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Definition of Terms
• Traffic Signs - device mounted on a fixed support
(permanent signs) or portable support (temporary
signs) whereby a specific message is conveyed
by means of words or symbols placed or erected for
the purpose of regulating, warning or guiding traffic.
• Regulatory Signs - signs that inform road users of
traffic laws and regulations which, if disregarded, will
constitute an offense.
• Special Instruction Signs - signs that instruct road
users to meet certain traffic rule requirements or road
condition
• Warning Signs - warn road users of condition on or
adjacent to the road that may be unexpected or
hazardous
• Guide Signs (Informative Signs) - inform and
advice road users of directions, distance, routes, the
location of services, and points of interests
• Roadwork Signs - warn or advise of temporary
hazardous conditions that could endanger road users
or the men and equipment engaged on roadwork
• Overhead Signs - signs which provide means of
displaying essential traffic information on wide multi-
lane roads, where some degree of lane use control is
required, or where side-of-road clearance is
insufficient to accommodate a
road side sign
• Barriers - highway appurtenances designed to
prevent vehicular penetration from the travel way to
areas behind the barrier such as to minimize damage
to impacting vehicles and their occupants, and to
reduce the risk of injuries to pedestrians and workers
• Flashing Lamps - warning devices used to
supplement other controls and devices necessary to
alert motorists of construction and maintenance
activities or obstructions in the roadway.
• Delineators - light retro-reflecting devices mounted
at the side of the roadway, in series, to indicate the
roadway alignment.
• Traffic Cones - devices which may be conical in
shape or tubular-shaped capable of performing
channelization of traffic which may be set on the
surface of the roadway or rigidly attached for
continued use
• Temporary Curbing - roadwork devices consisting
of pre-cast concrete sections, sandbag, and others
which, may be used to guide traffic at the construction
site.
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• Flexible Post or Bollard - device used in place of
rigid barrier posts or traffic cones with a minimum of
450 mm by 50 mm wide with alternate bands of
contrasting color as seen by approaching traffic for
delineation of traffic.
The standard colors for signs are as follows:
Red is used as a background for STOP signs, as border
color on GIVE WAY signs, warning signs and
prohibitive signs in the regulatory type.
Black is used as legend color for signs having white,
yellow, orange, fluorescent orange, fluorescent
yellow green background and as chevron for
hazard makers.
Yellow is used as background color for road signs.
White is the background color for most signs and
legends for some colored background.
Fluorescent Yellow Green is used as background
color for signs related to pedestrian movement, school
zones, and road work hazard markers to give
additional emphasis and guidance to vehicle
operators.
Fluorescent Orange is used as background color for
roadwork signs whose legends relate to personal
working.
Green is used as background color for direction signs.
Blue is used as background color for service signs.
Brown is reserved as background color for all tourist
facility directional and information signs.
Classifications of signs
Signs are classified in the following groups according to
their use.
• Regulatory Signs
• Warning Signs
• Guide Signs or Informative Sign
• Signs for Expressways
• Signs for Special Purposes
• Hazard Markers
Uniformity of application is as important as
standardization with respect to design and placement.
Identical conditions should always be treated with the
same type of signs so that road users can readily
anticipate the course of action required.
To be effective, the road sign should meet the five basic
requirements:
• Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Convey a clear, simple message
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• Command respect; and Classification of Guide Signs

• Give adequate time for proper response • Advance Direction Sign
• Intersection Direction Sign
It should be noted that when all sign rules have been • Reassurance Direction Sign
followed, some visual judgment must be exercised in • Finger Board Direction Sign
adjusting sign elements. The following general rules are • Street Name Signs
to be applied when designing the sign face. • Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs
• Cramping of legend is to be avoided; • Service Signs
• Avoid large areas of blank panel, particularly blank • Tourist Information and Tourist Destination Signs
areas not symmetrically disposed across the panel; • Route Markers
• If there are two list of legends side by side (e.g., as on
Reassurance Signs) it is necessary to left justify the left One-Way hazard markers indicate to the
list and right justify the right list; and, approaching driver the direction to be followed if
• Elements such as arrows and symbols may the marker appears in the driving path. They may
sometimes have to be larger than the principal legend point to the left or right as appropriate and are
would normally require. For example, an arrow used as follows:
relates to several lines of legends on a direction sign • To delineate an abrupt narrowing of pavement, for
example, at a lane drop;
Classification of Regulatory Signs • At exposed ends of raised median islands where
• Priority Signs traffic is required to pass to
• Direction Signs one side;
• Prohibitive or Restrictive Signs • On central island of a roundabout facing entering
• Speed Signs traffic; and
• Parking Signs • To delineate the curve approach just prior to
• Miscellaneous Signs entering an intersection.

