energies
Article
Aerodynamic Study of MotoGP Motorcycle Flow Redirectors
Borja González-Arcos and Pedro Javier Gamez-Montero *
Citation: González-Arcos, B.;
Gamez-Montero, P.J. Aerodynamic
Study of MotoGP Motorcycle Flow
Redirectors. Energies 2023, 16, 4793.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124793
Academic Editor: Dmitry Eskin
Received: 21 May 2023
Revised: 12 June 2023
Accepted: 16 June 2023
Published: 19 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 4793. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124793
Department of Fluid Mechanics, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Campus Terrassa, Colom 11,
08222 Terrassa, Spain; borja.gonzalez.arcos@estudiantat.upc.edu
* Correspondence: pedro.javier.gamez@upc.edu
Abstract: In recent years, the introduction of aerodynamic appendages and the study of their aero-
dynamic performance in MotoGP motorcycles has increased exponentially. It was in 2016, with the
introduction of the single electronic control unit, that the search began for alternative methods to
generate downforce that were not solely reliant on the motorcycle’s electronics. Since then, all types
of spoilers, fins and wings have been observed on the fairings of MotoGP motorcycles. The latest
breakthrough has been Ducati’s implementation of flow redirectors at the front and bottom of the
fairing. The aim of the present study was to test two hypotheses regarding the performance of the
flow redirector by responding to the corresponding research questions on its aerodynamic function
and advantage, both in the straight and leaning position. In a preanalytical cognitive act, a visual
study of MotoGP motorcycles was conducted and, accordingly, a 3D-CAD model was designed ad
hoc in compliance with the FIM 2022 regulations for both the motorcycle and flow redirector. Nu-
merical simulations using OpenFOAM software were then carried out for the aerodynamic analysis.
Finally, the Taguchi methodology was applied as an effective simulation-based strategy to narrow
down the combinations of geometric parameters, reduce the solution space, optimize the number of
simulations, and statistically analyse the results. The aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector
is highly dependent on the inlet flow when the motorcycle is in a straight position. The results
indicate that all models with leaned motorcycle bearing the flow redirector, regardless of geometry,
have an aerodynamic advantage, as the appendage generates downforce with a minimal increment
of the drag coefficient. In a cornering situation, the flow separator in the flow redirector reduces the
disadvantageous influence of wheel rotation on the “diffuser effect” by drawing the flow towards the
outside of the curve, creating extra downforce.
Keywords: motorbike; aerodynamic appendages; CFD; OpenFOAM; Taguchi method; flow
structures; simulation-based design
1. Introduction
The aerodynamic study of a MotoGP motorcycle is considerably different from that of a
self-steering four-wheeled vehicle, such as a Formula 1 car. This is due to the various factors
that affect the aerodynamic performance of a racing motorcycle during forward motion,
such as changes in angles of attack, gyroscopic ratios, and the movement of the rider.
In recent years, aerodynamics has become a primary area of focus for improving
motorcycle performance in the MotoGP World Championship. Following the introduction
by the International Motorcycle Federation (FIM) of a simpler electronic control unit (ECU)
in 2016, many manufacturers in the MotoGP grid have sought to implement aerodynamic
appendages at the front of the motorcycle to prevent wheelie during acceleration, which was
previously controlled by electronics [1]. Leading the way in this field has been Ducati, with
many other manufacturers following suit or basing their designs on Ducati’s innovations.
Among Ducati’s latest aerodynamic add-ons are “flow redirectors”, mounted at the frontal
and low area of the fairing, several of which have been replicated by rival manufacturers,
including the fins introduced in early 2016 or the spoiler of 2019. However, the type of flow
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 Energies 2023, 16, 4793 2 of 32

redirector under study here is not an example of this trend. Since its initial implementation
by Ducati in 2021, the only other manufacturers on the MotoGP grid observed using a
similar appendage have been Honda in the summer of 2022 and KTM at the start of the
2023 season.
The fact that this aerodynamic device is not an inverted wing type makes it difficult to
interpret how it affects aerodynamic performance. Thus, doubts arise about whether its
purpose is to reduce wheelie under acceleration, or to generate downforce in cornering, or
if it bestows some other aerodynamic advantage. The flow redirector is thought to affect
the behaviour of the front wheel wake, gaining extra downforce, especially in corners, with
a reasonable drag trade-off. Therefore, the purpose of the research presented here was to
characterize the aerodynamic performance of this flow redirector on a MotoGP motorcycle.
To meet the research objective, the preanalytical cognitive act that supplies the raw
material for the analytic effort was first addressed. It should be noted that there are no
available drawings or data regarding the geometry of the Ducati MotoGP motorcycle or
the flow redirector. Therefore, the first research question of this study is: “How can a
3D-CAD prototype be designed from scratch without access to any data on the geometry of
a real MotoGP motorcycle, including the fairing and aerodynamic appendages?” Another
question to be answered is: “How can numerical simulation capture the aerodynamic
performance of the flow redirector in a racing situation, such as on a straight or leaning
(i.e., cornering) motorbike?” Finally, considering the high computational cost of numerical
simulations, and the fact that the CAD design would be carried out with different geometric
parameter values, the last research question of this study is: “How can the solution space
be reduced through a simple and efficient set of numerical simulations that narrow down
the combinations of geometric parameters?”
To develop the study, an ad hoc CAD design of a MotoGP motorbike that complies
with the 2022 FIM regulations and features flow redirector-type appendages was created.
The study was conducted using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation, and
the results were analysed both aerodynamically and statistically. The statistical analysis
was carried out using the Taguchi method [2], which is an effective simulation-based
strategy for narrowing down the geometric parameter combinations, reducing the solution
space, and optimizing the number of simulations. The CFD simulation was performed
using OpenFOAM toolbox [3] and the turbulent model used was RANS k-ω SST, a widely
accepted suitable model for external aerodynamics [4,5].

