Preliminary Examination/Research

Control Engineering

Instructions:
Answer the following questions. Write your answer on a clean sheet of paper/computerized
containing the format with a 1cm borderline.

1. Define Basic Communication and application to Control Engineering.

Basic Communication refers to the process of exchanging information or data between

two or more parties. It involves a sender (the source of information), a message (the information
or data to be communicated), a transmission medium (the channel through which the message
is conveyed), and a receiver (the entity that receives and interprets the message). Effective
communication is essential for conveying instructions, sharing data, and enabling understanding
between individuals, devices, or systems.

In the context of Control Engineering, communication is crucial for several purposes:

● Sensor-Controller Communication: Sensors in a control system measure and collect

data about the systems state or the environment. This data needs to be communicated
to the controller, which processes it to make control decisions. Reliable communication
ensures that the controller has accurate information for control actions.

● Controller-Actuator Communication: The controller generates control commands based

on the processed data and communicates these commands to the actuators. Actuators
then act on these commands to influence the systems behavior. Efficient communication
between the controller and actuators is necessary for precise control.

● Feedback Loop: In a closed-loop control system, feedback is essential for making

continuous adjustments based on the systems performance. The sensor measures the
actual system output, and this feedback is communicated to the controller, which
compares it to the desired reference value and generates control actions accordingly.

● Remote Monitoring and Control: In many applications, control engineers need to

remotely monitor and control systems. Communication technologies, such as the
internet and wireless networks, enable real-time monitoring and control from distant
locations.

● Data Logging and Analysis: Control systems often record data for analysis and
optimization. This data may be communicated to external devices or storage systems for
further analysis, reporting, or decision-making.
 ● Human-Machine Interface (HMI): In control engineering, communication with operators
and users is critical. An HMI system provides a means for human interaction with the
control system, and it often includes graphical interfaces and alarms to convey system
status and facilitate control adjustments.

2. Draw/ Illustrate/define each parameters in the Basic Communication in item 1.

Certainly, lets break down the parameters in basic communication in the context of
sensor-controller communication in control engineering. These parameters are part of the
communication process between the sensor and the controller:

● Sender (Sensor):
- The sender in this context is the sensor. A sensor is a device that measures a physical
quantity, such as temperature, pressure, or position, and converts it into an electrical
signal. The sensor is responsible for generating the message or data to be
communicated.

● Message (Data):
- The message represents the data or information that the sensor collects and wants to
communicate to the controller. This data could be a numerical value, a signal, or a status
update related to the systems state or the environment being monitored. It could be, for
example, the current temperature, pressure reading, or position measurement.

● Transmission Medium (Channel):

- The transmission medium, often referred to as the communication channel, is the
physical or logical path through which the message is conveyed from the sensor to the
controller. In control engineering, this could be a wired connection (e.g., a cable), a
wireless link (e.g., Wi-Fi or radio waves), or even a network protocol if the
communication is happening over the internet.

● Receiver (Controller):
- The receiver in this context is the controller. The controller is the device or component
responsible for receiving and processing the data sent by the sensor. It interprets the
message to make control decisions, which may involve adjusting system parameters or
taking specific actions based on the received data.

In this sensor-controller communication, the sensor acts as the sender, the data generated by
the sensor serves as the message, the transmission medium is the means of communication
(e.g., wires or wireless signals), and the controller acts as the receiver, interpreting the data to
make control decisions. Accurate and reliable communication between these components is
crucial for effective control and regulation of the system being monitored.
3. What is Signal Transmission?

Signal transmission refers to the process of conveying information or data from one point
to another, typically over a communication channel or medium. It involves the transfer of
electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that represent information in various forms, such
as analog or digital data. Signal transmission plays a crucial role in various fields, including
telecommunications, electronics, control systems, and data transmission. Here are some key
aspects of signal transmission:

● Types of Signals: Signals can take various forms, including electrical voltages,
electromagnetic waves (such as radio waves or light), or acoustic waves. The type of
signal used depends on the specific application and the characteristics of the
communication medium.

● Analog vs. Digital Signals: Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals represent
information in a continuous, varying form, such as the electrical voltage in an audio
signal. Digital signals represent information discretely in a binary format, where data is
encoded as a sequence of 0s and 1s.

● Communication Medium: The communication medium is the physical or logical path

through which signals are transmitted. Common mediums include copper wires, fiber
optics, air for wireless transmission, and coaxial cables. The choice of medium depends
on factors like data rate, distance, and environmental conditions.

