Chemistry in Focus A Molecular View of

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 CHAPTER 9

ENERGY FOR TODAY

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS:

1. The hotter an object is, the faster its molecules move. The cooler an object is, the slower its
molecules move.

2. When a hot object comes in contact with a cold object, the molecules in the hot object contact
or collide with the molecules in the cold object and energy is transferred from the hotter object
to the colder one until the motions are equalized. Macroscopically, the two bodies attain the
same temperature.

3. Heat is the random motion (thermal energy) of molecules or atoms. Work is the use of energy
to move atoms and molecules in a non-random or orderly fashion.

4. U.S. ENERGY USE BY SECTOR (from Table 9-1)

Industrial 32 %
Transportation 28 %
Residential 22 %
Commercial 18 %

5. The U.S. consumes approximately 95 quads of energy per year (see Table 9-4).

6. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
only transferred between the system and its surroundings. The total amount of energy is
constant. The implication of the first law in energy use is that whatever the initial amount of
energy in a system, this quantity will remain constant; the best we will ever do is break even.
No perpetual motion machine can ever be created.

7. Entropy is a measure of energy dispersal or energy randomization. This is often associated

with disorder; the more disordered a system, the greater the extent of energy randomization.
Entropy is important because it is the arbiter of spontaneous processes. All spontaneous
processes, those that happen without continuous input of energy, occur with an increase in
entropy of the universe. The world moves spontaneously towards greater energy dispersal
(entropy).

8. The second law of thermodynamics states that for any spontaneous process, the entropy of the
universe, consisting of the system and the surroundings, must increase. Thus, another way to
state the second law is that, for any spontaneous process, entropy must increase. Because of
the second law, a chemical reaction that gives off energy must release some as heat in order to
increase the entropy of the universe. As a result, not all the energy given off by a chemical
reaction can be utilized to do some useful work; some is used to increase disorder.

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9. A perpetual motion machine is a device that continuously produces energy without the need
for energy input; it generates energy out of nothing, an extremely desirable outcome.
Unfortunately, according to the first law of thermodynamics, such devices cannot exist, since
energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

10.
a) Gasoline energy to forward motion of an automobile – 15-25% efficient.
b) Food energy to physical work – 45% efficient.
c) Fossil fuel energy to electricity – 25-40% efficient.
d) Natural gas energy to heat – 70-90% efficient.

11.
a) Heat is random atomic or molecular motion.
b) Energy is the capacity to do work.
c) Work is the application of a force through a distance
d) System is any part of the universe in which we are particularly interested – like a chemical
reaction.
e) Surroundings are all the rest of the universe, usually to be taken to mean just the immediate
surroundings of a reaction vessel.
f) An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy to the surroundings.
g) An endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that absorbs energy from the surroundings.
h) Enthalpy of reaction represents the amount of heat absorbed or emitted by a chemical
reaction. The units are usually in kcal/g, kJ/g, kcal/mol, or kJ/mol.
i) Kinetic energy is energy due to motion.
j) Potential energy is energy due to position or stored energy.

12. Power is the rate of use of energy; it determines how long it will take to use a given amount of
energy. The units of power are watts (W), which are defined as J/s. A fifty-watt light bulb
delivers fifty joules of energy in one second.

13. The temperature of the surroundings increases during an exothermic process while the
temperature of the surroundings will decrease during an endothermic process.

14.
a) Kelvin
b) Fahrenheit
c) Celsius
d) Celsius, Kelvin

15. The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to change the
temperature of a given amount of the substance by 1C. A substance with a large heat capacity
absorbs a lot of heat without a large increase in temperature. A low heat capacity substance
cannot absorb a lot of heat without a large increase in temperature.

