Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials & Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Advanced lightweight materials for Automobiles: A review

Wen Zhang a,b, Jun Xu a,b,c,⇑
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
b
Vehicle Energy & Safety Laboratory (VESL), Battery Complexity, Autonomous Vehicle and Electrification (BATT CAVE) Research Center, The University of North Carolina at
Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
c
School of Data Science, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 The state-of-art of lightweight

materials for automobiles is
reviewed.
 Representative materials are
introduced with potential automotive
applications, particularly on electric
vehicles.
 Given the recent advances in
manufacturing, modeling, and
characterization, both pros and cons
of materials are summarized.
 Solutions for future challenges are
highlighted by developing advanced
materials and/or improving the
manufacturing.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The growing challenges on fuel economy improvement and greenhouse gas emission control have
Received 30 April 2022 become the driving force for automakers to produce lightweight automobiles. Also, the weight reduction
Revised 13 July 2022 may contribute to superior recyclability and/or vehicle performance (e.g., improved driving economy,
Accepted 25 July 2022
braking behaviors, and crashworthiness). One effective strategy is to develop and implement lightweight
Available online 28 July 2022
yet high-performance materials as alternative solutions for conventional automotive materials such as
cast iron and steel. Herein, a systematic review of available lightweight materials to produce next-
Keywords:
generation automobiles is provided, including light alloys, high-strength steels, composites, and
Automotive
Light alloy
advanced materials in the ongoing research. By investigating the entire life cycle of automotive materials,
High strength steel physical/mechanical properties, characterization, manufacturing techniques, and potential applications
Composites of specific lightweight materials are discussed. Both the advantages and drawbacks of the reviewed mate-
Advanced materials rials are summarized, yielding the appropriate application scenarios for different lightweight materials.
Given the future challenges, on expectations, the development of versatile advanced materials or
improvement of the manufacturing/treatment techniques can be rather promising to resolve the possible
bottlenecks and, in turn, enables more capable, safer, durable, and environmental-friendly vehicles.
Ó 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

According to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) stan-

⇑ Corresponding author. dard, all original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the automo-
E-mail address: jun.xu@uncc.edu (J. Xu). tive industry are required to meet the fuel economy target by the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110994
0264-1275/Ó 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
W. Zhang and J. Xu
average weight of the fleet [1]. In terms of CO2 emissions per kilo-
meter drive (g/km), the average fuel economy target of passenger
vehicles is also challenging for most countries and regions (Fig. 1
(a)) [2]. Particularly, the United States set the 2025 goal of average
CO2 emissions to 89 g/km, reduced by about 40% compared to that
of 2015. Apart from fuel economy improvement and emission con-
trol, greater emphasis on higher performance and easier recyclabil-
ity further promote the development of lighter, stronger, and
greener automobiles. Thus, it is essential to explore new materials
and achieve more efficient structural design for future automo-
biles. So far, global OEMs have implemented a variety of effective
strategies to rise to the challenges, including vigorously developing
hybrid and pure electric vehicles [3,4], increasing the drive train
efficiency [5], and exploring lightweight materials for automobiles
[6,7], among which the top priority is placed on weight saving [8].
Over the past few years, there has been a steady growth of light
vehicle production in all the major markets (Fig. 1(b)) [9]. As
potential substitutions for conventional engineering materials (e.
g., steel and cast iron), lightweight materials for automobiles can
be primarily divided into four categories, light alloys (e.g., alu-
minum, magnesium, and titanium alloys), HSS family (e.g., conven-
tional HSSs and AHSSs), composites (e.g., carbon fiber reinforced
plastics or CFRP), and advanced materials (e.g., mechanical meta-
materials). Since the last century, these lightweight materials have
been extensively applied to various automotive components such
as dashboard, bumper, engine, body shell, wheel, suspension sys-
tem, brake, steering system, battery, seat, and gearbox (Fig. 2). Typ-
ical lightweight materials and their specific automotive
applications are summarized in Table 1.
Generally, the decision of the applications of the new materials
on automobiles is not straightforward and multi-dimensional fac-
tors need to be considered. The complete life cycle of most auto-
motive materials covers from raw materials to the final recycling
and disposal (Fig. 3). The material selection and structural design
can significantly depend on critical factors during each of the
sub-processes, i.e., material fabrication (e.g., cost and properties),
automotive component manufacturing (e.g., design, surface treat-
ment, and jointing technique), vehicle integration (e.g., assem-
bling), service (e.g., durability), and end of life/recyclability (e.g.,
scrap and emission). For instance, the OEMs may consider if the
automotive components are capable of mass production based on
well-established manufacturing techniques or if they can meet
the goal for fuel economy target within a reasonable budget.
Therefore, it is essential to take a global-perspective methodology
to consider selecting appropriate lightweight materials for specific
automotive components.
In this paper, the development and implementation of available
lightweight materials in the automotive industry are comprehen-
Fig. 1. Pressing demand for lightweight materials of automobiles. (a) Fuel economy targets in different countries (passenger vehicles) [2]; (b) Light vehicle production by the
major market in million units [9].
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Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
sively reviewed, which covers major representative light alloys,
HSS families, composites, and advanced materials. A detailed over-
view of these competitive materials is given in terms of their
remarkable performance (e.g., large weight reduction potential,
high specific strength/stiffness, and good corrosion resistance),
automotive applications, major obstacles for broader usage (e.g.,
poor formability, incompatibility with traditional manufacturing
techniques, and high cost) and possible solutions. Accordingly, this
review will provide considerable information about the properties
(both physical and mechanical), manufacturing feasibility as well
as the cost toward the promising opportunities for designing
weight-saving components for automobiles. Meanwhile, the sum-
mary of ongoing research on metamaterials may point the way
for future research directions. Also, the guidelines for automotive
material selection and structural design may pave a new road for
designing lighter, safer, and greener automobiles in the future.
2. Light alloys
2.1. Aluminum
First separated in 1888 as an element, aluminum possesses fas-
cinating properties. The density of aluminum is 2.69 g/cm3, which
is approximately one-third as dense as conventional steel (7.83 g/
cm3). Accordingly, the remarkable specific behaviors (e.g., specific
strength or strength to weight ratio) make it possible to manufac-
ture lighter aluminum-based automobiles with superior perfor-
mances in terms of fuel consumption, acceleration, braking, and
handling [1,22]. On average, one ton of aluminum as a substitution
for cast iron or conventional steel may reduce 18 tons of green-
house gas emissions during the life cycle of a middle-size sedan
[1]. Meanwhile, coupling aluminum with other elements (e.g., Cu,
Mn, Si, Mg, and Zn) to form alloys may endow them with more out-
standing performances (e.g., enhanced corrosion resistance, excel-
lent electrical and thermal conductivity, together with higher
strength compared to that of the structural steel).
From an automotive engineering standpoint, aluminum and its
alloys have gradually moved to the forefront of lightweight mate-
rials applied to automobiles in recent years (Fig. 4(a)). In 2006, alu-
minum overtook cast iron as the second most-used automotive
material (second to steel) in the North American market [1]. Fur-
thermore, the light vehicle aluminum content of the market is tar-
geted at about 570 net pounds per vehicle for 2030, where the cast
aluminum alloy may contribute more than 50% (Fig. 4(b)). Specifi-
cally, an extruded aluminum bumper beam was highlighted in the
crashworthiness design of the Honda Pilot for its significant role in
impact protection (Fig. 4(c)). To ensure low weight while optimiz-
ing rigidity, Mercedes Benz employed intelligent material compo-
W. Zhang and J. Xu
Fig. 2. Representative lightweight materials applicable for different components of automobiles, including light alloys (e.g., aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys),
HSSs, composites (e.g., CFRP), and advanced materials (e.g., metamaterials).
sition with high aluminum content to manufacture the bodyshell
architecture of the new AMG SL (Fig. 4(d)). Despite the weight
reduction potential and other promising benefits, there are a series
of critical factors to be considered before the massive production of
aluminum-based automobiles, primarily including technical (e.g.,
the aluminum component performance, design flexibility, manu-
facturability, crashworthiness, and maintenance) and economic
concerns (e.g., the initial costs of raw materials and expenses dur-
ing manufacturing or operating processes), as well as the environ-
mental impacts (e.g., the post-consumer recycling potential and
disposal of scraps).
Aluminum alloys are amenable to different manufacturing pro-
cesses, including both wrought and cast compositions, where
wrought aluminum alloys (mainly produced from the primary alu-
minum) usually contain relatively lower alloy content in contrast
to that of the cast alloys [23]. The wrought aluminum alloys are
available in different forms (e.g., sheet, extrusion, and forging),
while the casting ones enable rather complicated shapes (e.g., alu-
minum powertrain components) by extensive casting processes
(e.g., sand casting, die casting, permanent mold casting, and abla-
tion casting) [24,25]. Further differentiation may refer to the dom-
inant mechanism of property development (e.g., heat treatable or
work hardening) [26].
Particularly, according to nomenclatures proposed by the Alu-
minum Association, aluminum alloys are classified as various fam-
ilies by four digits from 1000 to 9000, where each alloy
denomination corresponds to specific compositions and character-
istics, in turn giving rise to versatile automotive applications [28].
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Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
For instance, 1000 series aluminum alloys (e.g., 1050, 1100, and
1200) are typically used on heat insulators and license plates due
to their exceptional processability, surface treatability, and the
best corrosion resistance among all the aluminum alloy families
[23]. Containing the copper element, 2000 series aluminum alloys
(e.g., 2014, 2017, 2024, and 2219) achieve excellent properties
even at rather high or low temperatures [29], which is quite suit-
able for automotive pistons, conrods, shock absorbers, and valves.
Furthermore, 6000 series aluminum alloys with magnesium and
silicon as primary alloying elements (e.g., 6061, 6013, and 6063)
have good formability, high strength, and outstanding corrosion
resistance [30,31], making them attractive candidates for automo-
tive fenders, pillars, bumpers, frames, engine brackets, roofs, doors,
and wheels.
Although more advanced manufacturing technologies have
been developed and adopted in forming and jointing different alu-
minum components [32–34], automotive manufacturers are still
confronted with budget challenges to prepare for expanded usage
of aluminum in affordable models instead of upmarket ones only.
Notably, aluminum alloys cost approximately twice as much as
steel [35], which may deter some decision-makers. Nevertheless,
a more reasonable comparison is necessary to recognize the even-
tual winner regarding the expenses of raw materials, design, pro-
duction, maintenance, and cost-related factors such as service
life, safety, comfort, and handling stability. The higher corrosion
resistance of aluminum and its alloys largely extends the service
life and cuts the labor and maintenance costs of corresponding
automotive components [36,37]. Owing to the diminished fuel rate
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Table 1
Summary of representative lightweight materials for automobiles [10–14].