2. Background
2.1. Historical MotoGP Aerodynamics
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Throughout the history of motorcycle racing, efforts have been made to give motorcy-
3 of 32
cles an aerodynamic advantage. Examples include the fairings introduced by Moto Guzzi
or NSU in the 1950s or the spoilers fielded by Rodger Freeth in 1977 [6,7] (see Figure 1).

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Examples
Figure of aerodynamic
1. Examples innovations
of aerodynamic in WorldinChampionship
innovations motorcycle
World Championship fairings: fair-
motorcycle (a)
Giulioings:
Cesare Carcano riding the Moto Guzzi; (b) Rodger Freeth on the Yamaha TZ750 with spoilers
(a) Giulio Cesare Carcano riding the Moto Guzzi; (b) Rodger Freeth on the Yamaha TZ750 with
in 1977.
spoilers in 1977.

Subsequently, the manufacturers have focused their attention on the aerodynamic

evolution of MotoGP motorcycles led by Ducati, which has set the pace in terms of
aerodynamic innovations. The goals, above all, have been to reduce the pitching moment
(wheelie) under acceleration and achieve more grip by generating downforce. Firstly,
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 3 of 32

(a)
(a) (b)(b)
It was not until 2016, with the introduction of the single electronic control unit, that
Figure
Figure 1. 1. Examples
manufacturers on theofof
Examples aerodynamic
MotoGP innovations
grid began
aerodynamic to explore
innovations in inWorld
new Championship
aerodynamic
World motorcycle
solutions.
Championship Until fairing
motorcycle fai
Giulio
then, Cesare
the major Carcano
technical riding the
evolutions Moto
in Guzzi;
the (b)
MotoGP Rodger
world, Freeth
and on the
investment
Giulio Cesare Carcano riding the Moto Guzzi; (b) Rodger Freeth on the Yamaha TZ750 with Yamaha
of TZ750
resources, with spo
in 1977.
were in the electronics field, achieving a more efficient torque transfer to the rear wheel and
in 1977.
better control of the pitching moment and front wheel lift during acceleration. The single
control Subsequently, the manufacturers
unit was implemented by Dorna [8], have focused
with the aim of their attention
equalizing on the aerodyna
the competition
so Subsequently,
that the teams the manufacturers
with the biggest budgetsledwouldhave focused their attention on the aerod
evolution of MotoGP motorcycles by not have an
Ducati, advantage
which has when
set theit came
pacetoin term
evolutionelectronics.
developing of MotoGP motorcycles led by Ducati, which has set the pace in t
aerodynamic innovations. The goals, above all, have been to reduce the pitching mom
aerodynamic
Subsequently, innovations. The goals,
the manufacturers above all,
have focused theirhave beenontothe
attention reduce the pitching m
aerodynamic
(wheelie)ofunder
evolution MotoGP acceleration
motorcycles and
led by achieve
Ducati, morehasgrip
which set bypace
the generating
in terms ofdownforce.
aerody- Fir
(wheelie)
simple fins
under
were
acceleration
attached on the
and achieve
sides of the
more grip
fairing or in
by
the
generating
side area
downforce.
between the d
namic innovations. The goals, above all, have been to reduce the pitching moment (wheelie)
simple
and the
under
fins were
fairing, asand
acceleration
attached
Gurney
achieve
on
flaps the
morehave
sides
grip been
of the fairing
used to downforce.
by generating
or in
improve the the side area
aerodynamic
Firstly,
between
simple finsperform
th
and
were the fairing,
attached on as
the Gurney
sides of flaps
the have
fairing or been
in the used
side to
area improve
between
of an airfoil [9]. However, during the 2016 season, the FIM realized that the the
the aerodynamic
dome andfins perfo
thereprese
of an
fairing, airfoil
a majorassafety [9].
Gurney However,
flaps have
hazard, during
beencould
as they the
used to 2016
improve
come season, the FIM
the aerodynamic
in contact realized
performance
with the ground that the
whenofthe fins repr
an motorc
airfoil
a major [9].safety
However, during
hazard, the 2016 season, the FIM realizedwith
that the
thefins represented
whena the
was leaning steeply or,as they
even could
worse, come
they in contact
could act as blades, ground
causing serious mo
injurie
major safety hazard, as they could come in contact with the ground when the motorcycle
wasrider
the leaning steeply or, 2).
even worse, they could act as blades, causing serious in
was leaning[10] (seeor,
steeply Figure
even worse, they could act as blades, causing serious injuries to the
the rider
rider [10]
[10] (see (see2).
Figure Figure 2).