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16. Total U.S. Energy Consumption by Source (from Table 9-7)

Fuel Percentage of Total
Petroleum 36 %
Natural Gas 27 %
Coal 18 %
Nuclear 8%
Biomass 5%
Hydroelectric 3%
Wind 1%
Other 1%

17. Fuel Years Until Depletion (from Table 9-7)

Petroleum 50
Natural Gas 60
Coal 120
Nuclear 80
Biomass indefinite
Hydroelectric indefinite
Wind indefinite
Other

18. Fossil fuels are so named because they are formed from the remains of living things and all
have a high carbon and hydrogen content. The term fossil is used because this indicates remains
or traces of any life that lived in the geological past.

19. Fossil fuel burning power plants use heat released in combustion reactions to boil water,
generating steam that turns the turbine of an electric generator. The generator creates electricity
that is transmitted to buildings via power lines. A typical fossil fuel plant produces 1 gigawatt
(1 giga = 109) of power in the form of electricity, which can light 1 million homes.

20. There are three main environmental problems due to fossil fuels. Smog consists of the products
and by-products of fossil fuel combustion. NO2 gives smog its characteristic color and is an
irritant. Acid rain results from NOx and SOx type oxides reacting with moisture in the
atmosphere to form acids. Acidic compounds produce H+ ions that are damaging to fish,
forests, and building materials. The combustion of fossil fuels, in combination with
deforestation, has increased the level of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere. A continued increase
in this atmospheric CO2 could lead to more global warming.

21. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) – eye and lung irritant

Ozone (O3) and PAN (CH3CO2NO2) – lung irritant, difficulty in breathing, eye irritant,
damages rubber products, and damages crops.
Carbon monoxide (CO) – toxic because it diminishes the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen.

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22. Catalysts are substances that promote chemical reactions without being consumed by them.
Catalytic converters use catalysts to promote the complete combustion of hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide and to promote the decomposition of nitrogen monoxide to yield a cleaner
exhaust emission.

23. Acid rain is caused by the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2) that results from fossil fuel
combustion especially from coal-burning power plants. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), primarily from automobile exhaust, also contribute to acid rain.

24. Acid rain forms due to the combination of SO2 and NOx with water to form strong acids. Sulfur
dioxide forms from the combustion of sulfur:
S  O 2  SO 2
The SO2 is then oxidized by reaction with O2 to produce SO3 that dissolves in H2O to produce
H2SO4.
SO 2  O 2  SO 3
SO 3  H 2 O  H 2 SO 4
The combustion of nitrogen and nitrogen monoxide produce the following products.
N 2  O 2  2NO
2NO  O 2  2NO 2
High acid levels in lakes affect the survival of certain fish species. Acids dissolve certain metals
and other building materials such as marble, stone, and paint. Acids accelerate the rusting
process of alloys containing iron, such as steel. Acid can also affect forests, lowering the ability
of some trees to grow and fight disease. The acids can dissolve and eliminate certain nutrients
in the soil. Sulfur dioxide can combine with atmospheric moisture to form tiny droplets called
sulfate aerosols. The presence of these aerosols can lead to decreased visibility.

25. The earth’s atmosphere is transparent to visible light from the sun. This visible light strikes the
earth, and part of it is changed to infrared radiation. This infrared radiation from the earth’s
surface is strongly absorbed by CO2 and H2O molecules in the atmosphere. In effect, the
atmosphere traps some of the energy, acting like the glass in a greenhouse and keeping the
earth warmer than it would otherwise be.

26. No carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere would mean a significantly reduced amount of
infrared radiation. Consequently, the earth’s temperature would be lowered because less
thermal energy would be retained by the earth’s atmosphere. In fact it has been calculated that
the temperature would be about sixty degrees Fahrenheit lower than the current temperature,
obviously too cold to sustain life. Plants would also lack a significant source of inorganic
carbon for use in photosynthesis. A small concentration of CO2 is essential for sustaining life
on earth.

27. The burning of fossil fuels by human beings has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the
earth’s atmosphere; this has been measured experimentally. Experimental data also reveal that
the global mean temperature has increased significantly over the last century. Thus, global
warming has been occurring; it is a fact. What is less certain is the correlation between the two:
is the observed global warming due directly to the increased CO2 level or some other factor?