Four Sizes for Regulatory Signs Pavement markings have definite limitations:
• Size A for urban low speed roads; • They are subject to traffic wear and require proper
• Size B for rural roads - speed limit between 60 and maintenance;
70 kph; • They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or
• Size C for high speed rural highways’ multi-lane dusty;
urban roads • They may be obscured by traffic;
• Size D for Expressways • Their effect on skid resistance requires careful
choice of materials; and
Classification of Warning Signs • They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
• Horizontal Alignment Signs
• Intersection and Junction Signs The elements to consider when planning
• Advance Warning of Traffic Control Device Signs Expressways are:
• Road Width Signs • No frontage access;
• Road Obstacle Signs • Development set well back from the highway;
• Pedestrian and School Signs • Grade separated intersections for extremely high
• Railway Level Crossing flows and other intersecting expressways;
• Supplementary Signs • Number of intersections to be minimized and
• Other Warning Signs • Where necessary or for emergency purposes,
parking/stopping to be provided clear of the main
Signs in Directional Signing series are usually carriageway.
classified into four
categories: The elements to consider when planning National
• Those installed in advance of the intersection. Roads are:
• Those installed at the intersection. • Limited frontage access
• Those on departure from the intersection. • Development set well back from the highway
• Those installed on expressways. • All access to premises provided via provincial roads