Figure 2. Image from Márquez’s rear on-board camera at the moment of impact.
Figure Image
Figure2. 2. from
Image Márquez’s
from rear on-board
Márquez’s camera at camera
rear on-board the moment of impact.
at the moment of impact.
Therefore, for safety reasons, the FIM decided to eliminate spoilers or fins f
motorcycles inforthe
Therefore, safety
2017reasons,
season.theThe
FIMnew decided to eliminate
regulations spoilers
stated that or fins from
aerodynamic elem
Therefore,
motorcycles in the for safety
2017 season. reasons,
The new the FIM stated
regulations decidedthatto eliminateelements
aerodynamic spoilers or fi
must form a closed assembly integrated into the fairing of the motorcycle, resulting in
motorcycles
must in the
form a closed 2017 season.
assembly integratedThe
intonew regulations
the fairing stated that
of the motorcycle, aerodynamic
resulting in e
design of aerodynamic appendages in a wide range of shapes and sizes, as show
the design of aerodynamic appendages in a wide range of shapes and sizes,
must form a closed assembly integrated into the fairing of the motorcycle, resultin as shown
Figure
in Figure3.of
3. aerodynamic appendages in a wide range of shapes and sizes, as sh
design
Figure 3.

Figure 3. Comparison of the different MotoGP fairings in 2017. Source: (González, n.d. [11]).
 Figure 3. Comparison of the different MotoGP fairings in 2017. Source: (González, n.d

Finally, in 2019 the FIM placed additional restrictions on the size and
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 fairings, thus inspiring further inventive engineering from the manufacturers 4 of 32

The regulations also stipulated that only two different types of fairings and
could be used during a season, and that the aerodynamic elements must not b
Finally, in 2019 the FIM placed additional restrictions on the size and shape of the
It was thus
fairings, at the opening
inspiring furtherrace of the
inventive 2019 season
engineering from thethat a flow redirector
manufacturers on the grid. was fi
Figure
The 4), implemented
regulations also stipulatedby Ducati.
that only two Located
differentin theoflower
types fairingsarea
andof the swingarm,
mudguards
could be used during a season, and that the aerodynamic elements must not be removable.
the flow from the bottom of the motorcycle to the rear wheel. The flow redirect
It was at the opening race of the 2019 season that a flow redirector was first seen (see
controversy
Figure among
4), implemented by the other
Ducati. MotoGP
Located manufacturers,
in the lower whoitcast
area of the swingarm, doubts on
redirected
Ducati,
the in their
flow from defence,
the bottom argued that
of the motorcycle to thethe
rearfunction
wheel. Theof theredirector
flow three fins forming the
generated
controversy among the other MotoGP manufacturers, who cast
was to direct airflow upwards through the space between the underside of th doubts on its legality.
Ducati, in their defence, argued that the function of the three fins forming the appendage
the torear
was wheel,
direct airflow thereby helpingthetospace
upwards through reduce thethe
between temperature
underside of the of fairing
the rear tyr
manufacturers
and the rear wheel, insisted that the
thereby helping new the
to reduce appendage,
temperaturebesides
of the reardirecting airflow to
tyre. The other
manufacturers insisted that the new appendage, besides directing
also generated downforce in the swingarm part of the motorcycle, affording airflow to the rear tyre, b
also generated downforce in the swingarm part of the motorcycle, affording better traction
under acceleration. In response, the FIM modified the regulations for 2020 t
under acceleration. In response, the FIM modified the regulations for 2020 to clarify any
greyareas
grey areas in MotoGP
in the the MotoGP aerodynamic
aerodynamic regulations.regulations.

Figure
Figure Michele
4. 4. Pirro,Pirro,
Michele Ducati Ducati
test ridertest
for Qatar
riderGPfor
2019.
Qatar GP 2019.
In 2021 a second type of flow redirector, also implemented by Ducati, was first seen
on theIn 2021
side of thea fairing
second in type
the lowoffrontal
flow area.
redirector, also implemented
This aerodynamic is the subjectby Ducati, w
of the
present study.
on the side of the fairing in the low frontal area. This aerodynamic is the s
More recently, in the 2022 season, other aerodynamic devices have been observed,
present study.
such as those positioned on the motorcycle’s tail, as shown in Figure 5a. The purpose of
Moreinnovation
this Ducati recently, in the 2022
is allegedly season,
to generate other aerodynamic
downforce at the back of thedevices
motorcyclehave bee
suchleaning
when as thosein a positioned on thea rear
corner. Additionally, motorcycle’s
spoiler design tail,
fromasAprilia
shown wasinspotted
Figure on 5a. Th
a test motorcycle (see Figure 5b) but has not been used on factory motorcycles in a race.
this Ducati innovation is allegedly to generate downforce at the back of the
A new element introduced by KTM in the 2023 MotoGP is the “handle” rear wing (see
when5c),
Figure leaning
which in a corner.ofAdditionally,
is composed three fins, the twoa rear
lateralspoiler design from
ones apparently Aprilia
oriented to wa
a test motorcycle
generate downforce in (see Figure
cornering, 5b)
while thebut hasone
central not been used
is positioned on factory
to generate motorcycle
downforce
in
new element introduced by KTM in the 2023 MotoGP is the “handle”the
a straight line. A design very similar to KTM’s was seen in pre-season testing on rear win
Yamaha but has not been implemented in Yamaha’s motorcycles for the 2023 season.
5c), The
which2022 is composed
season of three
also witnessed the fins, the two
introduction of alateral onesand
new wider apparently
lower fairingoriented
downforce
concept, in cornering,
implemented by Aprilia,while
with thethe central
intention one is ground
of creating positioned to generate dow
effect (downforce)
when the motorcycle is leaning (see Figure 6). This approach
straight line. A design very similar to KTM’s was seen in pre-season has been followed in testing
the on
2023 season by KTM and even Ducati has incorporated it in the motorcycles of the Pramac
but has not been implemented in Yamaha’s motorcycles for the 2023 season.
Racing team.
 when leaning in a corner. Additionally, a rear spoiler design from Aprilia was spotted on
a test motorcycle (see Figure 5b) but has not been used on factory motorcycles in a race. A
new element introduced by KTM in the 2023 MotoGP is the “handle” rear wing (see Figure
5c), which is composed of three fins, the two lateral ones apparently oriented to generate
downforce in cornering, while the central one is positioned to generate downforce in a
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 5 of 32
straight line. A design very similar to KTM’s was seen in pre-season testing on the Yamaha
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
but has not been implemented in Yamaha’s motorcycles for the 2023 season.

