMMOPUPOMZGPSUIFUZQJDBMNPEFPG4*5PQFSBUJPO CVUBMTPGPSUIFCJQPMBSNPEFBTXFMM
'VSUIFSNPSF UIFTBNFGPSNVMBXPSLTWFSZXFMMGPSDMBTTJDBMCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST5ZQJDBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT
PGUIF4*5 PQFSBUJOHJOOPSNBMBOEJOCJQPMBSNPEFT BSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
*OB4*5 BWJSUVBMCBTFJTGPSNFE OPUCZJNQVSJUZEPQJOHCVUSBUIFSCZBQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSUIBUJT
JOEVDFECZUIFHBUFWPMUBHF"TBDPOTFRVFODF JOUIFCJQPMBSNPEFPGPQFSBUJPO UIF4*5NBZIBWFB
VGS = 0.75 V
VGS = 0.7 V
VGS = 0.65 V
V
100 0.6
V
0.5
IDS (μA) V
0.3
0V
50
V
–1
V
–2
V
–3
2 4
VDS (V)
FIGURE 10.14 4*5USBOTJTUPSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPQFSBUJOHJOCPUIOPSNBMBOEUIFCJQPMBSNPEFT ID f VDS XJUIVGS

BTQBSBNFUFS
WFSZMBSHFDVSSFOUHBJOβ"MTP UIF4*5PQFSBUFTXJUIBWFSZMPXMFWFMPGJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPOBOE
JUTQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFTBSFWFSZMPX8IFOBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSJOJOUFHSBUFEJOKFDUJPOMPHJD I L XBT
SFQMBDFECZB4*5 UIFUJNFEFMBZQSPEVDUPGTVDIBEFWJDFXBTSFEVDFEBMNPTUUJNFT</8>4VDI
BESBTUJDJNQSPWFNFOUJOUIFQPXFSEFMBZQSPEVDUJTQPTTJCMFCFDBVTFUIF4*5-TUSVDUVSFIBTBTJHOJfi
DBOUMZTNBMMFSKVODUJPOQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODF BOE GVSUIFSNPSF UIFWPMUBHFTXJOHJTSFEVDFE
"OPUIFSJOUFSFTUJOHBQQMJDBUJPOPGUIF4*5JTBSFQMBDFNFOUGPS4DIPUULZEJPEFTJOUIFQSPUFDUJPOPGB
CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSBHBJOTUTBUVSBUJPO MFBEJOHUPBNVDIGBTUFSTXJUDIJOHUJNFЋ FVTFPGB4*5<8.4>
JTNPSFBEWBOUBHFPVTUIBOUIBUPCUBJOFEXJUIB4DIPUULZEJPEFTJODFJUEPFTOPUSFRVJSFBEEJUJPOBMBSFB
POBDIJQBOEJUEPFTOPUJOUSPEVDFBEEJUJPOBMDBQBDJUBODFCFUXFFOUIFCBTFBOEUIFDPMMFDUPS
10.5 Lateral Punch-Through Transistor

Ћ F GBCSJDBUJPO PG 4*5T JT B WFSZ DIBMMFOHJOH FOEFBWPS Ћ F DIBOOFM BSFB SFRVJSFT WFSZ MPX JNQVSJUZ
DPODFOUSBUJPO NDN¦ BOE BUMFBTU BQBSUPGUIFDIBOOFMOFBSUIFTPVSDFIBTUPCFNBEFVTJOHBO
FQJUBYJBMMBZFS BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF XIJDITIPVMECFBCPVUUJNFTNPSFQVSFUIBOUIBUXIJDIJT
DPOTJEFSFEBOFQJUBYJBMMBZFSXJUIMPXJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPO N DN¦ Ћ FTFDPOEEJffiDVMUJTTVF
JTUIFDSFBUJPOPGBCVSJFEHBUFSFHJPO8JUIIJHIUFNQFSBUVSFFQJUBYJBMHSPXUIBOETVCTFRVFOUEJffVTJPO
QSPDFTTFT JUJTFYUSFNFMZEJffiDVMUUPDPODFOUSBUFHBUFJNQVSJUZJOPOFQMBDFXJUIPVUTQSFBEJOHJUJOUPUIF
DIBOOFMBSFBBOEBDUVBMMZDMPTJOHUIFDIBOOFM0OMZBDPVQMFPG+BQBOFTFDPNQBOJFT :BNBIBBOE4POZ
XFSFBCMFUPEFWFMPQBGBCSJDBUJPOQSPDFTTGPS4*5EFWJDFT
Ћ FMBUFSBMQVODIUISPVHIUSBOTJTUPS -155 XIJDIIBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUBSFTJNJMBSUPUIF4*5
DBOCFGBCSJDBUFEXJUIBWFSZTJNQMFQSPDFTT<8+>Ћ FDSPTTTFDUJPOPGUIF-155EFWJDFJTTIPXO
JO'JHVSF BOEJUTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ F-155EFWJDF JODPOUSBTUUP4*5
EFWJDF NVTUVTFUIFTBNFUZQFPGUIFJNQVSJUZJOUIFDIBOOFMBTJTVTFEJOUIFHBUF'PSUIFOUZQFDIBO
OFM Q¦NVTUCFVTFEJOTUFBEPGO¦8JUIBOJODSFBTFJOQPTJUJWFESBJOWPMUBHF UIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFESBJO
EFQMFUJPOSFHJPOJODSFBTFT0ODFUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSSFBDIFTUIFTPVSDF UIFQVODIUISPVHIDVSSFOUXJMM
TUBSUUPflPXCFUXFFOTPVSDFBOEESBJOЋF DVSSFOUDBOCFTUPQQFECZBQQMZJOHBOFHBUJWFWPMUBHFPOUIF
Emitter Gate Drain

n+ n+
p+ p+ Depletion
region
Depletion
Drain
region
Current
Depletion
VG region
p– VG p–
FIGURE 10.15 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGBMBUFSBMQVODIUISPVHIUSBOTJTUPS
T = 298 K
T = 400 K
2
ID (mA)
G=
0V
V
–2
V
–6 V
V
–4
1
–1 V
–8
0
–1 2 V
–1
–1 4 V
6V
20 40 60
VDS (V)
FIGURE 10.16 $IBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIF-15USBOTJTUPS
HBUF&WFOUVBMMZ UIFFMFDUSJDBMfiFMEOFBSUIFTPVSDFXJMMCFBffFDUFECZCPUIUIFHBUFBOETPVSDFWPMUBHFT
#FDBVTFPGJUTQSPYJNJUZUPUIFTPVSDF UIFHBUFWPMUBHFDBOCFNVDINPSFFffFDUJWFJODPOUSPMMJOHUIF
EFWJDFDVSSFOU5ZQJDBMDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Ћ FDPODFQUPGUIF-155DBOCFFYUFOEFEUPBQVODIUISPVHI.04USBOTJTUPS 15.04 XIFSFUIF
DVSSFOUJTDPOUSPMMFECZUIF.04HBUF<8B 8+'>Ћ FQSJODJQMFPGPQFSBUJPOPGTVDIBEFWJDFJT
TIPXOJO'JHVSF*OUIJTEFWJDF JOTUFBEPGUIFJNQMBOUFEQUZQFHBUF UIFHBUFJTGPSNFECZBO
BDDVNVMBUJPOQUZQFMBZFSVOEFSUIF.04HBUF BTTIPXOJO'JHVSFB BOEUIFQVODIUISPVHI
DVSSFOU DBO CF DPOUSPMMFE CZ B QPUFOUJBM BQQMJFE UP UIF BEKBDFOU QUZQF SFHJPO XIJDI JT OPSNBMMZ
– – + –
p
+
e
p
e
at
p
at
G
G
+ +
n n n+ n+
+ +
n n
Depletion n+ n+
Depletion
p–
Emitter p– Drain Emitter n Drain
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.17 1VODIUISPVHI .04 USBOTJTUPS B USBOTJTUPS JO UIF QVODIUISPVHI NPEF GPS B OFHBUJWF HBUF
QPUFOUJBMBOE C USBOTJTUPSJOUIFPOTUBUFGPSBQPTJUJWFHBUFQPUFOUJBM
CJBTFEXJUIBMBSHFOFHBUJWFQPUFOUJBM8JUIQPTJUJWFWPMUBHFPOUIF.04HBUF UIFOUZQFBDDVNVMB
UJPOMBZFSJTGPSNFEVOEFSUIFHBUFBOEUIFDVSSFOUNBZflPXFBTJMZGSPNTPVSDFUPESBJO BTJOEJDBUFE
JO'JHVSFC/PUFUIBUJOUZQJDBM$.04UFDIOPMPHZ JOPSEFSUPQSFWFOUBQVODIUISPVHIQIF
OPNFOPOCFUXFFOTPVSDFBOEESBJO BMBSHFJNQVSJUZEPQJOHJOUIFTVCTUSBUFNVTUCFVTFE XIJDI
JO UVSO MFBET UP MBSHFS QBSBTJUJD DBQBDJUBODFT *O B .04 USBOTJTUPS XJUI TIPSUFS DIBOOFMT B MBSHFS
JNQVSJUZ DPODFOUSBUJPO NVTU CF VTFE UP QSFWFOU UIF QVODIUISPVHI QIFOPNFOPO BOE QBSBTJUJD
DBQBDJUBODFTBSFBMTPMBSHFSЋ F15.04 UBLFT BEWBOUBHF PG UIF QVODIUISPVHI QIFOPNFOPO BOE
UIFTVCTUSBUFJNQVSJUZDPODFOUSBUJPODBOCFWFSZMPX XIJDIMFBETUPWFSZTNBMMQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFT
BOEBTJHOJfiDBOUSFEVDUJPOJOQPXFSDPOTVNQUJPOGPSEJHJUBMDJSDVJUTPQFSBUJOHXJUIWFSZMBSHFDMPDL
GSFRVFODJFT
Ћ F15.04USBOTJTUPSIBTTFWFSBMBEWBOUBHFTPWFSUIFUSBEJUJPOBM.04USBOTJTUPS
Ћ FHBUFDBQBDJUBODFJTWFSZTNBMM
$BSSJFSTBSFNPWJOHXJUIBWFMPDJUZDMPTFUPTBUVSBUJPOWFMPDJUZ
Ћ FTVCTUSBUFEPQJOHJTNVDIMPXFSBOEUIFFYJTUJOHEFQMFUJPOMBZFSMFBETUPBNVDITNBMMFSESBJO
DBQBDJUBODF
Ћ FEFWJDFPQFSBUFTJOBGBTIJPOUIBUJTTJNJMBSUPUIBUPGUIF.04USBOTJTUPSJOTVCUISFTIPMEDPOEJUJPOT
CVUUIJTQSPDFTTPDDVSTBUNVDIIJHIFSDVSSFOUMFWFMT4VDIBiCJQPMBSNPEFwPGPQFSBUJPONBZIBWF
NBOZBEWBOUBHFTJO7-4*BQQMJDBUJPOT
10.6 Power MOS Transistors

.04USBOTJTUPSTIBWFBSFMBUJWFMZTNBMMUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFJODPNQBSJTPOUPCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSTЋ FSFGPSF
JOQPXFSFMFDUSPOJDBQQMJDBUJPOT UIFJOUFHSBUFEEFWJDFTUSVDUVSFTVTVBMMZTIPVMEDPOTJTUPGUIPVTBOET
PGUSBOTJTUPSTDPOOFDUFEJOQBSBMMFMЋ FSFBSFUXPUZQFTPGQPXFS.04USBOTJTUPST7.04 TIPXOJO
'JHVSFB BOE%.04 TIPXOJO'JHVSFC*OUIF7.04TUSVDUVSF .04HBUFTBOEDIBOOFMTBSF
GPSNFEPOFUDIFETVSGBDFTЋ JTXBZNBOZUSBOTJTUPSTDBOCFFffiDJFOUMZDPOOFDUFEUPHFUIFS7.04VTFT
UIFTJMJDPOTVSGBDFWFSZFfficJFOUMZ
Ћ F%.04USBOTJTUPSEPFTOPUVTFUIFDIJQBSFBBTFffiDJFOUMZBTUIF7.04USBOTJTUPS CVUJUDBOCF
GBCSJDBUFEXJUINVDIMBSHFSCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFT*O%.04 BGSBHJMF.04TUSVDUVSFJTQSPUFDUFEGSPN
BMBSHFFMFDUSJDfiFMECZBDPODFQUCPSSPXFEGSPNUIF4*5</54>BOEUIFIJHIWPMUBHF4DIPUULZEJPEF
<8>Ћ FO¦BSFBVOEFSUIFHBUF BTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSFC JTEFQMFUFEGSPNDBSSJFST BOEOFJHI
CPSJOHQUZQFSFHJPOTXPSLBTFMFDUSPTUBUJDTDSFFOTBTJTEPOFJO4*5EFWJDFT"TBSFTVMU UIJTUSBOTJTUPS
NBZXJUITUBOENVDIMBSHFSESBJOWPMUBHFTBOEBMTPUIFFffFDUPGDIBOOFMMFOHUINPEVMBUJPOJTTJHOJfi
DBOUMZSFEVDFEЋ FMBUUFSFffFDUMFBETUPMBSHFSPVUQVUSFTJTUBODFTPGUIFUSBOTJTUPSЋ FSFGPSF UIFESBJO
DVSSFOUJTMFTTTFOTJUJWFUPESBJOWPMUBHFWBSJBUJPOT*OGBDU UIF%.04TUSVDUVSFDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBTB
DPNQPTJUJPOPGUIF.04USBOTJTUPSBOEUIF4*5 BTJTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Drain
D
n+
n–
G NMOS
p p
Gate n+ Gate n+ Gate
Source Source S
(a)
Drain
D
n+
SIT n– SIT SIT
p p p G NMOS
n– n–
n+ n+ n+ n+
NMOS Poly gate Poly gate NMOS S
Source
(b)
FIGURE 10.18 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGQPXFS.04USBOTJTUPST B 7.04BOE C %.04
Drain
C
p+
PNP
PNP
n–
NPN
n–
G
p p+ NPN
NMOS NMOS
RP
p+ p+ p+ p+
p+
n+ n+ p+ n+ n+
E
Poly gate Poly gate
Source
FIGURE 10.19 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGBO*(#5BOEJUTJOUFSOBMFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJU
Ћ FNBKPSEJTBEWBOUBHFPGQPXFS.04USBOTJTUPSTJTUIFSFMBUJWFMZMBSHFSESBJOTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFBOE
NVDITNBMMFSUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFJODPNQBSJTPOUPCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPST#PUIPGUIFTFQBSBNFUFSTDBOCF
JNQSPWFEESBNBUJDBMMZJGUIFO MBZFSOFBSUIFESBJOJTSFQMBDFECZQ MBZFSBTJTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Ћ JTXBZBOJOUFHSBUFETUSVDUVSFJTCFJOHCVJMUXIFSFJUTFRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNDPOTJTUTPGB.04USBOTJTUPS
JOUFHSBUFEXJUIBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF4VDIBTUSVDUVSFIBTBUSBOTDPOEVDUBODF
UIBUJTβUJNFTMBSHFS XIFSFβJTUIFDVSSFOUHBJOPGUIF1/1CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS BOEBNVDITNBMMFSTFSJFT
SFTJTUBODF EVF UP UIF DPOEVDUJWJUZ NPEVMBUJPO FffFDU DBVTFE CZ IPMFT JOKFDUFE JOUP UIF MJHIUMZ EPQFE
ESBJOSFHJPO4VDIEFWJDFJTLOPXOBTJOTVMBUFEHBUFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS *(#5 "O*(#5DBOXPSLXJUI
MBSHFDVSSFOUTBOEWPMUBHFT*UTNBJOEJTBEWBOUBHFJTBMBSHFTXJUDIJOHUJNFUIBUJTMJNJUFEQSJNBSJMZCZ
UIFQPPSTXJUDIJOHQFSGPSNBODFPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS"OPUIFSEJffiDVMUZJTSFMBUFEUPBQPTTJCMFMBUDI
VQBDUJPOPGGPVSMBZFSO QO¦Q TUSVDUVSFЋ JTVOEFTJSFEFffFDUDPVMECFTVQQSFTTFECZVTJOHBIFBWJMZ
EPQFEQ SFHJPOJOUIFCBTFPGUIF/1/TUSVDUVSF XIJDIMFBETUPBTJHOJfiDBOUSFEVDUJPOJOUIFDVSSFOU
HBJOPGUIJTQBSBTJUJDUSBOTJTUPS TIPXOJO'JHVSFЋ FHBJOPGUIF1/1USBOTJTUPSNVTUCFLFQUMBSHF

TPUIFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFPGUIFFOUJSFEFWJDFDBOCFMBSHF*(#5USBOTJTUPSTNBZIBWFCSFBLEPXOWPMU
BHFTPWFS7 XJUIUVSOPff UJNFTJOUIFSBOHFGSPNUPμT*OBEEJUJPO UIFZNBZPQFSBUFXJUI
DVSSFOUTBCPWF"XJUIBGPSXBSEWPMUBHFESPQPGBCPVU7
"2 References
</>,XPL,/H The Complete Guide to Semiconductor Devices 8JMFZ*&&&1SFTT
</>%/FBNFO An Introduction to Semiconductor Devices .D(SBX)JMM
<&>3&OEFSMFJO Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics and Devices 8PSME4DJFOUifics, 1997.
<8+'> # . 8JMBNPXTLJ 3 $ +BFHFS BOE + / 'PSEFNXBMU #VSJFE .04 USBOTJTUPS XJUI QVODI
UISPVHI Solid State Electronics 27 o
<8.4>#.8JMBNPXTLJ 3).BUUTPO BOE;+4UBT[BL Ћ F4*5TBUVSBUJPOQSPUFDUFECJQPMBSUSBO
TJTUPS IEEE Electron Device Letters 5 o
<5>:5TJWJEJT Operation and Modeling the MOS Transistor .D(SBX)JMM
<3>%+3PVMTUPO Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices 0YGPSE6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT
<4>#4USFFUNBO Solid State Electronic Devices 1SFOUJDF)BMM
</54>+/JTIJ[BXB 55FSBTBLJ BOE+4IJCBUB 'JFld-effFDUUSBOTJTUPSWFSTVTBOBMPHUSBOTJTUPS TUBUJD
JOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPS IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 22 o
</8> + /JTIJ[BXB BOE # . 8JMBNPXTLJ *OUFHSBUFE MPHJD4UBUF JOEVDUJPO USBOTJTUPS MPHJD
International Solid State Circuit Conference 1IJMBEFMQIJB 64" QQo
</8B>+/JTIJ[BXBBOE#.8JMBNPXTLJ 4UBUJDJOEVDUJPOMPHJD"TJNQMFTUSVDUVSFXJUIWFSZMPX
TXJUDIJOH FOFSHZ BOE WFSZ IJHI QBDLJOH EFOTJUZ International Conference on Solid State Devices
5PLZP +BQBO QQo BOEJournal of Japanese Society of Applied Physics 16-1 o

</55>:/BLBNVSB )5BEBOP .5BLJHBXB **HBSBTIJ BOE+/JTIJ[BXB &YQFSJNFOUBMTUVEZPODVS
SFOUHBJOPG#4*5 IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 33 o
<.8> 3 ) .BUUTPO BOE # . 8JMBNPXTLJ 1VODIUISPVHI EFWJDFT PQFSBUJOH JO TQBDFDIBSHF
MJNJUFd NPEFT IEEE International Workshop on the Physics of Semiconductor Devices %FMIJ *OEJB
%FDFNCFSo
</0$>+/JTIJ[BXB 50INJ BOE)-$IFO "OBMZTJTPGTUBUJDDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBCJQPMBSNPEF4*5
#4*5 IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 29 o
<84.> # . 8JMBNPXTLJ ; + 4UBT[BL BOE 3 ) .BUUTPO "OFMFDUSJDBM OFUXPSL BQQSPBDI UP UIF
BOBMZTFTPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFT IEEE Transactions on Education 35 o
<8> # . 8JMBNPXTLJ )JHI TQFFE IJHI WPMUBHF BOE FOFSHZ efficienU TUBUJD JOEVDUJPO EFWJDFT 12
Symposium of Static Induction Devices44*% 5PLZP +BQBO QQo "QSJM
"2 <0> 5 0INJ 1VODIJOH UISPVHI EFWJDF BOE JUT JOUFHSBUJPO4UBUJD JOEVDUJPO USBOTJTUPS IEEE
Transactions on Electron Devices 27 o
<8+>#.8JMBNPXTLJBOE3$+BFHFS ćFMBUFSBMQVODIUISPVHIUSBOTJTUPS IEEE Electron Device
Letters 3 o
<18>11MPULBBOE#.8JMBNPXTLJ *OUFSQSFUBUJPOPGFYQPOFOUJBMUZQFESBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIF
4*5 Solid-State Electronics 23 o
<18>11MPULBBOE#.8JMBNPXTLJ 5FNQFSBUVSFQSPQFSUJFTPGUIFTUBUJDJOEVDUJPOUSBOTJTUPS Solid-
State Electronics 24 o
<8>#.8JMBNPXTLJ 4DIPUULZEJPEFTXJUIIJHICSFBLEPXOWPMUBHF Solid-State Electronics 26
o
<8B>#.8JMBNPXTLJ Ћ FQVODIUISPVHIUSBOTJTUPSXJUI.04DPOUSPMMFEHBUF Physica Status Solidi (a)
79 o
11
Noise in Semiconductor
Devices
*OUSPEVDUJPO 11
Alicja 4PVSDFTPG/PJTFJO4FNJDPOEVDUPS%FWJDFT 11
ćFSNBM/PJTF t 4IPU/PJTF t (FOFSBUJPO3FDPNCJOBUJPO
Konczakowska
/PJTF t f/PJTF t /PJTFf t #VSTU/PJTF354/PJTF
Gdansk University
of Technology
"WBMBODIF/PJTF
/PJTFPG#+5T +'&5T BOE.04'&5T 11
Bogdan M. /PJTFPG#+5T t /PJTFPG+'&5T t /PJTFPG.04'&5T t -PX/PJTF
Wilamowski $JSDVJUTGPS-PX'SFRVFODZ3BOHF
11.1 Introduction
/PJTF B TQPOUBOFPVTЋVDUVBUJPOJODVSSFOU PS JO WPMUBHF JT HFOFSBUFE JO BMM TFNJDPOEVDUPS EFWJDFT
ThFJOUFOTJUZPGUIFTFЋVDUVBUJPOTEFQFOETPOEFWJDFUZQF JUTNBOVGBDUVSJOHQSPDFTT BOEPQFSBUJOH
DPOEJUJPOTThFSFTVMUFEOPJTF BTBTVQFSQPTJUJPOPGEJffFSFOUOPJTFTPVSDFT JTEFfiOFEBTBOJOIFSFOU
OPJTFThFFRVJWBMFOUOPJTFNPEFMT DPOUBJOJOHBMMOPJTFTPVSDFT BSFDSFBUFEGPSBQBSUJDVMBSEFWJDFGPS
FYBNQMF CJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS #+5 KVODUJPOfiFMEFffFDUUSBOTJTUPS +'&5 PSNFUBMPYJEFTFNJDPOEVDUPS
fiFMEFffFDUUSBOTJTUPS .04'&5
ThFJOIFSFOUOPJTFPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFTJTDPOTJEFSFEBTBOVOEFTJSFEFffFDUBOETPNFUJNFTJT
SFGFSSFEUPBVTFGVMTJHOBM*UJTTQFDJBMMZJNQPSUBOUGPSJOQVU GSPOUFOE TUBHFTPGFMFDUSPOJDTZTUFNT
)PXFWFS UIFJOIFSFOUOPJTFDBOBMTPCFVTFEGPSUIFRVBMJUZBTTFTTNFOUPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFT2VJUF
PftFOJUIBTCFFOVTFEBTBOJNQPSUBOUGBDUPSEVSJOHUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUIFQSPEVDUJPOQSPDFTTPGOFX
TFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFT*OIFSFOUOPJTFJTBMTPVTFEGPSUIFDMBTTJfiDBUJPOPGTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFTJOUP
HSPVQTXJUIEJffFSFOURVBMJUZBOESFMJBCJMJUZ
ThFNPTUJNQPSUBOUTPVSDFTPGOPJTFBSFUIFSNBMOPJTF TIPUOPJTF HFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPOOPJTF
fOPJTF ЋJDLFSOPJTF f OPJTF CVSTUOPJTFPSSBOEPNUFMFHSBQITJHOBM 354 OPJTF BOEBWBMBODIF
OPJTF%FUBJMFEEFTDSJQUJPOPGOPJTFTPVSDFTJTQSFTFOUFEJOSFGFSFODFT<o>
11.2 Sources of Noise in Semiconductor Devices

11.2.1 Thermal Noise
ThFSNBMOPJTFJTDSFBUFECZSBOEPNNPUJPOPGDIBSHFDBSSJFSTEVFUPUIFUIFSNBMFYDJUBUJPOThJTOPJTF
JTTPNFUJNFTLOPXOBTUIF+PIOTPOOPJTF*O &JOTUFJOQSFTFOUFEIJTUIFPSZPGЋVDUVBUJOHNPWFNFOU
PGDIBSHFTJOUIFSNBMFRVJMJCSJVNThJTUIFPSZXBTFYQFSJNFOUBMMZWFSJfiFECZ+PIOTPOJOThF
UIFSNBM NPUJPO PG DBSSJFST DSFBUFT B ЋVDUVBUJOH WPMUBHF PO UIF UFSNJOBMT PG FBDI SFTJTUJWF FMFNFOU
11-1
ThF BWFSBHFWBMVFPGUIJTWPMUBHFJT[FSP CVUUIFQPXFSPOJUTUFSNJOBMTJTOPU[FSPThFJOUFSOBMOPJTF

WPMUBHFTPVSDFPSDVSSFOUTPVSDFJTEFTDSJCFECZUIF/ZRVJTUFRVBUJPO
4kT Δf
νth2 = 4kTRΔf ith2 =
R
XIFSF
kJTUIF#PMU[NBOODPOTUBOU
TJTUIFBCTPMVUFUFNQFSBUVSF
kTJTFRVBMUPr¦7r$BUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSF
ThFUIFSNBMOPJTFJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFGSFRVFODZCBOEXJEUIΔf*UDBOCFSFQSFTFOUFECZUIFWPMUBHF
TPVSDFJOTFSJFTXJUISFTJTUPSRPSCZUIFDVSSFOUTPVSDFJOQBSBMMFMUPUIFSFTJTUPSRThFNBYJNVNOPJTF
QPXFSDBOCFEFMJWFSFEUPUIFMPBEXIFOR -R*OUIJTDBTF NBYJNVNOPJTFQPXFSJOUIFMPBEJTkTΔf
ThFOPJTFQPXFSEFOTJUZ dPndfkT JTJOEFQFOEFOUPGGSFRVFODZThVT UIFUIFSNBMOPJTFJTUIFXIJUF
OPJTFThF3.4OPJTFWPMUBHFBOEUIF3.4OPJTFDVSSFOUBSFQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFTRVBSFSPPUPGUIFGSF
RVFODZCBOEXJEUIΔf. ThFUIFSNBMOPJTFJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIFWFSZQIZTJDBMSFTJTUPSJOUIFDJSDVJU
ThFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOPGUIFFRVJWBMFOUWPMUBHFBOEDVSSFOUUIFSNBMOPJTFBSFHJWFOCZ
SthvR = kTR
PS
SthiG = kTG
ThFTFOPJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUJFTBSFDPOTUBOUVQUP5)[BOEUIFZBSFQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUFNQFSBUVSFBOEUP
SFTJTUBODFPGFMFNFOUT BOEBTTVDIDBOCFVTFEUPJOEJSFDUMZNFBTVSFUIFGPMMPXJOH
t ThFEFWJDFUFNQFSBUVSF
t ThFCBTFTQSFBEJOHSFTJTUBODFPG#+5
t ThFRVBMJUZPGDPOUBDUTBOEDPOOFDUJPOT
11.2.2 Shot Noise

4IPUOPJTFJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBEJTDSFUFTUSVDUVSFPGFMFDUSJDJUZBOEUIFJOEJWJEVBMDBSSJFSJOKFDUJPOUISPVHI
UIFpnKVODUJPO*OFBDIGPSXBSECJBTFEKVODUJPO UIFSFJTBQPUFOUJBMCBSSJFSUIBUDBOCFPWFSDPNFCZUIF
DBSSJFSTXJUIIJHIFSUIFSNBMFOFSHZThJTJTBSBOEPNQSPDFTTBOEUIFOPJTFDVSSFOUJTHJWFOCZ
ish = qI Δf

ThFOPJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOPGUIFTIPUOPJTFJTUFNQFSBUVSFJOEFQFOEFOU XIJUFOPJTF BOEJUJT
QSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFKVODUJPODVSSFOU
Sshi = qI

XIFSF
qJTUIFFMFDUSPODIBSHF
IJTUIFGPSXBSEKVODUJPODVSSFOU
4IPUOPJTFJTVTVBMMZDPOTJEFSFEBTBDVSSFOUTPVSDFDPOOFDUFEJOQBSBMMFMUPUIFTNBMMTJHOBMKVODUJPO
SFTJTUBODFThFNFBTVSFNFOUPGTIPUOPJTFJONPEFSOOBOPTDBMFEFWJDFTJTSFMBUJWFMZEJffiDVMUTJODFNFB
TVSFEWBMVFTPGDVSSFOUBSFJOUIFSBOHFPGoG"
Noise in Semiconductor Devices 11-3
4IPUOPJTFIBTUPCFQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFDVSSFOUBOEBOZEFWJBUJPOGSPNUIJTSFMBUJPODBOCFVTFE
to FWBMVBUF QBSBTJUJD MFBLJOH SFTJTUBODFT *U DBO CF VTFE GPS EJBHOPTJT PG QIPUPEJPEFT ;FOFS EJPEFT
BWBMBODIFEJPEFT BOE4DIPUULZEJPEFT
11.2.3 Generation-Recombination Noise

(FOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPO OPJTF JT DBVTFE CZ UIF ĘVDUVBUJPO PG OVNCFS PG DBSSJFST EVF UP FYJTUFODF
PG UIF HFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPO DFOUFST 7BSJBUJPO PG OVNCFS PG DBSSJFST MFBET UP DIBOHFT PG EFWJDF
DPOEVDUBODFThJTUZQFPGOPJTFJTBGVODUJPOPGCPUIUFNQFSBUVSFBOECJBTJOHDPOEJUJPOTThFTQFDUSBM
EFOTJUZGVODUJPOPGUIFHFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPOOPJTFJTEFTDSJCFECZ
S g −r ( f ) (ΔN )2 4τ
= ⋅
N2 N 2 1 + (2πf ⋅ τ)2
XIFSF
(ΔN )2JTUIFWBSJBODFPGUIFOVNCFSPGDBSSJFSTN
τJTUIFDBSSJFSMJGFUJNF
4QFDUSBMEFOTJUZJTDPOTUBOUVQUPUIFGSFRVFODZfg¦r πτ BOEBftFSUIBUJTEFDSFBTJOHQSPQPSUJPOBMMZ

UPf
*O UIF DBTF XIFO UIFSF BSF TFWFSBM UZQFT PG HFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPO DFOUFST XJUI EJffFSFOU DBS
SJFS MJGF UJNF UIF SFTVMUBOU OPJTF TQFDUSVN XJMM CF B TVQFSQPTJUJPO PG TFWFSBM EJTUSJCVUJPOT EFTDSJCFE
CZ ThFSFGPSF UIF TQFDUSBM EJTUSJCVUJPO PG OPJTF DBO CF VTFE UP JOWFTUJHBUF WBSJPVT HFOFSBUJPO
SFDPNCJOBUJPO DFOUFST ćJT JT BO BMUFSOBUJWF NFUIPE UP EFFQMFWFM USBOTJFOU TQFDUSPTDPQZ %-54 UP
TUVEZHFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPOQSPDFTTFTJOTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFT
11.2.4 1/f Noise

f OPJTF JT UIF EPNJOBOU OPJTF JO UIF MPX GSFRVFODZ SBOHF BOE JUT TQFDUSBM EFOTJUZ GVODUJPO JT QSP
QPSUJPOBMUPfThJTOPJTFJTQSFTFOUJOBMMTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFTVOEFSCJBTJOHThJTOPJTFJTVTVBMMZ
BTTPDJBUFEXJUINBUFSJBMGBJMVSFTPSXJUIJNQFSGFDUJPOPGBGBCSJDBUJPOQSPDFTT.PTUPGSFTFBSDISFTVMUT
DPODMVEFUIBUUIJTOPJTFFYJTUTFWFOGPSWFSZMPXGSFRVFODJFTVQUP¦)[ GSFRVFODZQFSJPEPGTFWFSBM
XFFLT ThJTOPJTFJTTPNFUJNFTVTFEUPNPEFMЋVDUVBUJPOPGEFWJDFQBSBNFUFSTXJUIUJNFThFSFBSFUXP
NBKPSNPEFMTPGfOPJTF
t 4VSGBDFNPEFMEFWFMPQFECZ.D8IPSUFSJO<>
t #VMLNPEFMEFWFMPQFECZ)PPHFJO<>
ThF TJNQMFTU XBZ UP PCUBJO f DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT JT UP TVQFSQPTF NBOZ EJffFSFOU TQFDUSB PG HFOFSBUJPO
SFDPNCJOBUJPOOPJTF XIFSFGSFFDBSSJFSTBSFSBOEPNMZUSBQQFEBOESFMFBTFECZDFOUFSTXJUIEJffFSFOU
MJGFUJNFT. ThJTXBTUIFCBTJDDPODFQUCFIJOEUIF.D8IPSUFSNPEFMXIFSFJUXBTBTTVNFEUIBU
t *OUIFTJMJDPOPYJEFOFBSUIFTJMJDPOTVSGBDFUIFSFBSFVOJGPSNMZEJTUSJCVUFEUSBQDFOUFST
t ThF QSPCBCJMJUZ PG UIF DBSSJFS QFOFUSBUJPO UP USBQ DFOUFST JT EFDSFBTJOH FYQPOFOUJBMMZ XJUI UIF
EJTUBODFGSPNUIFTVSGBDF
t 5JNFDPOTUBOUTPGUSBQDFOUFSTJODSFBTFTXJUIUIFEJTUBODFGSPNUIFTVSGBDF
t 5SBQQJOHNFDIBOJTNTCZTFQBSBUFDFOUFSTBSFJOEFQFOEFOU
ThFSFTVMUFEOPJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOJTHJWFOCZ
τ2
4τ
∫ τ 1 + ωτ
1 1 1 1
S1/f ∝ (ΔN )2 ⋅ d τ = (ΔN )2 ⋅ for << ω <<
2
f τ2 τ1
τ1

ThFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOJTDPOTUBOUVQUPGSFRVFODZf πτ UIFOJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPfCFUXFFO

fBOEf πτ GSPNGSFRVFODZfJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPf ThF.D8IPSUFSNPEFMJTQSJNBSJMZVTFE
GPS.04'&5EFWJDFT
'PS#+5 UIF)PPHFCVMLNPEFMJTNPSFBEFRVBUF*OUIJTOPJTFNPEFM )PPHFVTFTJOUIFDBSSJFSUSBOT
QPSUUXPTDBUUFSJOHNFDIBOJTNTPGDBSSJFTTDBUUFSJOHPOUIFTJMJDPOMBUUJDFBOETDBUUFSJOHPOJNQVSJUJFT
)FBTTVNFEUIBUPOMZTDBUUFSJOHPOUIFDSZTUBMMBUUJDFJTUIFTPVSDFPGUIFfOPJTF XIJMFTDBUUFSJOHPO
UIFJNQVSJUJFTIBTOPFffFDUPOOPJTFMFWFM"MMJNQFSGFDUJPOTPGUIFDSZTUBMMBUUJDFMFBETUPMBSHFfOPJTF
ThFOPJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOGPSUIF)PPHFNPEFMJT
αH ⋅ I α
S1/f =
f γ ⋅N

XIFSF
αHr¦JTUIF)PPHFDPOTUBOU<>
αBOEγBSFNBUFSJBMDPOTUBOUT
NJTUIFOVNCFSPGDBSSJFST
-BUFS<> )PPHFQSPQPTFEUPVTFαHBTWBSJBCMFQBSBNFUFS XIJDIJOUIFDBTFPGTJMJDPOEFWJDFTNBZWBSZ

GSPNr¦UPr¦
ThFfOPJTFJTJODSFBTJOHXJUIUIFSFEVDUJPOPGEFWJDFEJNFOTJPOTBOEBTTVDIJTCFDPNJOHBSFBM
QSPCMFNGPSEFWJDFTGBCSJDBUFEJOOBOPTDBMFThFMFWFMPGfOPJTFJTPftFOVTFEBTUIFNFBTVSFPGUIF
RVBMJUZPGEFWJDFTBOEJUTSFMJBCJMJUZ%FWJDFTGBCSJDBUFEXJUIXFMMEFWFMPQFEUFDIOPMPHJFTVTVBMMZIBWFB
NVDITNBMMFSMFWFMPGfOPJTFThFfOPJTF ЋJDLFSOPJTF TPNFUJNFTJTDPOTJEFSFEUPCFSFTQPOTJCMFGPS
UIFMPOHUFSNEFWJDFQBSBNFUFSЋVDUVBUJPO
11.2.5 Noise 1/f 2

/PJTFf JTBEFSJWBUJWFPGfOPJTFBOEJUJTPCTFSWFENBJOMZJONFUBMJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOTPGJOUFHSBUFE
DJSDVJUT*UIBTCFDPNFNPSFFWJEFOUGPSWFSZOBSSPXDPOOFDUJPOTXIFSFUIFSFJTBQPTTJCJMJUZPGFMFD
USPNJHSBUJPOEVFUPIJHIDVSSFOUEFOTJUJFT*OBMVNJOVN UIFFMFDUSPNJHSBUJPOCFHJOTBUDVSSFOUEFOTJ
UJFTPGμ"μNBOEOPJTFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTDIBOHFTGSPNfUPf γ XIFSFγ"MTPUIFOPJTFMFWFM
JODSFBTFTQSPQPSUJPOBMMZUPUIFUIJSEQPXFSPGUIFCJBTJOHDVSSFOU
C ⋅ Jβ ⎛ −E ⎞
S1/f 2 ( f ) = ⋅ exp ⎜ a ⎟
f γ ⋅T ⎝ k ⋅T ⎠

XIFSF
β≥ γ≥
CJTUIFFYQFSJNFOUBMMZGPVOEDPOTUBOU
EaJTUIFBDUJWBUJPOFOFSHZPGUIFFMFDUSPNJHSBUJPO
kr¦F7,JTUIF#PMU[NBOODPOTUBOU
ThFEFHFOFSBUJPOPGUIFNFUBMMJDMBZFSJTEFTDSJCFECZ
−E
ν d ∝ J n exp ⎛⎜ a ⎞⎟
⎝ ⋅T ⎠
k
4JODF&RVBUJPOTBOEIBWFBTJNJMBSDIBSBDUFS UIFf OPJTFDBOCFVTFEBTUIFNFBTVSFPGUIF

RVBMJUZPGNFUBMJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOTThJTJTBSFMBUJWFMZGBTUBOEBDDVSBUFNFUIPEUPFTUJNBUFSFMJBCJMJUZPG
NFUBMJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOT
11.2.6 Burst Noise/RTS Noise

#VSTUOPJTFJTBOPUIFSUZQFPGOPJTFBUMPXGSFRVFODJFT3FDFOUMZ UIJTOPJTFXBTEFTDSJCFEBT354OPJTF
8JUIHJWFOCJBTJOHDPOEJUJPOPGBEFWJDFUIFNBHOJUVEFPGQVMTFTJTDPOTUBOU CVUUIFTXJUDIJOHUJNFJT
SBOEPNThFCVSTUOPJTFMPPLT POBOPTDJMMPTDPQF MJLFBTRVBSFXBWFXJUIUIFDPOTUBOUNBHOJUVEF CVU
XJUISBOEPNQVMTFXJEUIT TFF'JHVSF *OTPNFDBTFT UIFCVSTUOPJTFNBZIBWFOPUUXPCVUTFWFSBM
EJffFSFOUMFWFMT
/PJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOPGUIF354OPJTFIBTBTJNJMBSGPSNMJLFHFOFSBUJPOSFDPNCJOBUJPO
OPJTF
4 ⋅ (ΔI )2
SRTS ( f ) = C
1 + ( 2πf / f RTS )
2

XIFSF
1
C=
(τl + τh ) ⋅ f RTS
2
τl + τh
f RTS = τ = + = 354 OPJTF DPSOFS GSFRVFODZ CFMPX UIJT GSFRVFODZ TQFDUSVN PG UIF
τl τh τh ⋅ τl
354OPJTFJTЋBU
T 0CTFSWBUJPOUJNF
τ l "WFSBHFUJNFPGQVMTFTBUIJHIMFWFM
τ h "WFSBHFUJNFPGQVMTFTBUMPXMFWFM
P S
∑ ∑τ
1 1
"2 τl = τ l , p, τ h = h, s
P i =1
S j =1
ThFJOUFOTJUZPGUIF354OPJTFEFQFOETPOUIFMPDBUJPOPGUIFUSBQDFOUFSXJUIUIFSFGFSFODFUPUIF'FSNJ
MFWFM0OMZDFOUFSTJOUIFWJDJOJUZPG'FSNJMFWFMTBSFHFOFSBUJOHUIF354OPJTFThFTFUSBQQJOHDFOUFST
XIJDIBSFBTPVSDFGPS354OPJTF BSFVTVBMMZUIFSFTVMUPGTJMJDPODPOUBNJOBUJPOXJUIIFBWZNFUBMTPS
MBUUJDFTUSVDUVSFJNQFSGFDUJPOT
*OUIF41*$&QSPHSBNUIFCVSTUOPJTFJTPftFOBQQSPYJNBUFECZ
I AB
2
iRTS = KB Δf
( )
2
1 + f / f RTS

XIFSFK B AB BOEf RTSBSFFYQFSJNFOUBMMZDIPTFOQBSBNFUFST XIJDIVTVBMMZWBSZGSPNPOFEFWJDFUP
BOPUIFS'VSUIFSNPSF BGFXEJffFSFOUTPVSDFTPGUIFCVSTUOPJTFDBOFYJTUJOBTJOHMFUSBOTJTUPS*OTVDIB
DBTF FBDIOPJTFTPVSDFTIPVMECFNPEFMFECZTFQBSBUF&RVBUJPOXJUIEJffFSFOUQBSBNFUFST VTVBMMZ
EJffFSFOUOPJTF354DPSOFSGSFRVFODZf RTS
i(t)
τl,p
Δl
t
τh,s
FIGURE 11.1 ThF354OPJTF

,MFJOQFOOJOH<>TIPXFEUIBU354OPJTFFYJTUTXJUIEFWJDFTXJUITNBMMOVNCFSPGDBSSJFST XIFSFB
TJOHMFFMFDUSPODBOCFDBQUVSFECZBTJOHMFUSBQQJOHDFOUFS354OPJTFJTQSFTFOUJOTVCNJDSPNFUFS.04
USBOTJTUPSTBOEJO#+5TXJUIEFGFDUFEDSZTUBMMBUUJDF*UJTQSFTFOUJONPEFSO4J(FUSBOTJTUPST
ThJTOPJTFIBTTJHOJfiDBOUFffFDUBUMPXGSFRVFODJFT*UJTBGVODUJPOPGUFNQFSBUVSF JOEVDFENFDIBOJ
DBMTUSFTT BOEBMTPSBEJBUJPO*OBVEJPBNQMJfiFST UIFCVSTUOPJTFTPVOETBTSBOEPNTIPUT XIJDIBSF
TJNJMBS UP UIF TPVOE BTTPDJBUFE XJUI NBLJOH QPQDPSO 0CWJPVTMZ #+5T XJUI MBSHF CVSTU OPJTF NVTU
OPUCFVTFEJOBVEJPBNQMJfiFSTBOEJOPUIFSBOBMPHDJSDVJUSZThe CVSTUOPJTFXBTPftFOPCTFSWFEJO
FQJQMBOBS#+5TXJUIMBSHFβDPFffiDJFOUT*UJTOPXBTTVNFEUIBUEFWJDFTGBCSJDBUFEXJUIXFMMEFWFMPQFE
BOEFTUBCMJTIFEUFDIOPMPHJFTEPOPUHFOFSBUFUIF354OPJTFThJTJTVOGPSUVOBUFMZOPUUSVFGPSNPEFSO
OBOPUSBOTJTUPSTBOEEFWJDFTGBCSJDBUFEXJUIPUIFSUIBOTJMJDPONBUFSJBMT
11.2.7 Avalanche Noise

"WBMBODIFOPJTFJOTFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFTJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUISFWFSTFCJBTFEKVODUJPOT'PSMBSHFSFWFSTF
KVODUJPOWPMUBHFTUIFMFBLBHFDVSSFOUDBOCFNVMUJQMJFECZUIFBWBMBODIFQIFOPNFOPO$BSSJFSTJOUIF
KVODUJPOT HBJO FOFSHJFT JO B IJHI FMFDUSJDBM fiFME BOE UIFO UIFZ DPMMJEF XJUI UIF DSZTUBM MBUUJDF *G UIF
FOFSHZHBJOFECFUXFFODPMMJTJPOTJTMBSHFFOPVHI UIFOEVSJOHDPMMJTJPOBOPUIFSQBJSPGDBSSJFST FMFDUSPO
BOEIPMF DBOCFHFOFSBUFEThJTXBZUIFSFWJTFECJBTFEDVSSFOUDBOCFNVMUJQMJFEThJTJTBSBOEPNQSP
DFTTBOEPCWJPVTMZUIFOPJTFTPVSDFJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFBWBMBODIFDBSSJFSHFOFSBUJPO. ThFJOUFOTJUZPG
UIFBWBMBODIFOPJTFJTVTVBMMZNVDIMBSHFSUIBOBOZPUIFSOPJTFDPNQPOFOU'PSUVOBUFMZ UIFBWBMBODIF
OPJTFFYJTUTPOMZJOUIFpnKVODUJPOCJBTFEXJUIBWPMUBHFDMPTFUPUIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFThFBWBMBODIF
QIFOPNFOPOJTPftFOVTFEUPCVJMEUIFOPJTFTPVSDFT
/PJTFTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOPGUIFBWBMBODIFOPJTFJTGSFRVFODZJOEFQFOEFOU
2qI
Sav ( f ) =
(2πf ⋅ τ)2
XIFSFIJTBOBWFSBHFWBMVFPGUIFSFWFSTFCJBTJOHDVSSFOU
"OBWBMBODIFQIFOPNFOPOJTJONPTUDBTFTSFWFSTJCMFThFSFGPSF TFNJDPOEVDUPSEFWJDFT XIFSFUIF
BWBMBODIFCSFBLEPXOUPPLQMBDF BSFSFHBJOJOHUIFJSMPXOPJTFQSPQFSUJFTPODFEFWJDFTBSFOPMPOHFS
XPSLJOHBUBWBMBODIFSFHJPO
11.3 Noise of BJTs, JFETs, and MOSFETs

11.3.1 Noise of BJTs
*O 'JHVSF UIF FRVJWBMFOU EJBHSBN PG #+5 XJUI OPJTF TPVSDFT JT QSFTFOUFE ThFTF BSF BT GPMMPXT
UIFSNBMOPJTFPGCBTFTQSFBEJOHSFTJTUBODFrb TIPUOPJTFBOEfUZQFOPJTFPGCBTFCJBTDVSSFOUIB BOE
C
ν 2thr B΄
b
B rb
i2shc
i2shb + i21/fb
FIGURE 11.2 &RVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNPG#+5XJUIOPJTFTPVSDFT

C TIPU OPJTF PG DPMMFDUPS DVSSFOU IC 4QSFBEJOH SFTJTUBODF JT TIPXO BT
FYUFSOBMSFTJTUPSrb OPJTFMFTTSFTJTUPS CFUXFFOJOUFSOBMCBTF#′BOE
ν 2n
B FYUFSOBMCBTF#
ThFJOUFOTJUJFT NFBOTRVBSFWBMVFT PGOPJTFTPVSDFTBSFHJWFOCZ
UIFGPMMPXJOHSFMBUJPOT
i2n ν2 = 4kTrb ⋅ Δf ⎯ thermal noise of base spreading resistance rb

rb
i 2 = 2qI B ⋅ Δf ⎯shot noise of base bias current I B

shb
E k f ⋅ I Bα ⋅ Δf
i12/ fb = ⎯ flicker noise of base bias current I B
fγ
FIGURE 11.3 ThF v − i BNQMJ

n

n

fiFSNPEFMPGUIFCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS
i 2 = 2qI C ⋅ Δf ⎯shot noise of collector bias current I C
shc
$PFffiDJFOUTαJγJOQSPQFSMZGBCSJDBUFE#+5TBSFDMPTFUP*OTJMJDPO#+5T UIFOPJTFfJTDBVTFECZ
ЋVDUVBUJPOPGUIFSFDPNCJOBUJPODVSSFOUJOUIFEFQMFUJPOSFHJPOPGUIFCBTFFNJUUFSKVODUJPOOFBSUIF
TJMJDPOTVSGBDF. The npnUSBOTJTUPSTIBWFVTVBMMZIJHIFSMFWFMTPGfUIBOpnpUSBOTJTUPST
'JHVSFTIPXTUIFvn − inBNQMJfiFSNPEFMPGUIF#+5XJUIUIFFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFBOE
DVSSFOUvn BOEin SFTQFDUJWFMZ
ThFFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFBOEDVSSFOU NFBOTRVBSFWBMVFT DBOCFFYQSFTTFECZ<>
2
⎛ K f ⋅ I Bα ⎞ ⎛r V ⎞
νn2 = 4kTrb ⋅ Δf + ⎜ 2q ⋅ I B ⋅ Δf + γ
Δf ⎟ ⋅ rb2 + 2qIC ⋅ Δf ⎜ b + T ⎟
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ β IC ⎠
K f ⋅ I Bα qI
in = qI B ⋅ Δf + γ
⋅ Δf + C ⋅ Δf
f β
XIFSFβJTUIFDPNNPOFNJUUFSDVSSFOUHBJO VTkrTq GPST,BOEVTN7
*OQSBDUJDF UIFJOUFOTJUJFTPGUIFTFOPJTFTPVSDFTWFSTVTGSFRVFODZfIBWFUPCFUBLFOJOUPBDDPVOU
BOEPGDPVSTFUIFfOPJTFTPVSDFTJOMPXGSFRVFODZSBOHFBSFUIFNBJOPOFT'PSUIJTSFBTPO UIFЋJDLFS
OPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorJTPOFPGUIFJNQPSUBOUQBSBNFUFSThFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorJT
VOEFSTUPPEBTCFJOHUIFGSFRVFODZGPSXIJDIUIFfOPJTFBOEUIFXIJUFOPJTF UIFSNBM TIPU BSFFRVBM
UPFBDIPUIFS TFF'JHVSF
log S( f )
fcor log f
FIGURE 11.4 /PJTFQPXFSTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOS f WFSTVTGSFRVFODZf

ThFTIBQFPGOPJTFQPXFSTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOS f BTBGVODUJPOPGGSFRVFODZf SFQSFTFOUJOH

JOUFOTJUZPGJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFPSDVSSFOUTPVSDFTvn2 / Δf , in2 / Δf SFTQFDUJWFMZ JTUIFTBNF'VODUJPO
S f TIPVME IBWF ¦E#EFDBEF TMPQF JO UIF MPX GSFRVFODZ SBOHF CFMPX ЋJDLFS OPJTF DPSOFS GSF
RVFODZfcor'PSUIFffcorUIFfOPJTFJTUIFEPNJOBOUDPNQPOFOUBOEGPSffcorUIFXIJUF UIFSNBM
BOETIPU OPJTFJTQSFWBJMJOHThFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorGPSin2 / Δf DBOCFGPVOEGSPNUIF
SFMBUJPO<>
Kf
f cor =
2q (1 + 1/β )

XIFSFQBSBNFUFSTKfBOEβBSFNFBTVSFEFYQFSJNFOUBMMZ
'PS#+5T UIFfcorJTJOUIFSBOHFGSPNUFOUIPG)[UPTFWFSBML)[ThFWBMVFPGUIFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFS
GSFRVFODZDBOCFFWBMVBUFETFQBSBUFMZGPSCPUIFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFTPVSDFT GPSFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTF
WPMUBHF BOEFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOU. ThFWBMVFTPGfcorBSFOPUUIFTBNF
'PSFWBMVBUJOHBOPJTFCFIBWJPSPG#+5TJOBIJHIBOEBWFSZIJHIGSFRVFODZSBOHFUIFOPJTFGBDUPSF
DBOCFBQQMJFE. ThFOPJTFGBDUPSFJTHJWFOCZUIFSFMBUJPO
vni2
F=
4kTRS Δf
XIFSFvni JTUIFNFBOTRVBSFFRVJWBMFOUOPJTFJOQVUWPMUBHFGPSUIF$&PSUIF$#DPOfiHVSBUJPOPG#+5
RSJTUIFOPJTFTPVSDFSFTJTUBODF<>
0OFXBZUPSFEVDFUIFUIFSNBMOPJTFMFWFMPGUIFCBTFTQSFBEJOHSFTJTUBODF rb JTUIFDPOOFDUJPO
PGTFWFSBM / #+5TJOQBSBMMFMBOEUPBTTVSFUIBUUIFUPUBMDVSSFOUPGBMMUSBOTJTUPSTJTUIFTBNFBTGPS
POFUSBOTJTUPS#ZUIJTXBZ UIFMFWFMPGTIPUOPJTFTUBZTPOUIFTBNFMFWFMBOEUIFUIFSNBMOPJTFJT
SFEVDFEUPrbN
11.3.2 Noise of JFETs

*O'JHVSF UIFFRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNPG+'&5XJUIBUUBDIFEOPJTFTPVSDFTJTQSFTFOUFEThFTFBSFBT
GPMMPXTUIFSNBMOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUID fOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUID BOETIPUOPJTFPGHBUFDVSSFOUIG
"UUIFOPSNBMPQFSBUJOHDPOEJUJPOT UIFHBUFTPVSDFKVODUJPOJTSFWFSTFCJBTFEBOEUIFTIPUOPJTFPGHBUF
DVSSFOU IG DBOCFOFHMFDUFE
G i2thd + i21/fd
i2shq
FIGURE 11.5 &RVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNPG+'&5XJUIOPJTFTPVSDFT

D ThFJOUFOTJUJFT NFBOTRVBSFWBMVFT PGOPJTFTPVSDFTBSFHJWFO

CZUIFGPMMPXJOHSFMBUJPOT
ν 2n
G 2
ishg = 2qI G ⋅ Δf ⎯shot noise of gate current I G

i2n ⎛ 2g ⎞
2
ithd = 4kT ⎜ m ⎟ ⋅ Δf ⎯ thermal noise of drain current I D
⎝ 3 ⎠

K f ⋅ I Dα
i12/ fd = ⋅ Δf ⎯ flicker noise of drain current I D
fγ
S
FIGURE 11.6 ThF vn − in BNQMJfiFS $PFffiDJFOUTαJγJOQSPQFSMZGBCSJDBUFE+'&5TBSFDMPTFUP

NPEFMPGUIF+'&5 'JHVSFTIPXTUIFv − i BNQMJfiFSNPEFMPGUIF+'&5XJUIUIF
n n
FRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFBOEDVSSFOUvn BOEin SFTQFDUJWFMZ
2
ithd + i12/ fd ⎛ 2 ⎞ K f ⋅ I Dα 4kT ⋅ Δff K f ⋅ Δf
νn2 = = 4 kT ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ Δf + γ
⋅ Δf = +
2
gm ⎝ 3g m ⎠ gm ⋅ f
2
3 β ⋅ ID 4β ⋅ f

in = ishg

= qI G ⋅ Δf

XIFSFβJTUIFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFDPFffiDJFOU
"TGPS#+5T JOUIFMPXGSFRVFODZSBOHF UIFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorJTPOFPGUIFJNQPSUBOU
QBSBNFUFSThe GSFRVFODZfcorDBOCFFWBMVBUFEPOMZGPSUIFQPXFSTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOS f SFQSF
TFOUJOHUIFJOUFOTJUZPGJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFvn2 /Δf CFDBVTFUIFFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOUEPFTOPU
JODMVEFUIFfOPJTF'PS+'&5T UIFЋJDLFSOPJTFGSFRVFODZfcorJTVOEFSTUPPEBTCFJOHUIFGSFRVFODZGPS
XIJDIUIFfOPJTFBOEUIFSNBMOPJTFPGvn2 /Δf BSFFRVBMUPFBDIPUIFS TFF'JHVSF
/PJTFQPXFSTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOS f BTGVODUJPOPGGSFRVFODZf SFQSFTFOUJOHJOUFOTJUZPGJOQVU
OPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDF TIPVMEIBWF¦E#EFDBEFTMPQFJOUIFMPXGSFRVFODZSBOHFCFMPXЋJDLFSOPJTF
DPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcor'PSUIFffcor UIFfOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUJTUIFEPNJOBOUDPNQPOFOUBOEGPS
f > fcor UIFUIFSNBMOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUJTQSFWBJMJOH
ThFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorGPSvn2 /Δf DBOCFDBMDVMBUFEGSPNUIFSFMBUJPO
3⋅ K f ID
f cor =
16 ⋅ kT β

ThFUZQJDBMЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorGPS+'&5TJTJOUIFSBOHFPGTFWFSBML)[
'PSIJHIBOEWFSZIJHIGSFRVFODZ UIFOPJTFGBDUPSFGPS+'&5TDBOCFDBMDVMBUFEVTJOHSFMBUJPO
XIFSFvni JTUIFNFBOTRVBSFFRVJWBMFOUOPJTFJOQVUWPMUBHFGPSUIF$4PSUIF$(DPOĕHVSBUJPOPG+'&5
BOERSJTUIFOPJTFTPVSDFSFTJTUBODF<>
11.3.3 Noise of MOSFETs

*O'JHVSF UIFFRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNPG.04'&5XJUIBUUBDIFEOPJTFTPVSDFTJTQSFTFOUFEThFTFBSFBT
GPMMPXTUIFSNBMOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUIDBOEfOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUID
G B i2thd + i21/fd
FIGURE 11.7 &RVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNPG.04'&5XJUIOPJTFTPVSDFT
ThFJOUFOTJUJFT NFBOTRVBSFWBMVFT PGOPJTFTPVSDFTBSFHJWFOCZUIFGPMMPXJOHSFMBUJPOT
⎛ 2g ⎞
2
ithd = 4kT ⎜ m ⎟ ⋅ Δf ⎯ thermal noise of drain current I D
⎝ 3 ⎠

K f ⋅ I Dα
i12/ fd = ⋅ Δf ⎯ flicker noise of drain current I D
L2Cox f γ

XIFSF
LJTUIFDIBOOFMMFOHUI
CoxJTUIFHBUFPYJEFDBQBDJUBODFQFSVOJUBSFB
$PFffiDJFOUTαJγJOQSPQFSMZGBCSJDBUFE.04'&5TBSFDMPTFUP
'JHVSFTIPXTUIFvn − inBNQMJfiFSNPEFMPGUIF.04'&5XJUIUIFFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHF
BOEDVSSFOUvn BOEin SFTQFDUJWFMZ
2
ithd + i12/ fd 4kT ⋅ Δf K f ⋅ Δf
νn2 = = +
g m2 3 K ⋅ I D 4 KL2Cox ⋅ f γ
in2 = 0
XIFSFKJTUIFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFDPFffiDJFOU
'SPNUIFOPJTFQPXFSTQFDUSBMEFOTJUZGVODUJPOS f WFSTVTGSF
D RVFODZf SFQSFTFOUJOHJOUFOTJUZPGJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDF UIF
ЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorDBOCFGPVOE TFF'JHVSF
ν 2n ThJTOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorGPSvn2 / Δf DBOCFFWBMVBUFEGSPN
UIFSFMBUJPO
G B
3⋅ K f I
f cor = ⋅ D
16 ⋅ kTL2Cox K
S
'PS UIF f fcor UIF f OPJTF PG ESBJO DVSSFOU JT UIF EPNJOBOU
FIGURE 11.8 ThF v − i BNQMJfiFS

n

n
DPNQPOFOUBOEGPSffcor UIFUIFSNBMOPJTFPGESBJODVSSFOUJT
NPEFMPGUIF.04'&5 QSFWBJMJOH
ThFUZQJDBMWBMVFTPGfcorJO.04'&5TDPVMECFFWFOMBSHFSUIBO.)[ThFOPJTFMFWFMBUWFSZIJHI
GSFRVFODJFTJTWFSZMPX
11.3.4 Low Noise Circuits for Low Frequency Range

