DENTAL CASTING

METAL ALLOYS
 C
Introduction
O
General Physical properties of metals
N
Physical properties of each metal
T
Alloys
E
Classification & properties of alloys
N
Gold, base & metal ceramic alloys
T
Conclusion & references.
S
“What we will be tomorrow is because of what we are today,
and what we are today is because of what we were
yesterday”.
ALLOYS
 ALLOYS
They are generally prepared by fusion of the elements
above their melting points.

For example,
A certain amount of chromium is added to iron, carbon,
and other elements to form stainless steel, an alloy that is
highly resistant to corrosion.

Also to nickel or cobalt alloys, which comprise two of the

major groups of base metal alloys used in dentistry.
 EUTECTIC ALLOYS
The eutectic system is an example of an alloy for which the
component metals have limited solid solubility.

The salt and water

molecules intermingle
randomly in solution, the
result upon freezing is a
mixture of salt crystals
and ice crystals that
form independently of
each other.
SILVER-COPPER SYSTEM:
The phase diagram for this system is presented in where
3 phases are found:
• A liquid phase (L)
• A silver-rich substitutional solid solution phase ()
containing a small amount of copper atoms.
• A copper-rich substitutional solid solution phase ()
containing a small amount of silver atoms.

The  and  phases are sometimes referred to as terminal

solid solutions because of their locations at the left and
right sides of the phase diagram.
Liquidus and solidus meet at point E. This composition (72% silver
and 28% copper) is known as the eutectic composition or
simply the eutectic. The following characteristics of this special
composition should be noted.

The temperature at which the eutectic composition melts (779°C

or 1435°F) is lower than the fusion temperature of silver or
copper (eutectic literally means “lowest melting”).

There is no solidification range for composition E.

The eutectic reaction is sometimes written schematically as

follows.
Liquid  solid solution +  solid solution
 PERITECTIC ALLOY
Ex-Ag & tin

Liquid +  solid solution  solid solution

Liquid +  Liquid + 
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
 1. ALLOY TYPES BY FUNCTIONS:
In 1927, the Bureau of Standard established gold casting alloys,
type I to type IV according to dental function with hardness
increasing from type I to type IV.

Type I (Soft):
It is used for fabrication of small inlays, class III and class V
restorations which are not subjected to great stress . These
alloys are easily burnishable.

Type -II (Medium):

These are used for fabrication of inlays subjected to moderate
stress, thick 3/4 crowns, abutments, pontics, full crowns and
soft saddles.

Type I and II are usually referred to as inlay gold.

Type -III (Hard):
It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, thin
3/4 crowns, thin cast backing abutments, pontics, full crowns,
denture bases and short span FPDs . Type III alloys can be
age hardened.

Type-IV (Extra hard):

It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress,
denture bases, bars and clasps, partial denture frameworks
and long span FPDs. These alloys can be age hardened by
heat treatment.

Type III and Type IV gold alloys are generally called "Crown
and Bridge Alloys", although type IV alloy is used for high
stress applications such as RPD framework.
Later, in 1960, metal ceramic alloys were introduced and
removable partial denture alloys were added in this classification.

Metal ceramic alloys (hard and extra hard):

It is suitable for veneering with dental porcelain, copings, thin
walled crowns, short span FPDs and long span FPDs. These
alloy vary greatly in composition and may be gold, palladium,
nickel or cobalt based.

Removable partial denture alloys :

It is used for removable partial denture frameworks. Now a days,
light weight, strong and less expensive nickel or cobalt based
have replaced type IV alloys .
 2. ALLOY TYPES BY DESCRIPTION:

A) CROWN AND BRIDGE ALLOYS

used in the fabrication of full metal or partial veneers.
1. Noble metal alloys:
i) Gold based alloy - type III and type IV gold alloys ,
low gold alloys
ii) Non-gold based alloy-Silver -palladium alloy

2. Base metal alloys:

i) Nickel-based alloys
ii) Cobalt based alloys

3. Other alloys:
i) Copper-zinc with Indium and nickel
ii) Silver-indium with palladium
 B) METAL CERAMIC ALLOY

1. Noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding:

i) Gold-platinum -palladium alloy
ii) Gold-palladium-silver alloy
iii) Gold-palladium alloy
iv) Palladium silver alloy
v) High palladium alloy

2. Base metal alloys for porcelain bonding:

i) Nickel -chromium alloy
ii) Cobalt-chromium alloy
C) REMOVABLE PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOY

Although type-IV noble metal alloy may be used, majority of

removable partial framework are made from base metal alloys:

1. Cobalt-chromium alloy
2. Nickel-chromium alloy
3. Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy
4. Silver-palladium alloy
5. Aluminum -bronze alloy
 3.ALLOY TYPE BY NOBILITY

Alloy Classification of the American Dental

Association (1984)

ALLOY TYPE TOTAL NOBLE METAL

CONTENT
Contains > 40 wt% Au and > 60
High noble metal wt% of the noble metal elements
(Au + Ir + Os + Pd + Pt + Rh + Ru)

Noble metal Contains > 25 wt % of the noble

metal elements
Predominantly base metal Contains < 25 wt % of the noble
metal elements
Alloy type All-metal Metal-ceramic
High noble Au-Ag-Cu-Pd Au-Pt-Pd
Metal ceramic alloys Au-Pd-Ag (5-12wt% Ag)
Au-Pd-Ag (>12wt%Ag)

Au-Pd (no Ag)

Noble Ag-Pd-Au-Cu Pd-Au (no Ag)
Ag-Pd Pd-Au-Ag
Metal-ceramic alloys Pd-Ag
Pd-Cu
Pd-Co
Pd-Ga-Ag
Base Metal Pure Ti Pure Ti
Ti-Al-V Ti-Al-V
Ni-Cr-Mo-Be Ni-Cr-Mo-Be
Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-Mo Co-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-W Co-Cr-W
Al bronze
4. ALLOY TYPE BY MAJOR ELEMENTS: Gold-based,
palladium-based, silver-based, nickel-based, cobalt-based and
titanium-based .

5. ALLOY TYPE BY PRINCIPAL THREE ELEMENTS: Such as

Au-Pd-Ag, Pd-Ag-Sn, Ni-Cr-Be, Co-Cr-Mo, Ti-Al-V and Fe-Ni-Cr.

(If two metals are present, a binary alloy is formed; if three or

four metals are present, ternary and quaternary alloys,
respectively, are produced and so on.)

6. ALLOY TYPE BY DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM: Single phase

[isomorphous], eutectic, peritectic and intermetallic.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF DENTAL CASTING
ALLOYS
Biocompatibility
Ease of melting
Ease of casting
Ease of brazing (soldering)
Ease of polishing
Little solidification shrinkage
Minimal reactivity with the mold material
Good wear resistance
High strength
Excellent corrosion resistance
Porcelain Bonding
GOLD CASTING ALLOYS
 GOLD CASTING ALLOYS:

ADA specification No. 5 classify dental gold casting

alloys as:
1. High Gold Alloys Type I
Inlay Gold Alloy
Type II

Type III Crown & Bridge Alloy

Type IV

2. Low Gold Alloys

3. White Gold Alloys

HIGH GOLD ALLOY:
These alloys contain 70% by weight or more of gold
palladium and platinum. ADA specification No.5 divides this into
four depending upon mechanical properties.

Type I (Soft):-

They are weak, soft and highly ductile, useful only in

areas of low occlusal stress designed for simple inlays such as
used in class I, III & V cavities.

These alloys have a high ductility so they can be

burnished easily. Such a characteristic is important since these
alloys are designed to be used in conjunction with a direct wax
pattern technique. Since such a technique occasionally results
in margins that are less than ideal . At present, these are used
very rarely.
PROPERTIES

1. Hardness VHN (50 – 90)

2. Tensile Strength
3. Yield Strength
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage
5. Elongation or ductility
Quite Low
276 MPa or 40,000 PSi
180 MPa or 26,000 PSi
1.56% (according to
Anusavice)
46% - William O Brien
18% - Anusavice

COMPOSITION

Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
83% 10% 6% - 0.5% balance
 Type II (Medium):-
These are used for conventional inlay or onlay
restorations subject to moderate stress, thick three quarter
crowns, pontics and full crowns. These are harder and have
good strength.

Ductility is almost same as that of type I alloy however,

yield strength is higher. Since burnishability is a function of
ductility and yield strength, greater effort is required to deform
the alloy. They are less yellow in color due to less gold.
Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (90-120)
2. Tensile Strength 345 MPa
3. Yield Strength 300 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.37%
5. Elongation 40.5% -
William O Brien
10% -
Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd
Zn&Ga
77% 14% 7% - 1%
balance
 Type III (Hard):
Inlays subject to high stress and for crown and bridge in
contrast to type I and type II, this type can be age hardened.
The type III alloy, burnishing is less important than strength.