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• Number of intersections to be minimized
• Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for
minor flows and other
elements
• No roadside vendors
Color of Pavement Markings
The color of pavement markings shall be white except
for the alternative uses of
yellow as specified below:
• Double yellow no-passing lines;
• Unbroken portion of no-passing lines;
• Curb markings for prohibition of parking;
• On islands in line of traffic;
• Bus and PUJ lanes; and,
• Keep Intersection Open markings
Red shall be used in:
• No Loading/Unloading Zone; and
• Fire lane zone
Design Speed
The choice of an appropriate design speed for a road
project is important to ensure a safe design.
When choosing a design speed, the following factors
need to be considered:
• Function of the road
• Anticipated operating speed
• Anticipated speed limit
Warrants for Marking Center Lines
A center line may be marked on an urban or rural road
if one or more of the following conditions are met:
• Two lane road (greater than 6 m in width) carrying
an Annual Average Daily Traffic (ADT) in excess of
1000 vehicles;
• Two lane road (less than 6 m but more than 5 m in
width) carrying an ADT in excess of 300 vehicles; and
• Winding roads with widths of 5 m or more.
Barrier lines may consist of either:
• Two unbroken yellow lines;
• Single unbroken yellow line; or,
• Single yellow line with a broken white line.
The following are the cases where barrier lines
should be used:
• As center lines on approaches to signalized
intersections;
• As center lines of multi-lane roads where overtaking
must be prohibited, because of sign restrictions;
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• ‘No-Passing’ zones where there is a restricted sight
distance due to horizontal or vertical curves, or both;
and
• As center lines on approaches to railway crossings
Warrants for Use
Because of the high cost of installation and
maintenance, use of raised pavement markers may be
considered only in the following condition:
• In hilly areas where fog and rain are frequently the
causes of traffic accidents; and
• In winding roads and accident-prone areas.
The provision of safety sight distance depends on
the characteristics of the driver such as:
• Alertness of driver
• Recognition of the hazard
• Actions available to the driver – to stop or to change
direction
The provision of safety sight distance depends on
the characteristics of the vehicle such as:
• Type of vehicle – car or truck
• Friction between the tire and the road
• Eye height of the driver
• Speed of vehicles
The provision of safety sight distance depends on
the characteristics of the road environment such
as:
• Road geometry – grade and curvature sight
limitations
• Road surface – sealed or unsealed, smooth or rough
• Road illumination at night
Each type of sight distance consists of three
elements:
• Driver Eye Height
• Object Height
• Sight Distance
There are two components in stopping sight
distance:
• Reaction distance – the distance traveled while the
driver perceives a hazard, decides to take action, then
acts by starting to apply the brakes to start slowing
down; and
• Braking distance – the distance required for the
vehicle to slow down and stop
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Four different criteria used for the establishment
of sag vertical curves:
• Headlight sight distance
• Passenger comfort
• Drainage control
• General appearance
PPA has used MLLW as the datum line for design of
port facilities in accordance with charts. But there
are many ports of which low tide go down very
often below MLLW.
For instance: (Port Cebu)
According to the tide table (1991) of NAMRIA, the
frequency of tide below MLLW is 213 times/year
and the maximum amount of the value is -0.51 m.
Under this condition it is dangerous for ships to
utilize the port.
Shoulder paving is a valuable method of providing:
• Integrity of the pavement
• Width to place edgeline pavement markings
• Additional safety to prevent vehicles skidding or
drivers losing control in gravel.
• Low maintenance costs compared with unpaved
shoulders
Element of Berthing Facility:
• Planned Water Depth
• Design Water Depth
• Coping/Crown Elevation
• Length - Standard Part, Approach Part
• Width of Apron
• Slope of Apron
There are four types of escape ramps:
• Sand Pile
• Descending Grade
• Horizontal Grade
• Ascending Grade
Types of intersections that generally exist on the
road network are:
• Unflared and unchannelized intersections (without
widening or traffic islands)
• Flared and unchannelized intersections (with
widening but without traffic islands) and
• Channelized intersections (traffic islands to guide
traffic)
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Principles of good design to reduce the likelihood
of traffic accidents
include:
• Minimize the speed of vehicles at potential collision
points
•Separate movements and points of conflict by
channelization, or in some situations, prohibit certain
movements (and provide for them at other
intersections along the route)
• Control movements to reduce the possibility of
conflict and
• Clearly define vehicle paths by use of pavement
markings
PAVEMENT MARKINGS
1. Pavement and Curb Markings
Color of Pavement Markings
The color of pavement markings shall be white
except for the alternative uses of yellow as
specified below:
• Double yellow no-passing lines;
• Unbroken portion of no-passing lines;
• Curb markings for prohibition of parking;
• On islands in line of traffic;
• Bus and PUJ lanes; and
• Keep Intersection Open markings.
Red shall be used in:
• No Loading/Unloading Zone; and
• Fire Lane zone
Black may be used in hazard markers to warn road
users at locations where the protruding objects
such as bridge piers, traffic islands and other
permanent objects on or near the roadway.
However, the use of black does not establish it as
standard color for pavement marking.
a. Longitudinal Lines – which are those laid in the
direction of travel. These include:
• Center Line – used to separate opposite
traffic movements of an undivided roadway
and is generally placed centrally on all roads
and bridges 6.0 m or more in width.
A center line may be marked on an urban or
rural road if one or more of the following
conditions are met:
- Two lane road (greater than 6 m in
width) carrying an annual average
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daily traffic (ADT) in excess of 1000
vehicles;
- Two lane road (less than 6 m but
more than 5 m in width) carrying an
ADT in excess of 300 vehicles; and,
- Winding roads with widths of 5 m or
more.
Irrespective of these warrants, marking of
other sections may be desirable where one
of the following conditions is present:
- Frequent horizontal or vertical
curves, or both;
- Sub-standard curves;
- In areas subject to fog;
- On approaches to major roads;
- Where accident record indicates the
need for center lines;
- Continuity of arterial road; and,
- Heavy night traffic or tourist traffic,
or both.
• Lane Line – broken lines used to separate
adjacent lanes of traffic moving in the same
direction.
Lane Lines must not be continued on the
following cases:
- Across signalized intersections.
However, lane lines of low priority
road must be discontinued at the
intersection;
- Across side street entrances unless
the street is one-way street (going in
only);
- Past the start of the taper at which a
multi-lane road narrows down.
• Barrier Lines may consist of either:
Double Unbroken Yellow Line – should
only be used where overtaking from both
directions of the road and all crossing
movements are prohibited.
Single Unbroken Yellow Line – should be
used where overtaking from both directions
of the road are prohibited. However,
crossing movements are permitted.
Single Yellow Line with a Broken White
Line – combinations of an unbroken yellow
line and a white separation line have the
same regulatory significance as a double
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unbroken yellow line for vehicles
