WRITING

- process of using symbols ( letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces ) to

communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.

ACADEMIC WRITING:
- communicates ideas, information and research to the wider academic community
- formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. Academic writing
follows the same writing process as the other types of texts, but it has specific
conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

TWO TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING:

1. Student Academic Writing

- used as a form of assessment at university, as well as all schools as preparation for
university study
● Who read this: Teachers and Professors
● General purpose: To present information, to display a clear understanding of a particular
topic

2. Expert Academic Writing

- writing that is intended for publication in an academic journal or booo
- used by other experts in the field and its purpose is to create knowledge

TYPES OF ACADEMIC TEXT THAT REQUIRES ACADEMIC WRITING:

1. Essay
- a a fairly short, stiff-contained argument, often using sources from a class in response to
a question provided by an instructor.

2. Research Paper
- a more in-depth investigation based on independent research, often in response to a
question chosen by the student.

3. Thesis / Dissertation
- large final research project undertaken at the end of a degree, usually on a topic of the
student's choice.

4. Research proposal
- an outline of a potential topic and plan for a future dissertation or research project.

5. Literature review
- critical synthesis of existing research on a topic, usually written in order to inform the
approach of a new piece of research

6. Lab report
- write-up of the aims, intentions, methods, results and conclusions of a lab experiment.

7. Annotated Bibliography
- a list of source references with a short description or evaluation of each source.

FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

1. Formal and unbiased

> Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. It is objective.
> The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author's
preconceptions
> All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.
TO AVOID BIAS:
- Represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and
accurately.
- Clearly outline your methodology and be honest about the intentions of your research
- Strike the right tone with your language choices

IMPROPER: Also, a lot of the things are a little unreliable.

PROPER: Moreover, many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

2. Clear and Precise

> Avoid vague language:

IMPROPER: People have been interested in this thing for a long time.
PROPER: Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years.

> Avoid hedging your claims with words like “ perhaps ” as this case give the impression that
you lack confidence in your arguments.

> Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning.

IMPROPER: This could perhaps suggest that…

PROPER: This suggests that…

● JARGON
- Specialist language
- Jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate and not to make
it more complicated.

- A specialist term should be used when:

● It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist terms
● your reader is likely to be familiar with the term
● the term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.
- Familiarizing yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other
researchers and pay attention to their language.

3. Focused and well structured

I. Start at a relevant research question or thesis statement and use it to develop a focused
argument
II. Include information that is relevant to your overall purpose
III. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole set, paragraph
structure and sentence structure.

● OVERALL STRUCTURE
- Always include an introduction and a conclusion
- Divide larger side chapters or sections with other headings.
- Make sure your information is presented in a logical order.

● SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
- use transition words to express the connections between different ideas within and
between sentences.
- use appropriate punctuation and sentence fragments or right-on references.
- use a variety of reference lengths and structure.

● PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
- Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.
- Use a logical sentence at the start of each paragraph to indicate what it's about, and
make clear sentences between paragraphs.
 - Make sure every paragraph is relevant to your argument or question.
\\ An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic– it needs yo have a clear
purpose.

4. Well sourced
- sources to support the claims
- always cite your sources in academic writing

5. Correct and consistent

● Consistently apply styliable conventions regarding:

- how to write numbers
- introducing abbreviations
- using verb tenses in different sections
- capitalization of terms and headings
spelling and punctuation differences betwen British and American English
- apply the same styles consistently, and carefully prooread your text before you submit.

6. Not personal

- Always avoid addressing the reader directly wity the second person pronoun “ you ”. Use
the impersonal pronoun “ one ” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalisations.
INCORRECT : As a teacher, you must treat your student directly.
CORRECT: As a teacher, ine must treat one's students fairly.
CORRECT: Teachers must treat their students fairly.

7. Not long winded

- aim to be concise and direct as possible
- avoid redirect phrasings in your text and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word
equivalents where possible.
IMPROPER : Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018.
PROPER: Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018.

8. Not emotive and grandiose

- An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalist or marketing text.
- You should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.
- Avoid using emotive or subjective language.
- Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you van support with evidence, and don't
overstate your point.