Properties:
1. Hardness (VHN) 120 – 150
2. Tensile Strength 360 MPa
3. Yield Strength 331 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.42%
5. Elongation or ductility 39.4% - William O Brien
5% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn & Ga
75% 11% 9% - 3.5% balance
 Type IV (Extra Hard):
These are used in areas of very high stress, crowns and
long span bridges. It has lowest gold content of all four type (Less
than 70%) but has the highest percentage of silver, copper,
platinum and Palladium. It is most responsive to heat treatment
and yield strength but lowers ductility.

Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (150-200)
2. Tensile Strength 462 MPa
3. Yield Strength 703 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 2.30%
5. Elongation or ductility 17% - William O Brien
3% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
56% 25% 14% - 4% balance
Type Hardness Proportional Strength Ductility Corrosion
limit resistance

II INCREASES DECREASES

III

IV
 Composition Range (weight percent) of traditional type I to IV alloys and
four metal -ceramic alloys
Main elements Au Cu Ag Pd Sn, In, Fe, Zn,
Alloy type Ga
I High noble (Au base) 83 6 10 0.5 Balance
II High noble (Au base) 77 7 14 1 Balance
III High noble (Au base) 75 9 11 3.5 Balance
III Noble (Au base) 46 8 39 6 Balance
III Noble (Ag base) 70 25 Balance

IV High noble (Au base) 56 14 25 4 Balance

IV Noble (Ag base) 15 14 45 25 Balance
Metal- High noble (Au base) 52 38 Balance
ceramic
Metal- Noble (Pd base) 30 60 Balance
ceramic
Metal- High noble (Au base) 88 1 7 (+4Pt) Balance
ceramic
Metal- Noble (Pd base) 0-6 0-15 0- 74-88 Balance
ceramic 10
 HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS:

Heat treatment of alloys is done in order to alter its

mechanical properties.

Gold alloys can be heat treated if it contains sufficient

amount of copper. Only type III and type IV gold alloys can be
heat-treated.

There are two types of heat treatment.

1. Softening Heat Treatment (Solution heat treatment)

2. Hardening Heat Treatment (Age hardening)

 1. SOFTENING HEAT TEMPERATURE
Softening heat treatment increases ductility, but reduces
tensile strength, proportional limit, and hardness.

Indications:
It is indicated for appliances that are to be grounded,
shaped, or otherwise cold worked in or outside the mouth.

Method:
The casting is placed in an electric furnace for 10 minutes
at a temperature of 700 o C and then it is quenched in water.
During this period, all intermediate phases are presumably
changed to a disordered solid solution, and the rapid quenching
prevents ordering from occurring during cooling.

Each alloy has its optimum temperature. The manufacturer

should specify the most favorable temperature and time.
 2. HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening heat treatment increases strength, proportional
limit, and hardness, but decreases ductility. It is the copper present
in gold alloys, which helps in the age hardening process.

Indications:
It is indicated for metallic partial dentures, saddles, bridges
and other similar structures. It is not employed for smaller
structures such as inlays.

Method:
It is done by “soaking” or ageing the casting at a specific
temperature for a definite time, usually 15 to 30 minutes. It is then
water quenched. The aging temperature depends on the alloy
composition but is generally between 200°C and 450°C. During
this period, the intermediate phases are changed to an ordered
solid solution.
 The proper time and temperature for age hardening an
alloy are specified by the manufacturer.

Ideally, before age hardening an alloy, it should first be

subjected to a softening heat treatment to relieve all strain
hardening and to start the age hardening treatment when the
alloy is in a disordered solid solution. This allows better control
of the hardening process.
DENTAL CASTING
METAL ALLOYS
Introduction
History
C
Key terms
O
Atomic structure
N
General Physical properties of metals
T
Solidification & crystallization of metals
Physical properties of each metal E
Alloys N
Classification & properties of alloys T
Gold, base & metal ceramic alloys S
Hazards & alternatives
Conclusion & references.
METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS
 METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS
The main function of metal-ceramic alloys is to reinforce
porcelain, thus increasing its resistance to fracture.

Requirements:
 They should be able to bond with porcelain.
 Its coefficient of thermal expansion should be compatible with
that of porcelain.
 Its melting temperature should be higher than the porcelain
firing temperature. It should be able to resist creep or sag at
these temperatures.
 It should not stain or discolor porcelain.
The alloys used for metal-ceramic purposes are grouped
under two categories:

i) Noble metal alloys

ii) Base metal alloys.