● Modulation: In many cases, signals are modulated to match the characteristics of the
transmission medium. Modulation involves altering the properties of a carrier signal (e.g.,
frequency, amplitude, or phase) to encode the information signal. Modulation allows
signals to travel efficiently over different types of media.

● Transmission Methods: Signal transmission can occur through various methods,

including point-to-point communication, broadcast (one-to-many), and multicast (one-to-
multiple) transmissions. Each method has its own advantages and is chosen based on
the applications requirements.

● Signal Degradation: As signals travel through a medium, they can experience

degradation due to factors like attenuation (weakening of the signal over distance),
interference (external signals affecting the transmitted signal), and noise (random
variations in the signal). Signal processing and error correction techniques may be
employed to mitigate these issues.

● Receivers: At the receiving end, a receiver or detector is used to capture and process
the transmitted signal to recover the original information. The receiver may include
demodulation, decoding, and signal processing components to extract the data
accurately.
 ● Applications: Signal transmission is used in various applications, including
telecommunication networks (e.g., mobile phones, the internet), data transmission in
computers and networking, broadcasting (radio and television), control systems (e.g.,
sensor-to-controller communication), and more.

Signal transmission is a fundamental aspect of modern technology and communication

systems, enabling the exchange of information across short and long distances. Different
transmission methods and technologies are employed to meet the diverse requirements of
various applications.

4. Define transmission communication components.

Transmission communication components are the essential elements or devices

involved in the process of transmitting information or data from one point to another within a
communication system. These components work together to ensure that data is efficiently and
reliably transmitted from the source (transmitter) to the destination (receiver). Here are the key
transmission communication components:

● Transmitter:
- The transmitter is the starting point of the communication process. It is responsible for
encoding the information into a suitable format and transmitting it over the
communication medium. Transmitters can vary in complexity depending on the
application, from simple devices like a microphone or keyboard to sophisticated
communication equipment like modems or transceivers.

● Information Source:
- The information source is the origin of the data or content to be transmitted. This can
be in the form of analog signals (e.g., voice, video) or digital data (e.g., text, binary
information). The information source provides the data that needs to be communicated.

● Encoding/Modulation Device:
- In many cases, the raw information from the source needs to be transformed into a
format suitable for transmission over the communication medium. This is done through
encoding or modulation. For example, data from a computer is typically converted into a
digital format for transmission.

● Communication Medium (Transmission Channel):

- The communication medium is the physical or logical path through which the data is
transmitted. It can be a wired medium (e.g., copper cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g.,
radio waves, microwaves, or optical signals in the case of wireless communication). The
choice of medium depends on factors such as distance, data rate, and environmental
conditions.
 ● Transmission Equipment (Transceiver):
- Transmission equipment includes devices that handle the process of sending and
receiving signals. For example, a transceiver is a combination of a transmitter and a
receiver, often used in wireless communication systems like radios and cell phones.

● Communication Protocol:
- A communication protocol defines the rules and standards for data transmission. It
specifies how data is structured, encoded, transmitted, and received. It ensures that data
is transmitted reliably and efficiently. Common communication protocols include TCP/IP
for the internet and IEEE 802.11 for Wi-Fi.

● Channel Access Method:

- In shared communication mediums, multiple devices may need to access the channel.
A channel access method, such as CSMA/CD (used in Ethernet) or TDMA (used in
cellular networks), determines how devices share the communication medium without
causing conflicts or collisions.

● Receiver:
- The receiver is the endpoint of the communication process. It receives the transmitted
signal, decodes it, and processes it to recover the original information. Receivers can be
found in devices like radios, modems, and network interface cards in computers.

● Decoding/Demodulation Device:
- The decoding or demodulation device is responsible for converting the transmitted
signal back into a format that can be understood by the receiving device. It reverses the
encoding or modulation process applied by the transmitter.

● Destination (Information Sink):

- The destination is where the transmitted data is ultimately delivered. It could be a
display, a computer, a speaker, or any device that processes and utilizes the received
information.

These components work together to facilitate the transmission of data, whether its voice
communication, data transfer over the internet, or any other form of communication. The
efficiency and reliability of the communication system depend on the proper functioning of these
components.
5. Identify the types of Signal in Process Control.

In process control, there are several types of signals that are used to monitor, control,
and communicate information about a process. These signals can be broadly categorized into
four main types:

● Analog Signals:
- Analog signals represent information as continuous, varying voltage or current levels.
The signals amplitude directly corresponds to the physical quantity it measures. Analog
signals can be used to represent various process variables, such as temperature,
pressure, flow rate, and level. Common examples include 4-20 mA current signals or 0-
10 V voltage signals. Analog signals are suitable for monitoring and controlling
continuous processes.