proceeding in the direction where the
unbroken yellow line appears on the right of
the markings, but vehicles traveling in the
other direction are permitted to cross this
line.
The following are the cases where barrier
lines should be used:
- As center lines on approaches to
signalized intersections;
- As center lines of multi-lane roads
where overtaking must be
prohibited, because of sight
restrictions;
- ‘No-Passing’ zones where there is a
restricted sight distance due to
horizontal or vertical curves, or
both;
- As center lines on approaches to
railway crossings.
No Passing Zone – shall be established at
vertical and horizontal curves and
elsewhere on two and three- lane highways,
where passing must be prohibited because
of dangerously restricted sight distance or
other hazardous conditions.
• Edge Line – used to delineate the edge of the
traveled way to distinguish it from the
shoulder area. It should be a solid white line
between 100 mm and 200 mm wide. Studs
or raised pavement markers may be used in
conjunction with edge lines where there are
paved shoulders.
The purpose of installing edge lines is
generally based on the following:
- To discourage travel on road
shoulders;
- To make driving safer and more
assured, particularly at night and
during inclement weather by
providing continuous guide for the
driver;
- To act as a guide past objects which
are close to the edge of pavement
and which constitute a hazard;
- To prevent parking at or near
intersections.
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• Continuity Line – used to indicate that
portion of a carriageway assigned to through
traffic. It is intended to be crossed by traffic
turning at an intersection, or entering or
leaving an auxiliary lane at its start or finish.
• Transition Lines – used to guide traffic
safely past obstructions on roadways such as
islands, median strips, bridge piers or
indicate changes in the width of the traveled
portion of the roadway and an increase or
reduction in traffic lanes.
b. Transverse Lines – which are laid across the
direction of travel. These include:
• Stop Line - indicates the position beyond
which the vehicles should not proceed when
required by control devices like signals or by
traffic police.
• Give Way Line – markings consisting of a
two adjacent broken white lines across the
carriageway at which drivers must give way
to all traffic.
• Pedestrian Crossing Markings
Zebra (non-signalized crossing) – consists
of series of longitudinal bars. The bars are
placed parallel to the road center line with
gaps of equal width to the bar.
Crosswalks (signalized crossing) –
defined by a pair of solid white lines across
the road surface. They should be used in
conjunction with mid-block or intersection
signals.
• Roundabout Holding Lines – holding lines
at roundabouts shall consist of broken
reflectorized white line. The leading edge of
the holding line forms a prolongation of the
curb and the painted outline of the traffic
island on the approach.
c. Other Lines
• Turn Lines – may be used to guide vehicles
through a turning movement at
intersections. Turn lines, if used, should be
so designed as to indicate the proper course
for turning vehicles without being
needlessly confusing to through traffic or the
traffic making other turns.
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• Parking Bay Lines – there are two types of
parking bays: parallel parking and angle
parking.
• Painted Median – painted median islands
are used on wide roads where light traffic
volume cannot justify the installation of
solid curbed median island.
• Bus and PUJ Lane line – an unbroken
yellow line used to separate other vehicles
from buses and PUJ’s.
• Loading and Unloading Bay Lane Line – an
unbroken white line used to indicate the
proper location of loading and unloading
zone of public utility vehicles preferably
with parking restriction.
• ‘Do Not Block Intersection’ Lines – consist
of yellow box within the intersection and
yellow diagonal lines forming an ‘X’ inside
the box.
d. Other Markings
• Approach Markings to Islands and
Obstructions – diagonal marking on
approaches to obstructions and median
islands shall consist of a splayed line or lines
extending from the center of lane line to a
point to the right side or to both sides, of the
approach end of the obstruction.
• Chevron Markings – often used to guide
traffic into the right turning lanes separated
by an island, such as a corner island at a
signalized intersection.
• Diagonal Markings – are placed on a sealed
shoulders or other sealed portion of the road
where traffic is not desired.
• Rumble Strips – a type of thermoplastic
lane marking designed to aid and provide
motorists with visual, audio and motion
warnings on the road. Rumble strips are
highly visible horizontal lines on the road
that produce a humming sound and ample
bumpy ride to the motorists when ran over.
It promotes better traffic safety because it
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stimulates more the human sense while
driving.
• Marking on Exit and Entrance Ramps of
Expressways
Exit Ramp Marking – a solid line shall be
placed along the sides of the triangular
neutral area between the edges of the main
roadway and the exit ramp lane at the gore
of every ramp terminal.
Entrance Ramp Marking – a solid white
line shall be placed along the side of the
triangular neutral area adjacent to the ramp
lane at the gore of every entrance ramp
terminal.
• Curb Markings for Parking and
Loading/Unloading Restrictions - The
curb markings for parking restrictions shall
be of solid yellow color, covering the face of
the curb. Such markings are usually
supplemented by parking prohibition signs
to indicate the extent of the area where
parking is legally prohibited at all times.
On the other hand, curb markings for
loading/unloading restrictions shall be of
solid red color applied in the same manner
as with parking restrictions.
• Approach to Railroad Crossing –
Pavement markings consisting of a cross, the
letters RR, a ‘No Passing’ zone marking, and
a double solid stop bar shall be placed on all
paved approaches to level or at-grade
railroad crossing. Such markings shall be
white except the NO PASSING barrier line
which shall be yellow.
• MESSAGES AND SYMBOLS
Messages
Messages when painted on a pavement
should be limited to three words or less.
They shall only be used to supplement other
traffic control devices. The distance between
words is variable depending on the message
and location at which it is based (usually
twice the length of the word if achievable).
Messages are white in color.
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Some of the only permitted message
markings are:
STOP
KEEP CLEAR
SCHOOL
PED XING
RAILROAD X’ING
SIGNAL AHEAD
NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN
BUS & PUJ LANE
Symbols
Give Way Symbol – the symbol used to
supplement the give way sign consists of an
isosceles triangle.
Pavement Arrows – are white in color, used
for lane use control.
Numerals – The only numerals that should
be used are those associated with speed
limits at locations to supplement speed limit
signs which are continuously disregarded by
drivers or which are obscured and cannot be
read easily.
2. Object Markings
Physical obstruction in or near a roadway that
constitute serious hazard to traffic, including
installations designed for the control of traffic
shall be adequately marked. Typical
obstructions of this character are:
- Bridge supports
- Monuments
- Traffic islands
- Beacon, signal and sign support
- Loading islands
- Railroads and draw-bridge gate
- Posts of narrow bridges
- Underpass piers and abutments
- Culvert headwalls
- Poles, trees, rocks, and structures
giving restrictions to overhead
clearance
3. Reflectorized Markings
• Raised Pavement Markers – small devices
which are fixed to the concrete pavement
surface to stimulate or supplement painted
pavement markings. Because of the high cost
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of installation and maintenance, use of Road Environment