Lightweight materials Typical components Examples

Model Application
Light alloys Al Shock absorber, brake, piston, tank, wheel rim, Audi A8 Chassis
fender, roof, door, bumper, heat insulator, handle, Jaguar XE Monocoque
piping, steering component, conrod, rotor, Mercedes AMG GT Body
suspension component, bonnet, chassis, spoke, Ford F-150 Body panel
valve, gas cylinder, seat frame Toyota GT86 Bonnet
Mazda MX-5 Bumper
Nissan Leaf Battery case, sealing component
Tesla Model S Frame and heat exchangers
Mg Engine block, steering wheel frame, seat frame, Ford Thunderbird Steering wheel frame
instrument panel, wheel rim, cylinder head, clutch Chrysler Plymouth
case, cylinder block, transmission case, lower BMW(MINI)
crankcase, intake manifold, air intake system, Lexus LS430
steering link bracing, oil pump body, camshaft drive Mercedes Roadster 300/400/500 SL Seat frame
chain case, gear control housing, bracket Lexus LS430
Chrysler Jeep Instrument panel
Audi A8
Toyota Century
Toyota 2000GT Wheel rim
Toyota Supra
Alfa Romeo GTV
Porsche AG 911
Dodge Raw Cylinder head
Volvo Motors (LCP)
Honda Motor
Volkswagen Passat Transmission case
Audi A4, A6
Porsche AG 911
Ti Connecting rod, engine valve, spring, intake valve, Mercedes-Benz S-class Brake guide pin
wheel, turbocharger, exhaust system, muffler, body Volkswagen Sealing washer (brake)
frame, engine rocker arm, suspension component, Honda S2000 Roadster Gear shift knob
engine piston pin, fastener, lug nut, door Porsche GT3 Connecting rod
penetration beam, car stop bracket, brake caliper Toyota Altezza 6cyL Valve
piston, pin bolt, pressure plate, shift button, clutch Nissan Infinity Q45
circle, fuel tank, fuel cell separator Mercedes-Benz truck Turbocharger rotor
Mitsubishi Lancer
GM Corvette Z06 Exhaust system
Volkswagen Lupo FSI Suspension spring
Acura NSX Engine
HSSs Frame, body, crash zone, pillar, roof rail, door beam, Jaguar XF Inner reinforcement
seat frame, front side member, bumper Dodge Caliber
reinforcement, roof bow, rocker, cross member, seat Ford Fusion
track Porsche Cayenne
Volvo XC90
GM Cadillac ATS Body-in-white (BIW) structure
GM Chevrolet Sonic
Composites Bumper beam, body, frontal bonnet, seatback. door Audi A2, A4, A6, A8 Seatback, door panel, lining
panel, lining, insulation, cargo area, instrumental BMW 3, 5, and 7 series
panel, body panel, dashboard, windshield, wheel Ford Mondeo CD 162 Floor tray, B-pillar, boot liner
box, roof cover, floor tray, pillar, rear storage shelf, Rover 2000 Insulation, rear storage shelf
hood Lotus Eco Elise Body panel, spoiler, seat
Fiat Punto, Brava Door panel
Peugeot 406 Front and rear door panels
Volkswagen Golf A4 Door panel, seatback, boot-lid finish
panel, boot liner
Honda Pilot Cargo area
Mitsubishi Space star
GM Cadillac Deville
Citroen C5 Interior door paneling