ThFSF BSF TQFDJBM TFNJDPOEVDUPS EFWJDFT OBNFE iOPJTFMFTTw UIBU IBWF WFSZ MPX MFWFMT PG OPJTF FTQF
DJBMMZJOUIFMPXGSFRVFODZSBOHFThFTFBSFUSBOTJTUPST CJQPMBSBOEVOJQPMBS USBOTJTUPSQBJST TQFDJBMMZ
NBUDIFEUSBOTJTUPST BOEBNQMJfiFST'PSUIFTFEFWJDFT UIFFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFPSUIF
FRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOUTPVSDF TFF'JHVSFGPS#+5T 'JHVSFGPS+'&5T 'JHVSFGPS
.04'&5T BUMPXGSFRVFODZJTHJWFOJOUFDIOJDBMEBUBCZNBOVGBDUVSFST5ZQJDBMMZ UIJTJOGPSNBUJPOJT
HJWFOGPSL)[ TPNFUJNFTGPS)[ BUUIFHJWFOWBMVFPGUIFEFWJDFDVSSFOU'PSUIFTFEFWJDFT UIFf
OPJTFJOUFOTJUZBOEЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZBSFJNQPSUBOU
'PSMPXOPJTFTZTUFN UIFJOQVU GSPOUFOE TUBHFTBSFWFSZJNQPSUBOU'PSTNBMMTPVSDFSFTJTUBODFT
UIF#+5TBSFUIFQSFGFSSFEEFWJDFTGPSUIFTFTUBHFT BOEUZQJDBMMZUIFZIBWFBCPVUUJNFTMPXFSMFWFMPG
FRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFUIBO+'&5T*OUIFTFMFDUJPOPGUIF#+5 UIFMBSHFWBMVFPGUIFDVSSFOUHBJO
βBOEUIFTNBMMWBMVFPGUIFCBTFTQSFBEJOHSFTJTUBODFrbJTJNQPSUBOU'PSFYBNQMF #+5Tnpn4%J
pnp4#PG+BQBOFTFDPNQBOZ30).IBWFβBOErbΩ5SBOTJTUPST."5GSPN"OBMPH
%FWJDFT NPOPMJUIJD USBOTJTUPS QBJS IBWF β BOE rb CFMPX Ω /PJTF QBSBNFUFST PG USBOTJTUPST
."5&BSFBTGPMMPXTJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFBUDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUPGN"
BUGSFRVFODZ)[JTFRVBMUP1.6 / 2 nV/ Hz BUGSFRVFODZ)[JT0.9 / 1 nV/ Hz BOEBUGSFRVFODZ
oL)[JT0.85 / 1 nV/ Hz
'PSIJHITPVSDFSFTJTUBODFT UIF+'&5TBSFUIFQSFGFSSFEDIPJDF*UJTJNQPSUBOUUIBU+'&5USBOTJTUPST
IBWFMBSHFUSBOTDPOEVDUBODFgmBOETNBMMHBUFDBQBDJUBODF'PSUSBOTJTUPST/NBEFCZ*/5&/4*-
UIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOUTPVSDFBU)[BOEN"JTTNBMMFSUIBO1 fA/ Hz BOE
JTUIFTBNFVQUPL)[8IFSFBT UIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFBUESBJODVS
SFOUPGμ"JT10 nV / Hz ThJTUSBOTJTUPSIBTfcorL)[BUESBJODVSSFOUPGμ"JUNFBOTUIBU
BUL)[UIFJOUFOTJUZPGfOPJTFJTFRVBMUPJOUFOTJUZPGXIJUFOPJTF
'PSMPXGSFRVFODJFT .04'&5TTIPVMEOPUCFVTFECFDBVTFPGUIFIJHIMFWFMPGfOPJTF
ThFSFBSFBMTPTQFDJBMPQFSBUJPOBMBNQMJfiFSTGPSMPXOPJTFBQQMJDBUJPOT0OFTVDIBNQMJfiFSJTNBOV
GBDUVSFECZ1SFDJTJPO.POPMJUIJDT*ODBOEJUIBTUIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDF
JOUIFSBOHF3.5 /5.5 nV/ Hz BU)[BOE3/3.8 nV/ Hz BUL)[8IFSFBT UIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOU
DVSSFOUOPJTFTPVSDFJT1.7/4 pA/ Hz BU)[ BOE0.4 /0.6 pV/ Hz BUL)[ThJTMPXOPJTF01".1
IBTWFSZTNBMMЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZ XIJDIJTFRVBMUP)[GPSFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHF
TPVSDFBOE)[GPSFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFDVSSFOUTPVSDFThJTBNQMJfiFSJTTQFDJBMMZTVJUFEGPSTNBMM
TPVSDFSFTJTUBODFT RSLΩ 'PSJOQVUSFTJTUBODFTMBSHFSUIBOLΩ CFUUFSOPJTFQSPQFSUZIBWFBNQMJ
fiFST01J01'PSWFSZMBSHFJOQVUSFTJTUBODFT UIFCFUUFSDIPJDFJT01" XIJDIIBTJOUFOTJUZ
PGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFFRVBMUP27 nV/ Hz BUL)[ BOEJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVU
OPJTFDVSSFOUTPVSDFJT0.12 fA / Hz JOUIFGSFRVFODZSBOHFGSPN)[UPL)[ThFMPXOPJTFBNQMJ
fiFST"%GSPN"OBMPH%FWJDFTIBTUIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFFRVBMUP
1.7 nV/ Hz BU)[BOE0.9 nV/ Hz BUL)[4JNJMBSQSPQFSUJFTIBWFMPXOPJTFBNQMJĕFST-5-5
GSPN-*/&"35&$)/0-0(:ćFZIBWFUIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDF
FRVBMUP1 nV/ Hz BU)[BOE1.1 nV/ Hz BUL)[ThFЋJDLFSOPJTFDPSOFSGSFRVFODZfcorJTWFSZMPX
BOEJUJTFRVBMUP)[
" TQFDJBM MPX OPJTF BNQMJĕFS GPS TPVSDFT XJUI MBSHF SFTJTUBODFT JT 5-$ *U IBT BU )[ UIF
JOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVUOPJTFWPMUBHFTPVSDFPG10 nV/ Hz , BOEUIFJOUFOTJUZPGFRVJWBMFOUJOQVU
OPJTFDVSSFOUTPVSDFPG0.6 fA / Hz
*OQSBDUJDBMBQQMJDBUJPOT GPSWFSZMPXOPJTFDJSDVJUTVTVBMMZJOUIFfiSTUTUBHFPGUIFTZTUFNMPXOPJTF
USBOTJTUPSJTBQQMJFEBOEUIFOBUUIFOFYUTUBHFTMPXOPJTFBNQMJfiFSTBSFVTFE4QFDJBMDBSFTIPVMEBMTPCF
UBLFOGPSQSPQFSEFTJHOPGQPXFSTVQQMJFT
References
"NCSP[Z"Electronic Noise"LBEFNJBJ,JBEØ #VEBQFTU )VOHBSZ
,POD[BLPXTLB"Szumy z zakresu małych czʒstotliwości"LBEFNJDLBOficZOB8ZEBXOJD[B&9*5
8BST[BXB 1PMBOE
-VLZBODIJLPWB/Noise Research in Semiconductor Devices#,+POFT &E (PSEPOBOE#SFBDI
4DJFODF1VCMJTIFS "NTUFSEBN UIF/FUIFSMBOET
.BSTIBMM -FBDI 8 +S Fundamentals of Low-Noise Electronics (FPSHJB *OTUJUVUF PG 5FDIOPMPHZ
4DIPPMPG&MFDUSJDBMBOE$PNQVUFS&OHJOFFSJOH "UMBOUB (" o
.PUDIFOCBDIFS $ % 'JUDIFO ' $ Low-Noise Electronic System Design " 8JMFZ*OUFSTDJFODF
1VCMJDBUJPO +PIO8JMFZ4POT *OD /FX:PSL
7BOEFS;JFM"Noise in Solid State Devices and Circuits+PIO8JMFZ4POT /FX:PSL
.D8IPSUFS"-fOPJTFBOEHFSNBOJVNTVSGBDFQSPTQFSJUJFT*OSemiconductor Surface Physics
3),JOHEUPO &E 6OJWFSTJUZPG1FOOTZMWBOJB1SFTT 1IJMBEFMQIJB 1" QQo
)PPHF'/fOPJTFJTOPTVSface effFDUPhysics Letters " o
)PPHF'/ThFSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOGOPJTFBOEOVNCFSPGFMFDUSPOTPhysica B o
,MFJOQFOOJOH5(.0OGOPJTFBOESBOEPNUFMFHSBQIOPJTFJOWFSZTNBMMFMFDUSPOJDEFWJDFT
Physica B o
12
Physical Phenomena
Used in Sensors
*OUSPEVDUJPO 12
1JF[PSFTJTUJWF&ffFDU 12
Ћ FSNPFMFDUSJD&ffFDU12
1JF[PFMFDUSJD&ffFDU12
1ZSPFMFDUSJD&ffFDU12
1IPUPFMFDUSJD&ffFDUJO4FNJDPOEVDUPST12
Tiantian Xie 1IPUPFMFDUSJD&ffFDUJOQO+VODUJPOT12
Auburn University
5FNQFSBUVSF&ffFDUJOQO+VODUJPOT12
Bogdan M. )BMM&ffFDU 12
Wilamowski $PODMVTJPO 12
12.1 Introduction
"TFOTPSJTVTFEUPUSBOTGPSNBOPOFMFDUSJDBMTUJNVMBUJPOUPBOFMFDUSJDBMSFTQPOTFUIBUJTTVJUBCMFUP
CFQSPDFTTFECZFMFDUSJDBMDJSDVJUT<8>4FOTPSTBSFSFMBUFEXJUIFWFSZEBZMJGF TVDIBTBVUPNPCJMFT
BJSQMBOFT SBEJPT BOEDPVOUMFTTPUIFSBQQMJDBUJPOT<#3 3148>4FWFSBMUSBOTGPSNBUJPOTUFQTBSF
SFRVJSFE CFGPSF UIF FMFDUSJD PVUQVU TJHOBM DBO CF HFOFSBUFE Ћ FTF TUFQT JOWPMWF DIBOHFT PG UZQFT PG
FOFSHZXIFSFUIFfiOBMTUFQNVTUQSPEVDFBOFMFDUSJDBMTJHOBMPGBEFTJSBCMFGPSNBUЋ FSFBSFTFWFSBM
QIZTJDBMFffFDUTUIBUDBVTFHFOFSBUJPOPGFMFDUSJDTJHOBMTJOSFTQPOTFUPOPOFMFDUSJDBMJOflVFODFT*OUIJT
DIBQUFS UIFQIZTJDBMFffFDUTCFIJOEWBSJPVTTFOTPSBQQMJDBUJPOTUIBUDBOCFVTFEGPSDPOWFSTJPOPGTUJN
VMJJOUPFMFDUSJDTJHOBMTBSFJOUSPEVDFE JODMVEJOHQJF[PSFTJTUJWFFffFDU UIFSNPFMFDUSJDFffFDU QJF[PFMFDUSJD
FffFDU QZSPFMFDUSJDFffFDU UFNQFSBUVSFFffFDUJOQOKVODUJPO BOE)BMMFffFDU
12.2 Piezoresistive Effect

1JF[PSFTJTUJWF FffFDU EFTDSJCFT UIF DIBOHFT PG FMFDUSJDBM SFTJTUBODF XIFO UIF NBUFSJBM JT NFDIBOJDBMMZ
EFGPSNFE *U PDDVST JO DSZTUBMT UIBU IBWF OP QPMBS BYFT BOE JT XFMM SFQSFTFOUFE JO TFNJDPOEVDUPST
1IZTJDBMMZ QJF[PSFTJTUBODFDPNFTGSPNUIFBOJTPUSPQJDEJTUSJCVUJPOPGFOFSHZMFWFMTJOUIFkTQBDFPGUIF
BOHVMBSXBWFWFDUPSЋ JTQIFOPNFOPOJTTVDDFTTGVMMZFNQMPZFEJOTFOTPSTUIBUBSFTFOTJUJWFUPTUSFTT
Ћ FSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOSFMBUJWFDIBOHFTJOSFTJTUBODFΔRR XIFSFRJTTQFDJfiDSFTJTUJWJUZ BOEUIF
NFDIBOJDBMTUSFTTBQQMJFEJTHJWFOCZ
ΔR πσ
=
R E
12-1
XIFSFπJTUIFTPDBMMFEQJF[PSFTJTUJWFDPFffiDJFOU XIJDIJTEFQFOEFOUPOUIFDSZTUBMPSJFOUBUJPOBOEUIF
DPOEJUJPOTPGNFBTVSFNFOU GPSFYBNQMFWPMVNFDPOTUBODZ
Ћ FSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOUIFTUSFTTσBOEEFGPSNBUJPOPGUIFNBUFSJBMDBOCFQSFTFOUFEBT
ΔL
σ=E
L
XIFSFEJT:PVOHTNPEVMVTPGUIFNBUFSJBM
*UJTLOPXOUIBUUIFSFTJTUBODFPGBDPOEVDUPSDBOCFDBMDVMBUFECZ
L
R= Rs
W
XIFSF
RsJTUIFVOJUTVSGBDFSFTJTUBODFPGUIFNBUFSJBM
LBOEWBSFUIFMFOHUIBOEUIFXJEUIPGUIFBSFB SFTQFDUJWFMZ
$POTJEFSJOHUIFWPMVNFPGUIFNBUFSJBMBTBDPOTUBOU &RVBUJPODBOCFSFXSJUUFOBT
L
R= Rs
A
XIFSFAJTUIFBSFBPGUIFNBUFSJBM
%JffFSFOUJBUJOH&RVBUJPO UIFGPMMPXJOHJTPCUBJOFE
ΔR L
= Rs
ΔL A
#Z DPNCJOJOH &RVBUJPOT BOE UIF OPSNBMJ[FE SFTJTUBODF DIBOHF PG UIF XJSF DBO CF
SFXSJUUFOBTBMJOFBSGVODUJPOPGUIFTUSFTTσ
ΔR ΔL σ
= =
R L E
*OSFBMJUZ UIFQJF[PSFTJTUJWFDPFffiDJFOUTπDPOUBJODPNQPOFOUT*OUIFDVCJDTZTUFN POMZUISFFPGUIF

