1.

Introduction to Animal Physiology

Levels of structural organization

From single cell to organ system cells are the basic units of living organisms. The
number of cells is very large. For example, an adult person contains approximately 100 trillion
cells. Humans have several levels of structural organizations that are associated with each
other. The chemical level includes all chemicals substances essential for sustaining life. These
chemicals are made up of atoms joined together in various ways. The diverse chemicals, in turn,
are put together to form the next higher level of organization, the cellular level. Cells are the
basic structural and functional units of life and organization. Each cell has a different structure
and each performs a different function.

Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry

At a very basic level of classification, true animals can be largely divided into three
groups based on the type of symmetry of their body plan: radially symmetrical, bilaterally
symmetrical, and asymmetrical. Asymmetry is a unique feature of Parazoa. Only a few animal
groups display radial symmetry. All types of symmetry are well suited to meet the unique
demands of a particular animal’s lifestyle.

Animal Characterization Based on Features of Embryological Development

Most animal species undergo a separation of tissues into germ layers during embryonic
development. Recall that these germ layers are formed during gastrulation, and that they are
predetermined to develop into the animal’s specialized tissues and organs. Animals develop
either two or three embryonic germs layers.The animals that display radial symmetry develop
two germ layers, an inner layer (endoderm) and an outer layer (ectoderm). These animals are
called diploblasts. Diploblasts have a non-living layer between the endoderm and ectoderm.
More complex animals (those with bilateral symmetry) develop three tissue layers: an inner
layer (endoderm), an outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle layer (mesoderm). Animals with three
tissue layers are called triploblasts.

Presence or Absence of a Coelom

Further subdivision of animals with three germ layers (triploblasts) results in the
separation of animals that may develop an internal body cavity derived from mesoderm, called a
coelom, and those that do not. This epithelial cell-lined coelomic cavity represents a space,
usually filled with fluid, which lies between the visceral organs and the body wall. It houses
many organs such as the digestive system, kidneys, reproductive organs, and heart, and
contains the circulatory system. In some animals, such as mammals, the part of the coelom
called the pleural cavity provides space for the lungs to expand during breathing. The evolution
of the coelom is associated with many functional advantages. Primarily, the coelom provides
cushioning and shock absorption for the major organ systems. Organs housed within the
coelom can grow and move freely, which promotes optimal organ development and placement.
The coelom also provides space for the diffusion of gases and nutrients, as well as body
flexibility, promoting improved animal motility.
Embryonic Development of the Mouth
Bilaterally symmetrical, tribloblastic eucoelomates can be further divided into two groups
based on differences in their early embryonic development. Protostomes include arthropods,
mollusks, and annelids. Deuterostomes include more complex animals such as chordates but
also some simple animals such as echinoderms. These two groups are separated based on
which opening of the digestive cavity develops first: mouth or anus. The word protostome
comes from the Greek word meaning “mouth first,” and deuterostome originates from the word
meaning “mouth second” (in this case, the anus develops first). The mouth or anus develops
from a structure called the blastopore. The blastopore is the indentation formed during the initial
stages of gastrulation. In later stages, a second opening forms, and these two openings will
eventually give rise to the mouth and anus. It has long been believed that the blastopore
develops into the mouth of protostomes, with the second opening developing into the anus; the
opposite is true for deuterostomes. Recent evidence has challenged this view of the
development of the blastopore of protostomes, however, and the theory remains under debate.

Body Plans
Animal body plans follow set patterns related to symmetry. They are asymmetrical,
radial, or bilateral in form as illustrated in. Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or
symmetry; an example of an asymmetrical animal is a sponge. Radial symmetry, as illustrated in
,describes when an animal has an up-and-down orientation: any plane cut along its longitudinal
axis through the organism produces equal halves, but not a definite right or left side.

Limits on Animal Size and Shape

Animals with bilateral symmetry that live in water tend to have a fusiform shape: this is a
tubular shaped body that is tapered at both ends. This shape decreases the drag on the body
as it moves through water and allows the animal to swim at high speeds.