IMPROPER : Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on
all subsequent literature is enormous.
PROPER: Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period, and has had
a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

••• RULES OF EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC WRITING:

- Avoid informal terms and contradictions.

- Avoid second person pronouns ( “ you ” )
- Avoid emotions or exaggerated language.
- Avoid redundant words and phrases.
- Avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.
- Present information as precisely and accurately as possible.
- Use appropriate transitions to show the connections between any ideas.
- Fix text logically and organise it using paragraphs.
- Each paragraph is focused on a single idea expressed in a clear logical sentence
- Every part of the text relates to the central thesis or research questions.
- The claims are supported with evidence m
 - Use appropriate verb tense in each section.
- Consistently use either British or American English.
- Format numbers consistently.
- Cite sources using convenient citation style.

// COMMUNICATION:

- art of exchanging messages between two or more people

- enables us to pass information to other people and to understand what is said to us
- effective communication could help us foster a good relationship

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION:
- process of exchange of information, ideas and feelings between two or more people
between verbal or non-verbal methods.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION:
- Written
- Verbal
- Non-verbal

CONVERSATION OR DIALOGUE
- using strategies is one way to overcome problems in maintaining the flow of
communication through conversation/dialogue.

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE CONVERSATION/DIALOGUE

1. Repair breakdowns
2. Repeat the question
3. Express lack of clear opinion
4. Acknowledge others ideas/opinions
5. Clarifying
6. Active listening/summarizing
7. Backchanneling

INTERVIEW:
- an interview is a procedure designed to obtain information from a person through oral
responses to oral inquires
- it is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other
provides an answer

● INTERVIEW METHODS:
- Start easy
- Ask the right questions
- Lighten the conversation
- Pay attention to details

Complexity - written language is relatively more complex than spoken language

Formality - it is relatively formal and should avoid colloquial words
Precision - facts and figures are given precisely
Objectivity - general objective rather than personal
Explicitness - explicit about the relationships in the text
Accuracy - uses vocabulary accurately
Hedging - it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject
Responsibility - must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification
for any claims you make
Organisation - well organized
Planning - well planned
Hearing - is an accidental or automatic brain response to sound that requires no effort
Listening - purposeful and focused rather than accidental
TYPES OF PRESENTATION

Explicit - stated clearly and in detail. Leaving no room for confusion or doubt
Implied - suggested but not directly expressed
Conflict - struggle between two opposing forces
Internal Conflict - character struggles with their own opposing desires or beliefs
External Conflict - opposition an individual and some outside forces

Character VS. Self - entail struggle to discern what the moral or “right” choice is or it may also
encompass mental health struggles
Character VS. Character - one character’s needs or wants are at odds with another’s. -
depicted as a straight-forward fist fight, or as intricate and nuanced as the ongoing struggle for
power
Character VS. Society - main character challenges a law, tradition, or institution
Character VS. Nature - fights to endure forces of nature
Character VS. Supernatural - main character resists forces that are not in the world
Character VS. Technology - main character resists technological forces Interpersonal -
process by which people exchange information - inescapable - irreversible - complicated -
contextual

Verbal Communication - communication through words

Non Verbal Communication - communication through hand gestures, expressions, body
language, etc.
Truthfulness - the fact if being true Accuracy - the quality of being correct or precise

PARTS OF SPEECH

Noun - a words represents a person, thing, concept, or place

Pronoun - words like “I,“ “she,” and “they” are used in a similar way to nouns
Adjective - a word or phrase naming an attribute, added to or grammatically related to a noun
to modify or describe it.
Adverb - a word that modifies (describes) a verb
Preposition - a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a
relation to another word or element in the clause.
Interjection- word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a
spontaneous feeling or reaction

Title - the name of the book

Author - the writer of the book
Conflict - what kind of struggle/s does in the story have
Plot - interrelated sequence
Linear Plot - Direct Story
Circular Plot - Backstory/ Flashback
Plot - The plot is in the introduction of the story
Settings - time and place in which story is told word or expression that occurs as an utterance
on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction
Character/s- person, animal etc in the story
Circle Character: the character does not change
Flat Character: the character undergoes changes