DPNQPOFOUT π π BOEπBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGFBDIPUIFSЋ FTBNFJTUSVFPGNPOPDSZTUBMMJOFTJMJDPO
Ћ FWBMVFTPGUIFTFDPFffiDJFOUTEFQFOEPOUIFUZQFPGDPOEVDUPSBOEUIFEPTJOHMFWFM
-FUVTEFSJWFUIFFRVBUJPOTGPS〈〉BOE〈〉TVSGBDFJOBTJMJDPOXBGFS'PS〈〉 TVSGBDFPGTJMJDPO
UIFDIBOHFTPGSFTJTUBODFDBOCFNFBTVSFECZ
ΔR
= 0.5[( π11 + π12 + π44 ) σ11 + ( π11 + π12 − π44 ) σ22 ] cos2 φ
R
+0.5[( π11 + π12 − π44 ) σ11 + ( π11 + π12 + π44 ) σ22 ]sin2 φ
+ π12 σ33 + ( π11 − π12 ) σ12 sin ( 2φ ) + αT

XIFSF
π π BOEπBSFHFPNFUSZEFQFOEFOUDPOTUBOUT TFF5BCMF
αJTUIFUFNQFSBUVSFDPFfficJFOU
σ σ σ BOEσBSFHFPNFUSZEFQFOEFOUTUSFTTFT
Physical Phenomena Used in Sensors 12-3
TABLE 12.1 1BSBNFUFSTGPS4JMJDPO8BGFS

O5ZQF<51B> Q5ZQF<51B>
π ¦
π ¦
π ¦
π π ¦
π¦π ¦
# ¦
# ¦
# ¦
$ ¦
$ ¦
$
*UDBOCFTJNQMJfiFEUP
ΔR
= 0.5 ( π11 + π12 ) (σ11 + σ22 ) + π12σ33 + αT
R
+ 0.5π 44 (σ11 − σ22 ) cos (2φ) + ( π11 − π12 ) σ12 sin (2φ )

'PSOUZQFSFTJTUPST VTJOHUIFEBUBJO5BCMF
ΔR
= −244 (σ11 + σ22 ) + 534σ33 + αT − 68 (σ11 − σ22 ) cos (2φ )
R
− 1556σ12 sin (2φ )

'PSQUZQFSFTJTUPST VTJOHUIFEBUBJO5BCMF
ΔR
= 27 ( σ11 + σ22 ) − 11σ33 + αT + 690 ( σ11 − σ22 ) cos ( 2φ )
R
+77σ12 sin ( 2φ )

"TVNPGUXPQFSQFOEJDVMBSSFTJTUPSTJTOPUBGVODUJPOPGBOHVMBSMPDBUJPOBOE
ΔR1 ΔR2
+ = 0.5 ( π11 + π12 ) ( σ11 + σ22 ) + π12 σ33 + αT
R1 R2
"EJffFSFODFJTBGVODUJPOPGBOHVMBSMPDBUJPO
ΔR1 ΔR2
− = π44 ( σ11 − σ22 ) cos ( 2φ ) + 2 ( π11 + π12 ) σ12 sin ( 2φ )
R1 R2
5PNFBTVSFσ¦σ Φ¡BOE¡TIPVMECFVTFE QSFGFSBCMZQUZQF XIJMFUPNFBTVSFσ Φ¦¡

BOE¡TIPVMECFVTFE QSFGFSBCMZOUZQF
'PS〈〉TVSGBDFPGTJMJDPO
ΔR
= ⎡⎣ B1σ11 + B2 σ22 + B3 σ33 + 2 2 ( B2 − B3 ) σ23 ⎤⎦ cos2 φ
R
+ ⎡⎣ B2 σ11 + B1σ22 + B3 σ33 − 2 2 ( B2 − B3 ) σ23 ⎤⎦ sin2 φ
+ ⎡⎣2 2 ( B2 − B3 ) σ13 + ( B1 − B2 ) σ12 ⎤⎦ sin ( 2φ ) + αT

XIFSF
π11 + π12 + π44 π + 5π12 − π44 π + 2π12 − π44

B1 = , B2 = 11 , B3 = 11
2 6 3
*UDBOCFTJNQMJfiFEUP
ΔR
= C1 (σ11 + σ22 ) + B3σ33 + αT + ⎡⎣C2 (σ11 − σ22 ) + C3σ23 ⎤⎦ cos (2φ )
R
+ ⎡⎣2C2σ12 + C3σ13 ⎤⎦ sin (2φ )

XIFSF
2π11 + 4π12 + π44 π − π + 2π44 −π + π + π44

C1 = , C2 = 11 12 , C3 = 2 2 11 12
6 6 6
'PSOUZQFSFTJTUPST VTJOHUIFEBUBJO5BCMF
ΔR
= −7 (σ11 + σ22 ) + 61σ33 + αT + ⎡⎣ −305 (σ11 − σ22 ) + 670σ23 ⎤⎦ cos (2φ )
R
+ ⎡⎣ −610σ12 + 670σ13 ⎤⎦ sin (2φ )

'PSQUZQFSFTJTUPST VTJOHUIFEBUBJO5BCMF
ΔR
= 245 (σ11 + σ22 ) − 446σ33 + αT + ⎡⎣ 473 (σ11 − σ22 ) + 750σ23 ⎤⎦ cos (2φ )
R
+ ⎡⎣94σ12 + 750σ13 ⎤⎦ sin (2φ )

Ћ FTVNPGUXPQFSQFOEJDVMBSSFTJTUPSTJT
ΔR1 ΔR2
+ = C1 ( σ11 + σ22 ) + B3 σ33 + αT
R1 R2
'PSOUZQFSFTJTUPSPO〈〉TVSGBDF
ΔR1 ΔR2
+ = −7 ( σ11 + σ22 ) + 61σ33 + 2000ΔT
R1 R2
XIFSFσJTJO.1BBOEΔTJTJO¡$
'PSQUZQFSFTJTUPSPO〈〉TVSGBDFJTMFTTQSFGFSBCMF "2
ΔR1 ΔR2
+ = 245 ( σ11 + σ22 ) − 446σ33 + 2000ΔT
R1 R2
"TTIPXOBCPWF UIFQJF[PSFTJTUJWFFffFDUJOTJMJDPODBOCFTFWFSBMPSEFSTPGNBHOJUVEFTMBSHFSUIBOJO
NFUBMT NBLJOHJUBHPPENFNCFSGPSQJF[PSFTJTUJWFTFOTPST)PXFWFS UIFTJMJDPOJTWFSZTFOTJUJWFUP
UFNQFSBUVSF"EEJUJPOBMNFUIPETTIPVMECFBEPQUFEUPDPVOUFSBDUUIFUFNQFSBUVSFFffFDUUPNBLFUIF
TFOTPSNPSFBDDVSBUF
12.3 Thermoelectric Effect

Ћ FSNPFMFDUSJDFffFDUJTBMTPDBMMFE4FFCFDLFffFDUJOIPOPSPG&BTU1SVTTJBOTDJFOUJTUЋ PNBT+PIBOO
4FFCFDL o <"&>)FPCTFSWFEUIBUBOFMFDUSJDBMDVSSFOUXBTQSFTFOUJOBTFSJFTDJSDVJUPGUXP
EJffFSFOUNFUBMTUIBUXFSFDPOUBDUFEBOEBUEJffFSFOUUFNQFSBUVSFT
8IFOEJffFSFOUDPOEVDUPST"BOE#BSFDPOOFDUFEUPHFUIFS GSFFFMFDUSPOTCFIBWFMJLFBOJEFBMHBT'PS
EJffFSFOUNBUFSJBMT UIFFOFSHJFTBOEEFOTJUJFTPGGSFFFMFDUSPOTBSFEJffFSFOU,JOFUJDFOFSHZPGFMFDUSPOT
JTBGVODUJPOPGUIFUFNQFSBUVSF"UUIFTBNFUFNQFSBUVSF XIFOUXPEJffFSFOUNBUFSJBMTDPOUBDU GSFF
FMFDUSPOTEJffVTFUISPVHIUIFKVODUJPO DPOUBDUJOHQPJOU Ћ FFMFDUSJDQPUFOUJBMPGUIFNBUFSJBMBDDFQU
JOH FMFDUSPOT CFDPNFT NPSF OFHBUJWF BU UIF JOUFSGBDF XIJMF UIF NBUFSJBM FNJUUJOH FMFDUSPOT CFDPNFT
NPSFQPTJUJWF%JffFSFOUFMFDUSPOJDDPODFOUSBUJPOTBDSPTTUIFKVODUJPOTFUVQBOFMFDUSJDfiFMEUIBUCBM
BODFT UIF EJffVTJPO QSPDFTT VOUJM FRVJMJCSJVN JT FTUBCMJTIFE 8IFO UIF UXP NBUFSJBMT BSF BU EJffFSFOU
UFNQFSBUVSFT UIFWPMUBHFBUUIFKVODUJPODBOCFQSFTFOUFEBT 'JHVSF
dVAB
= S A − SB
dT
XIFSFSABOESBBSFUIFBCTPMVUF4FFCFDLDPFffiDJFOUTPGUIFDPOEVDUPST"BOE# SFTQFDUJWFMZ
$POWFSTFMZ XIFOBWPMUBHFJTBQQMJFEUPUIFDPOEVDUPST"BOE#JO'JHVSF JUDSFBUFTBUFNQFSBUVSF
EJffFSFODFCFUXFFOTJEF"BOETJEF#
Ћ FEJffFSFOUJBM4FFCFDLDPFffiDJFOUSABSA¦SBJTDBMMFEUIFTFOTJUJWJUZPGBUIFSNPDPVQMFKVODUJPO
Ћ F4FFCFDLDPFfficJFOUJTJOEFQFOEFOUPOUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFKVODUJPO CVUPOMZSFMBUFEXJUIUIF
NBUFSJBMTЋ FSFGPSF UPBDIJFWFUIFCFTUTFOTJUJWJUZ UIFEJffFSFOUJBM4FFCFDL
DPFffiDJFOUPGUIPTFKVODUJPONBUFSJBMTTIPVMECFBTMBSHFBTQPTTJCMF
T1
12.4 Piezoelectric Effect A

1JF[PFMFDUSJD FffFDU JT UIF QSPQFSUZ PG DFSUBJO DSZTUBMT UIBU DBO HFOFSBUF B VAB
WPMUBHFTVCKFDUFEUPBQSFTTVSFBOEDPOWFSTFMZHFOFSBUFBQSFTTVSFEVFUPBO
BQQMJFEWPMUBHF<%/>Ћ FFffFDUFYJTUTJODSZTUBMTUIBUEPOPUIBWFBTZN
B
NFUSJDBMDFOUFS
&BDINPMFDVMFJOQJF[PFMFDUSJDDSZTUBMJTQPMBSJ[FEPOFTJEFJTOFHBUJWFMZ
DIBSHFEXIJMFUIFPUIFSTJEFJTQPTJUJWFMZDIBSHFE XIJDIJTBMTPOBNFEBTB T2
EJQPMFЋ JTJTEVFUPUIFEJffFSFOUBUPNTUIBUNBLFVQUIFNPMFDVMF BOEUIF
XBZJOXIJDIUIFNPMFDVMFTBSFTIBQFEЋ FQPMBSBYJTSVOTUISPVHIUIFDFO FIGURE 12.1 7PMUBHFPG
UFSPGCPUIDIBSHFTJOUIFNPMFDVMFBOEUIFNPMFDVMFJTFMFDUSJDBMMZOFVUSBM UXP DPOEVDUPST XJUI EJG
VOEFS OPOTUSFTT DPOEJUJPOT 8IFO FYUFSOBM GPSDF JT BQQMJFE UIF MBUUJDF JT GFSFOU UFNQFSBUVSFT DPO
EFGPSNFEBOEUIFFMFDUSJDfiFMEJTCVJMUVQDPOWFSTFMZ XIFOUIFQJF[PFMFDUSJD OFDUFEJOTFSJFT
DSZTUBMJTVOEFSBTUSPOHFMFDUSJDfiFME NPTUPGUIFEJQPMFTJOUIFDSZTUBMBSFGPSDFEUPMJOFVQJOOFBSMZUIF
TBNFEJSFDUJPO XIJDISFTVMUTJONFDIBOJDBMTUSFTT
1JF[PFMFDUSJDJUZJTUIFDPNCJOFEFffFDUPGUIFFMFDUSJDBMCFIBWJPSPGUIFDSZTUBM
D = εE
XIFSF
DJTUIFFMFDUSJDDIBSHFEFOTJUZEJTQMBDFNFOU FMFDUSJDEJTQMBDFNFOU
εJTUIFQFSNJUUJWJUZ
EJTUIFFMFDUSJc fiFMETUSFOHUI
6TJOH)PPLFTMBX
L = sσ
XIFSF
LJTTUSBJO
sJTDPNQMJBODF
σJTUIFTUSFTT
#ZDPNCJOJOH&RVBUJPOTBOE UIFQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDUDBOCFEFTDSJCFEBT
{L} = [s E ]{s} + [dT ]{E}

{D} = [d]{s} + [e σ ]{E}
XIFSF
\^BOE<>TUBOEBSEGPSWFDUPSBOENBUSJYTFQBSBUFMZ
dJTUIFQJF[PFMFDUSJDDPFfficJFOU
<d>JTUIFNBUSJYGPSUIFEJSFDUQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDU
USBOTQPTFE<d T>JTUIFNBUSJYGPSUIFDPOWFSTFQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDU
UIFTVQFSTDSJQUEJOEJDBUFTVOEFSB[FSPPSDPOTUBOUFMFDUSJc fiFME
UIFTVQFSTDSJQUσJOEJDBUFTVOEFSB[FSPPSDPOTUBOUTUSFTs fiFME
1JF[PFMFDUSJDDSZTUBMTQFSGPSNEJSFDUDPOWFSTJPOCFUXFFONFDIBOJDBMBOEFMFDUSJDBMFOFSHZ&ffiDJFODZ
PGUIFDPOWFSTJPOJTEFfiOFECZUIFDPVQMJOHDPFffiDJFOUTk
k = d ×h
XIFSFhJTUIFHSBEJFOUPGFMFDUSJc fiFMEENVMUJQMJFECZ:PVOHTNPEVMVT
Ћ FkDPFffiDJFOUJTBOJNQPSUBOUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDGPSBQQMJDBUJPOTXIFSFFOFSHZFffiDJFODZJTPGQSJNF
JNQPSUBODF MJLFJOBDPVTUJDTBOEVMUSBTPOJDT
12.5 Pyroelectric Effect