and improved labor productivity and manufacturing technologies,
large-scale production of aluminum-based automobiles may effec-
tively alleviate the issue to some extent [35]. Compared to the tra-
ditional rolling technology, twin roll casting was demonstrated to
lower the cost yet enable the utilization of more recycled alu-
minum scraps by promoting finer metallurgical structures [38].
Consequently, the costs of aluminum and its alloys as substitution
can be further reduced with the perfection of the recovery pro-
cesses of aluminum scraps.
The post-consumer recycling of aluminum scraps from consid-
erable end-of-life automobiles is economically attractive, while a
large shift in reusing aluminum in the automotive market is also
closely related to energy consumption and greenhouse gas emis-
sions [39,40]. Given the thermochemical constraints, nevertheless,
there exist limited refining strategies to remove impurities/unde-
sired alloying elements from the contaminated scraps [41,42].
Two representative practices are proposed to rise to the quality
challenges, i.e., diluting the scraps with primary aluminum or
higher purity alloy to reduce the alloying level and reusing the alu-
minum scraps in appropriate automotive components with
demands for higher alloy contents (downgrading) [43–46]. To
investigate whether these interventions certainly maximize the

4
W. Zhang and J. Xu
Fig. 3. The entire life cycle of automotive materials [15–21].
recovery of aluminum scraps for automobiles, researchers devel-
oped a dynamic material flow model to evaluate the aluminum
cycle on a global vehicle scale (Fig. 4(e)) [27]. Specifically, there
are three processes in the constructed system, i.e., passenger car
production, use, and end-of-life management. A demand-driven
model was then developed based on a conceptual stock dynamics
model to evaluate both inflows and outflows in the processes.
According to the assessment of the likelihood, timing, and extent
of scarp surplus, a variety of policy options were proposed to hin-
der the scarp surplus and result in a lower negative impact on the
environment.
2.2. Magnesium
Magnesium is the lightest structural automotive alloy with a
density of 1.74 g/cm3, less than one-fourth that of steel and close
to the density of CFRP yet more affordable than CFRP. The combi-
nation of remarkable specific strength and specific stiffness has
propelled magnesium and its alloys toward automotive materials
with tremendous weight-saving potential (Fig. 5(a)). Early in the
mid-1930 s, magnesium was introduced to manufacture a trans-
mission housing for an air-cooled engine of the Volkswagen Beetle
[47,48]. Currently, magnesium becomes the third most-used
metallic material in automobiles [49]. Major automotive applica-
tions incorporate powertrain systems, chassis, and body structures,
such as instrumental panel, engine cradle, bracket, transmission
case, seat frame, and front-end structure [19,50].
Since the structural demands vary throughout a vehicle (e.g.,
strength- or stiffness-dominated), it is critical to evaluate and
affirm the most appropriate magnesium alloys for specific compo-
nents. In addition to mechanical properties, durability is also crit-
ical, especially for the lifetime assessment of vehicles in massive
production. Despite the acceptable corrosion resistance of magne-
sium itself, the problematic galvanic couples may inevitably occur
at the jointing areas with other components, bringing about low
durability of the overall vehicle. Accordingly, primary efforts have
been placed on exploring effective corrosion protection strategies,
including alloy design, coating, and isolation methods [51]. Consid-
ering various structural applications for automobiles, different
alloying elements (e.g., aluminum, zinc, rare earth, zirconium, sili-
5
Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
con, and lithium) are adopted to manipulate the performances of
magnesium alloys to meet specific requirements. Particularly, the
addition of aluminum elements (e.g., AZ and AM alloys) may
enhance the strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance yet sacri-
fice ductility and creep properties of the resulting alloys [52]. By
contrast, rare earth elements in magnesium alloys (e.g., WE43
and E21 alloys) enable the improvement of overall mechanical per-
formances (e.g., tensile strength, corrosion, and creep resistance)
[53].
One fundamental issue hindering extensive applications of
magnesium for automobiles is manufacturing. Compared to con-
ventional steels or cast irons, the manufacturing technologies for
magnesium alloys are less experienced. Instead of the cubic crystal
structure found in aluminum and other structural metallic materi-
als, magnesium shows a hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure,
thereby yielding fewer slip systems for deformation [63,64]. Mean-
while, the strong basal texture and inhomogeneous microstruc-
tures are usually formed during the rolling steps. Consequently,
the manufacturing process of magnesium alloys requires a rela-
tively warm or high-temperature environment [65,66], which
may result in the softening of materials after forming. With the
poor formability of magnesium alloys at room temperature [55],
there always exists an inevitable trade-off between weight (or fuel
consumption) reduction and energy inefficiency.
Pioneering investigations have reported that texture weakening
(e.g., via modifying the thermomechanical process) or randomiza-
tion (e.g., by rare earth additions) can noticeably improve the
formability of magnesium alloys at room temperature [67,68].
However, an inverse relationship between the stretch formability
and yield strength is observed in different types of magnesium
alloys (Fig. 5(b)) [54], indicating that the enhanced formability
may lead to rather low strength. Furthermore, budget stretch is
necessary for the final automotive components if the manufactur-
ing processes greatly rely on the addition of rare earth elements.
More recently, a new magnesium alloy with both outstanding
formability and strength was designed and fabricated (the red star
in Fig. 5(b)), where the underlying mechanism lies in the precipita-
tion induced by specific alloy elements and optimum segregation
of other texture-controlling elements [54]. In contrast to the inho-
mogeneous and relatively coarse microstructures of magnesium
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Fig. 4. (a) Yearly change of aluminum content in the light vehicle from 1975 to 2030 (North American market), data from Light Metal Age; (b) Predicted proportion of
different types of aluminum alloy in 2030; (c) Honda Pilot frontal crash test (from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)), where an extruded aluminum bumper
beam plays a significant role in impact protection (enlarged area); (d) New Mercedes AMG SL with high aluminum content in the bodyshell architecture to lower weight
while achieving maximum rigidity (from Mercedes Benz); (e) Illustration of recycling aluminum systems in passenger vehicles [27].