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28. Computer-based climate models predict that the increase in CO2 levels in the earth’s
atmosphere will produce an increase in global temperature resulting in global warming. The
models predict an average temperature increase of 1.8 – 4.0 degrees Celsius by the end of the
21st century. This temperature increase would affect precipitation regions, current forest and
cropland geography, weather conditions, sea levels and the stability of polar ice caps.

29. Carbon dioxide levels have increased about 38% over the last century. The temperature has
increased approximately 1F corresponding to this increase in CO2 concentration.

30. Based on enthalpy of reaction data, comparing the number of carbon atoms per unit of energy
produced, coal is the worst offender when it comes to global warming while methane gas is
the best.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS:

31.
1 Cal
a) 1.456 Cal 1456 cal  = 1.456 Cal
1000 cal
4.18 J
b) 1.88 x 103 J 450 cal  = 1.88  103 J
1 cal
3.6  10 6 J 1 cal
c) 1.7 x 107 cal 20 kWh   = 1.7  10 7 cal
1 kWh 4.18 J
1.06  10 J
18
d) 8.9 x 109 J 84 quads  = 8.9  1019 J
1 quad
32.

1000 cal
a) 2.5  10 6 cal 2500 Calories   2.5 x 10 6 cal
1 Cal
1000 cal 4.18 J
b) 1.0  10 7 J 2500 Calories    1.0 x 10 7 J
1 Cal 1 cal
1000 cal 4.18 J 1 kWh
c) 2.9 kWh 2500 Calories     2.9 kWh
1 Cal 1 cal 3.6 x 10 6 J

33. Use conversion factors in Table 9.3

1000 cal 4.18 J 1 kWh
200 kcal     0.23 kWh
1 kcal 1 cal 3.6 x 106 J
1h 60 minutes
0.23kWh    140 min
0.100 kWh 1h

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34. Use conversion factors in Table 9-3

1000 cal 4.18 J 1 kWh
2.0  103 kcal     2.3 kWh
1 kcal 1 cal 3.6 x 106 J
1h 60 minutes
2.32 kWh    3.5  103 minutes
0.040 kWh 1h

35.
1 kW
a) $2.25 100 W x  0.100 kW
1000 W
5 hours 30 days
x  150 hours per month
1 day 1 month
0.100 kW x 150 hours = 15 kWh
$0.15
15 kWh x  $2.25
kWh
1 kW
b) $65 600 W  = 0.600 kW
1000 W
24 hours 30 days
 = 720 hours per month
1 day 1 month
0.600 kW  720 hours = 432 kWh
$0.15
432 kWh  = $65
kWh
1 kW
c) $54 12,000 W   12 kW
1000 W
1 hour 30 days
  30 hours per month
1 day 1 month
12 kW x 30 hours = 360 kWh
$0.15
360 kWh x  $54
kWh
1 kW
d) $0.75 1,000 W x  1 kW
1000 W
10 minutes 1 hour 30 days
x x  5 hours per month
60 minutes 1 day 1 month
1 kW x 5 hours = 5 kWh
$0.15
5 kWh x  $0.75
kWh

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36.
2.5 kWh 52 weeks
a) $20   130 kWh
1 week 1 year
$0.15
130kWh   $20
1 kWh

52 weeks
b) $2340 300 kWh   15600 kWh
1 year
$0.15
15600 kWh   $2340
1 kWh

52 weeks
c) $360 46 kWh   2392 kWh
1 year
$0.15
2392 kWh   $360
1 kWh

52 weeks
d) $160 20 kWh   1040 kWh
1 year
$0.15
1040 kWh   $160
1 kWh

37.
a) 100C 5/9 (212F - 32) = 100C
b) -321F First convert K to C
77 K = C + 273
-273 -273
-196 = C
then convert C to F
F = 9/5 (-196) + 32
F = -321
c) 298 K K = 25 + 273 = 298 K

d) 311 K First convert F to C

C = 5/9 (100 – 32) = 37.8 C
then convert C to K
K = 37.8 + 273
K = 311

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38.
a) 39C 5/9(102F - 32) = 39C

b) 459F First convert K to C

0 = C + 273
C = -273
then convert C to F
-273 = 5/9 (F – 32)

