THE MÖBIUS TRANSFORMATION

LECTURES NOTES IN MAT2410

Definition 1. Let f (z) = (az + b)/(cz + d) with a, b, c, d 2 C and ad bc 6= 0.

Then f is called a fractional linear transformation, or Möbius transformation.
Note: The condition ad bc 6= 0 ensures that the following conditions hold:
• Neither az + b nor cz + d vanish identically.
• a and c cannot both be zero (in which case f would be constant).
• b and d cannot be both zero (in which case f would be constant).
• In general, the denominator cannot be a constant multiple of the numerator.
Indeed, if k(az + b) = cz + d for some k 2 C, then equation coefficients
yields ka = c, kb = d and ad bc = a(kb) b(ka) = 0.
Thus ad bc 6= 0 ensures that az + b and cz + d do not have a com-
mon factor, and therefore f (z) is a well-defined non-constant holomorphic
function P ! P.
Let GL2 (C) denote the group of 2 ⇥ 2 matrices M with complex entries and
non-zero determinants.1
⇢ 
a b
GL2 (C) = M = | a, b, c, d 2 C, det(M ) = ad bc 6= 0
c d
As before, M 2 GL2 (C) defines fM : P ! P with
az + b
fM (z) = .
cz + d
Recall that fM (1) = a/c if c 6= 0, fM ( d/c) = 1 if c 6= 0 and fM (1) = 1 if
c = 0.
Theorem 1. Every f 2 Aut(P) can be written in the form f = fM for some
M 2 GL2 (C). Conversely, fM 2 Aut(P) for all M 2 GL2 (C).
Proof. As before, if M, N 2 GL2 (C) then fM fN = fM ·N . Thus each fM 2 Aut(P)
with inverse fM 1 .
Let f 2 Aut(P). By our previous discussion f must be rational, and non-constant
with numerator and denominator of degree at most 1. This is captured precisely by
⇥ f ⇤(z) = (az + b)/(cz + d) with a, b, c, d 2 C and ad bc 6= 0. So f = fM
saying that
for M = ac db . Thus Aut(P) = {z 7! (az + b)/(cz + d) | a, b, c, d 2 C, ad bc 6= 0}.
⇤
Note: Let M 2 GL2 (C) and 2 C⇤ . Then we have
az + b az + b
f (z) = fM (z) = = =f M (z),
cz + d cz + d
and ( a)( d) ( c)( b) = 2 (ad bc) 6= 0, so M 2 GL2 (C) defines the same
linear transformation as M for all 2 C⇤ . We are therefore free to choose so
1This group is called the general linear group.

1
2 THE MÖBIUS TRANSFORMATION LECTURES NOTES IN MAT2410

that det M = 1, that is we can find M 2 SL2 (C) with

⇢ 
a b
SL2 (C) = M = | a, b, c, d 2 C, det M = 1
c d

such that f = fM . As before, M, M both in SL2 (C) defines the same fM = f M,

so we identify them to get P SL2 (C). We have
SL2 (C) ⇠ GL2 (C)
Aut(P) ⇠
= P SL2 (C) ⇠
= = .
{±I} C⇤
The group Aut(P).

1. Properties of Möbius transformations

Lemma 1. Every Möbius transformation is the composition of four elementary
maps (each a Möbius transformation):
a) Translations, z 7! z + z0 , z0 2 C,
b) Dilations, z 7! z, > 0, 2 R,
c) Rotations, z 7! ei✓ z, ✓ 2 R.
d) Inversions, z 7! 1/z.

Proof. Let f 2 Aut(P), f (z) = (az + b)/(cz + d). If c = 0, then f (z) = (a/d)z + b/d
which is a composition of a scaling and a rotation, followed by a translation. If
c 6= 0 write
bc ad 1 a
f (z) = · +
c2 z + d/c c
which is a translation, inversion, scaling, rotation and translation (in that order).
⇤

Fact:
• Let S ⇢ C be a circle. Using the correspondence C $ P \ {1} given by
stereographic projection, S maps to a circle S 0 ⇢ P \ {1}. Conversely, any
circle S 0 in P not through 1 maps to a circle S in C.
• Let L ⇢ C be a straight line. Using C $ P \ {1}, L maps to L0 ⇢ P, a
circle through 1 with the point at infinity removed. Conversely, if L0 ⇢ P
is a circle through 1 with 1 removed, then stereographic projection of L0
gives a line L in C.
Summary:
• Circles in C $ circles in P not through 1.
• Lines in C $ circles in P through 1.

Proposition 1. Möbius transformations preserve circles in P. That is, a Möbius

transformation maps circles in P to circles in P.

Proof. Let S be a circle in C. Clearly, translations, dilations and rotation all map
S to another circle in C. Similarly, if L is a line in C then translations, dilations,
rotations all map L to another line L0 and also map 1 to 1. So these three types
of elementary maps preserve circles in P.
 THE MÖBIUS TRANSFORMATION LECTURES NOTES IN MAT2410 3