In case of noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding ,

addition of 1% base metals (iron, indium, tin etc.) increases
porcelain-metal bond strength, which is due to formation of
an oxide film on its surface. It also increases strength and
proportional limit.
 PROPERTIES
Modulus of elasticity:
The base metal alloys have a modulus of elasticity
approximately twice that of gold alloys. Thus it is suited for long
span bridges. Similarly, thinner castings are possible.

Hardness:
The hardness of base metal alloys ranges from 175 to 360
VHN. Thus, they are generally harder than noble metal alloys.
Thus, cutting, grinding and polishing requires high speed and
other equipment.

Ductility:
It ranges from 10 to 28% for base metal alloys. Noble metal
alloys have an elongation of 25 to 40%.
Density:
The density of base metal alloys are less, which is
approximately 8.0 gms/cm3 as compared to 18.39 gms/cm3
for noble metal alloys.

Sag Resistance:
Base metal alloys resist creep better than gold alloy
when heated to high temperatures during firing.

Bond Strength: Varies according to composition.

Technique Sensitivity: Base metals are more technique

sensitive than high noble metal-ceramic alloys.
Shillingburg HT, Hobo S and Fisher DW (1977)

Studied Preparation design and margin distortion in

porcelain-fused-to-metal restorations.

The results of this study suggested that thermal

incompatibility stresses were likely to cause margin distortion
in metal ceramic crowns.

However, subsequent studies support other potential

mechanisms, including the effect of excessive sand blasting
time and/or pressure.
 The Gold-Platinum-Palladium (Au-Pt-Pd) System:

This is one of the oldest metal ceramic alloy system. But

these alloys are not used widely today because they are very
expensive.

Composition:
Gold – 75% to 88%
Palladium – Upto 11%
Platinum – Upto 8%
Silver – 5%
Trace elements like Indium, Iron and Tin for porcelain bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Excellent castability 1. High cost
2. Excellent porcelain bonding 2. Poor sag resistance
so not suited for
3. Easy to adjust and finish long span fixed partial dentures

4. High nobility level 3. Low hardness (Greater

wear)
5. Excellent corrosion and tarnish 4. High density (fewer casting
resistance. ounce)
6. Biocompatible
7. Some are yellow in color
8. Not “Technique Sensitive”
9. Burnishable
 Gold-Palladium-Silver (Au-Pd-Ag) System:

These alloys were developed in an attempt to overcome the

major limitations in the gold-platinum-palladium system (mainly
poor sag resistance, low hardness & high cost)

Two variations on the basic combination of gold, palladium

and silver were created and are identified as either high-silver or
low-silver group.

Composition (High Silver Group):

Gold – 39% to 53%

Silver – 12% to 22%
Palladium – 25% to 35%
trace amount of oxidizable elements are added for porcelain
bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less expensive than Au-Pt-Pd alloys 1. High silver content
creates potential
2. Improved rigidity and sag resistance. for porcelain
discoloration.
3. High malleability. 2. High Cost.
3. High coefficient of
thermal expansion.
4. Less Tarnish and
corrosion resistant.
Composition (Low Silver Group):
Gold – 52% to 77%
Silver- 5% to 12%
Palladium – 10% to 33%
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements for porcelain bonding.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less expensive than the Au-Pt-Pd alloys 1. Silver creates
potential for porcelain discoloration
(but less than high silver group)
2. Improved sag resistance 2. High cost.
3. High noble metal content 3. High coefficient
of thermal expansion.
4. Tarnish and corrosive resistant
 Gold-Palladium (Au-Pd) System:

This particular system was developed in an attempt to

overcome the major limitations in the Au-Pt-Pd system and Au-
Pd-Ag system. Mainly-
-Porcelain discoloration.
-Too high coefficient of thermal expansion & contraction.

Composition:

Gold – 44% to 55%

Gallium – 5%
Palladium – 35% to 45%
Indium & Tin – 8% to 12%
I n d i u m , G a l l i u m a n d Ti n a r e t h e o x i d i z a b l e e l e m e n t s
responsible for porcelain bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Excellent castability 1. Not thermally
compatible with high
expansion dental porcelain.
2. Good bond strength 2. High cost
3. Corrosion and tarnish resistance
4. Improved hardness
5. Improved strength ( sag resistance)
6. Lower density
 Palladium-Silver (Pd-Ag) System
This was the first gold free system to be introduced in the
United States (1974) that still contained a noble metal (palladium).
It was offered as an economical alternative to the more expensive
gold-platinum-silver and gold-palladium-silver (gold based) alloy
systems.