alloys manufactured by conventional ingot casting (IC), the newly
developed twin-roll casting (TRC) Mg-3Al-1Zn-1Mn-0.5Ca alloy in
wt. % (AZMX3110) demonstrates a homogenous distribution of
more refined and equiaxed grains (Fig. 5(c)-(h)). Adding nanoparti-
cles to the magnesium matrix is recognized as another effective
strategy to achieve significant grain refinement resulting from
the nucleation of nanoparticles (Fig. 5(i) and (j)), and in turn, pre-
serve the superior strength and ductility of magnesium alloys
simultaneously [62].
By analogy to aluminum alloys, the high costs of raw materials
and fabrication together with the demand for rare earth elements
in some types of magnesium alloys jointly restrict the broader
automotive applications of magnesium alloys [69]. According to
the 2021 mineral industry surveys from National Minerals Infor-

6
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Fig. 5. (a) Comparison of specific performance between iron, aluminum, and magnesium [13]. Iron serves as the baseline; (b) Yield strength and stretch formability
(described by index Erichsen) of various magnesium alloys at room temperature [54–61]; Optical micrographs (scale bar: 20 lm) of (c) TRC-AZMX3110, (d) IC-AZMX3110,
and (e) IC-AZX310; Scanning transmission electron microscopic images (scale bar: 500 nm) of (f) TRC-AZMX3110, (g) IC-AZMX3110, and (h) IC-AZX310 [54]; Optical
micrographs of (i) AM60 and (j) AM60 containing AIN nanoparticles [62].

mation Center [70], the average spot price of primary magnesium raw material for new steel and cast iron, is around $416 per ton or
($2.10 per pound) in the U.S. market is about 1.5 times that of pri- $0.19 per pound). Also, the price variability makes it rather difficult
mary aluminum ($1.48 per pound), not to mention conventional to implement a variety of magnesium-based components in high-
automotive materials (e.g., the average price for steel scrap, a vital volume automobiles. Furthermore, about 85%-90% of magnesium