Figure 5. Examples of rear aerodynamic elements in MotoGP: (a) rear wings introduced b
for the 2022 MotoGP season; (b) rear wings introduced by Aprilia on the test motorbike for
MotoGP season; (c) rear wings introduced by KTM for the 2023 MotoGP season.

The 2022 season also witnessed the introduction of a new wider and lower
(a) concept, implemented (b) by Aprilia, with the intention of creating (c) ground effect (dow
when the motorcycle is leaning (see Figure 6). This approach has been followed in
Figure 5. Examples of rear aerodynamic elements in MotoGP: (a) rear wings introduced by Ducati
season by KTM and even Ducati has incorporated it in the motorcycles of the
for the 2022 MotoGP season; (b) rear wings introduced by Aprilia on the test motorbike for the 2022
Racing team.
MotoGP season; (c) rear wings introduced by KTM for the 2023 MotoGP season.

Figure Wider
Figure6.6. andand
Wider lower fairingfairing
lower conceptconcept
introduced by Aprilia in
introduced bytheAprilia
2022 MotoGP
in theseason.
2022 MotoGP seaso
2.2. Literature Review and Fundamental Theory of Motorcycle Aerodynamics
2.2. Literature
2.2.1. Review and Fundamental Theory of Motorcycle Aerodynamics
Literature Review
2.2.1.Motorcycle
Literature aerodynamics
Review have been studied from different perspectives. In a com-
mercial approach, Araki and Gotou [12] used scaled motorcycle models in a wind tunnel to
Motorcycle
redesign the fairing andaerodynamics have been
windshield, achieving reduced studied
drag andfrom different
aeroacoustic noiseperspective
and
commercial
enhanced riderapproach, Arakicomputational
comfort. Likewise, and Gotou [12] fluid used
dynamics scaled
(CFD) motorcycle
were appliedmodels
by in
tunnel to redesign the fairing and windshield, achieving reduced drag and aero
Angeletti et al. [13] to improve the design and comfort of street motorcycles. Additionally,
Biancolini
noise and et enhanced
al. [14] utilized the comfort.
rider RBF MorphLikewise,
tool, integrated with the ANSYS
computational fluidFluent CFD
dynamics (CF
solver, to modify mesh geometry (angles of attack, rider position) and aerodynamically
applied by Angeletti et al. [13] to improve the design and comfort of street moto
optimize the motorcycle windshield design.
Additionally, Biancolini
A specific field et al. research
of aerodynamic [14] utilized theon
is focused RBFtheMorph tool,performance
analysis and integratedim- with the
Fluent CFD
provement solver,
of sport to modify
motorcycles mesh For
or superbikes. geometry
example, (angles of attack, studies
general aerodynamic rider positio
of a racing motorcycle have been carried out by Winski
aerodynamically optimize the motorcycle windshield design. and Piechna [15] and Palanivend-
han et al. [16] The work of Winski and Piechna was performed within the MotoStudent
A specific field of aerodynamic research is focused on the analysis and perfo
university competition, in which students use their analytical skills to conceptualise the
motorcycle designof
improvement andsport
ridingmotorcycles or superbikes.
experience, as outlined in one study For example,
[17]. They focusedgeneral
on a aerod
studies ofin aa completely
motorcycle racing motorcycle have
straight position andbeen
used carried out by Winski
several turbulence and Piechna [
models, obtaining
very accurate resultsetforal.
Palanivendhan both theThe
[16] k-ω and
workS-Aofmodel (Spalart–Allmaras)
Winski and Piechna [4,5].
was Throughout
performed wi
the
MotoStudent university competition, in which students use their asanalytical
study, the pressure distribution, streamlines, and vorticity were analysed, as well the s
aerodynamic coefficients. It was concluded that the fairing, front wheel, and suspension
conceptualise the motorcycle design and riding experience, as outlined in one stu
are the elements most responsible for creating aerodynamic drag. On the other hand, as the
Theyplays
rider focused on arole
an important motorcycle in a completely
in the aerodynamics of a motorcycle, straight
Winski andposition
Piechna and
also used
turbulence models, obtaining very accurate results for both the k-ω and S-A
studied the effect of the rider in a position of maximum aerodynamic efficiency (“lying”
position) and upright (braking
(Spalart–Allmaras) position), both
[4,5]. Throughout theadopted
study, by thethe rider in distribution,
pressure a race when the streamli
motorcycle is completely straight. More specific CFD studies for totally straight geometries
vorticity were analysed, as well as the aerodynamic coefficients. It was concluded
fairing, front wheel, and suspension are the elements most responsible for
aerodynamic drag. On the other hand, as the rider plays an important role
aerodynamics of a motorcycle, Winski and Piechna a l s o studied the effect of the
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 6 of 32

