BIOLOGY

of the cells
1 INTRODUCTION INTO THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY

1. 1 BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Definition of biology

The word biology simply means the study of life. Biology is concerned with the study of all
living things from bacteria to higher plants and mammals. It is a modern science, although it
has an ancient origin. Biology aims to provide understanding of structure and functions of
organisms and how they interact with one another.
Science is a way of investigating the world in order to form general rules about what causes
things to happen. Science involves testing ideas about how things work and how they are
made.

The major grouping of living things

BOTANY – the study of plants

ZOOLOGY – the study of animals
MICROBIOLOGY – the study of microorganisms including their culture, economic
importance
and pathogenicity
BACTERIOLOGY – the study of bacteria
MYCOLOGY – the study of fungi
VIROLOGY – the study of viruses

The structure and functioning of living things

MORPHOLOGY – the study of structure and form of organisms

ANATOMY – the study of internal organization of organisms
HISTOLOGY – the study of microscopic anatomy of tissues and the way they are arranged in
organs
CYTOLOGY – the study of the cell structure and division, including the cell ultrastructure and
the
fine structure of organelles
PHYSIOLOGY – the study of functioning of organisms

The change and development of living things in time

ANTHROPOLOGY – the study of a man

PALEONTHOLOGY – the study of died out organisms
GENETICS – the study of heredity and variation of organisms
ONTOGENESIS – the study of individual development of organisms
PHYLOGENESIS – the study of historic development of organisms from the simpliest to the
most
complex forms
EMBRYOLOGY – the study of fetus, embryo

Applied biology

BIOTECHNOLOGY – the study of application of biology in a productive industry

Bordering sciences of biology

BIOCHEMISTRY – a science on the border between biology and chemistry

BIOPHYSICS – a science on the border between biology and physics

The other biological sciences

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY – the study of organisms on their molecular level

PARASITOLOGY – the study of parasites
IMMUNOLOGY – the study of organisms` resistance to diseases
ETHOLOGY – the study of behaviour of organisms
ECOLOGY – the study of relationship between living things and their environment

1. 2 HISTORY OF BIOLOGY

1. Antiquity
- development of healing
- the first opinions on life, its origin and foundation documented in first civilizations in
China,
Egypt and India

A)Greece

HIPPOKRATES (460 – 377 BC) – Hippocratic oath

ARISTOTELES (384 – 322 BC) – he claimed that the origin of animals is derived from
autogamy  he is the author of “The theory of autogamy” according to what living creatures
originate in inanimate nature
THEOFRASTOS (371 – 287 BC) – he described more than 500 species of plants by what he
gave the foundation to the plant systematics

B) Roma

PLINIUS (23 – 79) - the author of “Historia naturalis” – a book in which Plinius concluded all
pieces of information about nature.
GALENOS (129 – 200) – he wrote many books about medicine, autopsies, experiments
2. Medieval ages (5th – 15th century)
- the church dominated over the sciences  the investigation of nature was prohibited
Francis from Asisi, Thomas Akvinsky

AVICENA (980 – 1037) – an Arabian doctor, the author of many medical books
3. Modern period (15th – 17th century)
- the power of church was weaken, development of technique began
- the period of humanism and renaissance brought new ideas, opinions, observations,
experiments, the foundation of universities, libraries, the discovery of book printing

Leonardo da Vinci – used knowledge from antomy

ANDREAS VESALIUS (1514 – 1564) – based on autopsy he published the work about the
anatomy of a human body
WILLIAM HARVEY (1578 – 1657) – the founder of physiology; he described the blood
circulation; he negated the Aristotelian theory by claming that the ovum represents the
beginning of life and evolution
JAN JESSENIUS (1566 – 1621) – he realized the first public autopsy in Prague in 1600
ANTONY van LEEUWENHOEK (1632 – 1723) – with his little microscope he was able to
see a vast range of structures from some largest plant and animal cells to subcellular
organelles; he invented microscope and telescope
Robert Hook – he observed the cells, corc –korok- dead cells
MARCELO MALPHIGY – zoology, capilares and the structure of kidneys, thouch particles
and urinary system
FRANCESCO REDI – theory of abiogenesis – samoplodenie,

• 18th century

- living organisms differ from nonliving nature

CARL LINNÉ (1707 – 1778) – he said that species were unchangeable; he is the author of the
theory of binomical nomenclature which says that each organism has its own double name
consisting of a latinised generic name followed by a specific adjective
JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK (1744 – 1829) – he introduced the first theory of evolution
according to which all organisms are generated from the simple to the more complex forms,
he believed that all new gained traits are passed to offspring

