LEADING 2.

COLLECTIVISM THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

Filipinos generally value collectivism and close-knit LEADERSHIP may be referred to as "the process of influencing
LEADING is that management function which involves relationships within groups, whether in families, and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward achieving
influencing others to engage in the work behaviours necessary communities, or organizations. objectives." Leadership is expected of any manager in charge
to reach organizational goals. of any unit or division.
3. FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY
LEADING refers to the function while, LEADERSHIP refers to Filipinos are known for their adaptability and flexibility in TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERS
the process. various situations. In practice, this means that managers
and leaders may need to wear multiple hats and take on a 1. VISION
LEADERSHIP ACROSS CULTURE variety of roles to address the needs of the group or Effective leaders have a clear and compelling vision for
organization. the future
FOUNDATION FOR LEADERSHIP
✓ THE MANAGER-LEADER PARADIGM 4. COMMUNICATION STYLE 2. COMMUNICATION
Filipinos often value open and friendly communication, Strong communication skills are essential for leaders.
which can be an essential aspect of leadership.
Managers Leaders
3. EMPATHY
5. AMERICAN INFLUENCE Effective leaders understand and care about the needs,
Can Learn Skills Harbor innate American-style management and leadership concepts feelings, and perspectives of their team members.
Necessary characteristics have also influenced the business culture in the
Philippines. 4. DECISIVENESS
Take care of where you Bring you to new horizons Leaders are often required to make tough decisions.
are SOURCES OF POWER
5. INTEGRITY
Oversee Motivate 1. POSITIONAL POWER Integrity is a foundational trait of effective leaders.
This source of power is based on a leader's formal position
Point out flaws to improve Give recognition for good or role within an organization. It includes legitimate power, 6. RESILIENCE
on work where authority comes from one's position in the Leadership can be challenging, and effective leaders
hierarchy, and coercive power, where the ability to punish display resilience.
Deal with complexity Deal with ambiguity or apply negative consequences is derived from the
position. 7. ADAPTIBILITY
Leaders must adapt to changing circumstances and be
Are Fact Finders Are decision makers 2. PERSONAL POWER open to new ideas and approaches.
Personal power is rooted in the leader's individual qualities
and characteristics. 8. CONFIDENCE
Focus on Efficiency Focus on Effectiveness Confidence in one's abilities and decisions are important
3. INFORMATIONAL POWER for leadership.
Informational power is derived from a leader's control over
Are given immediate Earn respect through critical or valuable information. 9. ACCOUNTABILITY
authority actions Effective leaders take responsibility for their actions and
4. RESOURCE POWER decisions.
Resource power stems from a leader's control over
Follow company Set new standards
important resources, such as budgets, materials, or 10. EMPOWERMENT
objectives
technology. The ability to allocate and manage resources Leaders empower their team members by delegating
can be a significant source of influence. responsibility and encouraging autonomy.
Have present vision Have future vision
5. RELATIONSHIP POWER 11. INNOVATION
Relationship power is based on a leader's network and Leaders are often at the forefront of change and
Do things right Do the right things connections within and outside the organization. innovation.

6. REWARD POWER 12. COURAGE

WHAT CULTURES WOULD BE THE MOST LIKELY TO
PERCEIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MANAGERIAL AND
LEADERSHIP DUTIES?
1. HIERARCHY AND RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY
Filipino culture tends to be hierarchical and places a
strong emphasis on respect for authority figures.
Reward power is linked to a leader's capacity to provide
rewards, incentives, or positive reinforcements to those
they lead. It includes the ability to grant promotions,
bonuses, recognition, or other desirable outcomes.
13. HUMILITY
7. CONNECTION POWER
Connection power is associated with a leader's affiliation
with or membership in influential or prestigious groups,
organizations, or associations. It can enhance a leader's
credibility and influence.
Effective leaders have the courage to take calculated
risks, challenge the status quo, and advocate for what they
believe is right.
Humility is a valuable trait that allows leaders to
acknowledge their limitations, learn from others, and admit
when they are wrong.
14. OPTIMISM
A positive outlook and optimism can be infectious.
Effective leaders inspire hope and enthusiasm even in
challenging situations.
15. TEAM BUILDING
Leaders excel at building and fostering teamwork. They
create a sense of unity and collaboration among team
members.
LEADERSHIP MODELS
1. GREAT MAN THEORY
An early leadership theory that suggests that leadership
qualities are innate and that great leaders are born, not
made.
2. CONTINGENCY THEORY
This theory asserts that leadership effectiveness depends
on various situational factors, such as the leader's style,
the task at hand, and the maturity of the team.