have also been carried out, such as the one by Fintelman et al. [18], which examined how
crosswinds affect the aerodynamics and stability of the motorcycle. After testing various
side wind angles (yaw angles), they concluded that rolling moments, lateral forces, and lift
forces increase with the yaw angle, while drag forces decrease.
Other CFD studies have analysed the aerodynamics of sports motorcycles in high-
speed corners. For example, Van Dijck [19] studied the aerodynamics of a Kawasaki ZX10-R
in SuperStock racing trim at a speed of 38 m/s, with lean angles of 45–55◦ . Although the
lean angle is not constant throughout the curve, Van Dijck calculated that its rate of
variation has a negligible effect on aerodynamic forces and pressure distribution (<1.5%).
The results show that, in cornering situations where the motorcycle and rider are closer to
the ground, the interaction of the high-pressure field from the front of the motorcycle with
the ground increases both lift and lateral forces. Moreover, there is a linear increase of lift
and drag as the lean angle increases, whereas the variation of the lateral force shows no
pattern correlated with different lean angles. Related to this, Concli et al. [20] studied the
aerodynamic performance of different designs of racing motorcycle wheels in a leaning
position. It was observed that wheels with covered rims or larger discs reduce aerodynamic
drag by almost 50%, while also generating more lift.
However, there is a lack of specific literature analysing the performance of aerody-
namic appendages on MotoGP motorcycles. One possible reason is the scarcity of CAD
models of the latest MotoGP motorcycles, in contrast with Formula 1 vehicles.
González-Arcos used CFD to explore the aerodynamic performance of various ap-
pendage configurations based on ad hoc designs of models of different manufacturers in the
MotoGP grid of 2020 (Yamaha, Suzuki, and Ducati) [21]. Notably, the geometries used were
created by the author based on real MotoGP models and not provided by the manufacturers.
The study examined the aerodynamic performance of a MotoGP motorcycle equipped with
fin-type appendages that met the FIM 2020 regulations using a completely straight geom-
etry. The results show that the appendages provide front downforce for the motorcycle,
above all the Ducati-type device, followed by that of Suzuki. Although generating the least
downforce, the Yamaha-type appendage created the least drag, followed by that of Suzuki,
with the Ducati design causing the most drag. The aerodynamic effect of such devices
during cornering was studied by Sedlak [22] and Segarra i Simó [23]. Sedlak concluded that
when the rider hangs off the motorcycle, their leg or elbow reduces the aerodynamic perfor-
mance of the appendage on the inside of the corner, especially if located close to one of the
limbs. Segarra i Simó studied each of the appendages analysed by González-Arcos [21], but
with the motorcycle in a leaning position and the rider hanging off to simulate cornering.
The results show that the device on the side leaning into the corner generates an unwanted
lateral force due to its negative dihedral angle, while the outer appendage does generate
downforce. The Ducati-type design generated the most downforce in the corner, but also
more lateral force and an opposite moment to the inclination, potentially affecting the
motorcycle’s manoeuvrability and stability.
Based on this literature review, it can be concluded that to date no study has analysed
the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector first implemented by Ducati in MotoGP.

2.2.2. Fundamental Theory of Motorcycle Aerodynamics

The main aerodynamic forces generated by a MotoGP motorcycle are drag, lift, and
lateral forces. As noted in the introduction, the aerodynamic study of a motorcycle differs
from that of a four-wheeled self-steering vehicle [24]. In motorcycles the lift is usually
positive at the front axle and negative at the rear axle so, overall, there is practically no
lift. This is a consequence of having the centre of pressure in a high position [24]. Drag is
the force that opposes forward movement and influences the top speed of the motorcycle,
being greatly affected by the rider’s position. When fitting into the dome, the rider ensures
maximum aerodynamic efficiency and minimises drag. The rider will then move out
of the dome to increase drag in a braking situation. Finally, although lateral force is
much less relevant in MotoGP, it can be generated by aerodynamic appendages during
 cannot be taken with a yaw turn provided by the handlebars. Consequently, when
approaching the corner, the rider hangs off the motorcycle, thereby shifting the centre
of gravity towards the inside of the corner and providing the necessary lean to take
the corner as quickly as possible.
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 • Yawing moment. This moment is much less relevant than the previous two, given 7 of 32
that handlebar turning is practically non-existent in MotoGP, as mentioned.
However, a yaw moment can occur both on corner exit and corner entry when the
motorcycle slides off the rear wheel and causes the front and rear wheel to be out of
cornering, creating stability issues. Lateral force can also increase significantly when there
alignment. As a question of safety, it is preferable to have a longitudinal slip of the
are crosswinds, especially for high sideslip angles, as described by Fintelman et al. [18]
rear wheel in an acceleration phase, rather than a longitudinal slip of the front wheel
and Katz [25]. The acceleration, backing, and moments acting on a racing motorcycle are
in a braking phase [26].
shown in Figure 7.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure7.7.Motorcycle-rider
Motorcycle-rider geometry
geometrywith
withaxes, aerodynamic
axes, aerodynamicforces, andand
forces, moments: (a) front
moments: view
(a) front of
view
the motorcycle-rider geometry showing aerodynamic lateral force and the axes positioned
of the motorcycle-rider geometry showing aerodynamic lateral force and the axes positioned at theat the
origin; (b) side view of the motorcycle-rider geometry showing the aerodynamic forces (lift and
origin; (b) side view of the motorcycle-rider geometry showing the aerodynamic forces (lift and drag),
drag), the moments, and the axes positioned at the origin.
the moments, and the axes positioned at the origin.