Limiting Effects of Diffusion on Size and Development

The exchange of nutrients and wastes between a cell and its watery environment occurs
through the process of diffusion. All living cells are bathed in liquid, whether they are in a
single-celled organism or a multicellular one. Diffusion is effective over a specific distance and
limits the size that an individual cell can attain.

Animal Bioenergetics
All animals must obtain their energy from food they ingest or absorb. These nutrients are
converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for short-term storage and use by all cells. Some
animals store energy for slightly longer times as glycogen, and others store energy for much
longer times in the form of triglycerides housed in specialized adipose tissues.

Energy Requirements Related to Body Size

Smaller endothermic animals have a greater surface area for their mass than larger
ones. Therefore, smaller animals lose heat at a faster rate than larger animals and require more
energy to maintain a constant internal temperature. This results in a smaller endothermic animal
having a higher BMR, per body weight, than a larger endothermic animal.

Energy Requirements Related to Levels of Activity

The more active an animal is, the more energy is needed to maintain that activity, and
the higher its BMR or SMR. The average daily rate of energy consumption is about two to four
times an animal’s BMR or SMR.

Energy Requirements Related to Environment

Animals adapt to extremes of temperature or food availability through torpor. Torpor is a
process that leads to a decrease in activity and metabolism and allows animals to survive
adverse conditions. Torpor can be used by animals for long periods, such as entering a state of
hibernation during the winter months, in which case it enables them to maintain a reduced body
temperature.

1.1. Salient features of animal form and function

Animals vary in form and function. From a sponge to a worm to a goat, an organism has
a distinct body plan that limits its size and shape. Animals’ bodies are also designed to interact
with their environments, whether in the deep sea, a rainforest canopy, or the desert. Therefore,
a large amount of information about the structure of an organism's body (anatomy) and the
function of its cells, tissues and organs (physiology) can be learned by studying that organism's
environment.

BODY PLANS
Animal body plans follow set patterns related to symmetry; They are asymmetrical, radial, or
bilateral in form:

● Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or symmetry; an example of an

asymmetrical animal is a sponge.
● Radial symmetry occurs when two or more axes of symmetry can be drawn through the
center of the organism; any plane cut along its longitudinal axis through the organism
produces equal halves, but not a definite right or left side. Found typically
cylinder-shaped with body structures arranged around the center of the organism.
○ This plan is found mostly in aquatic animals, especially organisms that attach
themselves to a base, like a rock or a boat, and extract their food from the
surrounding water as it flows around the organism.
 ● Bilateral symmetry in which similar anatomical parts are arranged on opposite sides of a
median axis so that only one plane can divide the individual into essentially identical
halves. Typically associated with organisms that have locomotion or can move under
their own power. Strongly associated with cephalization - the process involving the
concentration of sensory and feeding organs such as nerve cells, mouth, and jaws at the
anterior end and the development of the brain.
○ Bilateral symmetry is found in both land-based and aquatic animals; it enables a
high level of mobility.

ANATOMICAL POSITION

● Anatomical position is a specific body

position used when describing human
anatomy.

● To be in an anatomical position, a
person should be standing upright with their
arms at their sides and feet pointing forward.
Their forearms should be supinated (turned
out) so that their palms are facing forward.

● Anatomical terms are often based on

their positioning or direction in relation to a
standard position.

ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONAL TERMS

● Anterior (or ventral): Describes the front or

direction toward the front of the body.
● Posterior (or dorsal): Describes the back or
direction toward the back of the body.

● Superior (or cranial): a position above or higher

than another part of the body proper.
● Inferior (or caudal): a position below or lower than
another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in
humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column).
 ● Medial: the middle or direction toward the middle of the
body.
● Lateral: the side or direction toward the side of the
body.

● Proximal: a position in a limb that is nearer to the point

of attachment or the trunk of the body.
● Distal: a position in a limb that is farther from the point
of attachment or the trunk of the body.

BODY PLANES
A standing vertebrate animal can be divided by several planes.