Composition: (available in two compo.)

1. Palladium – 55% to 60% Silver – 25% to 30%
Indium and Tin
2. Palladium – 50% to 55% Silver – 35% to 40%
Tin (Little or no Indium)

Trace elements of other oxidizable base elements are also

present.
 Advantages Disadvantages

1. Low Cost 1. Discoloration (yellow, brown or green) may

2. Low density
3. Good castibility (when torch
casting)
4. Good porcelain bonding,
5. Burnishability
6. Low hardness
7. Excellent sag resistance
8. Moderate nobility level
9. Good tarnish and corrosion
resistance.
10. Suitable for long-span fixed
partial dentures.
occur with some dental porcelains.
2. Some castibility problems reported (with
induction casting)
3. Pd and Ag prone to absorb gases.
4. Require regular purging of the porcelain
furnace.
5. May form internal oxides (yet porcelain
bonding does not appear to be a problem)
6. Should not be cast in a carbon crucible.
7. Non-carbon phosphate bonded investments
recommended.
8. High coefficient of thermal expansion.
Berzins DW, Sarkar NK et al (2000)
Did an in-vitro electrochemical evaluation of high palladium alloys
in relation to palladium allergy.

The high incidence of allergic reaction was associated with Pd-Cu

based alloys. The “Pd-skin” of these alloys when in contact with
saliva release some Pd++ ions (an allergen) which can trigger
the cascade of biological reaction involved in allergy and
hypersensitivity. It is a time dependent process.

In Pd alloys containing Ag, formation of Ag-Cl film on the alloy

surface is supposed to prevent Pd in coming in contact with
oral fluids, having a masking effect and thus avoiding allergy.
DISCOLORATION OF PORCELAIN BY SILVER:

The colloidal dispersion of silver atoms entering the body and incisal
porcelain or the glazed surface from vapour transport or surface
diffusion may cause color changes including green, yellow-green,
yellow-orange, orange and brown hues. This phenomenon is termed
GREENING.

Porcelains with higher sodium content are believed to exhibit more

intense discoloration because of more rapid silver diffusion in
sodium containing glass.

The intensity of discoloration increases for higher silver content alloys,

is more in the cervical region, lighter shades, multiple firing
procedures and certain brands of porcelain and also in silver free
alloys due to vaporization of silver from the walls of contaminated
furnaces.
PREVENTION OF DISCOLORATION:

Use of ultra low fusing porcelain or non greening

porcelain.

A pure gold film can be fired on a metal substrate to

reduce the surface silver concentration.

A ceramic conditioner can be fired as a barrier between

the alloy and the porcelain.

Use of a graphite block routinely to maintain a reducing

atmosphere.
 HIGH PALLADIUM SYSTEM

Several types of high palladium systems were originally

introduced (Tuccillo, 1987).
More popular composition groups contained cobalt and
copper.

Composition (PALLADIUM-COBALT ALLOY):

Palladium – 78% to 88% Cobalt – 4% to 10%

(Some high palladium-cobalt alloys may contain 2% gold)
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements (such as gallium and
indium) are added for porcelain bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Low cost 1. More compatible with
higher expansion
2. Reportedly good sag resistance 2.porcelains.
3. Low density means more casting Are more prone to over-
heating than per ounce than
gold based alloys or high
Pd-Cu.
4.They Melt and cast easily 3. Produces a thick, dark
oxide
5. Good polishability (Supposed 4. Colored oxide layer may to
be similar to Au-Pd alloys) cause bluing of the porcelain.
6. Reportedly easier to presolder 5. Prone to gas absorption
than Pd-Cu alloys. 6. Little information on long-
term clinical success.
 COMPOSITION (PALLADIUM-COPPER ALLOYS)
Palladium – 70% to 80% Copper – 9% to 15%
Gold – 1% to 2% Platinum – 1%
Some, but not all, high palladium-copper alloys
contain small quantities ( 1% to 2%) of gold and/or platinum.
Trace amounts of the oxidizable elements gallium, indium
and tin are added for porcelain bonding.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Good castability 1. Produces dark, thick oxides
2. Lower cost (than gold based alloys) 2. May discolor (gray) some dental
3. Low density means more castings porcelains.
Per ounce 3. Must visually evaluate oxide color to
4. Tarnish and corrosion resistance determine if proper adherent oxide was
5. Compatible with many dental formed.
Porcelains. 4. Should not be cast in carbon crucibles
6. Some are available in one unit ingots. (electric casting machines)
5. Prone to gaseous absorption.
6. Subject to thermal creep.
7. May not be suitable for long span fixed
partial denture prosthesis.
8. Little information on long term clinical
success.
9. Difficult to polish
10. Resoldering is a problem
Tufekci E, Mitchell JC et al (2002)
Did a study on spectroscopy measurements of elemental
release from high palladium dental casting alloys into a
corrosion testing medium.