• Acceleration. A motorcycle has only rear-wheel drive, so under acceleration the

torque is transferred to the rear wheel, with the motorcycle tending to lift off the front.
During this phenomenon, which in the motorcycling world is known as a wheelie, the
motorcycle’s electronics reduce the power supply.
• Braking. Under braking, all the weight of the motorcycle moves forward, which causes
the rear wheel to lift off the ground.
• Pitching moment. The main reason for this moment is that a motorcycle has only
two points of contact with the ground, which are aligned on one axle: one behind
the other. This fact, combined with the centre of gravity of the motorcycle being
positioned higher than that of a four-wheeled vehicle, makes the pitching moment
critical, especially during acceleration and braking. Additionally, since both the drag
and lift of a motorcycle act on the centre of pressure, which is usually positioned
above and in front of the centre of gravity, the combination of the two forces creates a
pitching moment around the y-axis [26].
• Rolling moment. This moment is triggered by the rider when cornering. As MotoGP
motorcycles have very little handlebar travel, unlike road motorcycles, many corners
cannot be taken with a yaw turn provided by the handlebars. Consequently, when
approaching the corner, the rider hangs off the motorcycle, thereby shifting the centre
of gravity towards the inside of the corner and providing the necessary lean to take
the corner as quickly as possible.
• Yawing moment. This moment is much less relevant than the previous two, given
that handlebar turning is practically non-existent in MotoGP, as mentioned. However,
a yaw moment can occur both on corner exit and corner entry when the motorcycle
slides off the rear wheel and causes the front and rear wheel to be out of alignment.
As a question of safety, it is preferable to have a longitudinal slip of the rear wheel in
an acceleration phase, rather than a longitudinal slip of the front wheel in a braking
phase [26].
Hence, one objective of aerodynamic design in MotoGP is to increase the downforce
of the motorcycle to improve the grip between the tyres and the track. Therefore, during
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 8 of 32

acceleration, the aim is to reduce frontal lift to decrease wheelie possibility and enhance
power delivery, while increasing the downforce at the rear to improve tyre grip and traction.
Another objective is to minimize drag to achieve a higher top speed and reduce lateral force
during cornering to enhance stability.

2.3. Flow Redirector

The flow redirector implemented by Ducati is in a low position at the side of the fairing
towards the front (see Figure 8a). This aerodynamic appendage is intended to take the
maximum amount of air from the front of the motorcycle and the side of the wheel and
redirect it towards the lower part of the motorcycle. The flow redirector thus consists of
a large front air inlet located at the height of the front wheel axle, a shroud that radically
tapers down to the lowest part of the fairing, and a rear air outlet that is smaller than the
inlet (see Figure 8b,d). In addition, in the central part of the flow redirector, a separator
divides the appendage to create two different flow paths (see Figure 8c). Finally, the images
of Figure 8 show that there is both a horizontal inlet angle (β) and a vertical inlet angle (α)
between the appendage and the fairing.

Table 1. Fixed variables set for the flow redirector design (see Figure 8).

Geometric Variables Fixed Value

ϕ 35◦
L 200 mm
Hf 170 mm
Af 65 mm
Ht 110 mm
At 40 mm

2.3.1. Performance Assumptions

The aerodynamic performance scenarios for this flow redirector are divided into
leaning and straight motorcycle modes.

Leaning Mode
When a MotoGP motorcycle goes through a corner it can acquire large lean angles
(>60◦ with respect to the straight vertical position, perpendicular to the ground). This
means that a large portion of the fairing comes into close proximity with the ground,
generating a phenomenon similar to the ground effect of a Formula 1 car, in which the
surface area near the ground acts as a diffuser. As reported by Van Dijck [19], the interaction
between the motorcycle and the ground creates a high gradient-pressure zone at the front
of and inside the motorcycle, generating a flow pattern towards the low pressure zone on
the outside of the curve. In other words, a high-velocity zone of air can be generated that
creates downforce without causing any lateral forces, as depicted in Figure 9.
Thus, the hypothesis to test is: whether the function of the flow redirector during
cornering is to accelerate the flow in the lower part of the fairing to create a ground effect
and, consequently, to generate downforce.