● Digital Signals:
- Digital signals represent information in discrete, binary form, typically as a sequence of
0s and 1s. These signals are used to convey information that can be easily encoded and
decoded by digital devices, such as computers and microcontrollers. Digital signals are
commonly used for on/off control, discrete events, and data transmission in process
control systems. Examples include binary signals for valve positions (open/closed) or
digital communication protocols like Modbus.

● Pneumatic Signals:
- Pneumatic signals are air pressure-based signals used in older process control
systems, particularly in industries like petrochemicals and refineries. These signals are
conveyed through changes in air pressure and are used to actuate pneumatic control
devices, such as pneumatic controllers and control valves. Pneumatic signals have
become less common with the widespread adoption of electronic and digital control
systems.

● Fieldbus and Communication Signals:

- In modern process control systems, communication signals play a critical role. These
signals are used for data exchange and control within a distributed control system (DCS)
or a programmable logic controller (PLC) network. Fieldbus protocols, such as Profibus,
Foundation Fieldbus, and HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer), are
common examples of communication signals used for device-to-device communication,
diagnostics, and digital control.

These are the primary types of signals used in process control, and the choice of signal type
depends on the specific requirements of the process, the type of control system in use, and the
nature of the process variables being monitored and controlled. Process control systems often
involve a combination of these signal types to meet the needs of different control loops and
devices within the process.
6. Define the three of the most common protocols of Digital Signals:
1. HART
2. FOUNDATION Fieldbus
3. Profibus

● HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer):

- HART is a hybrid digital communication protocol used in process control and industrial
automation. It allows for two-way communication with field devices, primarily for process
measurement and control. HART combines a traditional analog 4-20 mA current signal
with a digital signal sent on the same wire. It is often used to communicate with field
instruments like pressure and temperature transmitters, control valves, and flow meters.
HART enables remote configuration, monitoring, and diagnostics of these devices.

● FOUNDATION Fieldbus:
- FOUNDATION Fieldbus is a digital communication protocol used in process control
systems to connect and communicate with field devices. It is known for its high data
transfer capabilities and ability to provide power to field devices through the
communication loop (a feature known as fieldbus power). FOUNDATION Fieldbus
allows for digital control and monitoring of devices such as sensors, valves, and motors.
It is commonly used in the process industries, including oil and gas, chemicals, and
manufacturing.

● Profibus:
Profibus, short for "Process Field Bus," is a popular industrial communication protocol
used for real-time communication and control of devices in manufacturing and process
control applications. It is widely used for connecting and controlling industrial automation
equipment, including sensors, actuators, and programmable logic controllers (PLCs).
Profibus comes in different variants, such as Profibus DP (used for fast cyclic data
exchange) and Profibus PA (used in process automation for instruments like pressure
and temperature transmitters). It provides high data rates and robust communication in
industrial environments.

These digital signal communication protocols have become fundamental in modern industrial
and process control systems, enabling the exchange of data, diagnostics, and control
commands between field devices and central control systems. The choice of protocol depends
on factors like data requirements, the nature of the field devices, and the specific needs of the
application.
7. Have a comparison between the Analog and the Digital Signal.

Analog and digital signals are two different ways of representing and transmitting
information. They have distinct characteristics and are used in various applications based on
their advantages and limitations. Heres a comparison between analog and digital signals:

● Representation:
- Analog: Analog signals represent information as continuous, varying voltage or current
levels. The amplitude of the signal corresponds directly to the quantity it represents. For
example, an analog voltage signal might represent temperature or pressure with a
continuous range of values.
- Digital: Digital signals represent information in a discrete, binary format using a series
of 0s and 1s. Digital signals are typically used to represent discrete events, data, or
measurements.

● Accuracy and Precision:

- Analog: Analog signals can provide high precision and accuracy, especially in
applications that require fine-grained measurements. They can represent a wide range
of values with great detail.
- Digital: Digital signals are inherently precise and accurate for the discrete values they
represent. However, they may lose precision when converting analog data into digital
format through quantization.

● Noise Immunity:
- Analog: Analog signals are susceptible to noise and interference, which can lead to
signal degradation and affect the quality of the information being transmitted.
- Digital: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise because they use discrete values
that are clearly distinguishable. Digital communication systems often incorporate error-
checking and correction mechanisms to improve noise immunity.