● Sagittal plane or LONGITUDINAL plane: separates the left and right sides of the body
○ Mid sagittal plane: divides body into equal left and right halves.
○ Para sagittal plane: divides body into unequal left and right
Movements include:
● Flexion: bending a limb to decrease the angle at a joint (e.g., lifting a dumbbell
during a bicep curl flexes the elbow)
● Extension: movement that increases the angle at a joint (e.g., lifting your leg
behind you when standing extends the hip joint)

● Transverse plane or AXIAL plane: separates the upper (superior) and lower (inferior)
halves of the body. This is sometimes called a cross section, and, if the transverse cut is
at an angle, it is called an oblique plane.
 Movements involve rotation or horizontal movement, which include:
○ Rotation: rotating the torso or a limb around its vertical axis (e.g., turning your
head to the left or right)
○ Horizontal abduction: moving the arm away from the midline of the body when it’s
at a 90-degree angle in front of you
○ Horizontal adduction: moving the arm toward the midline of the body when it’s at
a 90-degree angle to the side.

● Frontal plane or CORONAL plane: separates the front (anterior) and back (posterior)
of the body
Movements are lateral or side-to-side. These include:
○ Abduction: moving your limbs laterally, away from the midline of the body (e.g.,
lifting your leg to the side)
○ Adduction: moving your limbs medially, toward the midline of the body (e.g.,
lowering your arm down to the side of your body).

BODY CAVITIES
The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the
viscera.

VERTEBRATES

Two major body cavities:

● Dorsal cavity: well protected by bone; has two
subdivisions that are continuous which are the cranial and the
spinal cavity.
○ Cranial Cavity: contains the brain
○ Spinal Cavity: contains the spinal cord
● Ventral cavity: less protected than dorsal cavity; has
two subdivisions which are the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity.
○ Thoracic Cavity: located in the chest and
enclosed by the rib cage; contains the pleural cavity around
the lungs and the pericardial cavity, which surrounds the
heart; contains the heart, lungs, esophagus, trachea.
○ Abdominopelvic cavity: largest cavity in the
body; useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the
division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic
cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.
Abdominopelvic cavity: REGIONS AND QUADRANTS

The abdominopelvic cavity can be subdivided into four quadrants and nine areas.

● The quadrants are labeled by

location: the right upper, right lower, left
upper, and left lower quadrants.
● The nine regions are smaller than
the four abdominopelvic quadrants and
include the right hypochondriac, right
lumbar, right illiac, epigastric, umbilical,
hypogastric (or pubic), left hypochondriac,
left lumbar, and left illiac divisions.

Abdominal Four Quadrant

The abdominopelvic region can be divided into four quadrants. These quadrants are
defined by the intersection of the sagittal plane with the umbilical plane (the transverse plane
through the navel).

● left upper quadrant: The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver,
the larger portion of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the
transverse and descending colon, and parts of the small intestine.
● Right upper quadrant: The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver,
gallbladder, right kidney, a small portion of the stomach, portions of the ascending and
transverse colon, and parts of the small intestine.
● left lower quadrant: The left lower quadrant houses the majority of the small intestine,
some of the large intestine, the left female reproductive organs, and the left ureter.
● nine divisions: An alternate system for dividing the abdominopelvic cavity into regions.
● right lower quadrant: In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, part of the
small intestines, the right female reproductive organs, and the right ureter.

Abdominal Nine Divisions

The nine divisions of the abdominopelvic region are smaller than the four quadrants,
allowing for a more detailed discussion. These divisions are marked by two parasagittal and two
transverse planes centered around the navel. Most organs are part of multiple regions, including
the gallbladder, duodenum, stomach, kidneys, spleen, small intestine and colon. The perineum
(the area beneath the hypogastric region at the bottom of the pelvic cavity) is sometimes
considered to be a tenth division in this system.
 1. Right Hypochondriac: The right hypochondriac region contains the right portion of the
liver, the gallbladder, the right kidney, and parts of the small intestine.
2. Left Hypochondriac: The left hypochondriac region contains part of the spleen, the left
kidney, part of the stomach, the pancreas, and parts of the colon.
3. Epigastric: The epigastric (above stomach) region contains the majority of the stomach,
part of the liver, part of the pancreas, part of the duodenum, part of the spleen, and the
adrenal glands. This region pushes out when the diaphragm contracts during breathing.
4. Right Lumbar: The right lumbar region consists of the gallbladder, the right kidney, part
of the liver, and the ascending colon.
5. Left Lumbar: The left lumbar region consists of the descending colon, the left kidney,
and part of the spleen.
6. Umbilical: The umbilical region contains the umbilicus (navel), and many parts of the
small intestine, such as part of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the illeum. It also
contains the transverse colon (the section between the ascending and descending
colons) and the bottom portions of both the left and right kidney.
7. Right Iliac: The right iliac region contains the appendix, cecum, and the right iliac fossa.
It is also commonly referred to as the right inguinal region. Pain in this area is generally
associated with appendicitis.
8. Left Iliac: The left illiac region contains part of the descending colon, the sigmoid colon,
and the left illiac fossa. It is also commonly called the left inguinal region.
9. Hypogastric: The hypogastric region (below the stomach) contains the organs around
the pubic bone. These include bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the anus, and many
organs of the reproductive system, such as the uterus and ovaries in females and the
prostate in males