raised pavement markers may be - Road geometry – grade and curvature
considered only in the following conditions: sight limitations
- In hilly areas where fog and rain are - Road surface – sealed or unsealed,
frequently the causes of traffic smooth or rough
accidents; and, - Road illumination at night
- In winding roads and accident-prone
areas. Sight Distance Elements
Each type of sight distance consists of three
• Hazard Markers elements:
• Delineators - Driver Eye Height – the observed eye
height of a driver;
SAFETY DESIGN - Object Height – a possible object in
the path of a vehicle;
The first aim of safe road design is to ensure that road - Sight Distance – dependent on design
users remain safely on the road. This depends on the speed and vehicle type. It is a major
following factors: road safety design control when
- a sound road surface; determining the horizontal and
- an adequate width or cross-section; vertical geometric alignment for a new
- horizontal and vertical alignment; or rehabilitation design.
- good visibility/ sight distance;
- delineation and signing; Stopping Sight Distance
- provision for pedestrians, pedal cyclists and There are two components in stopping sight
people with disabilities; distance:
- management of traffic conflicts at - Reaction Distance – the distance
intersections; and, traveled while the driver perceives a
- speed management. hazard, decides to take action, then
acts by starting to apply the brakes to
• Road Surface start slowing down. The reaction time
The areas where the state of the road surface to be used for road safety design is 2.5
condition and good texture of the road surface is seconds.
particularly important are where vehicles are - Braking Distance – the distance
required to break or maneuver suddenly such as required for the vehicle to slow down
- On the approach to traffic signals and stop.
- At roundabouts
- Around tight curves • Vertical Geometry
- On downhill slopes A vertical curve is expressed as a K value, which is the
length of vertical curve in meters for 1% change in
• Sight Distance grade.
The provision of safety sight distance depends on the Minimum K value vertical curves should be selected
characteristics of the driver, the vehicle, and the on the basis of three controlling factors:
environment. - Sight distance is a requirement in all
Driver situations for driver safety;
- Alertness of driver - Appearance is generally required in low fill
- Recognition of the hazard and flat topography situations; and,
- Actions available to the driver – to stop - Riding comfort is a general requirement with
or to change direction specific need on approaches to a floodway
Vehicle where the length of depression needs to be
- Type of vehicle – car or truck minimized.
- Friction between the tire and the road At least four different criteria are used for the
- Eye height of the driver establishment of sag vertical curves. These are:
- Speed of vehicles - Headlight sight distance
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- Passenger comfort Principles of good design to reduce the likelihood