Straight Motorbike
When the motorcycle is in a completely upright position, it does not appear that the
flow redirector alone can provide significant downforce and, in fact, it may even produce
lift. However, by redirecting the flow to the lower area of the fairing, it could create a
low gradient-pressure zone on the underside of the motorcycle and, therefore, generate
downforce. Although the effectiveness of this approach seems unlikely, as the flow can
separate when the motorcycle is travelling in a straight line, it provides another hypothesis
to test in this work. Accordingly, the flow redirector would have the function of clearing
the wake generated by the front wheel, thus reducing the aerodynamic drag force, and
 the maximum amount of air from the front of the motorcycle and the side of the wheel and
redirect it towards the lower part of the motorcycle. The flow redirector thus consists of a
large front air inlet located at the height of the front wheel axle, a shroud that radically
tapers down to the lowest part of the fairing, and a rear air outlet that is smaller than the
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 inlet (see Figure 8b,d). In addition, in the central part of the flow redirector, a separator 9 of 32

divides the appendage to create two different flow paths (see Figure 8c). Finally, the
images of Figure 8 show that there is both a horizontal inlet angle (β) and a vertical inlet
angle (α)making it difficult
between for other motorcycles
the appendage to follow the Ducati. This function is schematized
and the fairing.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW in Figure 11.

Geometric Variables Fixed Valu

φ 35°
L 200 mm
Hf 170 mm
Af 65 mm
Ht 110 mm
At 40 mm

2.3.1. Performance Assumptions

The aerodynamic performance scenarios for this flow redirector
(a) straight motorcycle modes.
leaning and (b)

Leaning Mode
When a MotoGP motorcycle goes through a corner it can acquire
(>60° with respect to the straight vertical position, perpendicular to t
means that a large portion of the fairing comes into close proximity
generating a phenomenon similar to the ground effect of a Formula 1
surface area near the ground acts as a diffuser. As reported by Va
interaction (c)between the motorcycle and the ground (d) creates a high gradie
at the front
Figure 8.Figure
Variables
of and
of the Ducati
inside (values
flow redirector
the motorcycle,
givengiven
in Table
generating
1): (a)
aview
flow pattern
8. Variables of the Ducati flow redirector (values in Table 1):Ducati front
(a) Ducati front viewwith
with
pressure
flow redirector
flow redirectorzone
reference onvariables:
variables:
reference the outside
horizontal inletof
horizontal the
angle
inlet curve.
(β)
angleand andIn
(β) lateral other
inletinlet
lateral words,
angle (φ);(ϕ);
angle aDucati
(b)(b) high-veloci
Ducati
side view with
be view
side flow redirector
generated reference
that creates
with flow redirector variables: vertical
downforce
reference inlet angle
without
variables: vertical (α) and
causing
inlet angle total length
(α) and total (L);
anylength (c)(L); force
lateral
appendage entry with reference variables: total inlet height (H f) and lower inlet width (Af); (d)
(c) appendage entry with reference variables: total inlet height (Hf ) and lower inlet width (Af );
appendage Figure 9. reference variables: total outlet height (Ht) and lower outlet width (At).
outlet with
(d) appendage outlet with reference variables: total outlet height (Ht ) and lower outlet width (At ).

Table 1. Fixed variables set for the flow redirector design (see Figure 8).

Figure
Figure 9. Ground
9. Ground effect
effect when thewhen theismotorcycle
motorcycle leaning. is leaning.
Having established that this phenomenon can be generated, the next step is to examine
the roleHaving
of the flowestablished that
redirector. This this phenomenon
appendage collects air and can beitgenerated,
next
directs the
to the lower part
the role of the flow redirector. This appendage collects air and directs it
of the fairing so that, when the motorcycle is leaning and the lower pa
rounded, there is a large flow radius and the lower part of the aerodynam
R PEER REVIEW Figure 9. Ground effect when the motorcycle is leaning. 10 of 32

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 Having established that this phenomenon can be generated, the10next of 32 step is
the role of the flow redirector. This appendage collects air and directs it to the
Thus, the hypothesis to test so
of the fairing is: that,
whetherwhen thethe
function
motorcycleof the
is flow
leaningredirector
and the during
lower part of th
cornering is to accelerate
of the the flow
fairing so in
that, the
whenlower
the part of
motorcycle the
is fairing
leaning to
and create
the a
lower ground
part
rounded, there is a large flow radius and the lower part of the aerodynamic of the effect
fairing is bo
and, consequently, to generate
rounded,
diffusor,
theredownforce.
is a large flow radius and the lower part of the aerodynamic body acts as a
as shown in Figure 10.
diffusor, as shown in Figure 10.