F = -459

c) 32F 0 = 5/9 (F – 32)


F = 32
d) 0C 273 K = C + 273 = 0C

39. 211 K C = 5/9 (-80 – 32) = -62 C

K = -62 C + 273
K = 211 K

40. 330 K C = 5/9 (134 – 32) = 57 C

K = 57 C + 273
K = 330 K

41. Refer to Table 9-6 for the heats of combustion.

1000 g - 21 kJ
a) -1.1 x 106 kJ Pinewood: 50 kg    -1.1 x 10 6 kJ
1kg 1g
(negative sign indicates energy is emitted)
1000 g - 28 kJ
b) -5.6 x 107 kJ Coal: 2000 kg    -5.6 x 107 kJ
1kg 1g
6
c) -1.9 x 10 kJ Gasoline (isooctane):
1000 mL 0.7028 g - 44.5 kJ
60 L     -1.9 x 10 6 kJ
1L 1 mL 1g
42.
Refer to Table 9-6 for the heats of combustion.
1g
a) Pinewood: 3.7 x 102 g  7.8 x 10 3 kJ   3.7  10 2 g pinewood
- 21 kJ
1g
b) Octane: 1.8 x 102 g  7.8 x 10 3 kJ   1.8  10 2 g octane
- 44.5 kJ
1g
c) Ethanol: 2.6 x 102 g  7.8 x 10 3 kJ   2.6  10 2 g ethanol
- 30 kJ
1g
d) Coal: 2.8 x 102 g  7.8 x 10 3 kJ   2.8  10 2 g coal
- 28 kJ
1g
e) Natural gas: 1.6 x 102 g  7.8 x 10 3 kJ   1.6  10 2 g natural gas
- 49.3 kJ

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43.
a) 137 kJ 455 kJ x 0.3 = 137 kJ
b) 990 kcal Refer to Figure 9.4:2200 kcal x 0.45 = 990 kcal
5.0 x103 kJ
c) 2.5 x 104 kJ  2.5x10 4 kJ
0.20
1.0 x10 9 J
d) 2.9 x 109 J  2.9 x 109 J
0.34

44.
1000 MJ 10 6 J 1 cal 1 kcal kcal
a) 2.4 x 105 kcal/s     2.4  10 5
sec 1 MJ 4.18 J 1000 cal sec
kcal
2.4  105
b) 2.9 x 103 MJ/s sec  7.1  105 kcal/sec or 1000 MJ  2.9 103 MJ/s
0.34 0.34
kcal 1 g 1 kg kg
c) 1.0 x 102 kg coal/s - 7.1  10 5    1.0  10 2 coal
sec - 6.8 kcal 1000 g sec
kcal 1g 1 kg kg
d) 60 kg natural gas/s - 7.1  10 5    60 natural gas
sec - 11.8 kcal 1000 g sec

45.
5.0 x 10 3 kJ
a) 1.3  10 2 g natural gas  6.25 x10 3 kJ
0.80
1g
- 6.25 x 10 3 kJ   1.3  10 2 g
- 49.3 kJ

5.0 x 10 3 kJ
b) 6.25  10 3 kJ from electricity  6.25 x 10 3 kJ
0.80
6.25 x 10 3 kJ
2.08  10 4 kJ from coal  2.08 x 10 4 kJ
0.3
1g
7.4  10 2 g coal - 2.08 x 10 4 kJ   7.4  10 2 g
- 28 kJ

46.
1g 1
a) 51 g natural gas 2.0 x 10 3 kJ    51 g
49.3 kJ 0.80

1g 1 1
b) 3.0  10 2 g coal 2.0 x 10 3 kJ     3.0  10 2 g
28 kJ 0.80 0.30

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47.
This is a stoichiometry problem