A highly sensitive analytical technique shows that the

release of individual elements over a one month period,
suggesting that there may be low risk of biological reaction
with the Pd-Ga alloys than with the Pd-Cu-Ga alloys tested.
Carr A.B., Cai Z., Brantley W.A.(1993) did a study on new
high palladium casting alloys (generation 1&2).

For the 5 high-palladium alloys studied,

the following conclusions were drawn:

1. An increase in the investment burn out temperature from

1400°F to 1500 °F had little effect on microstructure and
hardness, but grain or dendrites size was found to vary
substantially.

2. Hot tears were more prevalent in the alloys when the higher
burnout temperature was used.

3. Heat treatment simulating porcelain firing cycles for these

alloys generally caused decrease in hardness.
Reisbick NH and Brantley WA (1995)
conducted a study on mechanical properties and micro
structural variations for recasting low gold alloys.

They concluded that significant decrease in yield strength and

percentage elongation were observed for recasting these
alloys but not in tensile strength when the Type III gold alloys
were recasted upto 3 times.

Scanning electron microscope examination revealed that the

number of casting defects (principally porosity) increased with
the number of times the alloy was remelted.
BASE METAL ALLOYS
Nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) System

These alloys offer such economy that they are also used
for complete crown and all metal fixed partial denture prosthesis
(Bertolotti, 1983).

The system contains two major groups:

-Beryllium free (class 1)
-Beryllium (class 2)

Of the two, Ni-Cr-Beryllium alloy are generally regarded

as possessing superior properties and have been more popular
(Tuccillo and Cascone,1984).
NICKEL-CHROMIUM BERYLLIUM FREE ALLOYS

Composition:

Nickel – 62% to 77% Chromium – 11% to 22%

Boron , iron, molybdenum, Niobium or columbium and tantalum (trace
elements).

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Do not contain beryllium 1. Cannot use with Nickel sensitive
patients.
2. Low cost 2. Cannot be etched. (Cr doesn’t
dissolve in acid)

3. Low density 3. May not cast as well as Ni-Cr-Be

alloys
4. Produces more oxide than Ni-Cr-
Be alloys
 NICKEL-CHROMIUM-BERYLLIUM ALLOY

Composition:

Nickel – 62% to 82% Chromium – 11% to 20%

Beryllium – 2.0%

Numerous minor alloying elements include aluminum,

carbon, gallium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, silicon,
titanium and /or vanadium are present.
Advantages
1. Low cost
2. Low density, permits more
casting per ounce.
3. High sag resistance
4. Can produce thin casting
5. Poor thermal conductor
6. Can be etched to increase
retention
Disadvantages
1. Cannot use with nickel sensitive
patients
2. Beryllium exposure may be
potentially harmful to technicians and
patients.
3. Proper melting and casting is a
learned skill.
4. bond failure more common in the
oxide layer.
5. High hardness (May wear opposing
teeth)
6. Difficult to solder
7. Ingots do not pool
8. Difficult to cut through cemented
castings
DISADVANTAGES OF NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS:

Nickel may produce allergic reactions in some

individuals (contact dermatitis). It is also a potential
carcinogen.

Beryllium which is present in many base metal alloys is

a potentially toxic substance. (Moffa JP)

Inhalation of beryllium containing dust or fumes is the main

route of exposure. It causes a condition know as ‘berylliosis’.