- Drainage control of traffic accidents include:
- General appearance - Minimize the speed of vehicles at potential
collision points;
• Cross Section - Separate movements and points of conflict
Shoulders by channelization, or in some situations,
Shoulder paving is a valuable method of prohibit certain movements (and provide
providing: for them at other intersections along the
- Integrity of the pavement; route);
- Width to place edge line pavement - Control movements to reduce the
markings; possibility of conflict; and
- Additional safety to prevent vehicles - Clearly define vehicle paths by use of
skidding or drivers losing control in pavement markings
gravel; and,
- Low maintenance costs compared with Signal Controlled Intersections
unpaved shoulders
Traffic signals improve safety and simplify
• Overtaking Provision (Auxiliary Lanes) decision making. They also:
- Separate vehicle movements in time. This
The design of overtaking lanes and climbing lanes minimizes conflicts.
requires the consideration of the: - Minimize delays at intersection;
- Initial diverge taper - Enable vehicles from a side road to cross
- Auxiliary lane length or enter the major road; and
- End or merge taper - Assist pedestrians in crossing the road.
Emergency Escape Ramps
Where long steep grades occur, it is desirable Control of Conflicts
to provide emergency escape ramps. These are to A conflict point occurs where two travel paths
be located to slow or stop an out of control vehicle interact or cross. Safe intersection design uses the
away from the main traffic stream. following principles:
- Minimizing the number of conflicts;
There are four types of escape ramps: - Minimizing the area of conflict;
- Sand Pile; - Separating points of conflict;
- Descending Grade; - Giving preference to major movements;
- Horizontal grade; and and
- Ascending Grade - Minimizing relative speed of conflicting
movements.
• Intersections A large area of conflict can occur:
- when roads intersect at an acute angle;
The types of intersections that generally exist on - where wide roads intersect; and
the road network are: - with offset cross intersections
- Unflared and unchannelized
intersections (without widening or traffic Control of Speed
islands); The speed of vehicles through an intersection
- Flared and unchannelized intersections depends on:
(with widening but without traffic - Alignment
islands) - Road environment;
- Channelized intersections (with traffic - Traffic volume and composition; and
islands to guide traffic) - Traffic control devices