3. ADAPTIVE LEADERSHIP MODEL
Adaptive leaders focus on addressing complex challenges
by mobilizing their teams to adapt and thrive in changing
environments.
4. VROOM-YETTON-JAGO DECISION MODEL
This model helps leaders determine the most appropriate
decision-making style (autocratic, consultative, or
collaborative) based on the situation and team dynamics.
KINDS/ TYPES OF LEADERS
1. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS
Transactional leaders are task-oriented and focus on
managing and controlling tasks. They use a system of
rewards and punishments to motivate team members and
ensure that work is completed according to established
standards.
2. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS
Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their teams
through a compelling vision of the future. They encourage
creativity, innovation, and personal growth among their
followers, often resulting in higher levels of commitment
and performance.
3. SERVANT LEADERS
Servant leaders prioritize the needs of their team
members above their own. They focus on serving and
supporting their team, emphasizing empathy, listening,
and personal development.
4. CHARISMATIC LEADERS
Charismatic leaders have a magnetic personality and use
their charm and persuasion to inspire and influence
others. They often possess a strong sense of purpose and
vision.
5. SITUATIONAL LEADERS
Situational leaders adapt their leadership style based on
the specific situation or the readiness of their team
members. They may use different styles, such as
directing, coaching, supporting, or delegating, depending
on the circumstances.
6. CROSS-CULTURAL LEADERS
Cross-cultural leaders have the ability to lead and manage
teams from diverse cultural backgrounds. They prioritize
cultural sensitivity, adaptability, and intercultural
communication skills.
7. ADAPTIVE LEADERS
Adaptive leaders are flexible and responsive to change.
They believe that leadership approaches should evolve to
address complex challenges and changing environments.
8. COACH-STYLE LEADERS
Coach-style leaders focus on developing their team
members' skills and abilities. They provide guidance,
feedback, and mentorship to help individuals reach their
full potential.
9. BUREAUCRATIC LEADERS
Bureaucratic leaders adhere strictly to rules, policies, and
procedures. They ensure that tasks are carried out
according to established protocols.
10. ADVISORY LEADERS
Advisory leaders serve as trusted advisors and mentors to
their teams. They provide guidance and expertise while
empowering team members to make their own decisions.
11. STRATEGIC LEADERS
Strategic leaders have a strong focus on long-term
planning and vision. They guide their organizations toward
strategic goals and navigate complex challenges with a
strategic mindset.
12. RESILIENT LEADERS
Resilient leaders are adept at navigating adversity and
uncertainty. They remain composed under pressure,
adapt to change, and help their teams bounce back from
setbacks.
LEADERS ORIENTATION TOWARD TASKS AND PEOPLE
EMPLOYEE ORIENTATION
A leader is said to be employee-oriented when he
considers employees as human beings of intrinsic
importance and with individual and personal need to
satisfy.
TASK ORIENTATION
A leader is said to be task-oriented if he places stress on
production and the technical aspects of the job and the
employees are viewed as the means of getting the work
done.
CONTROLLING
Controlling refers to the process of ascertaining whether
organizational objectives have been achieved; if not, why not;
and determining what activities should then be taken to achieve
objectives better in the future.
Objectives and goals that are set at the planning stage are
verified as to achievement or completion at any given point in
the organizing and implementing stages. When expectations
are not met at scheduled dates, corrective measures are
usually undertaken.
IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING
When controlling is properly implemented, it will help the
organization achieve its goal in the most efficient and effective
manner possible.
✓ Accomplishing Organizational Goals
✓ Judging Accuracy of Standards
✓ Using resources effectively
✓ Improving Employee Motivation
✓ Ensuring Order & Discipline
✓ Facilitating Coordination in Action
STEPS IN THE CONTROL PROCESS
1. ESTABLISHING PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES AND
STANDARDS
• Sales targets - Which are expressed in quantity or
monetary terms.
• Production targets - Which are expressed in quantity or
quality.
• Worker attendance - Which are expressed in terms of
rate of absences
• Safety record - Which are expressed in number of
accidents for given periods;
• Supplies used - Which are expressed in quantity or
monetary terms for given periods.
2. MEASURING ACTUAL PERFORMANCE
There is a need to measure actual performance so that
when shortcomings occur, adjustments could be made.
The measuring tools will differ from organization to
organization, as each have their own unique objectives.
Some firms will use annual growth rate standard basis,
while other firms will use some other tools like the market
share approach and position in the industry.