7
W. Zhang and J. Xu
components are fabricated by casting [71,72], among which the
predominant methods are high-pressure die-casting (HPDC) and
gravity casting. However, these technologies usually produce mag-
nesium alloys with insufficient creep strength, which may limit
their applications in automotive components operating at elevated
temperatures. Indeed, good elevated-temperature performances
are crucial for a series of material-consumable areas in automo-
biles (e.g., gearbox housing and oil pan) [73]. Therefore, more
cost-friendly while effective manufacturing technologies are quite
imperative to ensure magnesium alloys commercially and techni-
cally viable. One promising tailor-made solution is TRC since it
can manufacture magnesium alloys directly from the melt, which
is more efficient compared to the repetitive reheating and rolling
processes of traditional technologies [74,75].
2.3. Titanium
In addition to the high strength (Fig. 6(a)) and low density
(about 4.5 g/cm3), Titanium and its alloys also show excellent cor-
Fig. 6. (a) Comparison of mechanical properties between various types of metallic materials, including mild steel, aluminum, magnesium, and Titanium (pure and 6Al-4 V)
[83]; (b) Chronological development of representative titanium components in the automotive industry [81]; (c) Titanium powder processed by additive manufacturing [84].
8
Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
rosion resistance, high energy absorption capacity, and elevated
temperature performances [76]. Considering that some aluminum
and magnesium alloys exhibit inferior strength under high temper-
atures, titanium alloys emerge as competitive alternative automo-
tive materials to meet increasingly rigorous targets on both weight
reduction and functional enhancement [77]. Back in the late
1990 s, Titanium connecting rods were used to substitute the tra-
ditional steel rods on the Honda NSX and Ferrari, attaining approx-
imately 20% weight reduction accompanied by improved strength
[11]. Another challenging component yet titanium alloys fit per-
fectly in automotive lightweight design is the valve (e.g., the intake
valve of Toyota ALTEZZA and Nissan Cima), which has high
demands on performances (e.g., ductility and creep resistance)
under high thermal loadings (up to about 900 °C) [11,78]. Specifi-
cally, typical titanium alloys can be classified according to the
alloying elements and purity [79], including commercially pure
(CP) or low alloyed Titanium (e.g., CP Ti, Ti-3Al-2.5 V, Ti-1Cu, and
Ti-1.5Al), alpha-titanium (e.g., Ti-1100 and Ti-6242S), alpha/beta-
titanium (e.g., Ti-6Al-4 V, Ti-62S, and Ti-54 M), and beta-
W. Zhang and J. Xu
titanium (e.g., Ti-LCB). CP and low alloyed Titanium are usually
used on exhaust pipes or mufflers due to their comparable cold
formability. Correspondingly, beta-titanium alloys are more func-
tional for springs of suspension and valves since they possess
low modulus, exceptional fatigue behaviors, and high strength. In
contrast to a suspension spring made of conventional steel, the
titanium one may realize a 60–70% and 50–80% reduction in
weight and free height of the spring, respectively [80]. More auto-
motive applications made of different titanium alloys are chrono-
logically summarized in Fig. 6(b) [81]. Realistically, the
application of titanium alloys in automobiles (mostly price-
driven) is still limited by comparison with the aerospace industry
and medical products. The ore price of Titanium ($0.22 per
pound) is more than 20 times that of aluminum ($0.01 per
pound) [82]. Meanwhile, compared to conventional or other light-
weight automotive materials, the high costs for extraction and pro-
cessing (the decisive factor) certainly negate the extensive
utilization of titanium alloys in the automotive industry.
Thus, plentiful investigations focus on lowering the processing
costs of titanium alloys to push the envelope of automotive appli-
cations, such as the powder metallurgy (PM) near-net-shape tech-
niques [85]. Substituting the expensive beta-stabilizers (e.g., Mo
and Cr elements) with the Fe element can effectively reduce the
cost of beta-titanium alloys (e.g., Ti185) [86]. However, the poten-
tial segregation of Fe during the ingot processing may generate
inhomogeneous structures and subsequently deteriorate the
mechanical performances of titanium alloys [87]. Based on the
TiH2 powder feedstock, a low-cost approach was developed to pro-
duce economically feasible titanium alloys for engineering compo-
nents while preserving mechanical performances [88,89]. Further,
a low-cost titanium alloy with further improved tensile strength
(even higher than existing commercial titanium alloys) was also
achieved. The fundamental mechanism can be attributed to the
hierarchical nanostructures formed by the phase transformation
sequence [90].
Another conflicting issue to be resolved is the poor machinabil-
ity of titanium, attributed to the relatively low elastic modulus and
high yield strength [91]. During the machining process, the low
modulus of titanium yields deflections of the workpiece about dou-
ble that with steel, leading to chatter, vibration, and increased tem-
perature [92]. Additionally, titanium alloys may bring about
substantial tool wear through reaction with specific cutting tool
materials. The machining of titanium (e.g., surface roughness) is
also closely related to the processing parameters, such as levels
of current, pulse on time, and voltage gap in electro discharge
machining [93]. Therefore, the development of effective machining
technologies may not only improve the machinability of titanium
alloys but also largely decrease the component production costs.
Hitherto, numerous research findings have contributed to achiev-
ing better machinability. Promising solutions primarily concen-
trate on using advanced tool materials with hot hardness and
superior thermal conductivity (e.g., high-speed steel, coated car-
bides, and cubic boron nitride) [94], designing appropriate tool
geometries (e.g., rotary shape) [95,96], optimizing the processing
parameters [97,98], and adopting coolant during the cutting pro-
cess [99,100]. Besides the strategies based on traditional machin-
ing approaches, more advanced machining techniques are also
applied to produce titanium components, such as high-speed and
ultrasonic machining technologies [101–104], where both
improved machinability (i.e., surface finish) and greater productiv-
ity can be achieved.
With the recent development of affordable titanium powders
(see Fig. 6 (c) for the plasma processed spherical titanium powder),
additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have shown significant
advances in producing fully functional components made of Tita-
nium and its alloys [105–107]. There are two representative cate-
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Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
gories of AM technologies fully explored for titanium components,
i.e., powder bed fusion/sintering and directed energy deposition
[71], among which the powder bed fusion techniques will yield a
better surface finish due to the smaller beam size and layer thick-
ness. Thus, the powder bed fusion is more suitable for building hol-
low near-net shapes (efficiently overcoming the machining
difficulty of Titanium), yet the directed energy deposition technol-
ogy is usually applied in building relatively large components or
remanufacturing damaged parts, respectively. The resulting tita-
nium alloys are equipped with comparable properties or even sur-
pass those produced by conventional manufacturing processes
[82]. For instance, simple cubic architected titanium alloys manu-
factured through selective laser melting showed controllable pla-
teau stress and outstanding energy-absorbing capability, which
makes them promising candidates for vibration damping compo-
nents [108]. Regardless of limited applications in the current auto-
motive industry, the fascinating benefits of AM technologies for
titanium alloys, e.g., the design freedom, scrap reduction, and
straightforward manufacturing process, make them associated
with the future of titanium component production for automobiles
to meet the higher targets on fuel efficiency and energy
consumption.
3. High strength steel
Given the low cost, high performance, outstanding machinabil-
ity, and recyclability, steel remains an indispensable automotive
material even for the most up-to-date vehicles. Although nonfer-
rous light alloys (e.g., aluminum and magnesium alloys) are highly
competitive to meet the increasing weight reduction challenges,
there still exist several pivotal hurdles before their wide applica-
tions (e.g., affordability, incompatibility with traditional well-
developed manufacturing technologies, and poor machinability),
especially significant for low-end but high-volume production.
Consequently, this becomes the driving force for continuously
developing new steel grades and innovations in the steel market,
i.e., HSS. Indeed, conventional HSSs and AHSSs are not lighter than
low carbon steels but possess much higher strength, corresponding
to higher specific strength. Cost-benefit analysis and performance
evaluation indicate that HSSs and AHSSs can preserve both the
benefits of affordability and remarkable performances. Compared
to low carbon steel, fewer HSS and AHSS materials are required
to produce comparable functional components and thus achieve
an overall weight reduction. More specifically, the substitution of
mild steel with HSS allows a considerable decrease in the sheet
depth of the front body parts with identical or greater energy
absorption capacity for impact protection [109].
The inverse tensile strength-elongation relationship among dif-
ferent steel grades reveals the difficulty in attaining high strength
and ductility simultaneously (Fig. 7(a)). Low carbon steels such as
mild and interstitial-free (IF) steels have good formability with a
tensile strength lower than 270 MPa, which is typically used for
body shells. Conventional grades of HSS like the brake-
hardenable (BH) and high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels have
relatively higher tensile strength (usually between 270 MPa and
700 MPa) but lower elongation. With the recent development of
manufacturing processes (e.g., advanced casting and thermome-
chanical technologies [110]), new generations of HSS (i.e., AHSS)
with a multiphase microstructure have been developed. The
enhanced strain hardening capacity of specific AHSSs may result
in both high strength (greater than700 MPa) and outstanding
formability (i.e., a good strength-ductility balance). The underlying
mechanisms of strengthening in the AHSS families primarily con-
sist of solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening, phase
transformation, and grain refinement (i.e., Hall–Petch effect)
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Fig. 7. (a) Ductility-strength comparison between different types of steels [122,123]; SEM images of the fracture surfaces of quenching and partitioning steel specimens
under different chemical composition and processing parameters: (b) PT-280 (c) PT-400 [115]; (d) Thermomechanical processing schedule of austenitic stainless steels
involving martensite-to-austenite reversion, where ultrafine austenite grains can be obtained [110]; (e) Requirements of tensile strength for representative automotive
components [116,124–126].

[111,112]. For instance, the quenching and partitioning process,
involving carbon diffusion from martensite into retained austenite,
is one of the most effective heat treatment approaches to produc-
ing AHSS [113,114]. The corresponding mechanical performances
of the multi-phase steels greatly depend on the microstructural
architecture formed during the manufacturing process (see Fig. 7
(b) and (c) for the fracture surface difference of two AHSS samples
under a partitioning temperature of 280 °C and 400 °C, respec-
tively) [115]. Furthermore, the precise thermochemical processing
technology is another compelling approach for AHSS production
(Fig. 7(d)), where austenite grain refinement can be achieved by
carefully engineering the martensite-to-austenite reversion pro-
cess and optimizing the manufacturing parameters [110].
Based on the material requirements of different automotive
components (Fig. 7(e)), conventional HSSs are typically applied to
10
panels (both outer and inner) and structural parts, while AHSSs
are engineered for anti-intrusion barriers such as bumpers and
impact beams [116]. Notably, high yield strength can result in a
serious springback phenomenon during the metal forming process
and subsequently bring poor dimensional accuracy issues, poten-
tially more common in AHSS components with complicated shapes
[117]. Moreover, defects (e.g., wrinkles and fractures) noticeably
affect the actual performance of AHSS materials in service.
Recently, the excessive springback issue and quality control have
aroused attention increasingly. The effects of critical manufactur-
ing parameters (e.g., punch and die radii) on springback were sys-
tematically investigated [118]. Also, various effective strategies
were developed to compensate for the large springback, including
tooling shape modification [119], angle or displacement adjust-
ment [120,121], and progressive die compensation [117].
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Table 2 Table 3
Microstructures and strength ranges of the first and second generations of AHSS [12]. Advantages and future challenges of the discussed materials in this review.