• 19th century

CHARLES DARWIN (1809 – 1882) – best known by his theory of evolution by natural
selection saying that only the strongest in the nature survives
SHLEIDER, SHWANN,
JÁN EVANGELISTA PURKYNĚ (1817 – 1869) – “Cell theory” – heart system, systole, all
organisms are made of cells,, the cell theory”,, all living organisms arise from already existing
cell
ERNEST HEACKEL – autor of biogenetic law, ontogenesis is shorter and faster phylogenesis
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822 – 1895) – the founder of immunology; he found out that
microorganisms are the causers of diseases, fermentacion, negated the abiogenesis,
vactination against rabies
ROBERT KOCH – founder bacteriology
IVAN PERTROVIC PAVLOV – studied nervous system, described supported reflex
JOHANN GREGOR MENDEL (1822 – 1884) – by experimenting on plants of peas he
described the transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring; he discovered
and described the general principles of genetics
ALEXANDER YERSIN – founder of causal agent of plague and vactination against plague
JAN JANSKY – blood groups
CALVIN – explain photosynthesis
KREBS – described respiration
FLEMING – found penicillin

• 20th century

- development of genetics and molecular biology, biochemistry, ethology, ecology etc.

WATSON and CRICK – they described the double – helix structure of DNA; they also
invented a chemical model of gene as the basic unit of heredity

1.3 The Microscope

Parts and Specifications

Historians credit the invention of the

compound microscope to the Dutch
spectacle maker, Zacharias Janssen,
around the year 1590. The compound
microscope uses lenses and light to
enlarge the image and is also called an
optical or light microscope (vs./ an
electron microscope). The simplest
optical microscope is the magnifying
glass and is good to about ten times
(10X) magnification.
Thecompoundmicroscopehas two
systems of lenses for greater
magnification, 1) the ocular, or eyepiece lens that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or
the lens closest to the object. Before purchasing or using a microscope, it is important to
know the functions of each part.

Eyepiece Lens: the lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X or 15X
power.

Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses

Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to the base

Base: The bottom of the microscope, used for support

Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror. If your
microscope has a mirror, it is used to reflect light from an external light source up through the
bottom of the stage.

Stage: The flat platform where you place your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in
place. If your microscope has a mechanical stage, you will be able to move the slide around
by turning two knobs. One moves it left and right, the other moves it up and down.

Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: This is the part that holds two or more objective
lenses and can be rotated to easily change power.

Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope.

They almost always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X
(most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X ,
400X and 1000X. To have good resolution at 1000X, you will need a relatively sophisticated
microscope with an Abbe condenser. The shortest lens is the lowest power, the longest one is
the lens with the greatest power. Lenses are color coded and if built to DIN standards are
interchangeable between microscopes. The high power objective lenses are retractable (i.e.
40XR). This means that if they hit a slide, the end of the lens will push in (spring loaded)
thereby protecting the lens and the slide. All quality microscopes have achromatic,
parcentered, parfocal lenses.

Rack Stop: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get
to the slide. It is set at the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective
lens down into the slide and breaking things. You would only need to adjust this if you were
using very thin slides and you weren't able to focus on the specimen at high power. (Tip: If
you are using thin slides and can't focus, rather than adjust the rack stop, place a clear glass
slide under the original slide to raise it a bit higher)

Condenser Lens: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the
specimen. Condenser lenses are most useful at the highest powers (400X and above).
Microscopes with in stage condenser lenses render a sharper image than those with no lens (at
400X). If your microscope has a maximum power of 400X, you will get the maximum
benefit by using a condenser lenses rated at 0.65 NA or greater. 0.65 NA condenser lenses
may be mounted in the stage and work quite well. A big advantage to a stage mounted lens is
that there is one less focusing item to deal with. If you go to 1000X then you should have a
focusable condenser lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater. Most 1000X microscopes use 1.25
Abbe condenser lens systems. The Abbe condenser lens can be moved up and down. It is set
very close to the slide at 1000X and moved further away at the lower powers.

Diaphragm or Iris: Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This
diaphragm has different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of
light that is projected upward into the slide. There is no set rule regarding which setting to
use for a particular power. Rather, the setting is a function of the transparency of the
specimen, the degree of contrast you desire and the particular objective lens in use.

How to Focus Your Microscope: The proper way to focus a microscope is to start
with the lowest power objective lens first and while looking from the side, crank the lens
down as close to the specimen as possible without touching it. Now, look through the
eyepiece lens and focus upward only until the image is sharp. If you can't get it in focus,
repeat the process again. Once the image is sharp with the low power lens, you should be
able to simply click in the next power lens and do minor adjustments with the focus knob. If
your microscope has a fine focus adjustment, turning it a bit should be all that's necessary.
Continue with subsequent objective lenses and fine focus each time.

What to look for when purchasing a microscope.

If you want a real microscope that provides sharp crisp images then stay away from
the toy stores and the plastic instruments that claim to go up to 600X or more. There are
many high quality student grade microscopes on the market today. They have a metal body
and all glass lenses. One of the most important considerations is to purchase your instrument
from a reputable source. Although a dealer may give you a great price, they may not be
around next year to help you with a problem. One dealer that we can highly recommend is
Microscope World. They offer a wide variety of instruments at very competitive prices.