1ZSPFMFDUSJDFffFDUJTUIFQIFOPNFOPOPGHFOFSBUJOHBUFNQPSBSZFMFDUSJDBMQPUFOUJBMXIFONBUFSJBMTBSF
IFBUFEPSDPPMFE<;->%JffFSFOUGSPNUIFSNPFMFDUSJDEFWJDFTUIBUQSPEVDFTUFBEZWPMUBHFT QZSPFMFD
USJDEFWJDFTHFOFSBUFEZOBNJDBMDIBSHFTDPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFDIBOHFPGUFNQFSBUVSFT4PBQZSPFMFDUSJD
EFWJDFJTVTVBMMZVTFEBTBIFBt flPXEFUFDUPSSBUIFSUIBOBIFBUEFUFDUPS
1ZSPFMFDUSJDFffFDUJTWFSZUJHIUMZDPOOFDUFEUPUIFQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDUЋ FSFBSFTFWFSBMNFDIBOJTNT
UIBU XJMM SFTVMU JO QZSPFMFDUSJDJUZ 5FNQFSBUVSF DIBOHFT DBVTF TIPSUFOJOH PS FMPOHBUJPO PG JOEJWJEVBM
EJQPMFT*UNBZBMTPBffFDUUIFSBOEPNOFTTPGUIFEJQPMFPSJFOUBUJPOTEVFUPUIFSNBMBHJUBUJPOЋ JTJT
UIFQSJNBSZQZSPFMFDUSJDJUZЋ FTFDPOEQZSPFMFDUSJDJUZJTJOEVDFECZUIFTUSBJOJONBUFSJBMDBVTFECZ
UIFSNBMFYQBOTJPO XIJDINBZCFEFTDSJCFEBTBSFTVMUPGUIFQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDU0GUIFDMBTTJDDSZTUBM
TUSVDUVSFT PGUIFTFFYIJCJUQZSPFMFDUSJDQSPQFSUJFT
Ћ FQZSPFMFDUSJDDIBSHFDPFffiDJFOU PQ JTEFfiOFEBT
∂PS
PQ =
∂T
BOEUIFQZSPFMFDUSJDWPMUBHFDPFffiDJFOU PV BT
∂E
PV =
∂T
XIFSF
PSJTUIFTQPOUBOFPVTQPMBSJ[BUJPO
EJTUIFFMFDUSJc fiFMETUSFOHUI
TJTUIFBCTPMVUFUFNQFSBUVSF
"2 CJTUIFQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFPGUIFEFWJDF
#ZDPNCJOJOH&RVBUJPOTBOE
PQ ∂PS
= = ε = εr ε
PV ∂E
XIFSF
εJTUIFFMFDUSJDQFSNJUUJWJUZPGWBDVVN
εrJTUIFFMFDUSJDQFSNJUUJWJUZPGUIFNBUFSJBMT
*GBQZSPFMFDUSJDNBUFSJBMJTFYQPTFEUPBIFBUTPVSDF JUTUFNQFSBUVSFSJTFTCZΔTBOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOH
DIBSHFBOEWPMUBHFDIBOHFTDBOCFDBMDVMBUFECZ
ΔQ = PQ AΔT

ΔV = PV LΔT
XIFSFABOELJTUIFBSFBBOEUIJDLOFTTPGUIFNBUFSJBMTFQBSBUFMZ
4JODFUIFDBQBDJUBODFJTEFfiOFEBT
ΔQ A
C= = εr ε
ΔV L
*OUFHSBUJOH&RVBUJPOT BOE UIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOΔVBOEΔTDBOCFEFTDSJCFEBT
PQ L
ΔV = ΔT
ε εr
0OFNBZOPUJDFUIBUUIFPVUQVUWPMUBHFJTQSPQPSUJPOBMUPUIFTFOTPST
UFNQFSBUVSFDIBOHF QZSPFMFDUSJDDIBSHFDPFffiDJFOU BOEJUTUIJDLOFTT i C R
Ћ FFRVJWBMFOUFMFDUSJDBMDJSDVJUPGUIFQZSPFMFDUSJDTFOTPSJTTIPXOJO
'JHVSF*UDPOTJTUTPGUISFFDPNQPOFOUTUIFDVSSFOUTPVSDFHFOFSBU
JOHBIFBUJOEVDFEDVSSFOUiUIFQBSBTJUJDDBQBDJUBODFC BOEUIFMFBLBHF
SFTJTUBODFR FIGURE 12.2 &RVJWBMFOUDJS
DVJUPGQZSPFMFDUSJDTFOTPS
12.6 Photoelectric Effect in Semiconductors

"QIPUPFMFDUSJDFffFDUJTBOZFffFDUJOXIJDIMJHIUFOFSHZJTDPOWFSUFEUPFMFDUSJDJUZ8IFOMJHIUTUSJLFT
DFSUBJOMJHIUTFOTJUJWFNBUFSJBMT JUNBZDBVTFUIFNUPHJWFFMFDUSPOT PSDIBOHFUIFJSBCJMJUZUPDPOEVDU
FMFDUSJDJUZ PSNBZDBVTFUIFNUPEFWFMPQBOFMFDUSJDBMQPUFOUJBMPSWPMUBHFBDSPTTUXPTVSGBDFT
8IFOBTVSGBDFJTFYQPTFEUPFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDSBEJBUJPOBCPWFBDFSUBJOUISFTIPMEGSFRVFODZ UIFSBEJB
UJPOJTBCTPSCFEBOEFMFDUSPOTBSFFNJUUFEЋ JTJTDBMMFEQIPUPFMFDUSJDFffFDU XIJDIXBTEJTDPWFSFECZ"
&JOTUFJOЋ FSFRVJSFEQIPUPOFOFSHZNVTUFRVBMPSFYDFFEUIFFOFSHZPGBTJOHMFQIPUPO XIJDIJTHJWFOCZ
E = hv
XIFSF
vJTUIFGSFRVFODZPGMJHIU
hJT1MBODLTDPOTUBOUFRVBMUP¨¦+rT
$POTJEFSJOHUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOGSFRVFODZBOEUIFXBWFMFOHUI UIFFOFSHZJO&RVBUJPO
DBOCFXSJUUFOBTUIFGVODUJPOPGXBWFMFOHUI
−7
hc 1.24 × 10
E= = [eV ⋅ s]
λ λ
XIFSF
cJTUIFMJHIUTQFFEJONBUFSJBMT
λJTUIFXBWFMFOHUIPGMJHIU
'PS4J UIFWBMVFPGEBUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSFJTF7)PXFWFS JOBSFBMTFNJDPOEVDUPSDSZTUBMPUIFS

FYDJUBUJPONFDIBOJTNTBSFQPTTJCMFЋ FTFJODMVEFBCTPSQUJPOUISPVHIUSBOTJUJPOTCFUXFFOUIFBMMPXFE
CBOETBOEBCTPSQUJPOUISPVHIIJHIMFWFMTPGEJTUPSUJPOJOUIFGPSCJEEFOCBOE)PXFWFS UIFHSFBUFTU
FYDJUBUJPOFffFDUJTTUJMMQSPWPLFECZCBOEUPCBOEBCTPSQUJPO
Ћ FFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDSBEJBUJPODBOCFDMBTTJfiFEGSPNMPXGSFRVFODZUPIJHIGSFRVFODZBTJOGSBSFE
WJTJCMF BOEVMUSBWJPMFU SFTQFDUJWFMZЋ FFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDGSFRVFODZTQFDUSVNJTTIPXOJO'JHVSF
Infrared Visible Ultraviolet
GaAs GaP
InSb Ge Si CdSe CdS SiC ZnS
Eg (ev)
0 1 2 3 4
λ (um)
75 32 1 0.5 0.35
FIGURE 12.3 &MFDUSPNBHOFUJDGSFRVFODZTQFDUSVN

Conduction band
–
Energy gap
+ Valence band
hv
FIGURE 12.4 1IPUPDPOEVDUJWFFffFDUJOTFNJDPOEVDUPS
8IFOMJHIUJTBCTPSCFECZBTFNJDPOEVDUPS BDVSSFOUDBOCFJOEVDFEBOEUIVTDBVTFUIFDIBOHFPG
SFTJTUBODFPGUIFNBUFSJBM"TTIPXOJO'JHVSF UIFTFNJDPOEVDUPSJOUIFSNBMFRVJMJCSJVNDPOUBJOT
GSFF FMFDUSPOT BOE IPMFT Ћ F PQUJDBM fiFME UP CF EFUFDUFE JT JODJEFOU PO BOE BCTPSCFE JO UIF DSZTUBM
UIFSFCZFYDJUJOHFMFDUSPOTJOUPUIFDPOEVDUJPOCBOEPS JOQUZQFTFNJDPOEVDUPST IPMFTJOUPUIFWBMFODF
CBOEЋ FFMFDUSPOJDEFfiDJFODZUIVTDSFBUFEJTBDUFEVQPOCZUIFFMFDUSJDfiFME BOEJUTESJft BMPOHUIFfiFME
EJSFDUJPOHJWFTSJTFUPUIFTJHOBMDVSSFOU
12.7 Photoelectric Effect in p-n Junctions

8IFOMJHIUTUSJLFTBTFNJDPOEVDUPSQOKVODUJPO JUTFOFSHZJTBCTPSCFECZFMFDUSPOT&MFDUSPOTBOE
IPMFTHFOFSBUFECZMJHIUJOUIFQOKVODUJPOBSFTXFQUCZKVODUJPOFMFDUSJDBMfiFME"TBSFTVMU UIFDVS
SFOUflPXTUIPVHIUIFKVODUJPO'JHVSFTIPXTUIFQSPDFTTPGHFOFSBUJOHDVSSFOUJOQIPUPEJPEF
'JHVSFBJTUIFQOKVODUJPOXJUIBEFQMFUJPOMBZFSXJUIPVUMJHIU8IFOUIFQOKVODUJPOJTFYQPTFE
UPMJHIU UIFJNQJOHJOHQIPUPOTDSFBUFFMFDUSPOoIPMFQBJSTFWFSZXIFSFJOOUZQFBSFB QUZQFBSFB BOE
EFQMFUJPOMBZFS*OUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFS UIFFMFDUSJDfiFMEBDDFMFSBUFTFMFDUSPOTUPXBSEUIFOMBZFSBOEUIF
IPMFTUPXBSEUIFQMBZFS 'JHVSFC
'PS UIF FMFDUSPOoIPMF QBJST HFOFSBUFE JO UIF OMBZFS UIF FMFDUSPOT BMPOH XJUI FMFDUSPOT UIBU IBWF
BSSJWFEGSPNUIFQMBZFS BSFMFft JOUIFOMBZFSDPOEVDUJPOCBOEЋ FIPMFTBUUIJTUJNFBSFCFJOHEJG
GVTFEUISPVHIUIFOMBZFSVQUPUIFEFQMFUJPOMBZFSXIJMFCFJOHBDDFMFSBUFE BOEDPMMFDUFEJOUIFQMBZFS
WBMFODFCBOE*OUIJTNBOOFS FMFDUSPOoIPMFQBJSTUIBUBSFHFOFSBUFEJOQSPQPSUJPOUPUIFBNPVOUPG
JODJEFOUMJHIUBSFDPMMFDUFEJOUIFOBOEQMBZFSTЋ JTSFTVMUTJOBQPTJUJWFDIBSHFJOUIFQMBZFSBOEB
OFHBUJWFDIBSHFJOUIFOMBZFS*GBOFYUFSOBMDJSDVJUJTDPOOFDUFECFUXFFOUIFQBOEOMBZFST FMFDUSPOT
XJMMflPXBXBZGSPNUIFOMBZFS BOEIPMFTXJMMflPXBXBZGSPNUIFQMBZFSUPXBSEUIFPQQPTJUFSFTQFDUJWF
FMFDUSPEFT 'JHVSFD Ћ FDVSSFOUJTUIVTHFOFSBUFE
12.8 Temperature Effect in p-n Junctions

Ћ FUFNQFSBUVSFFffFDUPGQOKVODUJPODBOCFVUJMJ[FEBTBUFNQFSBUVSFTFOTPSЋ FQSJODJQBMTFOTPSJT
TUSBJHIUGPSXBSEЋ FIoVDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFEJPEFJTBTGPMMPXT
⎛ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎞
I D = I S ⎜ exp ⎜ D ⎟ − 1⎟
⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠

XIFSF
VDJTUIFBQQMJFEWPMUBHF
qJTFMFDUSPOJDDIBSHFFRVBMUP¨¦$
kJT#PMU[NBOTDPOTUBOUFRVBMUP¨¦+,
TJTBCTPMVUFUFNQFSBUVSF
ISJTUIFSFWFSTFTBUVSBUJPODVSSFOUPGEJPEF
n-Type material p-Type material n-Type material p-Type material
Depletion layer Depletion layer
Electrons Holes Electrons Holes

Space charge —positive Space charge —positive
(a) Space charge—negative (b) Space charge —negative
n-Type material p-Type material
Depletion layer
Electrons Holes
Space charge —positive
(c) Space charge —negative
FIGURE 12.5 1IPUPEJPEF B QOKVODUJPO C DBSSJFSHFOFSBUJPOJOEFQMFUJPOMBZFSBTTPDJBUFEXJUIDBSSJFSTXFFQ

JOFMFDUSJDfiFMEPGEFQMFUJPOMBZFS GBTUQSPDFTT D DBSSJFSHFOFSBUJPOJOCVMLNBUFSJBMBTTPDJBUFEXJUINJOPSJUZDBSSJFS
EJffVTJPOUPXBSEKVODUJPO TMPXQSPDFTT
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 1 ⎟
I S = Aqn ⎜
2
i xn + xp ⎟

⎜⎜
⎝ ∫0
(N / D p )dx
0 ∫
(N / Dn )dx ⎟⎟
⎠
XIFSFniJTDBMDVMBUFECZ
⎛ Eg ⎞
ni2 = N v N cT 3 exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
#ZDPNCJOJOH&RVBUJPOTUISPVHI UIFWPMUBHFPGUIFEJPEFDBOCFDBMDVMBUFECZ
kT ⎛ I D ⎞ kT ⎛ I D ⎞
VD = MO ⎜ + ⎟ ≅ MO
q ⎝ IS ⎠ q ⎜⎝ I S ⎟⎠

4JODF IS JT QSPQPSUJPOBM UPni &RVBUJPO UBLJOH UIF EFSJWBUJWF XJUI SFTQFDU UP UFNQFSBUVSF
ZJFMET
2.5 .40°C
.25 T
.10
5
20
2 35
dVD/dT (mV/K)
50
65
80
95
110
125
1.5 140
1
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
VD (V)
FIGURE 12.6 3FMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOdVDdTBOEVDGPSBTJMJDPOEJPEF
∂VD k ⎛ I D ⎞ kT ∂I S VD − kT q − E g q
= MO ⎜ ⎟ − =
∂T q ⎝ I S ⎠ q I S ∂T T
XIFSFEgJTUIFTFNJDPOEVDUPSCBOEHBQFOFSHZЋ FSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOdVDdTBOEVDGPSBTJMJDPO
EJPEFJTTIPXOJO'JHVSFdVDdTEFDSFBTFTXJUIUFNQFSBUVSFJODSFBTJOH
8JUIBDPOTUBOUDVSSFOUBQQMJFE UIFWPMUBHFBDSPTTBEJPEFPSQOKVODUJPOXJMMEFDSFBTFCZBQQSPYJ
NBUFMZoN7¡$Ћ FEJPEFWPMUBHFWTUFNQFSBUVSFDBOCFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZQMBDJOHUIFBNQMJfiFSJOB
UFNQFSBUVSFDIBNCFSXJUIBDPOTUBOUDVSSFOUBQQMJFEUPUIFEJPEFKVODUJPO
12.9 Hall Effect

