CHAPTER 11

IMMUNITY
 IgM
Immunity
IgE
IgG
Structures & IgD
classes of
11.1 antibody IgA
IMMUNE
RESPONSE Thymus

Roles of lymphoid
organs in Spleen
immunity
Tonsil

Lymph node

11.0
Bone marrow
IMMUNITY
marrowmarr

Neutralization

Opsonization
Antigen &
antibody
interaction Activation of
compliment
system & pore
formation

Humoral & cell

mediated immune
response
11.2 DEVELOPMENT
OF IMMUNITY

Primary & secondary

immune response
11.1 IMMUNE RESPONSE

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Define immunity and state the types of immunity

(b) Describe the general structure of antibodies and state the classes based on its
structure
(c) State the roles of lymphoid organs in immunity such as:
a. Thymus
b. spleen
c. tonsil
d. Lymph nodes
e. Bone marrow
(d) Explain the various types of antigen and antibody interactions:
i. Neutralization
ii. Opsonisation
iii. Activation of complement system and pore formation.

a) Immunity

DEFINITION
“Ability of organism to resist infections caused by pathogens or foreign substances”

Type of immunity
Exercise 11.1 (a) Fill in the blank with suitable answer

IMMUNITY

INNATE ACQUIRED

ACTIVE PASSIVE

Natural Artificial Natural Artificial

Exposed to Immunization Maternal Antibodies from
antigen antibodies other sources
b) Antibody

Antibody/Immunoglobulin (Ig)
- A protein secreted by plasma B cells that binds to a particular antigen // produced
by immune system due to the presence of antigen.

Each antibody is specific

for particular antigen (due
to the presence of
variable region)

Classes of antibody

Class Structure Importance

IgM • Acts as receptors on the lymphocytes surface
• Bind many antigens at once
• Effective in clumping viruses/bacteria
• Involved in primary immune response
IgA • Prevents bacteria and viruses from attaching to
mucus membranes
• Act as mucosal antibody
• Passive immunity on nursing infants
• Acts as first line of defense
• E.g. saliva, mucus, tears and mother’s milk
IgD • Acts as receptor for antigen on B cell surface
• Involves in activation on lymphocyte B cells
• Involves lymphocyte B cell proliferation &
differentiation into memory B cells & plasma cells
IgE • Involve in hypersensitive reaction that produces
allergies
• Trigger release of histamine from mast cells and
basophils
• Involves in allergic reaction
 IgG • Acts as markers that stimulate phagocytosis.
• Protect against bacteria/viruses/toxins in blood and
lymph
• Involved in secondary immune response

c) Roles of Lymphoid Organ in Immunity

Exercise 11.1 (b): Complete the diagram of lymphoid organ below with the correct labels.
Exercise 11.1(c): Match the lymphoid organs with their roles in immunity.
Lymphoid organs Roles
Tonsil ❖ Site for production of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
❖ Site for development of B lymphocytes to become mature

Bone marrow ❖ Site for the development of T lymphocytes to become mature

❖ Serves as a reservoir for blood

Lymph nodes ❖ Filters or purifies the blood and lymph fluid that flows
through it. (Containing RBCs, lymphocytes, and
macrophages)
❖ Remove bacteria and worn-out blood cells
❖ Help fight infection (White pulp contains mostly lymphocytes)
Thymus ❖ To filter foreign substances, bacteria & dead tissue in lymph
before they enter the blood stream
❖ areas of concentrated lymphocytes and macrophages along
the lymphatic veins
Spleen ❖ Help protect the respiratory system from infection by
antigen or bacteria (that enter the body through the mouth
or nose)

d) Antigen and Antibody Interaction

1. Antigen
• Foreign substances that trigger / induces specific immune response.
• Usually are proteins, polysaccharides & glycoproteins.
• Located on the surface of pathogens (bacteria @ virus)
• May exist as free molecules.
• Antigen will trigger the activation of B cells & T cells.
• The nonself antigen are antigen that do not originate in your body for examples
bacteria, virus, fungus and parasites.
• The self-antigens is the antigens on your own cells such as MHC (major
histocompatibility complex)
2. Types of Antigen & Antibody Interactions

Neutralization

Antibodies bind to the proteins on the surface of a virus.

Bound antibodies will prevent infection of a host cell and

neutralizing the virus.

Antibodies also bind to the toxins released in body fluid,

preventing the toxin from entering body cells

Opsonization

Antibodies bound to antigen on bacteria.

This structure will recognized by macrophages or

neutrophils, continues with phagocytosis.

Antibodies facilitate phagocytosis by linking bacterial cells,

viruses and other foreign substances into aggregates

Activation of complement system and

pore formation

Complement protein bind to antigen-

antibody complex on a foreign cell.

It will trigger the generation of a

membrane attack complex and form a
pore in the cell membrane.

Ions and water rush into the cell,

causing it to swell and lyse.