1.4 Scientific methods used in Biology

The scientific method is a series of steps followed by scientific investigators to answer

specific questions about the natural world. It involves making observations, formulating a
hypothesis, and conducting scientific experiments. Scientific inquiry starts with an
observation followed by the formulation of a question about what has been observed. The
steps of the scientific method are as follows:

 Observation
 Question
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Results
 Conclusion

Observation:

The first step of the scientific method involves making an observation about
something that interests you. This is very important if you are doing a science project
because you want your project to be focused on something that will hold your attention. Your
observation can be on anything from plant movement to animal behavior, as long as it is
something you really want to know more about.

Question:

Once you've made your observation, you must formulate a question about what
you have observed. Your question should tell what it is that you are trying to discover or
accomplish in your experiment. When stating your question you should be as specific as
possible.
Hypothesis:

The hypothesis is a key component of the scientific process. A hypothesis is an

educated guess about the answer to your specific question. It is important to note that a
hypothesis must be testable. That means that you should be able to test your hypothesis
through experimentation.

Experiment:

Once you've developed a hypothesis, you must design and conduct an experiment
that will test it. You should develop a procedure that states very clearly how you plan to
conduct your experiment. It is important that you include and identify a controlled variable
in your procedure. Controls allow us to test a single variable in an experiment because they
are unchanged. We can then make observations and comparisons between our controls and
our independent variables (things that change in the experiment) to develop an accurate
conclusion.

Results:

The results are where you report what happened in the experiment. That
includes detailing all observations and data made during your experiment. Most people
find it easier to visualize the data by charting or graphing the information.

Conclusion:

The final step of the scientific method is the conclusion. This is where all of the
results from the experiment are analyzed and a determination is reached about the
hypothesis. Did the experiment support or reject your hypothesis? If your hypothesis was
supported, great. If not, repeat the experiment or think of ways to improve your procedure.
2. 1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING THINGS

In a broadest sense, biology is the study of living things – the science of life. Living
things come in an outstanding variety of shapes, forms and biologists try to understand the
source of this diversity. They study life in many different ways. What makes something
“alive”? Anyone could indicate accurately that a galloping horse is alive and a car is not, but
why? One cannot say: “If it moves, it is alive,” because a car can move, and gelatin can
wiggle in a bowl. But they certainly are not alive. We consider something to be alive if it has
certain basic characteristics shared by all living things. These characteristics are:

1. METABOLISM – all living things use and release energy and all biochemical processes in
the organism are termed as metabolism.

2. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION – all living things are made of cells. The groups of cells
form tissues, tissues form organs, several organs result in the system of organs and the
systems of organs make up the whole organism.

3. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION – the basic chemical substances of all living things are
organic substances – lipids, sugars, proteins and nucleic acids.

4. HEREDITY AND REPRODUCTION – all living things contain genetic information in

DNA and they are able to reproduce and produce offspring.

5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT – all living things grow and change during their life.
Growth involves increase in size of the organism; development involves the change in shape
and form of the organism as it matures.

6. SENSITIVITY – all living things are sensitive to the stimuli from external surrounding and
they are able to respond to them.

7. COMPLEXITY – all living things are complex.

8. MOVEMENT – all living things can move.

9. DEATH – all living things die.

10. HOMEOSTASIS - all living things maintain homeostasis = the stability of internal
environment.

11. EXCRETION – all living things eliminate the unwanted products of metabolism.

2. 2 HIERARCHIC ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS

Living nature is composed of many living organisms termed as individuals and the cell is
their basic unit. Living things, although they are made of cells, exist in a vast range of
different types, varying in size, shape and structural complexity. According to the stage of
complexity, all living organisms are divided into the following groups:

1. NONCELLULAR ORGANISMS - viruses

Viruses are the simpliest microscopic particles that can be observed only by an electronic
microscope. They invade and very often they also destroy the cells of plants, animals, fungi
and bacteria. Viruses are not able to live and reproduce on their own. They always depend on
a host cell. Chemically, they are composed of nucleic acids and proteins and they do not have
their own metabolism.

2. UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS – bacteria, microorganisms

These organisms are represented only by one cell which is able to carry out all vital functions.
Reproduction of these organisms is realized by a simple division of the cell. Unicellular
organisms include bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae and certain types of fungi.
3. CELL COLONIES

When the individual cells remain clumped together after the division of cell, the resulting
multicellular structure may be known as colony. In a colony, several cells live together and
specialize in different functions (eg. digestive, protective, excretory etc.) In spite of all these
properties, each cell in a colony is able to live on its own independently of the others.
The cell colonies later lead to the formation of multicellular organisms.

4. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

The great majority of multicellular organisms are made of visibly different parts, in which the
cells are internally organized and the groups of cells are specialized to perform different
functions. In fact, groups of cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, organs make up
system of organs and these systems make up the whole organism as itself. Among the
multicellular organisms we can find the majority of plants, animals and fungi.
5. OBLIGATORY COMMUNITIES OF ORGANISMS

Most of the organisms live together and make up a specific group of organization. Each
member of the group has a specific role in the hierarchy of the organization. These individuals
cannot live alone. They include ants, bees, termites etc.
 3 BIOLOGY OF CELL

Cell is defined as the basic structural and functional element of all living organisms.
▪ structural  it means that one cell represents the basic unit of all living organisms
▪ functional  it means that one cell is able to carry out all vital functions

The cell theory - Purkyne includes the following two basic principles:
1. cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organization of all living organisms
2. cells arise only by the division of a previously existing cell

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE CELLS:

- their own metabolism
- chemical composition
- the stucture
- reproduction
- heredity – passing genetic information in DNA to offspring
Types of cells:
- prokaryoric cell
- eukaryotic cell

3. 1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL

The cell contains:

1. 60 – 90 % of inorganic compounds (water and salts)
2. 10 – 40 % of organic compounds (proteins, lipids, sugars and nucleic acids)
12% protein
9% sugars
8% lipid
3% nucleic acids
3% minerals
Chemical substances provide the following fumctions:
- building function – protein, lipids, sugars
- metabolic function – regulate chemical reactions , emzymatic function, transfer genetic
information
storage function – source of energy
- substrate function – provide the best conditions for chemical processes in a cell.

1. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- relating or belonging to the class of compounds not having a carbon basis

WATER – all living organisms contain water = a chemical compound made of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom that are bound together. Its quantity depends on the age of cell.
The younger the cell is, the more water it has.

Functions of water:
a) water is a good solvent
b) water has a high heat capacity
c) almost all reactions in living organisms take place in water
d) water conditions the biological activity
e) water plays an important role in photosynthesis

SALTS – salts influence the processes in organisms. They make either ions (Na +, K+, Cl- etc.)
or insoluble compounds such as carbonates, silicates, fluorides etc. They support chemical
and physical properties cells and and metabolism. They are the source of free ions, which
provide important functions in cells and are responsible for homeostasis. The are the part of
enzymatic activities in cells.

2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- those chemical compounds that contain carbon. The carbon atoms can be incorporated into
tetrahedral molecules. The organic compounds are subdivided into two groups:
a) low organic compounds – sugars and lipids
b) high organic compounds – proteins and nucleic acids

PROTEINS – are macromolecules made up of twenty different amino acids. Amino acids are
the proteins` basic units and a covalent bond that links two amino acids is called a peptide
bond (CO – NH).
Monomer – basic structural elements of moleculs – (amino acid, glucose..)
Protein could be fibrilar – mechanical function or globular – part of enzymes
Proteins perform the following basic functions:
a) a building function – proteins are basic building elements of any living organism
b) an enzymatic function – proteins speed up chemical reactions
c) a protective function – the cell is able to make the antibodies
d) a storage function – proteins are the source of energy
e) information function – regulation of cell processes and intercellular relationship.
Part od hormones
The function of the cell depends on the structure of proteins and this structure depends on the
number and sequence of amino acids.

LIPIDS – are esters of higher fatty acids and alcohol, hydrophobic (water – hating) molecules
insoluble in water. They are soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and ether. Part of
hormones and vitamines

Organisms contain several kinds of lipids:

1. fats – the storage molecules in organisms
2. oils – such as olive oil, corn oil, coconut oil
3. waxes – bee wax and ear wax
4. phospholipids - modified fats that are in the membranes of cells
5. steroids – they are also parts of membranes, eg. cholesterol

The function of lipids:

a) storage – lipids are a rich source of energy
b) in membrane formation

SUGARS – according to the structure they are subdivided into:

1. monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
2. disaccharides – saccharose, maltose, lactose
3. polysaccharides – starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin

Function of polysaccharides:
a) a building function – chitin in fungi or cellulose in plants
b) a storage function – starch in plants or glycogen in animals

NUCLEIC ACIDS – nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are the most important energy – storage
molecules in organisms. They are long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides,
each consisting of three components:
a) an organic nitrogen – containing base
b) a five – carbon ribose or deoxyribose sugar
c) a phosphate group (-PO4)

There are two subtypes of organic nitrogen – containing bases that occur in nucleotides:
1. purines – they are long, double – ring molecules found both in DNA and RNA.
Purines include adenine (A) and guanine(G).
 2. pyrimidines – they are smaller, single – ring molecules. Among the pyrimidines there
are cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U).

Differences between DNA and RNA:

1. type of sugar
DNA – deoxyribose
RNA – ribose
2. organic nitrogen – containing base
DNA – adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
RNA – adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine

3. structure
DNA – a double – helix structure
RNA – the structure of a single fibre
The basic function of nucleic acids lies in transferring the genetic information from parents to
offspring.