INVERTEBRATES

BODY CAVITIES
● Bilateral animals can be grouped according to the presence and type of body
cavity.
 ● Most animals have some kind of body cavity—a fluid-filled space between the
digestive tract and body wall.
● A body cavity provides a space in which internal organs can be suspended and
room for those organs to grow.

DIFFERENTIATION OF GERM LAYERS

During embryological development, the cells of most animal embryos differentiate
into three layers called germ layers.
1. Cells of the endoderm, or innermost germ layer, develop into the linings of the
digestive tract and much of the respiratory system.
2. Cells of the mesoderm, or middle layer, give rise to muscles and much of the
circulatory, reproductive, and excretory organ systems.
3. The ectoderm, or outermost layer, produces sense organs, nerves, and the
outer layer of the skin.

BODY CAVITIES/ BODY PLAN

1. Acoelomate animals have no body cavity at all. Organs have direct contact with the
epithelium. Semi-solid mesodermal tissues between the gut and body wall hold their
organs in place.
● There are two types of acoelomate body plans.
○ The first is characterized by two germ layers—an ectoderm and
endoderm—that are not separated by a cavity, as seen in the sponges
and cnidarians.
○ The second is characterized by three germ layers—ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm—that are not separated by a cavity.
● An example of this body plan is a flatworm
2. Pseudocoelomate animals have a "pseudocoel" or "pseudocoelom" (literally
“false cavity”), which is a fully functional body cavity.
● Tissue derived from mesoderm only partly lines the fluid-filled body cavity of
these animals. Thus, although organs are held in place loosely, they are not as
well organized as in a coelomate.
● Examples of pseudocoelomates are roundworms and rotifers.
3. Coelomates (also known as eucoelomates—"true coelom") have a fluid-filled body
cavity called a coelom with a complete lining called peritoneum derived from mesoderm
(one of the three primary tissue layers).
● The complete mesoderm lining allows organs to be attached to each other so
that they can be suspended in a particular order while still being able to move
freely within the cavity.
● Most bilateral animal
1.2 homeostasis
Homeostasis - is the ability of an organism to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment, even when the external environment changes. This is essential for life, as
it allows animals to function optimally in a wide range of conditions.

Homeostasis is achieved through a variety of mechanisms, including:

● Negative feedback loops: These systems monitor and adjust internal factors to
maintain a set point. For example, when body temperature rises, the
hypothalamus in the brain sends signals to the sweat glands to produce sweat.
This sweat evaporates and cools the body, returning body temperature to its set
point.
● Positive feedback loops: These systems amplify a change, rather than
reversing it. For example, when a woman gives birth, oxytocin is released into
the bloodstream. This oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the uterus, which
releases more oxytocin.This positive feedback loop continues until the baby is
born.
● Hormonal regulation: Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through
the bloodstream to target cells.They can play a role in many homeostatic
processes, such as regulating blood sugar levels, body temperature, and water
balance.

Examples of homeostasis in animal physiology include:

● Thermoregulation: The ability of an animal to maintain a constant body
temperature, even when the external temperature changes.
● Osmoregulation: The ability of an animal to maintain a constant water balance,
even when the external environment is hypertonic or hypotonic.
● Blood sugar regulation: The ability of an animal to maintain a constant blood
glucose level, even when it eats a meal or fasts.
● pH regulation: The ability of an animal to maintain a constant pH in its body
fluids, even when it produces acidic or alkaline waste products.