Common types of intersection are cross Relative Speed – a vectoral speed of convergence
intersections, T-intersections, Y-intersections, of the vehicles in a conflict
other multi-legged junctions and roundabouts. maneuver.
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Low relative speed conditions at intersections can
be obtained by:
- Choosing a layout where conflicting
movements cross at angles less than or
equal to 90 degrees;
- Providing a layout or alignment that
slows down approaching vehicles; and
- Providing deceleration lanes.
Turning Lanes
Provision for turning lanes can generally be
provided in the following ways:
- Shared turning and through lane;
- Flaring and taper; or
- Separate lane for deceleration and storage
• Safety of the Roadside
Right Turn Slip Lanes – provided to minimize the
delays for right turning vehicles and to
make the right turn movement easier and
safer.
A traffic island is provided with this treatment to:
- Guide traffic into defined paths;
- Separate through, turning and opposing
traffic movements;
- Give advance warning of the intersection
to approaching drivers;
- Provide refuge for pedestrians; and
- Prohibit undesirable or unnecessary
traffic movements
Roundabouts – consists of a circular island in the
middle of an intersection and traffic moves
around it in an anticlockwise direction.
Roundabouts may be appropriate in the following
situations:
- At intersections with high accident rate;
- When physical control of speed is
desirable;
- When the flow on each approach are
balanced and capacity analysis indicates
that volumes can be managed;
- When the volume of left turners is
significant;
- If traffic signals may be inefficient e.g. due
to a large number of phases; and
- For multi-legged intersections.
Roundabouts may not be appropriate in the
following situations:
- Where satisfactory geometric design
cannot be provided due to insufficient
space of unfavorable topography;
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- Where unbalanced flows with high volumes
are on one or more approaches;
- Where a major road intersects a minor road
and a roundabout would result in
unacceptable delay to the major road; or
- Where there is considerable pedestrian
activity and due to high traffic volumes, it
would be difficult for pedestrians to cross at
the intersection.
Things to avoid:
- Straight approaches on high speed roads
- Central island too small to provide
deflection; and
- Unbalanced traffic flows.
Clear Zone – provides a balance between
recovery area for every errant vehicle, the
cost of providing that area, and the
probability of an errant vehicle
encountering a hazard.
Roadside and Median Safety Barriers
The warrant for the use of safety barriers can be
established considering:
- Fore slope or back slope steepness and
height;
- Unforgiving hazards within the clear
zone; and
- Water hazard within the clear zone.
PORTS AND HARBORS
• Harbor - A protected water area to provide
safe and suitable accommodation for ships for
the transfer of cargo, refueling, repairs, etc.
Harbors may be subdivided into:
a. Natural harbors: harbors protected
from storms and waves by the natural
configuration of the land.
b. Semi-natural harbors: harbors with
both natural and artificial protection.
c. Artificial harbors: harbors protected
from the effect of waves by means of
breakwaters, or harbors created by
dredging.
• Port – A sheltered place where the ship may
receive or discharge cargo. It includes the
harbor with its approach channels and
anchorage places. Ports may be subdivided
into:
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a. Ocean ports: ports located on coasts,
tidal estuaries or river mouths where
the port can be reached directly by
ocean-going ships.
b. Inland waterway ports: ports
located on navigable rivers, channels
and lakes.
• Fairway - a navigable channel in a harbor,
offshore etc; the usual course taken by vessels
in such places.
• Berth - A place where the ship can moor. In the
case of a quay or jetty structure, it will include
the section of the structure where labor,
equipment and cargo move to and from the
ship.
• Berth structure - An artificial landing place
for the loading and unloading of ships. Berth
structures can be subdivided into:
a. Wharf - A continuous structure built
parallel to along the margin of the sea
or alongside riverbanks, canals, or
waterways where vessels may lie
alongside to receive or discharge
cargo, embark or disembark
passengers or lie at rest.
• Quay – this term can be substituted to wharf
when applied to great solid structures in large
ports.
In stability calculation of gravity type
quaywall, the following matters should
be examined:
(a) Sliding of the wall
(b) Bearing capacity of foundation
(c) Overturning of the wall
(d) Circular slip and settlement
b. Pier – Any structure built into the sea
but not parallel to the coastline and
includes any stage, stair landing place,
landing stage jetty, floating barge, and
pontoon, any bridge or other works
connected there with.
Jetty – a landing stage or small pier at
which boats can dock or be moored.
c. Dolphin: a berth structure for
mooring the ship on the open sea; An
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isolated piled or gravity structure used
either to maneuver a ship or to
facilitate holding it in position at its
berth.
• Dry Dock – a type of dock consisting of a
rectangular basin dug into the shore of a body
of water and provided with a removable
enclosure wall or gate on the side toward the
water, used for major repairs and overhaul of
vessels.
• Waves
Significant Wave (significant wave height
H1/3 and significant wave period T1/3)
The waves in a wave group are
rearranged in the order of their
heights and the highest one-third are
selected; the significant wave is then
the hypothetical wave whose height
and period are the mean height and
period of the selected waves.
Highest Wave (highest wave height Hmax and
highest period Tmax) is the highest
wave in a wave group.
Highest One-Tenth Wave (H1/10, T1/10) is the
wave whose height and period are
equal to the mean height and period
of the highest one-tenth of the
waves in a wave group.
Mean wave (mean wave height H , mean
period T ) is the wave whose height
and period are equal to the mean
height and period of all of the waves
in a wave group.
Deepwater Waves (deepwater wave height
H0 and deepwater wave period T0)
is the wave at a place where the
water depth is at least one-half of
the wavelength; the wave
parameters are expressed with
those of the significant wave at this
place.
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Equivalent Deepwater Wave Height (H0’) is
a hypothetical wave height that has
been corrected for the effects of
planar topographic changes such as
refraction and diffraction; it is
expressed with the significant wave
height.
Wave Refraction occurs in intermediate
depth to shallow waters. The
change in wave height and wave
direction due to the change in local
wave velocity caused in water
depth.
Wave Diffraction is a phenomenon whereby
waves wheel into region that is
screened by something like a
breakwater.
Wave Reflection the waves reflected from
port and harbor facilities can
exercise a large influence on the
navigation of vessels and cargo
handling. For example, waves
reflected from vertical breakwaters
can cause disturbances in
navigation channels, and multiple
reflected waves from quaywalls can
cause agitations within harbors.
Wave Shoaling shoaling is one of the
important factors that lead to
changing of the wave height in
coastal waters. It exemplifies the
fact that the wave height in shallow
waters is also governed by the
water depth and wave period.
Wave Breaking At places where the water
depth is no more than about three
times the equivalent deepwater
wave height decreases rapidly of
the wave height due to wave
breaking shall be considered.
• Tides and Abnormal Water Level
Astronomical tide is the periodic rise and fall
of sea level in response to the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon as modified by
the earth’s rotation. The essential parameters
to characterize the tide are:
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a. Mean Sea Level (MSL) – is the average
of the sea water surface for all stages
of the tide over a 19-year period.
b. Mean Low Water (MWL) – is the
height of the low water over a 19-year
period.
c. Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) – is
the average height of the lower low
waters over a 19-year period.
d. Mean High Water (MHW) – is the
average height of the high waters over
a 19-year period.
e. Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) –
is the average height of the higher high
water over a 19-year period.
Storm Surge is abnormal rise of the sea level
that occurs when a typhoon passes
by. This rise above normal level on
this open coast is due to
atmosphere pressure reduction as
well as that due to wind stress.
Tsunamis are wave with an extremely long
period that mainly occur when
there is a sudden large-scale sea
floor movement usually associated
severe, shallow focus earthquake.
Seiche is a phenomenon involving abnormal
oscillations of the water level with a period of
approximately a few minutes to a few tens of minutes.
It occurs when small fluctuations of the water level are
generated by micro-scale variations of the
atmospheric pressure by an air front or a low pressure
in the outer sea, and the components of those
oscillations whose period is the same as a natural
period of the harbor are amplified through resonance.
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Cut or Excavation - wherever the existing
ground is above the constructed section.
Fill or Embankment - wherever the existing
ground is below the constructed section, the
construction is said to involve -
Catch Points - points at which the cut or fill slopes
intersect the existing ground.
Hinge Points - points at which the cut or fill slopes
intersect the nearly horizontal roadway surface
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Mass Diagram - graph of cumulative volume of
earthwork versus distance in stations from the
beginning of the job, in which cut is considered to
be positive and fill negative.
Haul - product of a volume of material times the
average distance it is hauled.
Limit of Economic Haul - longest distance
material should ever be hauled.
Geometric Design - refers to establishment of
horizontal and vertical alignments and cross
section, based on considerations such as operating
characteristics of vehicles, design standards, and
drainage
Stopping Sight Distance - the distance required to
see an object 0.15 m high on the roadway.
Passing Sight Distance - the distance required to
see an oncoming vehicle of a certain minimum size.
Design Speed - defined as the maximum safe speed
that can be maintained over a specified section of
highway when conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern.
Plans - refers to drawings, usually accompanied by
notes, of various aspects or components of the
design.
Specifications - these are written instructions
detailing how the facility is to be constructed.
Estimates - It include cost estimates for various
parts of the project and are used to evaluate the
acceptability of bids and the financial feasibility of
the project.
Plan View – a drawing of the facility as it would
look to an observer directly above it.
Profile - this drawing has elevation as its vertical
axis, and horizontal distance, as measured along
the centerline of the facility, as its horizontal axis.
Space-time diagram - When such motion takes
place along a single linear facility such as a
roadway or a railway, it can often be represented
by a graph known as _______________.
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Delay - It may be defined as the difference
between the actual travel time on a given segment
of a transportation system and some ideal travel
time for that segment.
Queue - The difference between A(t) and D(t)
represents aircraft that have arrived at the runway
but have not begun (or completed) their takeoffs.
These lines of aircraft waiting to be served is called
a _________.
Flow - defined as the number of vehicles per unit
time passing a point in space, and is usually
expressed in vehicles per hour.
Volume - number of vehicles counted in a specified
time interval.
Headways - measured between common points on
successive vehicles.
Time Gaps - measured from the rear of one vehicle
to the front of the next.
Occupancy - defined as the fraction of time that
vehicles are present at a point in space.
Indication - the red, yellow, or green light that is
displayed to drivers in a given movement.
Cycle - The time required for one complete
sequence of signal indications.
Interval - discrete portion of a cycle during which
the indications do not change.
Phase - portion of the cycle during which the
movements with the right-of-way do not change.
Signal Coordination - the timing of signals in
relationship to one another so that vehicles
traveling at a predetermined speed can pass
through the greens of successive signals.
Speed Progression - speed at which vehicles are
presumed to travel through the coordinated
signal system.
Through Band - The space-time path
intersecting the green at all signals.
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Band Width - time difference between beginning
and end of the through band at any point.
Offset of the Cycle - The time difference between
the beginnings of the greens at any two signals.
Single alternate system - each signal displays the
phase opposite that of the adjacent signals; thus the
pattern, looking down the street at any instant of
time, is red-green-red-green.
Trip Assignment Models - intended to predict
the number of travelers using various routes and,
hence, the traffic on the links of a transportation
network.
Queue Discipline - So far, no explicit consideration
has been given to the relationship between the
order in which customers arrive demanding
service and the order in which they are served. This
relationship is referred to as the