Generation AHSS grades Microstructures Strength Lightweight materials Advantages Future challenges
(MPa)
Light alloys Aluminum Outstanding specific Relatively high costs
1st Dual-phase (DP) Ferrite + martensite 400–1000 strength of raw materials and
Complex phase (Ferrite + bainite) 400–1000 Enhanced corrosion expenses during
(CP) matrix + small amounts of resistance manufacturing or
pearlite, martensite, and Excellent electrical and operating processes
retained austenite thermal conductivity
Martensitic (MS) Martensite 700–1600 Exceptional
Transformation- Ferrite + martensite/ 500–1000 processability and
induced bainite + austenite surface treatability
plasticity (TRIP) Magnesium Lightest structural Low durability and
2nd Twinning- Single-phase retained 1100–1650 automotive alloy creep resistance
induced austenite (density is less than Less experienced
plasticity (TWIP) one-fourth of steel) manufacturing
Lightweight Single-phase retained 850–1150 Combination of technologies
steel with austenite remarkable specific Poor formability at
induced strength and specific room temperature
plasticity (L-IP) stiffness Demand for rare earth
austenitic Single-phase retained 900–1150 elements
stainless steel austenite Relatively high costs
(AUST SS) of raw materials and
fabrication
Titanium High strength High cost for raw
Low density materials, extraction,
Representative grades of AHSS include dual-phase (DP) steel, Excellent corrosion and processing
complex phase (CP) steel, lightweight steel with induced plasticity resistance Poor machinability
High energy
(L-IP), transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel, and absorption capacity
twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel. In the light of strength Elevated temperature
and elongation performances, existing grades of AHSS can be performances
divided into the first and second generations (see Table 2 for the High durability and
creep resistance
microstructure and strength range of AHSS grades in each
High-strength steels High specific strength Poor strength-
generation). Tough ductility balance
More recently, ongoing research studies have explored the third Affordable Springback
generation AHSS to realize further enhanced properties (e.g., more Anti-intrusion capacity phenomenon during
structural weight reduction and superior balance between strength the metal forming
process
and ductility [12]). The newly developed strategies mainly focus on Defects (e.g., wrinkles
the combination of the retained austenite with ultrafine microcon- and fractures)
stituents (i.e., bainite and martensite) [127,128], where the micro- Composites Synthetic High specific strength/ High cost
constituents enhance the strength while the retained austenite stiffness Lack of manufacturing
Good corrosion approach to high-
contributes to both improved strength and ductility via the TRIP
resistance volume production of
effect [129]. Meanwhile, the additional deformation and strain- Design flexibility composite
hardening behaviors due to retained austenite transformation Outstanding components with the
can achieve further improvement of formability [130]. Therefore, vibration/fatigue best performance yet
more grades of sophisticated AHSSs may gradually fill the upper resistance the lowest cost
Exceptional
right area of Fig. 7(a) towards tailoring lighter, tougher, stronger, crashworthiness
safer, and greener automobiles [131]. Natural A reasonable balance Difficult to implement
fiber between tensile existing
strength and cost per manufacturing,
4. Composites volume machining, and
Great biodegradability, quality control
nontoxicity, and approaches
With varying reinforcement types, composites may contribute recyclability Unstable production
to a weight reduction from 15% to 40% and offer other attractive Remarkable sound- due to the harvest of
properties for the automotive industry, including high specific absorbing capability fibers
strength, good corrosion resistance, design flexibility, and low Undesired moisture
absorption capacity
thermal conductivity [132]. Over the last decade, there has been
Inferior temperature
a continuous growth in the United States automotive composite resistance
market revenue (Fig. 8(a)), where polymer composites (i.e., poly- Advanced materials Ultra-high Well-established
mer resin as the matrix material reinforced by various organic/ performance manufacturing
inorganic/metallic fibers and/or particles) exhibit the dominant Sophisticated and techniques are not
versatile functionality applicable
position, followed by ceramic and metal matrix composites. The (i.e., lightweight Relatively high cost
global application pattern reveals that most of the polymer com- construction, damping Difficult to implement
posites (about 65%) are used on the exterior and interior compo- insulation, and
nents of automobiles, while the remainder is for structural and crashworthiness)
powertrain systems (Fig. 8(b)). With the recent advances in nan-
otechnology, graphene-based nanocomposites also show great
potential in building more efficient, lighter, safer, and stronger firstly developed a graphene-paneled vehicle in 2016 while Ford
vehicles via the construction of panels, sensors, electronics, and applied graphene as reinforcements to make stronger components
interior components. For example, Briggs Automotive Company and reduce the weight together with noise [133].