● Transmission Distance:
- Analog: Analog signals can degrade over long transmission distances due to factors
like attenuation, which causes a decrease in signal strength with distance.
- Digital: Digital signals can maintain their integrity over longer distances and are often
preferred for long-distance communication.

● Signal Processing:
- Analog: Analog signals require specialized analog processing techniques for
operations like amplification, filtering, and modulation.
- Digital: Digital signals can be easily processed and manipulated using digital
techniques, making them well-suited for signal processing and analysis.
 ● Compatibility:
- Analog: Analog signals are often compatible with older equipment and legacy systems.
They are still used in certain applications where compatibility with existing infrastructure
is crucial.
- Digital: Digital signals are commonly used in modern electronics and communication
systems, including computers, smartphones, and digital networks.

● Storage and Reproduction:

- Analog: Analog signals are often used in audio and video storage and playback
systems. They provide a continuous representation of sound and images.
- Digital: Digital signals are used for data storage, transmission, and processing. They
are the basis for digital media, such as MP3 audio files and digital video formats.

In summary, analog signals offer continuous representation and high precision, while digital
signals provide discrete, noise-resistant data. The choice between analog and digital signals
depends on the specific application, data requirements, and the advantages offered by each in
terms of accuracy, noise immunity, and compatibility.

8. Define the Basic feedback control principles.

Feedback control principles are fundamental concepts that underlie the design and
operation of control systems in various engineering applications. These principles are essential
for maintaining the desired performance and stability of a system. Here are the basic feedback
control principles:

● Setpoint and Reference Input:

- The setpoint, also known as the reference input or desired value, represents the target
or desired state that the control system aims to achieve. It is typically specified by the
system operator or a control algorithm.

● Process Variable (PV):

- The process variable is the measured output or response of the system that needs to
be controlled. It represents the current state of the system. The control system
continuously compares the process variable to the setpoint to determine whether
adjustments are necessary.

● Error Signal (Error):

- The error signal is the difference between the setpoint and the process variable. It
quantifies the deviation between the desired state and the actual state of the system.
The error signal is a critical input to the control system.
● Controller:
- The controller is responsible for processing the error signal and generating control
actions to bring the process variable closer to the setpoint. It uses a control algorithm to
make decisions and adjust the systems inputs or actuators.

● Actuators:
- Actuators are devices or mechanisms that receive control commands from the
controller and influence the systems behavior. They can change variables such as the
position of a valve, the speed of a motor, or the flow rate of a pump.

● Control Input (Manipulated Variable):

- The control input, also known as the manipulated variable, is the quantity that the
controller adjusts to influence the process variable. It is the action taken by the actuator
based on the controllers commands.

● Feedback Loop:
- Feedback control systems operate in a closed-loop configuration, where the process
variable is continuously monitored and fed back to the controller. The controller uses the
feedback information to adjust the control input to reduce the error and maintain the
process variable at or near the setpoint.

● Control Algorithm:
- The control algorithm is a set of rules or mathematical equations used by the controller
to determine how to adjust the control input in response to changes in the error signal
and feedback information. Various control algorithms, such as proportional-integral-
derivative (PID), are employed based on the specific control objectives and system
dynamics.

● Steady-State and Transient Response:

- Feedback control systems aim to achieve a steady-state condition where the process
variable closely matches the setpoint. Additionally, they must provide desirable transient
response characteristics, such as a rapid response to disturbances and minimal
overshoot or oscillations.

● Feedback Gain (Controller Tuning):

- The feedback gain, often adjusted through controller tuning, determines how
aggressively or conservatively the controller responds to changes in the error signal.
Proper tuning ensures the control systems stability and performance.

● Disturbances:
- Disturbances are external factors or changes in the system that can affect the process
variable. Feedback control systems are designed to detect and compensate for
disturbances to maintain control.
9. What are the chracteristics of PID controllers?

PID controllers, which stands for Proportional-Integral-Derivative controllers, are widely

used in control systems for their ability to regulate a wide range of processes. These controllers
combine three primary control actions to provide robust and effective control. Here are the key
characteristics of PID controllers:

● Proportional Control (P):

- Characteristics: Proportional control is the primary control action that reacts to the
current error (the difference between the process variable and the setpoint). It applies a
correction that is directly proportional to the error magnitude.
- Advantages: Proportional control provides quick responses to errors and can reduce
steady-state error. It is most effective when the process exhibits proportional behavior,
where the response to control input is linear.