Ћ F)BMMFffFDUXBTEJTDPWFSFEJOJO+PIOT)PQLJOT6OJWFSTJUZ
CZ&))BMMЋ FFffFDUJTCBTFEPOUIFJOUFSBDUJPOCFUXFFONPWJOH
FMFDUSJDDBSSJFSTBOEBOFYUFSOBMNBHOFUJDfiFME8IFOBOFMFDUSPO I
NPWFTUISPVHIBNBHOFUJc fiFME JUBDUTBTJEFXBZTGPSDF
B
F = qvB
+ –
XIFSF
qJTBOFMFDUSPOJDDIBSHF
vJTUIFTQFFEPGBOFMFDUSPO
BJTUIFNBHOFUJc fiFME
8IFOUIFFMFDUSJDDVSSFOUTPVSDFIJTQFSQFOEJDVMBSUPUIFNBH
VH
OFUJDfiFMEB BTTIPXOJO'JHVSF UIFTPDBMMFE)BMMWPMUBHF VH
JT QSPEVDFE JO UIF EJSFDUJPO QFSQFOEJDVMBS UP CPUI B BOE I VH JT FIGURE 12.7 1SJODJQMF PG )BMM
HJWFOCZ FffFDU
IB
VH =
qnd
XIFSF
dJTUIFUIJDLOFTTPGUIFIBMMQMBUF
nJTUIFDBSSJFSEFOTJUZ
0OFWFSZJNQPSUBOUGFBUVSFPGUIF)BMMFffFDUJTUIBUJUEJffFSFOUJBUFTCFUXFFOQPTJUJWFDIBSHFTNPWJOHJO
POFEJSFDUJPOBOEOFHBUJWFDIBSHFTNPWJOHJOUIFPQQPTJUF
)BMMFffFDUEFWJDFTQSPEVDFBWFSZMPXTJHOBMMFWFMBOEUIVTSFRVJSFBNQMJfiDBUJPOЋ F)BMMTFOTPST
DBOCFVTFEUPEFUFDUNBHOFUJc fiFMET QPTJUJPO BOEEJTQMBDFNFOUPGPCKFDUT
12.10 Conclusion
Ћ FQIZTJDBMQIFOPNFOBEFTDSJCFEBCPWFBSFGSFRVFOUMZVTFEJOWBSJPVTTFOTPST'PSFYBNQMF QJF[PSFTJT
UJWFFffFDUBOEQJF[PFMFDUSJDFffFDUDBOCFVTFEUPNFBTVSFCPUIQSFTTVSFBOEBDDFMFSBUJPOЋ FSNPFMFDUSJD
FffFDU QZSPFMFDUSJDFffFDU BOEUFNQFSBUVSFFffFDUJOQOKVODUJPOBSFVTVBMMZBQQMJFEJOUFNQFSBUVSFTFO
TPST CPMPNFUFST BOETPPO1IPUPFMFDUSJDFffFDUJTVTFEJOMJHIUEFUFDUPSTTVDIBTQIPUPEJPEFTBOEUIFS
NBMEFUFDUPST)BMMFffFDUJTBMXBZTVTFEJONFBTVSJOHNBHOFUJDfiFMETBOETFOTJOHQPTJUJPOBOENPUJPO
References
<8> 8IJUF 3 8 " TFOTPS DMBTsificBUJPO TDIFNF *O Microsensors *&&& 1SFTT /FX :PSL QQ o

<#3>#BSTIBO #BOE,VD 3 DiffFSFOUJBUJOHTPOBSSefleDUJPOTGSPNDPSOFSTBOEQMBOFTCZFNQMPZ
JOHBOJOUFMMJHFOUTFOTPS IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
o
<3148>-FPOIBSE .3 "MGSFE 1 (FSE 4 BOE3PCFSU 8 4"8CBTFESBEJPTFOTPSTZTUFNT IEEE
Sensors Journal o
<"&>#PZFS "BOE$JTTF & 1SPQFSUJFTPGUIJOfiMNTUIFSNPFMFDUSJDNBUFSJBMT"QQMJDBUJPOUPTFOTPST
VTJOHUIF4FFCFDk effFDU Materials Science & Engineering o
<%/>%BNKBOPWJD %BOE/FXOIBN 3& &MFDUSPTUSJDUJWFBOEQJF[PFMFDUSJDNBUFSJBMTGPSBDUVBUPS
BQQMJDBUJPOT Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures o
<;->;PPL +%BOE-JV 45 1ZSPFMFDUSJDeffFDUTJOUIJOfiMN Journal of Applied Physics

ECENE 1-Fundamentals of Industrial Electronics

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8.1 Nonlinear Static I–V Characteristics

FIGURE 8.1 'PSXBSEDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGWBSJPVTUZQFTPGEJPEFT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPO

FIGURE 8.2 3FWFSTFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPOEJPEF

8.1.1 pn Junction Equation

FIGURE 8.3 *MMVTUSBUJPOPGUIFpnKVODUJPO

ni n ni ni

Ћ FJOUSJOTJDDBSSJFSDPODFOUSBUJPO ni JTHJWFOCZ

ni = 3.88 × 1016 T 3 / 2 exp ⎛⎜ −

FIGURE 8.4 $VSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFpnKVODUJPOJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO B EJffVTJPODVSSFOU C

8.1.2 Forward I–V Diode Characteristics

FIGURE 8.5 .JOPSJUZDBSSJFSEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFpnKVODUJPOCJBTFEJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO

Ћ FUPUBMEJPEFDVSSFOUiTiD irec XIFSFiDBOEirecBSFEFfiOFECZ&RVBUJPOTBOEЋ FSFDPNCJOB

8.1.3 Reverse I–V Characteristics

8.2 Diode Capacitances

8.2.1 Diffusion Capacitance

FIGURE 8.6 $BQBDJUBODFoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPSSFWFSTFCJBTFEKVODUJPO

8.2.2 Depletion Capacitance

8.3 Diode as a Switch

8.4 Temperature Properties

dv v − η (Vg + αVT ) 

6TJOH&RVBUJPO POFNBZDBMDVMBUFUIBUGPSTJMJDPOEJPEFTBUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSFT UIFSFWFSTFMFBLBHF

8.5 Piecewise Linear Model

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 8.9 7BSJPVTXBZTPGMJOFBSJ[JOHEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT

FIGURE 8.10 -JOFBSJ[BUJPOPGUIFEJPEF B EJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT C FRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBN

8.6 Different Types of Diodes

8.6.1 Switching Diodes

8.6.2 Zener Diodes

Zener Schottky Tunnel Photo

FIGURE 8.11 $PNNPOMZVTFETZNCPMTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT

EPQFE UIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJTDPOUSPMMFECZUIFUVOOFMJOHNFDIBOJTN BOEJUTEFDSFBTFXJUIUFNQFSB

8.6.3 Tunnel Diodes (Esaki Diodes)

8.6.4 Backward Diode

8.6.5 PIN Diodes

8.6.6 Schottky Diodes

8.6.7 Super Barrier Diodes

log(N) log(N) log(N)

p-type p-type p-type

(a) n- type (b) n- type (c) n- type

log(N) log(N) log(N)

p-type p-type p-type

n- type n- type n- type

FIGURE 8.12 *NQVSJUZQSPfiMFTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT B TUFQKVODUJPO C MJOFBSKVODUJPO D EJffVTJPOKVODUJPO

8.6.8 Step-Recovery Diodes

8.6.9 Avalanche Diodes

8.6.11 Solar Batteries

8.6.14 Laser Diodes

8.6.15 Gun Diodes

8.6.16 IMPATT Diodes

8.6.17 Peltier Diodes

9.1 Ebers–Moll Model

IEF ICF = αF IEF

(c) IER = αR IER ICR

FIGURE 9.1 B $SPTTTFDUJPOBMWJFXPGBO/1/#+5 C DJSDVJUTZNCPM D UIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUNPEFM

USBWFMBDSPTTUIFCBTF BOEBSFUIFODPMMFDUFECZUIFSFWFSTFCJBTFE$#KVODUJPOЋ FSFGPSF UIFDPMMFD

Ћ FDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUJTUZQJDBMMZTNBMMFSUIBOUIFFNJUUFSDVSSFOUJT I$'α'I&' XIFSFα'JTUIFGPSXBSE

a11 = I E0 a12 = α R I C0 a21 = α F I E0 a22 = I C0 

9.2 Gummel–Poon Model

FIGURE 8.1 'PSXBSEDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGWBSJPVTUZQFTPGEJPEFT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPO

FIGURE 8.2 3FWFSTFDVSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT B HFSNBOJVNEJPEF C TJMJDPOEJPEF

FIGURE 8.3 *MMVTUSBUJPOPGUIFpnKVODUJPO

ni n ni ni

FIGURE 8.4 $VSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFpnKVODUJPOJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO B EJffVTJPODVSSFOU C

FIGURE 8.5 .JOPSJUZDBSSJFSEJTUSJCVUJPOJOUIFWJDJOJUZPGUIFpnKVODUJPOCJBTFEJOGPSXBSEEJSFDUJPO

Ћ FUPUBMEJPEFDVSSFOUiTiD irec XIFSFiDBOEirecBSFEFfiOFECZ&RVBUJPOTBOEЋ FSFDPNCJOB

FIGURE 8.6 $BQBDJUBODFoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTGPSSFWFSTFCJBTFEKVODUJPO

dv v − η (Vg + αVT )

6TJOH&RVBUJPO POFNBZDBMDVMBUFUIBUGPSTJMJDPOEJPEFTBUSPPNUFNQFSBUVSFT UIFSFWFSTFMFBLBHF

FIGURE 8.9 7BSJPVTXBZTPGMJOFBSJ[JOHEJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT

FIGURE 8.10 -JOFBSJ[BUJPOPGUIFEJPEF B EJPEFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT C FRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBN

FIGURE 8.11 $PNNPOMZVTFETZNCPMTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT

EPQFE UIFCSFBLEPXOWPMUBHFJTDPOUSPMMFECZUIFUVOOFMJOHNFDIBOJTN BOEJUTEFDSFBTFXJUIUFNQFSB

FIGURE 8.12 *NQVSJUZQSPfiMFTGPSWBSJPVTEJPEFT B TUFQKVODUJPO C MJOFBSKVODUJPO D EJffVTJPOKVODUJPO

FIGURE 9.1 B $SPTTTFDUJPOBMWJFXPGBO/1/#+5 C DJSDVJUTZNCPM D UIF&CFSTo.PMMFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUNPEFM

USBWFMBDSPTTUIFCBTF BOEBSFUIFODPMMFDUFECZUIFSFWFSTFCJBTFE$#KVODUJPOЋ FSFGPSF UIFDPMMFD

Ћ FDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUJTUZQJDBMMZTNBMMFSUIBOUIFFNJUUFSDVSSFOUJT I$'α'I&' XIFSFα'JTUIFGPSXBSE

a11 = I E0 a12 = α R I C0 a21 = α F I E0 a22 = I C0

FIGURE 9.2 $PMMFDUPSBOECBTFDVSSFOUTBTBGVODUJPOPGCBTFoFNJUUFSWPMUBHF

"MTP EVFUPUIFCBTFDPOEVDUJWJUZNPEVMBUJPOBUIJHIMFWFMJOKFDUJPOT UIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUGPSMBSHFS

8IFOBUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUFTJOUIFSFWFSTFBDUJWFNPEF FNJUUFSBOEDPMMFDUPSBSFTXJUDIFE UIFOUIF

/PUF UIBUUIFITQBSBNFUFSJTUIFTBNFGPSGPSXBSEBOESFWFSTFNPEFTPGPQFSBUJPOЋ F(VNNFMo1PPO

Ћ FTFFRVBUJPOTSFRVJSFPOMZUISFFDPFffiDJFOUT XIJMFUIF&CFSTo.PMMSFRVJSFTGPVSЋ FTBUVSBUJPODVS

"TPOFDBOTFFGSPN&RVBUJPO TNBMMFSWBMVFTPGβ* β5 BOEβ3EPNJOBUFЋ FCBTFUSBOTQPSUFffiDJFODZ

"TDBOCFTFFOGSPN'JHVSF UIFDVSSFOUHBJOβJTBGVODUJPOPGUIFDVSSFOUЋ JTHBJODVSSFOUSFMB

FIGURE 9.3 Ћ FDVSSFOUHBJOβBTUIFGVODUJPOPGUIFDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOU

FIGURE 9.4 $VSSFOUoWPMUBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS

FIGURE 9.5 $VSSFOUDSPXEJOHFČFDU

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Ћ FBCPWFFRVBUJPOJTEFSJWFEVTJOH GPSUIFFTUJNBUJPOPGUIFCBTFUSBOTJFOUUJNF

FIGURE 9.6 #JQPMBSUSBOTJTUPSFRVJWBMFOUEJBHSBNT B 41*$&NPEFM C TJNQMJfiFENPEFM

4JNJMBSFRVBUJPOTUP DBOCFXSJUUFOGPSUIFSFWFSTFUSBOTJTUPSPQFSBUJPOBTXFMM

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FIGURE 9.7 /1/CJQPMBSTUSVDUVSF

FIGURE 9.8 $SPTTTFDUJPOPGBUZQJDBMCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS

FIGURE 9.9 *OUFHSBUFE1/1USBOTJTUPST B MBUFSBM1/1USBOTJTUPS C TVCTUSBUF1/1USBOTJTUPS

FIGURE 9.10 *OUFHSBUFE1/1USBOTJTUPST B MBUFSBMUSBOTJTUPS C TVCTUSBUFUSBOTJTUPS D DPNQPTFEUSBOTJTUPS

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I C (ω) = I C exp ( jωPTF τF )

iC2 = 2qI C Δf

FIGURE 9.11 &OFSHZCBOEEJBHSBNPGBHSBEFECBTF4J(F)#5BOEBDPNQBSBCMZDPOTUSVDUFE4J#+5

FIGURE 9.12 &YQFSJNFOUBMDPMMFDUPSBOECBTFDVSSFOUTWFSTVT&#WPMUBHFGPS4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5

FIGURE 9.13 .FBTVSFEEPQJOHBOE(FQSPfiMFTPGBNPEFSO4J(F)#5

FIGURE 9.14 &YQFSJNFOUBMDVUPČGSFRVFODZWFSTVTDPMMFDUPSDVSSFOUGPSUIF4J(F)#5BOE4J#+5

FIGURE 9.16 4USVDUVSFPGBNPEFSO4J(F)#5

"OJNQMBOUFEDPMMFDUPSSFBDIFTUISPVHIUPUIFTVCDPMMFDUPS UZQJDBMMZBUoΩμN

FIGURE 10.2 Ћ FMPDBUJPOPG'FSNJMFWFMTJONFUBMBOEJOUIFTJMJDPO

ε Si = 11.8 ε o = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −14 F/cm

Qd = qNw = 4ε Si ε oφ F qN = 6.68 . 10 −31φ F N

FIGURE 10.3 .04CBOETUSVDUVSFXJUIQPTJUJWFWPMUBHFPOUIFHBUFVGJOQUZQFTJMJDPO

φms = φm − φ s = φm − (3.8 + sφ F ) = φm − 3.8 − s φ F

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