11
W. Zhang and J. Xu
Fig. 8. (a) The automotive polymer composite market revenue of the United States (from 2014 to 2025) [171]; (b) Global application of polymer composites in various
automotive components [172]; (c) Tensile strength-cost/volume relationship of different natural/synthetic fibers and their composites [161].
Thereinto, CFRP is probably the most prominent candidate for
lightweight design while equipped with outstanding vibration/fa-
tigue/corrosion resistance, high specific strength/stiffness, and
exceptional crashworthiness [134]. Notably, the specific energy
absorption (SEA, a critical indicator for vehicle crashworthiness
design) of CFRP can reach 60 to 90 J/g [135] yet the SEA of tradi-
tional energy-absorbing materials (e.g., aluminum honeycomb
and foams) is only around 10 J/g. Despite the rapid development
of carbon fiber components over the past few decades, the applica-
tions of CFRP in the cost-driven automotive industry are still lim-
ited compared to the aviation and aerospace fields. Potential
automotive applications of CFRP cover stiff and strong chassis
[136], optimal bumper beams [137,138], light engine cradles with
high structural performance [139], and strengthened roof panels
[140]. An impressive practice is the CFRP body of the BMW i3,
where a 50% weight reduction is achieved compared to the conven-
tional steel body [134]. More recently, the redesign of a solar-
powered electric vehicle has achieved both weight savings and
safety improvement by the replacement of titanium alloys with
CFRP laminate and sandwich structures, where the new CFRP cage
lightens the roof as a whole and subsequently reduces the weight
of supports for batteries by the integration of structural and non-
structural parts (battery/cell-to-chassis design) [141]. Also,
aluminum-epoxy hybrid foam sandwich structures are demon-
12
Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
strated to achieve a 10–15% weight reduction in the battery hous-
ing of an electric vehicle [142]. Of course, the most straightforward
way to reduce the weight is to increase the energy density of the
batteries such that less cells will be used [143–145], for example
using Silicon/Graphite mixed anode material [146,147], Li-metal
as anode [148–150] and solid-state batteries [151–153]. Neverthe-
less, the high cost of carbon fiber is a primary barrier to the wide-
spread applications of carbon fiber components [154,155],
especially in the automotive market. More specifically, the vehicle
weight can be reduced up to 60%, yet cost increases up to ten times
by replacing the steel with polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based CFRP
[156]. One initiative strategy to lower the cost is to develop new
producing techniques (e.g., advanced oxidation techniques
[157,158]) or utilize renewable precursors (e.g., lignin-based car-
bon fiber [159,160]).
Natural fibers (sourced from plants or animals, e.g., kenaf,
hemp, and flax) are usually less dense than synthetic fibers while
having a reasonable balance between tensile strength and cost
per volume (Fig. 8(c)), which is a potential alternative for synthetic
reinforcement of composites [161]. In addition to the benefits of
cost and weight reduction, natural fiber-reinforced composites
bring great biodegradability, nontoxicity, and recyclability and
thereby paving a new way for developing greener, lighter, and
more economical automobiles [162,163]. Given the remarkable
W. Zhang and J. Xu
sound-absorbing capabilities of natural fiber composites, growing
demands for noise abatement can be addressed as well [164].
Indeed, diverse natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites have
already been used in automotive components such as door panels,
dashboards, and seatbacks [165,166]. The corresponding replace-
ment can reduce more than 10% of the component weight while
cutting the costs by about 5% [167]. Back in 1950, a cotton-
embedded composite chassis was first built on the Trabant East
Germany, following which flax and sisal fiber materials were used
on the door linings, headliner panel, seat back, and noise insulation
of BMW 3, 5, and 7 series and other Pilot [161]. In 2012, almost 92
kt of components (mostly for the automotive industry) were made
of natural fiber-reinforced plastics [168].
However, there is always no ideal solution for material selec-
tion. For example, it is rather difficult to implement existing man-
ufacturing, machining, and quality control approaches on natural
fiber-reinforced composites. The actual production and price may
be unstable due to the complete dependence on the harvest of
specific fibers, let alone their undesired moisture absorption capac-
ity (the reason for weak bindings) and inferior temperature resis-
tance (i.e., flammability) [169]. Recent findings indicated that
appropriate treatment during processing may effectively overcome
the interfacial issues caused by moisture absorption or improve the
flammability. One remarkable strategy is making use of reagent
functional groups to achieve fiber modification with lower mois-
ture absorption capacity [170]. Furthermore, the alkaline aqueous
solution treatment can result in a reduction of combustion heat
and subsequently obtain good fire retardancy characteristics in
the fabricated natural composites [169].
Besides the matrix and reinforcement phases, manufacturing
techniques also have a significant influence on the performance
of composite materials [173]. Normally, different material systems
(e.g., polymer resin, fiber, particle, mats, and fabrics) are involved
in the manufacturing process of composites, which requires dis-
tinct processing tools and conditions. Most representative manu-
facturing techniques of composites include hand lay-up (also
known as wet lay-up) [174], resin transfer molding (RTM) [175],
vacuum-bagging [176], pultrusion [177], injection molding [178],
spray-up [179], compression-molding [180], and filament-
winding [181] (Fig. 9). Particularly, hand lay-up (Fig. 9(a)) is the
oldest open mold technique to fabricate laminated polymer com-
posites by manually placing successive layers of resin and rein-
forcements, which has a wide range of applications (from small
parts to a large-size component) and relatively low cost but also
low production volume [182]. By contrast, the RTM technique
(Fig. 9(b)) is an advanced closed mold process with reinforcements
(usually strand mats or woven mats) packed in the cavity while liq-
uid resin (e.g., epoxy and polyester) is injected at high pressure,
giving rise to shorter fabrication time, higher material utilization,
and better surface finish [183]. Furthermore, the filament-
winding technique (Fig. 9(h)) is developed to efficiently produce
low-cost automotive components with axisymmetric shapes,
where the fiber orientation and thickness can be controlled
[184]. Although a lot of manufacturing approaches are available
to fabricate composite materials, it is critical to find the most
appropriate one for specific types of composites. Moreover, the
long-run targets certainly prompt the development of more
advanced techniques to achieve high-volume production of com-
posite components with the best performance but the lowest cost.
5. Advanced materials
Recently, a variety of innovative materials with ultra-high per-
formance have been developed, which are typically referred to as
advanced materials to distinguish from conventional materials
13
Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
[186]. Metamaterials (e.g., electromagnetic, elastic, acoustic, non-
linear, mechanical, and structural types) are one of the most repre-
sentative advanced materials [187,188], showing the disruptive
potential for building next-generation automobiles. Remarkably,
the fascinating properties (e.g., negative Poisson’s ratio, excep-
tional stiffness, wave tunability, and enhanced impact resistance
[189–195]) that are not commonly seen in natural or traditional
synthetic materials can be attributed to the artificially tailored
elaborate architectures of these materials (usually in the form of
repeated unit cells). Taking a closer look at possible automotive
applications, advanced materials can be classified by their exact
functionality (Fig. 10(a)), i.e., lightweight construction, energy
absorption, and damping insulation.
From the perspective of structural design for advanced automo-
tive materials, density and stiffness are crucially important in
lightweight construction, while crashworthiness properties are
more dependent on the strength and energy absorption capacity.
Generally, different structural elements are adopted to design
advanced materials with superior performance, such as tubular,
helical, gradient, cellular, layered, fibrous, sutural, overlapping,
hierarchical, and sandwich elements [196–202]. Inspired by natu-
ral materials and biological systems, the coupling of different
structural elements may enable further improvement of desired
properties (e.g., the combination of tubular and hierarchical struc-
tures can lead to enhanced energy absorption capabilities [203]).
Owing to the recent advances in AM technologies, it is possible
to fabricate more sophisticated and versatile materials and greatly
expand the design space of advanced materials [204]. For example,
a 3D-architected lattice structure demonstrated the reversely
transformable feature originated from fracture and shape-
memory-assisted healing (Fig. 10(b) and (c)) [205], making it pos-
sible to withstand approximate 400 times its own weight. Remark-
ably, experimental studies revealed that the proposed lattice
structure could recover from the fracture-associated distortion
and switch between different states of properties (e.g., stiffness)
[205], a potential candidate for the lightweight construction of
automotive frames. Another efficient strategy is to take advantage
of two or more materials while overcoming their fatal limitations.
Specifically, the hierarchical assembly of hard ceramic scaffold (i.e.,
high strength/modulus but inherent brittleness and low stiffness)
and soft polymer coatings can result in a subtle architecture with
enhanced strength, toughness, and damage resistance (Fig. 10(d))
[206]. A concrete damaged plasticity model, considering both ten-
sile and compressive cracking, was employed to investigate the
influence of the coating on damage propagation, yielding that the
resistance of catastrophic failure is attributed to the delay of the
damage propagation. Also, multistable architected materials (1D,
2D, and 3D) only rely on the aspect ratio and angle of the beam
(Fig. 10(e)) [207], which is demonstrated to be rate-independent
and scale-independent. The corresponding progressive and reusa-
ble energy-absorbing capabilities are of great significance to the
crashworthiness design for automakers.
Damping insulation (e.g., mechanical damping and sound
absorption) is closely correlated with the noise, vibration, and
harshness (NVH) characteristics of a vehicle. To achieve this end,
ongoing research activities primarily concentrated on designing
locally resonant metamaterials [211], acoustic black holes [212],
and membrane-based acoustic metamaterials [213]. The underly-
ing mechanism for noise and vibration isolation is the formation
of a band gap (under a specific frequency range) where no wave
can propagate. The band gap structure and frequency range may
vary depending on the dimensions and particular structures of
materials, yet delicate design can effectively manipulate the band
gap and lower the frequency range for automotive applications.
For instance, a sheet-like 2D acoustic metamaterial with connected
local resonators (Fig. 11(a)) demonstrated an enhanced sound
W. Zhang and J. Xu
Fig. 9. Summary of primary manufacturing techniques for composites [185]. (a) Hand lay-up; (b) Resin transfer molding; (c) Vacuum-bagging; (d) Pultrusion; (e) Injection
molding; (f) Spray-up; (g) Compression-molding; (h) Filament-winding.
insulation performance (about 15 dB higher than that of the con-
ventional ones based on the mass law) [214]. The frequency range
can be greatly broadened by tailoring composite acoustic metama-
terials with multi-resonator and voids (Fig. 11(b)) [215]. In addi-
tion, different strategies (e.g., shear stiffening and rotation
softening mechanisms) can be coupled to develop an elastic meta-
material insulator achieving both broad band gap and low fre-
quency (Fig. 11(c) and (d)) [216].
Regarding more realistic applications, a novel dash panel struc-
ture was carefully engineered by arranging a series of attachable
local resonators (Fig. 11(e)), through which the vibration mobilities
and acoustic pressures were greatly reduced in the designed band-
gaps by 5–13 dB and 7–16 dB, respectively [217]. Although the
construction of advanced materials is still under research, it is
promising to make more attempts to implement them in the auto-
motive industry.
14
Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994
6. Outlook
Among all the reviewed materials, light alloys are apparently
promising substituents for steel and cast iron to reduce the vehicle
weight while improving the component performance, particularly
in high-end models. Given the affordability and machinability of
a run-of-the-mill mass-market car, the substitution of mild steel
with HSSs seems to be a more practical choice to produce afford-
able components and achieve a weight reduction. However, one
major challenge for HSSs is how to achieve a balance between
strength and ductility. As for composites, they are perfect candi-
dates for both exterior and interior components of automobiles,
although the development of appropriate manufacturing tech-
niques is still lacking for mass production with lower costs. Due
to the rapid development of nanotechnology, graphene-based
nanocomposites may contribute to lighter, safer, and stronger
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Fig. 10. (a) Advanced materials for potential automotive applications [208–210]; (b) Healable, memoizable, and transformable architected lattice as candidates for next-
generation automotive frame design; (c) Load bearing demonstration of the lattice and the corresponding microscopic image showing the healed interface [205]; (d) Polymer-
coated architected structures with superior compressive strength and toughness, where catastrophic failure is avoided by delaying the crack propagation [206]; (e)
Multistable architected materials for energy trapping; (f) The sequential deformation modes of 1D energy trapping materials under vertical loadings [207].