Importance of homeostasis for animal survival and reproduction:

- Homeostasis is essential for animal survival and reproduction. By

maintaining a stable internal environment, animals are able to function optimally
and respond to changes in their external environment. For example, if an
 animal's body temperature is too high or too low, it will not be able to move or
digest food effectively. Similarly, if an animal's blood glucose level is too high or
too low, it will not be able to get the energy it needs to survive.
- Homeostasis is also important for reproduction. For example, in order to
conceive, a female mammal must maintain a specific body temperature and
hormone levels. Similarly, in order to develop properly, a fetus must be in a
stable environment with the right levels of nutrients and oxygen.

Role of different organ systems in maintaining homeostasis:

● The nervous system: The nervous system is responsible for monitoring and
regulating many homeostatic processes, such as body temperature,blood
pressure, and heart rate.
● The endocrine system: The endocrine system produces hormones that
regulate a variety of homeostatic processes, such as blood sugar levels,water
balance, and metabolism.
● The circulatory system: The circulatory system transports hormones and other
substances throughout the body,allowing them to act on their target cells.
● The respiratory system: The respiratory system exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and the air. This is essential for maintaining a
constant blood pH and oxygen levels.
● The digestive system: The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients
that can be used by the body for energy and to build new cells. This is essential
for maintaining a healthy weight and a strong immune system.
● The excretory system: The excretory system removes waste products from the
body. This is essential for maintaining a healthy blood composition and
preventing the buildup of toxins.
15 items Quiz:

1. This type of symmetry occurs when two or more axes of symmetry can be
drawn through the center of the organism; with undefined left and right sides.
a. Asymmetry
b. Bilateral symmetry
c. Radial symmetry
2. Which of the following is not the correct description of anatomical position?
a. Body facing forward
b. Head turned to side
c. Palms facing forward
d. Feet pointing forward
3. A plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts is:
a. Medial plane
b. Coronal or frontal plane
c. Sagittal plane
d. Transverse plane
4. The abdominal cavity contains the
a. Heart and lung
b. Reproductive organs and urinary bladder
c. Liver, spleen, and stomach
d. Testes and ovaries
5. What are the two major body cavities?
a. Cranial and Spinal Cavity
b. Dorsal and Abdominopelvic Cavity
c. Dorsal and Ventral Cavity
d. Thoracic and Abdominal cavity
6. The body cavity of invertebrates which has a fluid-filled body cavity called a
coelom with a complete lining called peritoneum
a. Pseudocoelomate
b. Coelomates
c. Acoelomate
7. Coelomates have a fluid-filled body cavity called:
a. Peritoneum
b. Pseudocoel
c. Epithelium
d. Coelom
8. Which of the following organ systems plays the most important role in maintaining
homeostasis?
(a) Nervous system
(b) Endocrine system
(c) Circulatory system
(d) Respiratory system
(e) Digestive system
9. Negative feedback loops are used to maintain homeostasis by
(a) Amplifying a change
(b) Reversing a change
(c) Keeping a change constant
(d) Monitoring and regulating internal factors
(e) All of the above
10. Homeostasis is challenged by
(a) Changes in external environment
(b) Internal imbalances
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
11. Homeostasis is essential for
(a) Animal survival
(b) Animal reproduction
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
12. An example of homeostasis in animal physiology is
(a) Maintaining a constant body temperature
(b) Maintaining a constant blood glucose level
(c) Maintaining a constant pH in body fluids
(d) All of the above
(e) None of the above
13. Which of the following is NOT a mechanism that animals use to maintain
homeostasis?
(a) Negative feedback loops
(b) Positive feedback loops
(c) Hormonal regulation
(d) Genetic regulation
14. Negative feedback loops are used to maintain homeostasis by amplifying a change.
True or false?
(a) True
(b) False

15. Homeostasis is only challenged by changes in the external environment. True or

false?
(a) True
(b) False
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