Specific Immune Response

SARAH INAM 2020-PHD-1133

HIRA AKRAM 2020-PHD-1042
SAFA SIDDIQUI 2020-PHD-1045
ASMA AKMAL 2020-PHD-1046
SHIRIN GULL 2020-PHD-1183
SAFA AMBER 2020-PHD-1135
MEHWISH GHAZALA 2020-PHD-1043 Presented to: Dr. Zahra Khan
MAVRA JAVED 2020-PHD-1184
Immunity
• Immunity refers to the body’s ability to prevent the invasion of pathogens.
Pathogens are foreign disease-causing substances, such as bacteria and
viruses, and people are exposed to them every day. Antigens are attached to
the surface of pathogens and stimulate an immune response in the body.
• An immune response is the body’s defense system to fight against antigens
and protect the body.

VACCINE PRACTICE FOR HEALTH PROFESSIONALS: 1ST CANADIAN EDITION

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Defense mechanisms of the body

Reference: The Immunological Basis for Immunization Series, Module 1: General Immunology. WHO/EPI/GEN/93.11. 2
 Specific Immune Response
• “Specific immune defense systems are not effective fully at birth and require
time to develop after exposure to the infecting agent or its antigens. Specific
immunity may be acquired naturally by infection or artificially by
immunization”.

Reference: The Immunological Basis for Immunization Series, Module 1: General Immunology. WHO/EPI/GEN/93.11.

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Types of Specific Immune Response
• Specific immune response is divided into:
• Antibody-mediated Immune response/ Humoral Immunity
• Cell-mediated Immune response

Reference: The Immunological Basis for Immunization Series, Module 1: General Immunology. WHO/EPI/GEN/93.11.

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 Humoral immunity
• “This is the type of immunity in which antibody plays the most
important role. B cells are involved which differentiate into plasma
cells which can excrete antibody. B cells need the help of
macrophages, T cells, and sometimes complement in order to destroy
foreign invaders”.

https://sites.ualberta.ca/~pletendr/tm-modules/immunology/70imm-humoral.html#:~:text=Humoral immunity can be subdivided,exposure to a foreign antigen.

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Types of Humoral Immunity
• There are two types of humoral immunity:
1. Active immunity
2. Passive immunity

https://sites.ualberta.ca/~pletendr/tm-modules/immunology/70imm-humoral.html#:~:text=Humoral immunity can be subdivided,exposure to a foreign antigen.

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Active Immunity
• In active immunity the person actively makes an antibody after exposure to a
foreign antigen. 
• Active immunity can be artificial (e.g., following vaccination with a live or
attenuated virus), or natural (e.g., following exposure to a disease-causing
organism, infection).

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https://sites.ualberta.ca/~pletendr/tm-modules/immunology/70imm-humoral.html#:~:text=Humoral immunity can be subdivided,exposure to a foreign antigen.
Passive Immunity
• In passive immunity a person is given an antibody that has been made by
someone else.
• It can be artificial (e.g., gamma globulin given to people with a
gammaglobulinemia) or natural (e.g., maternal antibody that has crossed the
placenta into the fetus).

https://sites.ualberta.ca/~pletendr/tm-modules/immunology/70imm-humoral.html#:~:text=Humoral immunity can be subdivided,exposure to a foreign antigen.

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 Antibodies
• Proteins that recognize and bind to a particular antigen with very high
specificity.
• Produce in response to exposure to the antigen.
• One virus or microbe may have several antigenic determinant sites, to
which different antibodies may bind.
• Each antibody has at least two identical sites that bind antigen: Antigen
binding sites.
• Belong to a group of serum proteins called immunoglobulins (Igs).

Schroeder, H. W., Jr., & Cavacini, L. (2010). Structure and function of immunoglobulins. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 125(2 Suppl 2), S41-S52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.09.046
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Functions of Antibodies

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 Immunoglobulins
• Specialized group of proteins mostly associated with γ globulin fraction.
• Immunoglobulins is a functional term while γ globulin is a physical term.
• Abbreviated as Ig.
• Ig are produced by plasma cells in response to an antigen and which function
as antibodies.

Schroeder, H. W., Jr., & Cavacini, L. (2010). Structure and function of immunoglobulins. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 125(2 Suppl 2), S41-S52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.09.046 12
 Major functions of Immunoglobulins
 Main antibody in the secondary response.
 Opsonizes bacteria, making them easier to phagocytose.
 Fixes complement, which enhances bacterial killing.
IgG  Neutralizes bacterial toxins and viruses.
 Crosses the placenta.

IgA  Secretory IgA prevents attachment of bacteria and viruses to mucous

membranes.
 Does not fix complement.

Moura, R., Agua-Doce, A., Weinmann, P., Graça, L., & Fonseca, J. (2008). B cells: From the bench to the clinical practice. Acta reumatológica portuguesa, 33, 137-154.
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IgM  Produced in the primary response to an antigen.
 Fixes complement.
 Does not cross the placenta.

IgD  Found on the surfaces of B cells where it acts as a receptor for antigen.

IgE  Mediates immediate hypersensitivity (allergy) by causing release of

mediators from mast cells and basophils upon exposure to antigen (allergen).
 Does not fix complement.
 Main host defense against helminthic infections.