It is characterized by flu-like symptoms and granulomas of

the lungs.
 Comparative properties of Ni / Cr alloys and type III casting gold
alloys for small cast restorations
Property (Units) Ni/Cr Type III gold Comments
alloy
Density (g/cm3) 8 15 More difficult to produce defect free casting for
Ni/Cr alloys.
Fusion temperature As high as Normally lower Ni/Cr alloys require electrical induction furnace or
1350°C than 1000°C oxyacetylene equipment.
Casting shrinkage (%) 2 1.4 Mostly compensated for by correct choice of
investment
Tensile strength (MPa) 600 540 Both adequate for the applications being
considered.
Proportional limit (MPa) 230 290 Both high enough to prevent distortion for
applications being considered; not that values are
lower than for partial denture alloys
Modulus of elasticity 220 85 Higher modulus of Ni/Cr is an advantage for large
(GPa) restoration e.g. bridges and for porcelain bonded
restoration.
Hardness (VHN) 300 150 Ni/Cr more difficult to polish but retains polish
during service
Ductility upto 30% 20 (as cast) Relatively large values suggest that burnishing is
(% elongation) 10 (hardened) possible; however, large proportional limit value
suggests higher forces would be require.
 COBALT CHROMIUM ALLOYS

Cobalt chromium alloys have been available since

the 1920’s. They possess high strength. Their excellent
corrosion resistance especially at high temperatures makes
them useful for a number of applications.

These alloys are also known as ‘satellite’ because

they maintained their shiny, star-like appearance under
different conditions.

They have bright lustrous, hard, strong and non-

tarnishing qualities.
APPLICATIONS:
1. Denture base
2. Cast removable partial denture framework.
3. Surgical implants.

COMPOSITION:
Cobalt - 55 to 65%
Chromium - 23 to 30%
Nickel - 0 to 20%
Molybdenum - 0 to 7%
Iron - 0 to 5%
Carbon - upto 0.4%
Tungsten, Manganese, Silicon and Platinum in traces.

According to A.D.A specification No. 14 a minimum of 85% by

weight of chromium, cobalt, and nickel is required. Thus the gold
base corrosion resistant alloys are excluded.
 PROPERTIES
The Cobalt-Chromium alloys have replaced Type IV
gold alloys because of their lower cost and adequate
mechanical properties. Chromium is added for tarnish
resistance since chromium oxide forms an adherent and
resistant surface layer.

1. Physical Properties:

Density: The density is half that of gold alloys, so they are lighter
in weight.
8 to 9 gms/cm3.

Fusion temperature: The casting temperature of this alloy is

considerably higher than that of gold alloys. 1250oC to 1480oC.
A.D.A. specification No. 14 divides it into two types,
based on fusion temperature (which is defined as the
liquidus temperature)

Type-I (High fusing) – liquidus temperature greater than

1300oC

Type-II (Low fusing) – liquidus temperature lower than

1300oC
2. Mechanical Properties:

Yield strength: It is higher than that of gold alloys. 710Mpa

(103,000psi).

Elongation: Their ductility is lower than that of gold alloys.

Depending on the composition, rate of cooling, and the fusion
and mold temperature employed, it ranges from 1 to 12%.

Modulus of elasticity: They are twice as stiff as gold alloys

22.5103Mpa. Thus, casting can be made more thinner.
Hardness: These alloys are 50% harder than gold alloys 432
VHN.
Thus, cutting, grinding and finishing is difficult.

3. Tarnish and corrosion resistance: Formation of a layer

of chromium oxide on the surface of these alloys.

Solutions of hypochlorite and other compounds that

are present in some denture-cleaning agents will cause
corrosion in such base metal alloys.

Even the oxygenating denture cleansers will stain such

alloys. Therefore, these solutions should not be used for
cleaning cobalt-chromium base alloys.
4. Casting Shrinkage: The casting shrinkage is much greater
than that of gold alloys (2.3%), so limited use in crown & bridge.

The high shrinkage is due to their high fusion temperature.

5. Porosity: As in gold alloys, porosity is due to shrinkage and

release of dissolved gases which is not true in case of Co-Cr
alloys.

Porosity is affected by the composition of the alloys and its

manipulations.
Comparative properties of Co / Cr alloys and type IV casting gold alloys
for partial denture
Property (Units) Co/Cr Type IV gold Comments
alloy
Density (g/cm3) 8-9 15 More difficult to produce defect free
casting for Co/Cr alloys but denture
frameworks are lighter
Fusion temperature as high Normally Co/Cr alloys require electrical induction
as lower than furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.
1500°C 1000°C Can not use gypsum bonded
investments for Co/Cr alloys
Casting shrinkage 2.3 1.4 Mostly compensated for by correct
(%) choice of investment
Tensile strength 850 750 Both acceptable
(MPa)
Proportional limit 710 500 Both acceptable; can resist stresses
(MPa) without deformation
Modulus of 225 100 Co/Cr more rigid for equivalent thickness;
elasticity (GPa) advantage for connectors; disadvantage
for clasps
Hardness (Vickers) 432 250 Co/Cr more difficult to polish but retains
polish during service
Ductility (% 2 15 (as cast) Co/Cr clasps may fractured if
elongation) 8 (hardened) adjustments are attempted.
 Property Ni-Cr without Ni-Cr with Be Co-Cr
Be
Strength (MPa) 255-550 480-830 415-550