3. 2 THE CELL STRUCTURE

There is a great variety in shapes, size and structures of plant and animal cells. This variety
often reflects the varied functions for which the cells are adapted. Under the term the cell
structure we understand the size, shape and internal integration of the cell. The fine
structure of cells, known as cell ultrastructure, was largely discovered by the techniques of
electron microscopy.
Two types of cells are distinguished:
1. prokaryotic – bacteria, cyanobacteria
2. eukaryotic – the cells of plants, animals and fungi

1. PROKARYOTIC CELL – the prokaryotic cell is much smaller and simplier than the
eukaryotic one. The groups of prokaryotic cells create no more than the cell colony. The cell
lacks nucleus. Instead of it, there is one single circular molecule of DNA that lies in
cytoplasm and it is not enclosed in a membrane – bound compartment. The organelles in
prokaryotic cells appear in a very small amount.

The structure of prokaryotic cell:

a)nucleus– it is not present. Nucleus is represented by one molecule of DNA -nucleoid

b)cytoplasm– it contains many ribosomes necessary for the proteosynthesis. Reserve
substances
appear very often, but there are only a few organelles.
c)cytoplasmatic membrane – it regulates the intake and outtake of substances
d)cell wall– it is located above the plasmatic membrane; it is strong and its function is to
protect the cell.
e)plasmid – it has its own DNA, many plasmids contain genes that make the host bacterium
resistant to an antibiotic (so it won’t die when treated with that antibiotic). Other plasmids contain
genes that help the host to digest unusual substances or to kill other types of bacteria.
Some genes are resposible for conjugation – division of bacteria and breaking down
some organic substances.

Some prokaryotic cells also have capsule for increasing the cell`s resistance and flagella
for movement.
 The structure of prokaryotic cell
2. EUKARYOTIC CELL – in comparison with the prokaryotic cell, the eukaryotic cell is
larger and more complex. It contains a membrane – bound compartment called nucleus and
many membrane organelles.

The structure of eukaryotic cell:

a)cell surfaces – their function is to protect the cell against the mechanical injury from external
surrounding.
There are two types of cell surfaces:
• cell wall + cytoplasmatic membrane under it  in plant cells
• only cytoplasmatic membrane without the cell wall  in animal cells

The structure of plasmatic membrane (phospholipid bilayer, integral and peripheral protein, other
components.)
b)cytoplasm– it represents the environment for life and metabolic activity of many cell
organelles.
It is the place where the unbroken exchange of energy and substances is carried out.

c)nucleus– nucleusis the carrier of the genetic information. It is a reproductive center of all cells
and it consists of three parts:
• nucleus envelope – surrounded by two biomembranes
• nucleolus – composed of RNA and proteins
• chromosomes – composed of DNA and proteins

Nucleus of eukaryotic cell

d)organelles
1.organelles of movement – they have the locomotive and mechanical function. The basic
difference between the organelles of movement and the membrane organelles lies in a fact
that the organelles of movement are made not of membranes but they consist of fibrous
structures - microfilaments and microtubuli. These structures are able to contract and
expand
by what the movement is realized. Microfilaments and microtubuli arise by binding
proteins
together and in the cell they are arranged in a way 9 + 2.

2. membrane organelles:

• mitochondrion– from the cytoplasm it is separated by a double membrane. The inner

membrane is curved and it forms numerous layers called cristae. The
outer membrane is smooth. The inside of mitochondrion is filled with thesubstance matrix. In
mitochondrion many biochemical reactions connectedwith the release of energy take place. That
is why mitochondrion is defined as the energetic center of the cell.
 Mitochondrion of eukaryotic cell

• endoplasmatic reticulum – in cytoplasm it appears like the stacks of flattened vesicles

surrounded by biomembranes. It has a rough and smooth part.
The rough part contains ribosomes and it plays a key role in
proteosynthesis while the smooth part is connected with the
synthesis of lipids because it is without ribosomes.
Endoplasmatic reticulum is, therefore, the synthetic center of
the cell.

Endoplasmatic reticulum (ER)

• ribosomes – they are the granular elements without membranes which are either loosely
located in cytoplasm or they are bound to endoplasmaticreticuli. They are
 composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins. Ribosomes are necessary for
proteosynthesis.

Ribosomes

• Golgi complex – similarly to endoplasmaticreticuli it is structured like stacks of flattened

Vesicles called dictyosomes (bigger-in the middle and provide condensation of proteins and
polymerization of carbohydrates) or vesicules (smaller- closer to the ends and provide transport
substances , metabolism and enzymes storage) . Golgi complex provides in the cell two
important functions:
 synthetic = the synthesis of substances necessary for the cell wall
building
secretive = secretion of unnecessary substances

Golgi complex
 •vacuole – it is a typical structure of all plant cells. It is a space filled up with the liquid called
cell juice. Vacuoles are the storage of many substances.

Vacuole of the plant cell

• lysosomes – they are the typical animal cell structures fulfilling the same function as the
vacuole in the plant cells. They are composed of many small vesicles with many
digestive enzymes that are able to split up the necessary substances.

Location of lysosome in animal cell

• plastids – plastids are membrane organelles occurring only in plant cells. The most
important are chloroplasts being responsible for photosynthesis.