Moura, R., Agua-Doce, A., Weinmann, P., Graça, L., & Fonseca, J. (2008). B cells: From the bench to the clinical practice. Acta reumatológica portuguesa, 33, 137-154.
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Mechanism of humoral immunity

1. Primary response

2. Secondary response

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Humoral (antibody-mediated) Immunity

Memory
Cells

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Phases of the Humoral Immune Response

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Primary and Secondary Humoral Responses

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 In a primary immune response, naïve B cells are
stimulated by antigen, become activated, and differentiate
into antibody-secreting cells that produce antibodies
specific for the eliciting antigen.
 A secondary immune response is elicited when the same
antigen stimulates memory B cells, leading to production
of greater quantities of specific antibody than are
produced in the primary response.

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 Cell-mediated immunity
“Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) is an immune response that does not involve
antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages and NK-cells,
the production of antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release
of various cytokines in response to an antigen.”

Macrophage + NK-cell + T Lymphocytes + Cytokines

Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview. (2021, January 4). Retrieved April 22, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/3326 21
• Activated macrophages: These cells exhibit enhanced killing of
intracellular microorganisms, increased secretion of cytokines and
mediators, and higher expression of co-stimulatory molecules.

• NK-cells: Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells that show strong
cytolytic function against physiologically stressed cells such as tumor cells.

• Cytotoxic T lymphocytes: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) represent one

of several types of cells of the immune system that have the capacity to
directly kill other cells.

• Cytokines: Cytokines are small secreted proteins released by cells have a

specific effect on the interactions and communications between cells.

Mosser, D. M., & Edwards, J. P. (2008). Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation. Nature reviews. Immunology, 8(12), 958–969. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2448

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Paul S, Lal G. The Molecular Mechanism of Natural Killer Cells Function and Its Importance in Cancer Immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology. 2017;8(1124).
Kerkvliet N, Lawrence BP. 5.05 - Cytotoxic T Cells*. In: McQueen CA, editor. Comprehensive Toxicology (Second Edition). Oxford: Elsevier; 2010. p. 109-32.
Zhang, J. M., & An, J. (2007). Cytokines, inflammation, and pain. International anesthesiology clinics, 45(2), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1097/AIA.0b013e318034194e
 Mechanism of action
1. Activating
antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) that are able to destroy
body cells displaying epitopes of foreign antigen on their surface, such as virus-
infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells displaying tumor
antigens;
2. Activatingmacrophages and NK cells, enabling them to destroy intracellular
pathogens; and
3. Stimulatingcells to secrete a variety of cytokines that influence the function of other
cells involved in adaptive immune responses and innate immune responses.
It is most effective in destroying virus-infected cells, intracellular bacteria, and cancers. It also
plays a major role in delayed transplant rejection.

Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview. (2021, January 4). Retrieved April 22, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/3326 23
• Memory T cells are antigen-specific T
cells that remain long-term after an infection
has been eliminated. The memory T cells are
quickly converted into large numbers of
effector T cells upon preexposure to the
specific invading antigen, thus providing a rapid
response to past infection.

• Helper T cells helps in activated cytotoxic T

cells to kill infected target cells.

• Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), group

of genes that code for proteins found on the
surfaces of cells that help the immune system
recognize foreign substances. 

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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the
Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. T Cells and
MHC Proteins. 
• T-lymphocytes are able to randomly cut out and splice together different
combinations of genes along their chromosomes through a process
called gene translocation. This is known as combinatorial diversity and
results in each T-lymphocyte generating a unique T-cell receptor (TCR).

• During gene translocation, specialized enzymes in the T-lymphocyte

cause splicing inaccuracies wherein additional nucleotides are added or
deleted at the various gene junctions. This change in the nucleotide
base sequence generates even greater diversity in the shape of the
TCR. This is called junctional diversity.

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Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview. (2021, January 4). Retrieved April 22, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/3326
• As a result of combinatorial diversity and junctional diversity, each T-
lymphocyte is able to produce a unique shaped T-cell receptor
(TCR) capable of reacting with complementary-shaped peptide
bound to a MHC molecule.

• A subsequent exposure to that same antigen results in a more rapid

and longer production of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), and a
more rapid and longer production of T4-effector lymphocytes.

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Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview. (2021, January 4). Retrieved April 22, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/3326
• When an antigen encounters the immune system, epitopes from protein
antigens bound to MHC molecules eventually will react with a naive T-
lymphocyte with TCRs and molecules on its surface that more or less fit
and this activates that T-lymphocyte. This process is known as clonal
selection.

• Cytokines produced by effector T-helper lymphocytes enable the now

activated T-lymphocyte to rapidly proliferate to produce large clones of
thousands of identical T-lymphocytes. This is referred to as clonal
expansion.

Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview. (2021, January 4). Retrieved April 22, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/3326 27
 Life-style factors affecting immune function

Maggini S, Pierre A, Calder PC. Immune Function and Micronutrient Requirements Change over the Life Course. Nutrients. 2018;10(10):1531. Published 2018 Oct 17. doi:10.3390/nu10101531
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