Ultimate 550-900 760-1380 550-900

tensile
strength (MPa)

% elongation 5-35 3-25 1-12

Modulus of 13.8-20.7 x 104 17.2-20.7 x 104 17.2-22.5x104
elasticity (MPa)

Vickers 175-350 300-350 300-500

hardness
Casting 1430-1570 1370-1480 1430-1590
temperature
(°C)
 TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS

Titanium is called “material of

choice” in dentistry.

oxide formation property which

forms basis for corrosion
resistance & biocompatibility of
this material.

The term 'titanium' is used for all

types of pure and alloyed titanium.
Properties of titanium:

-Resistance to electrochemical degradation

-Good biological response
-Relatively light weight
-Low density (4.5 g/cm3)
-Low modulus (100 GPa)
-High strength (yield strength = 170-480
MPa; ultimate strength = 240-550 MPa)
-Passivity
-Low coefficient of thermal expansion (8.5 x
10–6/°C)
-Melting & boiling point of 1668°C & 3260°C
Uses:
Commercially pure titanium is used for dental implants,
surface coatings, crowns, partial dentures, complete
dentures and orthodontic wires

Commercially Pure Titanium (CP Ti):

It is available in four grades (according to American Society

for Testing and Materials ASTM) which vary according to the
oxygen (0.18-0.40 wt.%),
iron (0.20-0.50 wt%) and other impurities.

It has got an alpha phase structure at room temperature and

converts to beta phase structure at 883°C which is stronger
but brittle.
 TITANIUM ALLOYS

Alloying elements are added to stabilize alpha or the

beta phase by changing beta transformation temperature
e.g. in Ti-6Al-4V.

Aluminum is an alpha stabilizer whereas Vanadium as

well as copper and palladium are beta stabilizer.

Alpha titanium is weld able but difficult to work with at

room temperature.

Beta titanium is malleable at room temperature and is

used in orthodontics, but is difficult to weld.
 CAST TITANIUM:
Cast titanium has been used for more than 50 years,

most important factors high melting point (1668°C) and

chemical reactivity.

Because of which, special melting procedures, cooling cycles,

mold materials, and casting equipments are required to
prevent metal contamination, because it readily reacts with
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen at temperatures greater than
600°C.

So casting is done in a vacuum or inert gas atmosphere.

It has been shown that magnesium based investment cause

internal porosity in casting.
Because of its low density, it is difficult to cast in centrifugal
casting machine. So advanced casting machine combining
centrifugal, vacuum, pressure and gravity casting with electric
arc melting technology have been developed.

Difficulties in casting Titanium :

-High melting point

-High reactivity
-Low casting efficiency
-Inadequate expansion of investment
-Casting porosity
-Difficulty in finishing
-Difficulty in welding
-Requires expensive equipments
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

Although the amount of beryllium rarely exceeds 2% by weight,

the atomic concentration of beryllium is around 10.7%.

The risk for beryllium vapor exposure is greatest to dental

technicians during alloy melting , especially in the absence of
an adequate exhaust and filtration system.

The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)

specifies that the exposure to beryllium dust in air should be
limited to a particulate beryllium concentration of
2micrograms/m3 of air ( both respirable and non respirable
particles) determined from an 8 hr time weighted average.
The allowable maximum concentration is 5microgram/m3(not
to be exceeded for a 15 min period).

The National Institute for Occupation Safety and Health

(NIOSH) recommends a limit of 0.5 micrograms /m3 based on
a 130 min sample.

Moffa et al reported that when a local exhaust system was

used the conc. of beryllium was reduced to safe levels.
ALLERGY POTENTIAL OF NICKEL:

Nickel allergy is determined by patch test using 5% Nickel

sulfate.

The effects of nickel exposure to humans have included

dermatitis, cancer of nasal sinus and larynx, irritation and
perforation of nasal septum, loss of smell, asthmatic lung
disease, pulmonary pneumoconiosis, lung dysfunction and
death.

OSHA standard: 8 hr time weighted average concentration

limit of 1000 microgram/m3 of nickel and nickel compounds.
 CONCLUSION

Though they are many dental casting alloys we use

in routine procedures, one should all ways keep in
mind the application of basic properties in these
alloys for the best success.