● Integral Control (I):

- Characteristics: Integral control accumulates the past errors over time and responds to
the accumulated error. It aims to eliminate steady-state error by continuously adjusting
the control output based on the historical error.
- Advantages: Integral control eliminates any remaining steady-state error, ensuring that
the process variable eventually reaches and stays at the setpoint. It also helps control
against persistent disturbances.

● Derivative Control (D):

- Characteristics: Derivative control anticipates future errors by analyzing the rate of
change of the error. It adds a control input that is proportional to the rate of change of
the error.
- Advantages: Derivative control provides damping to the system, reducing overshoot
and oscillations. It is particularly effective in minimizing transient responses.

● Tuning Parameters:
- Characteristics: Each of the P, I, and D control actions has its own tuning parameter.
The proportional gain (Kp), integral time (Ti), and derivative time (Td) are used to adjust
the controllers performance based on the specific characteristics of the system being
controlled.
- Advantages: Tuning parameters allow for fine-tuning the controller to match the
dynamics of the controlled system. Proper tuning is crucial for achieving optimal control
performance.

● Stability and Robustness:

- Characteristics: PID controllers are capable of stabilizing a wide range of processes,
provided they are appropriately tuned. They offer robust control and can adapt to varying
system parameters and external disturbances.
 - Advantages: PID controllers are versatile and can be used in various applications,
including temperature control, pressure control, motor control, and many others. Their
robustness makes them suitable for many real-world systems.

● Sequential Action:
- Characteristics: The three control actions (P, I, D) are often applied sequentially. The
proportional control responds to the current error, the integral control accumulates past
errors, and the derivative control anticipates future errors.
- Advantages: This sequential action combines the benefits of each control action,
resulting in efficient and effective control.

● PID Control Equation:

- Characteristics: The PID control equation combines the three control actions in a
weighted sum. The equation is typically expressed as:

where u(t) is the control output, Kp, Ki, and Kd are the tuning parameters, and e(t) is the
error at time t.
- Advantages: The PID control equation provides a flexible framework for controlling
various processes, making it suitable for a wide range of applications.

10. What are the Relay logic controls?

Relay logic control is a method of controlling industrial processes and machinery using
relays and switches. It was widely used in the past for automation and control applications
before the advent of more advanced electronic control systems like programmable logic
controllers (PLCs). In relay logic control, electrical relays and contactors are used to implement
control logic based on simple binary on/off conditions. Here are the key features and
components of relay logic control:

● Relays and Contactors:

- Relays are electrically operated switches that open and close electrical circuits based
on the input they receive. Contactors are a type of high-power relay used to control
heavy electrical loads, such as motors or large heaters. These components form the
basic building blocks of relay logic control systems.

● Coil and Contacts:

- A relay typically consists of a coil (the input) and one or more sets of contacts (the
output). When the coil is energized (powered), it generates a magnetic field that causes
the contacts to close or open, depending on the relay type. The coil is the input that
receives signals from sensors or manual switches, while the contacts are used to control
other devices or circuits.
 ● Input Devices:
- Input devices, such as pushbuttons, limit switches, temperature sensors, and pressure
switches, are used to provide input signals to the relay logic control system. These
devices interact with the coil of the relay and control the state of the contacts.

● Logic and Control Wiring:

- Relay logic control systems involve extensive wiring to connect various input devices to
relays and contactors, forming logical control sequences. Wiring diagrams and ladder
logic diagrams are often used to represent the control logic graphically.

● Latching Relays:
- Latching relays (also called impulse relays or stay relays) are used to maintain the
state of a relay even after the input signal is removed. They are essential for creating
toggle or latch functions in control sequences.

● Control Functions:
- Relay logic control can implement basic control functions such as start/stop sequences,
interlock logic, and safety circuits. For example, it can control conveyor belts, pumps,
fans, and other industrial equipment.

● Sequential Control:
- Relay logic control systems can implement simple sequential control, where one action
triggers the next in a predetermined order. This is often achieved by using timers,
counters, and interlock logic.

● Maintenance and Troubleshooting:

- Relay logic control systems are relatively easy to understand and troubleshoot. When a
problem occurs, technicians can visually inspect the wiring and the state of relays and
contacts to diagnose and resolve issues.

● Limitations:
- Relay logic control has limitations in terms of complexity and scalability. It can become
unwieldy and difficult to manage for large and intricate control systems. Additionally, it
lacks the flexibility and advanced capabilities of modern electronic control systems like
PLCs.

While relay logic control has largely been replaced by more advanced technologies like PLCs, it
is still found in some older industrial installations. Understanding relay logic remains valuable for
maintenance and retrofitting projects involving legacy equipment.