Double alternate system - phases at two Capacity Headways - Headways such that the
intersections are grouped together, so that the vehicles are just filled at the maximum load point
pattern is red-red- green-green-red-red. on the route.

Triple alternate system - It groups three Policy Headways - Arbitrarily determined

intersections and produce a pattern of red-red-
red-green-green-green.
Fixed-time Systems - Employing minimum cycles
are usually sufficient for platoon-breakup
metering.
maximum headways intended to represent the
minimum acceptable standard for frequency of
service.
Joint Bars - used to fasten rails together
longitudinally.

Traffic-responsive systems - May respond to Gage Bars - Steel bars used to maintain gage (that
volumes measured upstream of the ramp, is, horizontal separation between the rails) at
occupancies measured upstream of the ramp, critical locations such as curves and switches.
occupancies measured downstream of the ramp, or
some combinations of these. Rail Anchors - used to resist the longitudinal
motion of rails relative to ties.
Clearance Time - The time spent in decelerating
and accelerating the vehicle and in opening and
closing the doors.

Dwell Time - The time spent loading and

unloading passengers.

Time Points - Route schedules, or timetables, give

the times that successive bused pass points called
_______.

Trip - considered to be the basic unit of travel

behavior. It also involves movement from a single
origin to a single destination, and are usually
described in terms of their origins, destinations,
purposed, times of occurrence, travel modes, and
routes.

Derived Utility - this means that the utility of any

particular trip is partially dependent on the activity
it makes possible, and the way in which that
activity is valued by the individual.

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