components for next-generation automobiles. With the demands
for more versatile automotive materials in the future, metamateri-
als with fascinating properties may overcome the fatal limitations
of other lightweight materials and definitely contribute to building
next-generation automobiles. Despite the difficult implementation
at the current stage, ultimately, the goal is to develop advanced
multifunctional materials to supply the demand for different auto-
motive components (i.e., the double and ideal functionality areas
indicated in Fig. 10(a)). Accordingly, the advantages and future
challenges of all reviewed materials are summarized in Table 3.

15
W. Zhang and J. Xu Materials & Design 221 (2022) 110994

Fig. 11. (a) A 2D acoustic metamaterial sheet for sound insulation [214]; (b) A composite acoustic metamaterial with multi-resonator and voids for sound absorption [215];
(c) An elastic metamaterial with extremely low-frequency band gap due to (d) the dual mechanism combining both shear stiffening and rotation softening [216]; (e) A locally
resonant metamaterial designed for automotive dash insulation panel for reducing the vibration and noise radiation [217].

7. Conclusions tion of conventional automotive materials such as cast iron and

Over the past few decades, the growing demands for the
improvement of fuel economy efficiency and reduction of environ-
mental impacts have stimulated the weight-saving revolution by
global automobile manufacturers. Meanwhile, the target of cost
control and easy recovery further raises the bar for automotive
material selection and structural design. Accordingly, the substitu-
steel with advanced lightweight materials is demonstrated to be
an effective strategy yielding a considerable weight reduction in
the newly designed vehicles. In this review, a comprehensive over-
view of existing and potential lightweight materials for automo-
biles was given, which can be divided into light alloys (i.e.,
aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys), high-strength steels
(i.e., conventional HSSs and AHSSs), composites (i.e., synthetic

16
W. Zhang and J. Xu
and natural fiber-reinforced plastic composites), and advanced
materials regarding a series of material scenarios (i.e., lightweight
construction, crashworthiness, and damping insulation). With a
fundamental understanding of the technical and economic con-
cerns as well as the environmental impacts, the general guidelines
for material selection in different components were introduced,
yielding a summary of current and future automotive applications.
Given potential roadblocks, effective strategies were also offered
and evaluated to enable extensive usage of different lightweight
materials in the automotive market. Despite the rapid develop-
ment of alternative solutions for lighter vehicles, endeavors from
both academia and industry are still in significant need to develop
more versatile and capable lightweight materials and effectively
transfer the advanced materials to practical designs and massive
productions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wen Zhang: Methodology, Investigation. Jun Xu: Supervision,
Methodology.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported, in part, by funds provided by the
University of North Carolina at Charlotte.
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