When plastids are present, plants are able to photosynthetize. According to the presence of
pigments we divide them into:
a) chloroplasts – they contain the main green pigment chlorophyll. In addition, they
also contain some other accessory pigments as carotenoids, xantophylls etc. and
together they carry out photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is located in the saclike
membranous structures called thylakoids (form grana - stlpce) that are placed
inside the chloroplast – in stroma. Stroma also contains DNA and ribosomes.
Chloroplasts are present nearly in all plant cells except for roots and the inner parts of
stems.
 Chloroplast

b) chromoplasts – they contain yellow, orange and red pigments mainly carotenes
and xantophylls. They are present in ripe fruits (pepper), flowers, roots (carrot). They
are not able to photosynthetize.

Chromoplast

c) leucoplasts – colourless plastids in tissues and organs that are not exposed to sun
radiance, eg. in roots, fruits (mistletoe), or in epidermic cells. The most important of
them are amyloplasts that accumulate starch (a potato tuber).

e)non – living cell components– they include any reserve substances (eg. starch, glycogen).
These substances are without the metabolic activity so they are considered to be non – living cell
components - inclusions

Despite all these structural differences between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell,
eukaryotes and prokaryotes share several characteristics.
Both kinds of cells have cell wall and cell membrane. They also contain a mostly fluid
internal environment called cytoplasm. They both also contain ribosomes = structures on
which proteins are made.
The nucleus is only compartment inside the eukaryotic cell. The cytoplasm consists of an
aqueous space termed cytosol – gell substance, liquid part of cytoplasm and a variety of
structures known as organelles. Each organelle is specialized to perform different functions.
 ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
Lysosomes -
- Vacuole
- Plastids
- Cell wall

3. 3 THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is defined as the period of time from the formation of the cell to the point
when the cell divides itself. The lenght of the cell cycle varies from a few minutes to
several years and it includes all the processes during the life of the cell and these are: growth
and development of nucleus, cell division and the division of other organelles.

The cell cycle consists of five phases:

G1  S  G2  M  C

G1 - phase – primary, it is the growth phase of the cell. The cell grows and develops; the
nucleus directs the protein synthesis; the DNA replication prepares. G1 phase contains
“the main control station”- kontrolný uzol which has a regulatory function (it means that
here in case of unsuitable conditions the cell cycle stops or slows down). The G1 phase is
considered to be the most variable.

S - phase – synthesis phase -the DNA replication and chromosomes duplication appears
(one- chromatid chromosomes become two - chromatid). After the end of the S – phase
the nucleus contains a double number of chromosomes.
G2 - phase – the cell grows, the nucleus division prepares and the synthetic processes
continue eg. protein synthesis.

M - phase – it is the essential step in the separation - division of the nucleus into two
daughter nuclei. KARYOKINESIS . The spindle is formed, nuclear membrane disappears
and mitosis begins.

C - phase – it is a phase during which the cell itself divides creating two daughter cells.
CYTOKINESIS
Generation time of the cell

Generation time of the cell means the time duration of the cell cycle.Generation time of
the cell is determined genetically (before birth) and it differs in many cells from several
minutes to several hours and years (depending on the type of the cell).
Suitable life conditions are decisive factors for the life length of the cell (if the external
conditions are not optimal, the main control station blocks up the cell division, the cell
division slows down and the cell cycle lasts longer).

The regulation of the cell cycle

The cell cycle is regulated by the regulation mechanisms. They control the cell cycle and
provide a required cell number in tissues and organs. The chemical components the cell
division either stimulate or inhibit.
Stimulators of the cell cycle = the chemical components which initiate the cell cycle, they
support it.
Inhibitors of the cell cycle = the chemical components which slow down the cell cycle and
stop the cell division.
These chemical substances are effective mainly in G1 phase where the main control station is
placed.
The cell cycle regulation can be very often influenced by viruses which cause the ragged cell
divisions. In this case the tumors arise which lead to the development of cancer.

The cell specialization

What is it?

The cell differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become modified and
specialized for the performance of specific functions. Differentiation involves changes both in
physiology and shape of the cell which enables it to carry out specific functions.
Differentiation can be compared to “thedivision of labour“.

When does it begin?

The cell specialization has its origin during the embryonal development in the cell called
zygote. During the zygote division the cell number increases. The new cells are never same
but they differ in their structure and function.
THE STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES

Chromosomes are made of two parallel fibres called chromatids. Chromatids are composed
of DNA + proteins and they are joined together in the place of primary constriction called
centromere. Sme chromosomes also have a secondary constriction where nuclear organiser
is located.