Lysis of the foreign cell will promotes

inflammation or stimulate
phagocytosis
11.2 DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNITY

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) State the two types of immune response
(b) Explain humoral and cell mediated immune response against infection
(c) Explain the primary and secondary immune responses

a) Humoral and Cell Mediated Immune Response

1. HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE

1. Pathogen invade the body.

2. Macrophage engulf and degrades the pathogen protein into antigen fragment and
display it on the surface of macrophage. Macrophage now become Antigen Presenting
Cell (APC).
3. MHC molecules bind with the antigen display on the macrophage, forming
MHC – Antigen complex.
4. Helper T cell (TH cell) recognizes the specific antigen and binds to the MHC-antigen
complex on the surface of macrophage via T H cell receptor.
5. This interaction promotes the secretion of Interleukin I by macrophage to activate TH
cell.
6. TH cells proliferate and differentiates into memory helper T cell and active helper T
cell.
7. Activated helper T cells secrete Interleukin-2 and activated the B cell.
8. An activated B cell proliferate and differentiates into plasma cell and memory B cell.
9. Plasma cell produce and secrete antibodies that bind with the antigen, forming antigen-
antibody interaction
10. Memory B cell responses for second infection of same antigen.

**B cell also can be APC when MHC molecule bind with antigen (forming MHC-antigen)
on the surface of B cell
2. CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE

1. Pathogen invades the body.

2. Macrophage engulfs and degrades the pathogen protein into antigen fragment.
3. MHC molecules bind with the antigen and displays it on the cell/ macrophage surface,
forming MHC-antigen complex. Macrophage become Antigen Presenting Cell (APC).
4. Helper T cell (TH cell) recognizes the specific antigen and binds to the MHC-antigen
complex via its T cell receptor.
5. This interaction promotes the secretion of Interleukin I by macrophage and activated
TH cell.
6. Activated TH cell proliferate and differentiate to memory TH cells and active TH cell.
7. Activated TH cells will transported to infected area and secrete Interleukin 2 and
activated the cytotoxic T cell (TC cell)
8. An activated cytotoxic T cell proliferates and differentiates to active TC cell and memory
TC cell.

9. Active TC cell binds to MHC-A complex of infected cell.

10. The TC cell release perforin which creates pores in the membrane of infected cell.
11. Water and ions flow into infected cell. The infected cell rupture. TC cell also release
granzymes that initiates programmed cell death/ apoptosis
 12. The Tc cells detaches itself before the infected cell lyses and start to attack other
infected cells.

Exercise 11.2 (a): Fill in the table below to explain humoral and cell mediated immune
response.

Humoral immune response Cell-mediated immune response

Involve B cell / B lymphocyte
Origin of cells are bone marrow
Site of cell maturation is bone marrow
Plasma cells release antibody into the
blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph to
attack bacteria and some virus
The activated B cell proliferates to form
clone.
Two types of B cells present in this clone:
❖ Memory B cells
❖ Plasma cells
Involve T cell / T lymphocyte
Origin of cells are bone marrow
Site of cell maturation is thymus gland
T cells attack against infected cells, cancer
cells and transplanted organ and tissues
The activated T cell proliferates to form
clone.
Four types of cells are present in this clone:
❖ Cytotoxic T cells,
❖ Helper T cells,
❖ Memory T cells
❖ Suppressor T cells

SELF AND NON-SELF CONCEPT

• Immune system has the ability to differentiate the cells of the body
(self) from foreign cells (non-self).
• This ability depends on a group of cell surface protein called MHC that
act as marker molecule
• This concept is the basis for surgery involving organ transplant and
blood transfusion.

SELF NON-SELF

• Cell bodies or foreign • Foreign substances that

substances that are are not compatible with
compatible with the body the body cells
cell • So, immunity response is
• No immunity response is triggered to produce
triggered antibodies
• No production of • Includes pathogens & cells
antibodies from other individuals of
the same species

• The body’s immune defence do not normally attack tissues that

carry a “self-marker”
• Immune cells and other body cells are known as self-tolerance.
• But when immune cells encounter cells or organism carrying
molecule that say ‘foreign’ or non-self, the immune system quickly
eliminate it.
b) Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

Exercise 11.2(b): Fill in the blanks in the diagram below to explain the primary and
secondary immune responses

•The response of the immune system to the first

exposure to an antigen.
•An infection or an antigen injected into the body.
Primary Immune •Causes specific antibodies to appear in the blood
Response plasma in 3 to 14 days.
•The amount of antibody produced is usually
relatively low.

•The action of body system after being exposed again

the same antigen.
•The secondary immune response is faster due to
Secondary Immune presence of memory B cells after the first exposure.
Response •Less antigen is necessary to stimulate a secondary
immune response.
•Memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient
response.
 Exercise 11.2 (c): Differentiate between the primary and secondary immune responses

Primary immune response Secondary immune response

Slow and longer latent phase
More antigen necessary to stimulate
immune response and less antibody are
produced
Antibody is mainly IgM
The respond is short-lived
More rapid and shorter latent phase
Less antigen necessary to stimulate
immune response and more antibody are
produced
Antibody is mainly IgG
The respond is long-lasting (months or
years)

VACCINATION

Definition: A process of acquiring immunity against a particular disease through vaccine.

Vaccine:
- May contain dead pathogens or alive but weakened pathogens
- Stimulate primary/secondary immune response.
- Can’t cause disease but act as antigen to stimulate the production of immune response

BCG Rubella
Protects against Rubella (in pregnant
Protects against tuberculosis
woman can cause birth defect)

Vaccination and
their importances

Hepatitis
Protects against Hepatitis B
Triple antigen
Protects against Diphteria (respiratory
tract ilness, tetanus and pertussis) in
children and infants over 2 months of
age