CH4 + 2 O2   2 H2 O + CO2
a) 360 g CO2 produced.
From the balanced combustion equation above, 1 mol of methane (natural gas) produces 1
mol of carbon dioxide gas (CO2).
Use answer in 45a. to determine the number of grams of CO2 produced.
1 mol CH 4 1 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
130 g CH 4 x x x  360 g CO 2
16.04 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 1 mol CO 2
b) 4.0 x 103 g CO2 produced.
Use 2.08 x 104 kJ from 45b.
1 gram CO 2
2.08 x104 kJ   4.0  103 g CO 2
5.25 kJ

48.
a) CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O

1 mole CH 4 1 mole CO 2 44 g CO 2
1.4  10 2 g CO 2 51 g     1.4  10 2 g
16 g CH 4 1 mole CH 4 1 moleCO 2

1 1
b) 1.6  10 3 g CO 2 2.0 x 10 3    8333 kJ
0.80 0.30

1 g CO 2
8333 kJ   1.6  10 3 g CO 2
5.25 kJ

49.
a) 2 C 8 H 18  25 O 2  16 CO 2  18 H 2 O

3.78 L 1000 mL 0.79 g 1 mol

b) 393 moles C 8 H 18 15.0 gal      393 moles C 8 H 18
1 gal 1L 1 mL 114 g

16 moles CO 2 44.01 g CO 2 1 kg
c) 138 kg CO 2 393 moles C 8 H 18     138 kg
2 moles C 8 H 18 1 mol 1000g

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50. This is a stoichiometry problem.

a) 2.8  1014 moles CO 2 per year
1000 g 1 mol C 8 H 18 16 moles CO 2
4.0 x 1012 kg C 8 H 18     2.8 x 1014 moles CO 2
1 kg 114.2 g C 8 H 18 2 moles C 8 H 18

22.4 L
b) 6.3  1015 L CO 2 per year 2.8 x 1014 moles CO 2   6.3 x 1015 L CO 2
1 mol CO 2

1 year
c) 240 years 1.5 x 1018 L   240 years
6.3 x 1015 L

SOLUTIONS TO POINTS TO PONDER

51. The second law of thermodynamics states that all changes occur with an increase in entropy.
As time moves forward, the total entropy of the universe is increasing. To reverse time
perfectly would thus necessitate the total entropy to decrease, which of course contravenes the
second law. This is a different state of affairs from reversing an individual chemical process,
which involves a negative entropy change, because this can be achieved provided there is a
compensating positive entropy change elsewhere.

52. Answers will vary.

53. A canteen of water would be preferred over a hot rock at the same temperature because the
heat capacity of the water will be much greater than the rock. Therefore the canteen of water
would provide more heat – gram for gram - than the rock.

54. Answers will vary.

55. The friend from high school is either deluding himself or trying to con me because he is
claiming to get something for nothing which in energy terms contravenes the first law of
thermodynamics. The energy generated from his machine to power the house must have come
from somewhere, presumably the house, in the first place. So the net gain is zero. The laws of
thermodynamics are inviolable. That at least is a safe bet.

56. The carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is a very small percentage of the total but that is
really irrelevant as far as the magnitude of its impact on climate is concerned. Life becomes
unsustainable if either that small fraction is removed altogether or increases slightly as is the
current state of affairs. The point is that the CO2 molecule absorbs infrared radiation strongly
thus preventing its escape from the atmosphere.

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SOLUTIONS TO FEATURE PROBLEMS:

57.
a) 2012 95 quad
1949 -35 quad
60 quad increase
60 quad
yearly avg. increase   0.95 quad/yr
63 yrs
b) 80 quad – 35 quad = 45 quad
Yearly average increase = 45 quad/63 yrs = 0.71 quad/yr
c) 80 quad – 95 quad = - 15 quad

58.
a) 5.5 – 2.2 = 3.3 billion metric tons
3.3/2.2 = 1.5 x 100 % = 150 % increase
b) 150 %/62 yrs = 2.4 %/yr

59. Answers will vary.

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