THE CHROMOSOME NUMBER

A set of chromosomes is called karyotype. If you could look inside almost any cell in your
body, you would find 46 chromosomes.
When a human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, it is said to be diploid. Practically all
cells that make up your body are diploid. On the contrary, the chromosomes in gametes (eggs
or sperms) occur singly. The cells which contain only one copy of each chromosome are said
to be haploid. The symbol commonly used for the diploid number is 2n, and that used for the
haploid number is n. For example, in humans, 2n = 46; n = 23.
 3. 4 THE DIVISION OF CELL

All organisms grow and reproduce. From the smallest creatures to the largest, all species
produce offspring like themselves and pass on them the hereditary information that makes
them what they are.
The cell division:
a) Direct – amitosis
b) Indirect – mitosis – through mitotis apparatus
meiosis – it is also reduction division of cells.Typical for sexual cells

1. CELL DIVISION

When the cell divides, the nucleus divides first, followed by the cytoplasm. Before the cell
division, each chromosome make a copy of itself (chromosome replication). The period
between nuclear division is known as interphase. During interphase the chromosomes take
the form of greatly extended threads. Interphase is not a resting phase, but a period during
which the metabolic activity of the nucleus is intense. The cell prepares for the division.

There are two types of cell division depending on whether the number of the chromosomes
present in each of the daughter cell is the same as the number in the parent cell:
a) mitosis
b) meiosis
A. MITOSIS

Mitosis is the division of cells to produce two daughter nuclei containing identical sets of
chromosomes. For this reason mitosis is called a replicated division. Mitosis takes place when
organism grows and when tissues are repaired or replaced.
Mitosis is described in 4 stages:
1. Prophase – the chromosomes first become visible as long thin threads. Each
chromosome has already replicated (DNA content has doubled) into two chromatides
but the chromatides are still held together and they and they joined at centromere.The
nuclear membrane normally breaks down, and nucleolus disappears. Centrioel divides
and each part moves to opposite poles of the cell. Spindle formation is started
2. Metaphase –. A series of microtubules known as spindle is laid down between the
poles (centrioles ) and each chromosome´s centromere.Spindle fibresare attached to
chromosomes at the equatorial plate. Now, the shortening and thickening of the
chromosomes is at its maximum and the individual chromatids and the centomeres are
clearly visible.
3. Anaphase - this is the shortest stage in mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the
chromatids are pulled by microtubules and move to opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase – the two groups of chromatids are organised into daughter nuclei. Each
group becomes surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is the process of karyokinesis –
division of the nucleus.

Telophase is finally followed by the division of cell called cytokinesis, when the mother cell
divides into two new daughter cells containing identical DNA.

Each daughter cell produced by mitosis has a full set of chromosomes identical to those of the
parent cell. No variation in genetic information arises by mitosis (simply said the new cell
carries all the same information as the previously existing cell of the organism).
 MITOSIS

B. MEIOSIS

Meiosis involves two successive division of the cell. Both the divisions superficially resemble
(podobať sa) mitosis,
The first division (I), however, separates homologous chromosomes and reduction of the
number of chromosomes occurs. It is heterotypical division.
The second division (II) separates chromatids, but the number of chromosomes doesn´t
change. It is homeotypical division.
Four cells are formed as a result of meiosis, each with half the chromosome number of
the original cell – 4 haploid cells. Meiosis is preceded by the interphase stage during which
the chromosomes of the nucleus are replicated.
Heterotypical division I

1. Prophase I – the chromosomes appear as single thin threads. Chromosomes start to

be paired and joined together to form bivalents. These chromosomes are
homologous chromosomes(one from mother and one from father – carry the same
genes) continue to shorten and thicken. A cross – shaped structure called chiasma
is formed in the process of crossing – over. (Chiasma arises when non – sister
chromatids from homologous chromosomes join together at their corresponding
sites and exchange their genetics material)).

CROSSING OVER

Crossing – over is a phenomenon occuring during meiosis. After the beginning of meiosis,
two homologous chromosomes pair up and form bivalents - tetrads. Each chromosome has
two chromatids, so the tetrad has four chromatids. Chromatids from each tetrad join together
and make structures called chiasmas. After that the chromatids exchange their parts.
Consequently, the chromosomes exchange the segments of DNA and acquire a new
combination of genes. Here lies the importance of crossing - over.

2. Metaphase I– the spindle forms, the bivalents attach to it and then move to the
equatorial plate. Centromeres become attached to the individual spindle fibres.
3. Anaphase I– homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles,
centromeres still hold chromatids .All chromosomes are still united at centromere.
4. Telophase I – 2 nuclei are formed wih 2-chromatids chromosomes, the cell has
divided, the nuclear membrane re-forms. This step moves directly into the second
prophase.