3. COMPARING ACTUAL PERFORMANCE TO
OBJECTIVES AND STANDARDS
Once actual performance has been determined, this will
be compared with what organization seeks to achieve.
Actual production output, for instance, will be compared
with the target output.
4. TAKING NECESSARY ACTION BASED ON THE
RESULTS OF THE COMPARISONS
The purpose of comparing actual performance with the
desired result is to provide management with the
opportunity to take corrective action when necessary.
✓ Hire additional personnel
✓ Use more equipment
✓ Require overtime
TYPES OF CONTROL
1. FEED FORWARD CONTROL
It is sometimes called preliminary or preventive controls,
attempt to identify and prevent deviations in the standards
before they occur. Feedforward controls focus on human,
material, and financial resources within the organization.
2. CONCURRENT CONTROL
Concurrent control takes place while an activity is in
progress. It involves the regulation of ongoing activities
that are part of transformation process to ensure that they
conform to organizational standards. Concurrent control is
designed to ensure that employee work activities produce
the correct results.
3. FEEDBACK CONTROL
This type of control focuses on the outputs of the
organization after transformation is complete. Sometimes
called post action or output control, fulfills a number of
important functions. For one thing, it often is used when
feed forward and concurrent controls are not feasible or
are too costly.
COMPONENT/ TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
1. STRATEGIC PLAN
A strategic plan provides the basic control mechanism for
the organization. When there are indications that activities
do not facilitate the accomplishment of strategic goals,
these activities are either set aside, modified or expanded.
These corrective measures are made possible with the
adoption of strategic plans.
2. THE LONG-RANGE FINANCIAL PLAN
The planning horizon differs from company to company.
Most firms will be satisfied with one year. Engineering
firms, will require longer term financial plans. This is
because of the long head times needed for capital
projects.
3. THE OPERATING BUDGET
An operating budget indicates the expenditures revenues,
or profits planned for some future period regarding
operations.
4. PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
Performance appraisals measures employee
performance. Performance appraisals also function as
effective checks on new policies and programs.
5. STATISTICAL REPORTS
Statistical reports pertain to those that contain data on
various development within the firm.
6. POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
Policies refer to the "the framework within which the
objectives must be pursued”. A procedure is a “plan that
describes the exact series of actions to be taken in a given
situations.
STRATEGIC CONTROL SYSTEM
To be able to assure the accomplishment of the strategic
objectives of the company, strategic control systems become
necessary. These systems consist of the following:
1. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
The success of most organizations depends heavily on its
financial performance. It is just fitting that certain
measurements of financial performance be made so that
whatever deviations from standards are found out,
corrective actions may be introduced.
2. FINANCIAL RATIO ANALYSIS
Financial ratio analysis is a more elaborate approach used
in controlling activities. Under this method, one account
appearing in the financial statement is paired with another
to constitute a ratio. The result will be compared with a
required norm which is usually related to what other
companies in the industry have achieved, or what the
company has achieved in the past
IDENTIFYING CONTROL PROBLEMS
Recognition the need for the control is one thing, actually
implementing it is another. When operations become complex,
the engineer manager must consider useful steps in controlling.
Kreitner mentions three approaches.
1. EXECUTIVE REALITY CHECK
Employees at the frontline often complains that
management imposes certain requirements that are not
realistic.
2. COMPREHENSIVE INTERNAL AUDIT
An internal audit is one undertaken to determine the
efficiency and affectivity of the activities of an organization.
3. GENERAL CHECKLIST OF SYMPTOMS IF
INADEQUATE CONTROL
If a comprehensive internal audit cannot be availed of for
some reason, the use of a checklist for symptoms of
inadequate control may be used.
ORGANIZING
The organizing function in management is one of the
fundamental functions that involves arranging and structuring
an organization's resources, people, and tasks to achieve its
goals effectively and efficiently. It is the process of creating an
organizational structure that defines roles, responsibilities, and
relationships within the organization, allowing it to function
smoothly and accomplish its objectives.
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN
Aims to create a framework that aligns the organization's
resources and activities with its mission and vision.
Organizational design aims to create a framework that aligns
the organization's resources and activities with its mission and
vision.
HERE ARE KEY ASPECTS AND CONSIDERATIONS
RELATED TO ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN:
1. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
This is one of the central elements of organizational
design. It defines the hierarchy of authority, reporting
relationships, and the way tasks are divided and
coordinated within the organization. Common structural
types include functional, divisional, matrix, and flat
structures.
2. CULTURE AND VALUES
Organizational design considers the desired culture and
values of the organization. It encompasses the norms,
beliefs, and shared behaviors that shape how employees
interact and make decisions.
3. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Defining clear roles and responsibilities for employees is
essential for effective organizational design. This helps
prevent role ambiguity, ensures accountability, and
promotes efficiency.
4. DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES
Organizational design outlines how decisions are made
within the organization. It specifies the decision-making
authority at different levels and the processes for
gathering input, evaluating options, and implementing
decisions.
5. COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Effective communication is vital for organizational
success. Organizational design includes decisions about
communication channels, information flow, and how to
disseminate important information to employees and
stakeholders.
6. RESOURCE ALLOCATION
It involves determining how resources, such as budget,
personnel, and technology, will be allocated to various
departments or units within the organization.
7. INTEGRATION AND COORDINATION
Organizational design addresses how different parts of the
organization will work together to achieve common goals.
Coordination mechanisms and integration strategies are
put in place to avoid silos and promote collaboration.
8. ADAPTABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY
A well-designed organization should be adaptable to
changing circumstances and external factors.
Organizational design considers how the organization can
remain agile and responsive to evolving challenges and
opportunities.
9. CUSTOMER-CENTRIC FOCUS
Some organizations prioritize customer-centric design,
which means structuring the organization around
customer needs and preferences. This approach often
leads to improved customer satisfaction and loyalty.
10. TECHNOLOGY AND TOOLS
The choice and integration of technology and tools play a
role in organizational design. It includes decisions about
which systems and tools will support the organization's
processes and operations.
11. LEGAL AND REGULATORY COMPLIANCE
Organizational design ensures that the organization
complies with relevant laws and regulations in its industry
or region.
12. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
Designing mechanisms for gathering feedback from
employees, customers, and other stakeholders is
essential for continuous improvement and adaptation.
DETERMINANTS OF STRUCTURE
Refers to the factors and considerations that influence the
design and configuration of an organization's structure.
Organizational structure defines how tasks, roles,
responsibilities, and authority are distributed throughout the
organization.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE KEY DETERMINANTS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:
1. STRATEGY
The organization's strategic goals and objectives are a
primary determinant of its structure. Different strategies
(e.g., cost leadership, differentiation, innovation) require
different structures to support them effectively.
2. SIZE
The size of the organization, including the number of
employees and geographical locations, can significantly
impact its structure. Larger organizations tend to have
more complex structures with multiple layers of
management and specialized departments.
3. ENVIRONMENT
The external environment, including industry dynamics,
market conditions, and regulatory requirements, plays a
role in shaping an organization's structure.
4. TECHNOLOGY
The type of technology used by the organization can
influence its structure. Technology can enable greater
communication and collaboration, potentially reducing the
need for hierarchical layers. Conversely, technology can
also lead to the creation of specialized roles and
departments.
5. CULTURE
Organizational culture, which includes the shared values,
norms, and beliefs of employees, can impact the structure.
A culture that values innovation and collaboration may
lead to a flatter, more team-oriented structure, while a
culture emphasizing hierarchy and control may result in a
more traditional, hierarchical structure.
6. LEADERSHIP STYLE
The leadership style and preferences of top executives
and managers can influence the organizational structure.
Leaders who prefer centralized decision-making may
implement a more hierarchical structure, while those who
value delegation and empowerment may refer a flatter
structure.
7. HISTORY AND TRADITION
Organizational structures can be influenced by historical
factors and traditions. Companies may maintain structures
that have been in place for many years, even if they are
no longer the most efficient or effective.
8. MARKET AND CUSTOMER NEEDS
The needs and preferences of the organization's target
market and customers can also impact its structure. A
customer-focused organization may structure itself around
customer segments or product lines to better serve its
markets.
9. COMPETITIVE PRESSURES
The competitive landscape can drive changes in
organizational structure. Companies may restructure to
respond to competitive threats or to exploit new
opportunities in the market.
10. HUMAN RESOURCES
The availability and skills of the workforce can affect the
structure. Skilled employees may enable a more
decentralized structure that relies on their expertise, while
a shortage of certain skills may lead to a more centralized
structure.
11. GEOGRAPHY
For organizations with a global presence, geography can
impact the structure. The need for coordination and
management of international operations may result in a
matrix structure or regional divisions.
12. OWNERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE
The ownership structure (e.g., public, private, family-
owned) and governance mechanisms (e.g., board of
directors) can also influence the organization's structure.
JOB DESIGN
Is the process of structuring and organizing job tasks,
responsibilities, and elements to enhance employee
performance, satisfaction, and well-being. Job design aims to
strike a balance between achieving organizational objectives
and fulfilling the psychological and social needs of workers.