Let |z z0 | = r be a circle in C and let w = 1/z. We get2

|z z0 |2 = r2 =)(z z0 )(z̄ z¯0 ) r2 = 0
=)|z|2 2Re(z̄z0 ) + |z0 |2 r2 = 0
1 Re(wz0 )
=) 2 + |z0 |2 r2 = 0.
|w|2 |w|2
If |z0 | = r, we get 2Re(wz0 ) = 1, letting w = u + iv, z0 = x0 + iy0 , |z0 | = r
implies that 2(ux0 vy0 ) = 1, a line in C. (The circle passes through the origin).
Otherwise, we get 1 2Re(wz0 ) + (|z0 |2 r2 )|w|2 = 0
2Re(wz0 (|z0 |2 r2 )
=) |w|2 + =0
|z0 |2 r2 (|z0 |2 r 2 )2
2
z¯0 r2
=) w =0
|z0 |2
(|z0 r2 r 2 )2 |2
which is the equation of a circle in w.
Otherwise, if we have a line L : 2Re(z z¯0 ) = a, a 2 R, then w = 1/z gives
2Re(wz0 ) = a|w|2 . If a = 0 (so that L is through the origin), then 2Re(wz0 ) = 0 is
another line (through the origin).
Otherwise, we get wz0 + w̄z¯0 aww̄ = 0
=) ww̄ w̄z¯0 /a + |z0 |2 /a2 |z0 |2 /a2 = 0
wz0 /a
⇣ z ⌘2
2 0
=) |w z¯0 /a| = ,
a
a circle in C. Thus all 4 elementary maps preserve circles in P. Hence every
composition of elementary maps also preserves circles in P, and this gives all Möbius
transformations by the previous lemma. ⇤

2. How many fixed points can a Möbius transformation have?

Let f 2 Aut(P), f (z) = (az + b)/(cz + d). Suppose z is fixed by f ,
az + b
f (z) = z = ) cz 2 + dz = az + b ) cz 2 + (d a)z b = 0.
cz + d
If c 6= 0 this is a quadratic and has either 1 or 2 solutions in C.3 If c = 0 and d 6= a
then this is linear and has 1 solution in C. But then f (z) = (a/d)z + b/d satisfies
f (1) = 1 and 1 is also a fixed point. If c = 0 and a = d, then f (z) = z + b/d.
If b 6= 0 then f (1) = 1 is the only fixed point of f . (Otherwise f (z) = z is the
identity map and fixes every point of P). Thus every f 2 Aut(P), f 6= IdP has
either 1 or 2 fixed points in P.
Lemma 2. A Möbius transformation is completely determined by its action on
three distinct points.
Proof. Let S, T 2 Aut(P) and suppose there exists points a, b, c 2 P such that
S(a) = T (a) = ↵, S(b) = T (b) = and S(c) = T (c) = . But then S T 1 2 Aut(P)
is a Möbius transformation, and S T 1 (↵) = S(a) = ↵. Similarly, S T 1 ( ) =
and S T 1 ( ) = . So S T 1 has 3 distinct fixed points hence S T 1 = Id
which implies that S = T . ⇤
2z̄ = 1/w̄ = w/|w|2 .
3Also note that 1 is not fixed.
4 THE MÖBIUS TRANSFORMATION LECTURES NOTES IN MAT2410

Let z1 , z2 and z3 be distinct points in P. Define S 2 Aut(P) by

8 z z1 z2 z3
>
> z z3 · z2 z1 z1 , z2 , z3 2 C
>
< z2 z3 z1 = 1
S(z) = zz zz13
>
> z2 = 1
>
: zz zz31
z2 z1 z3 = 1
Then S(z1 ) = 0, S(z2 ) = 1, S(Z3 ) = 1, and S is the only Möbius transformation
with this property.
Definition 2. Let z0 , z1 , z2 z3 2 P. Their cross-ratio is defined as
z0 z1 z2 z3
[z0 : z1 : z2 : z3 ] = · = S(z0 )
z0 z3 z2 z1
where S 2 Aut(P) satisfies S(z1 ) = 0, S(z2 ) = 1 and S(z3 ) = 1.
Examples:
• [z1 : z1 : z2 : z3 ] = 0
• [z2 : z1 : z2 : z3 ] = 1
• [z : 0 : 1 : 1] = z
• [z : 1 : 1 : 0] = z1
Proposition 2. If z1 , z2 , z3 2 P are distinct points and T 2 Aut(P) is a Möbius
transformation, then
[z0 : z1 : z2 : z3 ] = [T (z0 ) : T (z1 ) : T (z2 ) : T (z3 )]
for all z0 2 P. (Möbius transformations preserve cross-ratios).
1
Proof. Let S(z) = [z : z1 : z2 : z3 ], then S 2 Aut(P). Letting M = S T we have
M (T (z1 )) = 0, M (T (z2 )) = 1 and M (T (z3 )) = 1, hence
1
M (w) = S T (w) = [w : T (z1 ) : T (z2 ) : T (z3 )] .
Letting w = T (z0 ), we get
1 1
S T (w) = S T (T (z0 )) = S(z0 ) = [T (z0 ) : T (z1 ) : T (z2 ) : T (z3 )] .
⇤
Proposition 3. Let z1 , z2 , z3 2 P be distinct, and w1 , w2 , w3 2 P be distinct. There
is a unique S 2 Aut(P) such that
S(zj ) = wj , j = 1, 2, 3.
1
Proof. Let T (z) = [z : z1 : z2 : z3 ] and R(z) = [w : w1 : w2 : w3 ]. Then S = R
T 2 AutP has the desired property. By earlier lemma, S is unique. ⇤
Recall: 3 points in C determine a circle or a line. So 3 points in P determine a circle
in P.
Proposition 4. Given two circles S, S 0 in P, there is a Möbius transformation T
taking S to S 0 .
Proof. Let z1 , z2 , z3 2 S and w1 , w2 , w3 2 S 0 and let T 2 Aut(P), T (z1 ) =
w1 , T (z2 ) = w2 and T (z3 ) = w3 . Then T (S) is a circle passing through w1 , w2 , w3
hence T (S) = S 0 . ⇤