No interphase

5. Prophase II – the chromosomes shorten and thicken again. The nuclear membrane
reformed in telophase I breaks down again.
6. Metaphase II – the spindle reforms, the chromosomes (each of two chromatids held
together at the centromeres) attach to the spindle and then move to the equatorial plate.
7. Anaphase II– the chromosomes divide and separate pulling the sister chromatids to
opposite poles.
8. Telophase II – nuclear membranes form around the four groups of chromatids and four
nuclei are formed. Once again, the chromosomes appear as chromatin granules.
Nucleoli reappear.
The process of meiosis is now completed, and it is followed by cytokinesis.
 caryokinesis = the division of nuclei (starts during telophase and finishes when the
nuclei reforms)
 cytokinesis= the division of the cell (after telophase)

MEIOSIS
 3. 5 TRAFFIC ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

All cells are separated from their environment by a plasma membrane that is described
as partially permeable = semipermeable. Because of this property, the plasma membrane
facilitates transport of substances into and out of the cell, but it prevents the loss of important
molecules from the cell and prevents the entry of many toxic substances.

Cells communicate with their enviromnent by the following processes:

1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT – a spontaneous transport of molecules and ions which

does not require the use of energy.

a) diffusion – a random motion of molecules and ions dissolved in water from the
regions with a higher concentration to the regions where the concentration is
lower.

b) osmosis – a special case of diffusion. Osmosis refers to the diffusion of water across
semipermeable membrane. When the water enters the cell, it causes the cell to swell
This force creates a pressure called osmotic pressure. If the osmotic pressure is very
high, it can cause the cell to burst. Most cells cannot withstand high osmotic pressure
unless their membranes are prepared to resist swelling.
In the case of osmosis three situations are possible to happen:

 isotonic solution – the osmotic concentrations of the substances outside and

inside the cell are equal (in other words the pressure at both sides of the
membrane is the same). Nothing happens with the plant and animal cell.

 hypertonic solution – two solutions have unequal osmotic concentrations; the

osmotic concentration of the particles outside the cell is higher than the
osmotic concentration inside the cell. What happens?

a) In the plant cell, the cell starts to lose water.The cell capacity lowers and
the cytoplasmatic membrane separates from the cell wall. This phenomenon
is called plasmolysis.
b) In the animal cell, the cell also loses water and the cell capacity lowers. As
the result of it, the cytoplasmatic membrane forms many layers and the cell
becomes smaller.
  hypotonic solution - two solutions have unequal osmotic concentrations; the
osmotic concentration of the particles outside the cell is lower than the
osmotic concentration inside the cell. What happens now?
a) In the plant cell, the cell capacity is bigger but in the hypotonic solution the
plant cell does not change. The plant cell has a strong cell wall which prevents the cell
from bursting.
b) In the animal cell, the cell capacity becomes bigger and the cytoplasmatic
membrane bursts what is called plasmoptysis or osmotic lysis.

The plant cell:

in isotonic solution – nothing happen, pressures are balanced

in hypertonic solution - plasmolysis - environment sucks water from the cells, plasmatic
membrane separates from cell wall
in hypotonic solution - deplasmolysis - restore the original state

The Animal cell:

in isotonic solution – nothing happen, pressures are balanced

in hypertonic solution - plasmorhysis - environment sucks water out of the cell, the cell
shrinks
in hypotonic solution - plasmoptysis - cell sucks water from the environment, increasing to
burst
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT – the transport of materials across membranes against
the concentration gradiens. It means that the substances move across the cell
membrane from the region with a lower concentration to the region with a higher
concentration. Active transport requires energy from ATP.

There are two basic mechanisms of active transport:

a) endocytosis – an active process in which a substance enters the cell without

passing through the cell membrane. Endocytosis causes the changes only in
the shape of the cell. This process is subdivided into two diferrent types:

 phagocytosis – the cell changes its shape by sending out the

projections called pseudopodia (false feet). These pseudopodia
surround a particle and enclose it what leads to the formation of
the intracellular vesicle containing an engulfed particle. The engulfed
particle is finally digested by ensymes. Typical for solid particles.

 pinocytosis – the plasma membrane starts to fold inside the cell,

a sag is formed and becomes bigger. After that the sag separates
from the plasma membrane, digestive enzymes digest content.in
a form of a small vesicle which includes the engulfed particles.
 b) exocytosis – it is a reverse process of endocytosis esp. pinocytosis.
Exocytosis refers to the extrusion of material from the cell by discharching
it from vesicles at the cell surface. A milk secretion is a very good example
of exocytosis.

3. 6 HOW CELLS USE ENERGY

Living cells use energy to do all those things that require work. When living cells break down
molecules, some of the energy released from the molecules is stored in form of heat. The rest
of energy is stored in molecules of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP molecules deliver
energy to wherever it is needed in the cell. The molecule of ATP is composed of the purine
base adenine, the sugar ribose and the sequence of three phosphate groups linked together by
phosphate bonds.
 ATP = Adenine + Ribose + P  P  P

When the outer phosphate group of ATP is removed, ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is
formed.

ADP = Adenine + Ribose + P  P

The reaction that forms ADP from ATP releases energy in a way that enables cells to use
the energy. The following equation summarizes this reaction.

ATP + H2O  ADP + (PO4)3- + ENERGY (50kJ)

ATP is produced in mitochondria and the process as itself is called phosphorylation.

ATP can use only the energy bound in the chemical phosphate bonds.