One popular framework used in job design is the Job
Characteristics Model (JCM), which was developed by Richard
Hackman and Greg Oldham in the 1970s. The JCM is based
on the premise that certain core job characteristics can lead to
improved job satisfaction and motivation among employees,
ultimately resulting in higher performance and lower turnover.
EFFECTIVE JOB DESIGN IN ENGINEERING
MANAGEMENT CAN LEAD TO BETTER UTILIZATION OF
RESOURCES, IMPROVED TEAMWORK, AND ENHANCED
PROJECT OUTCOMES. HERE ARE SOME KEY ASPECTS
TO CONSIDER:
1. TASK ALLOCATION
Job design begins with defining the tasks and
responsibilities of each engineering position. This includes
determining what specific engineering tasks need to be
performed, such as design, analysis, testing, or project
management.
2. WORKLOAD DISTRIBUTION
Engineers often work on complex projects that require a
balance of skills and effort. Job design involves allocating
workloads and tasks in a way that ensures engineers can
manage their responsibilities effectively without becoming
overwhelmed.
3. SKILL MATCHING
It's important to match employees' skills and expertise to
the tasks they are assigned. Job design should take into
account the qualifications, experience, and competency of
each engineer to ensure that they are placed in roles that
align with their strengths.
4. TEAM STRUCTURE
Engineering projects often involve cross-functional teams.
Job design must consider how these teams are structured,
how communication flows within the team, and how team
members collaborate to achieve project goals.
5. CLEAR JOB DESCRIPTIONS
Each engineering position should have a clear and
detailed job description that outlines the responsibilities,
goals, and expectations. This helps employees
understand their role within the organization.
6. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
Job design should incorporate feedback mechanisms to
ensure that employees have opportunities to provide input
and suggestions for process improvement and job
refinement.
7. FLEXIBILITY
In dynamic engineering environments, job design should
allow for some degree of flexibility. Engineers may need
to adapt to changing project requirements or technology
advancements.
8. WORK-LIFE BALANCE
Engineering management should also consider the well-
being of employees. Job design should strive to maintain
a healthy work-life balance by managing workloads and
scheduling in a way that prevents burnout.
9. MOTIVATION AND INCENTIVES
Incorporating motivational factors, such as performance-
based incentives and recognition programs, into job
design can help motivate engineers to perform at their
best.
10. ERGONOMICS AND SAFETY
For certain engineering roles, particularly in fields like
manufacturing or construction, job design should also take
into account ergonomics and safety considerations to
ensure the well-being of employees.
11. JOB ROTATION
Some organizations implement job rotation programs,
where engineers periodically switch roles or
responsibilities. This can help employees gain a broader
skill set and fresh perspectives on their work.
12. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Job design should also include opportunities for ongoing
training and professional development to keep engineers
updated with the latest industry trends and technologies.
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
Is a work design theory that seeks to identify the key factors
that make a job motivating, satisfying, and engaging for
employees, and has since become a widely used framework for
job analysis and job design research.
THE MODEL IDENTIFIES FIVE CORE JOB
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. SKILL VARIETY
This refers to the extent to which a job requires employees
to use a variety of different skills and abilities. Jobs that
offer diverse tasks and challenges are often more
engaging and fulfilling for employees.
2. TASK IDENTITY
Task identity is the degree to which a job involves
completing a whole, identifiable
piece of work. Jobs with a clear beginning and end, where
employees can see the tangible results of their efforts,
tend to be more satisfying.
3. TASK SIGNIFICANCE
Task significance measures the impact of a job on the lives
or well-being of others, both within and outside the
organization. Jobs that have a meaningful impact are
generally more motivating.
4. AUTONOMY
Autonomy refers to the degree of independence and
control employees have over their work. Jobs that allow
individuals to make decisions, set their own goals, and
have a say in how they
perform their tasks tend to be more fulfilling.
5. FEEDBACK
Feedback is the information employees receive about their
performance. Regular and constructive feedback helps
individuals understand how well they are doing and
provides opportunities for improvement.
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
Is a work design theory that seeks to identify the key factors
that make a job motivating, satisfying, and engaging for
employees, and has since become a widely used framework
for job analysis and job design research.
THREE CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES:
1. EXPERIENCED MEANINGFULNESS OF WORK
Employees feel that their work is meaningful and
contributes to a larger purpose.
2. EXPERIENCED RESPONSIBILITY FOR WORK
OUTCOMES
Employees believe they have control and accountability
for the outcomes of their work.
3. KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
Employees receive clear and timely feedback about their
job performance.