Straight Motorbike
When the motorcycle is in a completely upright position, it does not appear that the
flow redirector alone can provide significant downforce and, in fact, it may even produce
lift. However, by redirecting the flow to the lower area of the fairing, it could create a low
gradient-pressure zone on the underside of the motorcycle and, therefore, generate
downforce. Although the effectiveness of this approach seems unlikely, as the flow can
separate when the motorcycle is travelling in a straight line, it provides another
hypothesis to test in this work. Accordingly, the flow redirector would have the function of
clearing the wake generated by the front wheel, thus reducing the aerodynamic drag force,
and making it difficult for other motorcycles to follow the Ducati. This function is
schematized in Figure 11.10.10.
Figure
Figure Lower part of
Lower the of
part fairing
the acting as aacting
fairing diffuseraswhen the motorcycle
a diffuser whenisthe
leaning.
motorcycle is leaning

Figure 11. Flow directed

Figureby
11.the appendage
Flow clearing
directed by the the clearing
appendage wake of thethe front
wake of thewheel on a on
front wheel straight
a straight
motorcycle. motorcycle.

3. Geometric Design
3. Geometric Design
3.1. Naked Geometric Design
Based on the FIM 2022 regulations for the MotoGP World Championship and a visual
3.1. Naked Geometric Design ®
study using images of the current MotoGP motorcycles on the grid, a CAD (DS SolidWorks
Based on the FIM 2022
28 and regulations
FreeCAD for theofMotoGP
® 0.19) design a MotoGP World
prototypeChampionship and appendages
without aerodynamic a visual
study using images wasof the current
generated. MotoGP
In addition, motorcycles
considering onrider
the effect of the theon grid, a CAD
motorcycle (DS
aerodynamics,
SolidWorks 28 and FreeCAD 0.19) design of a MotoGP prototype without aerodynamic is
® the rider position
® is one of maximum aerodynamic efficiency. The ad hoc 3D model
presented in Figure 12.
appendages was generated. In addition,
The following considering
features from the abovethe effect
design are of the rider on motorcycle
highlighted:
aerodynamics, the rider
• position
Rim is one of Itmaximum
implementation. was decidedaerodynamic
that the wheel efficiency.
rims would be The ad hoc
implemented
3D model is presented in Figure
because 12. potential aerodynamic impact on the flow redirector. It is worth noting
of their
that the analysed appendage is located just behind the front wheel, so its performance
may be modified by flow structures generated by the rotation of a rimmed wheel. The
different manufacturers on the MotoGP grid use different rim geometries, and the
present design is based on Honda HRC rims.
• Fairing narrowing. An important feature of MotoGP design is the narrowing of the
fairing, especially in the lower area. The FIM regulations [1] place a limit on motorcycle
width, which becomes more restrictive in the lower area. Therefore, to implement
the aerodynamic appendage, it is necessary to narrow the fairing at the bottom. The
Ducati fairing is visibly the narrowest on the grid, which allows larger devices to
be mounted in the lower area of the motorcycle. However, as this also reduces the
dimensions of the radiator, it is challenging to narrow the fairing without changing
the radiator design, which can cause overheating and reliability issues.
 clearing the wake generated by the front wheel, thus reducing the aerodynamic drag force,
and making it difficult for other motorcycles to follow the Ducati. This function is
schematized in Figure 11.

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 11 of 32

• Bottom rounding. Finally, the lower part of the fairing is rounded, as this is one of
the differences between Ducati motorcycles and those of the other manufacturers. As
described in the performance scenarios, the design of the lower part of the fairing
Figure can play directed
11. Flow an important
by the role in the aerodynamic
appendage performance
clearing the wake of the frontofwheel
the flow
on aredirector,
straight
acting
motorcycle. similarly to the diffuser of a Formula 1 single seater when the motorcycle is at
an angle.
3. •Geometric
Rider position.
Design As mentioned in the introduction, when a rider is cornering they
tilt the motorcycle
3.1. Naked Geometric Designby hanging off it. This manoeuvre can affect the aerodynamic
performance of appendages mounted high on the motorcycle, as demonstrated by
Based
Sedlakon [22].
the FIM 2022 regulations
However, when locatedfor the
in aMotoGP Worldthe
low position, Championship
flow redirectorandisanot
visual
close
study enough
using images of the current MotoGP motorcycles on the grid, a CAD
to the rider’s limbs for its aerodynamic impact to be affected in a cornering (DS
SolidWorks ® 28 and FreeCAD® 0.19) design of a MotoGP prototype without aerodynamic
situation. As a result, the rider’s position in the model remains unchanged for leaning
appendages was generated.
geometries. AlthoughInhanging
addition,offconsidering the effect
the motorcycle likelyofresults
the rider on motorcycle
in variable drag, as
aerodynamics, the rider position is one of maximum aerodynamic efficiency.
shown by Barbagallo et al. [27], the rider’s cornering position is less relevant in The ad hocthe
3D model is presented in Figure 12.
present study, which is focused exclusively on the performance of the flow redirector.

(a) (b)
Figure 12.12.
Figure Motorcycle-rider geometry:
Motorcycle-rider (a)(a)
geometry: front view
front of of
view thethe
motorcycle-rider geometry;
motorcycle-rider (b)(b)
geometry; side view
side view
of of
thethe
motorcycle-rider geometry.
motorcycle-rider geometry.

3.2. Flow Redirector Design

The design was based on a visual study of images and videos of the 2021–2022 Ducati
MotoGP motorcycles. The key geometric parameters for the design of the flow redirector are
shown in Figure 8. Since there are no reference drawings of the Ducati flow redirector, and
the aim was to quantify its aerodynamic performance, the following geometric variables
are used:
• β angle. Among a wide range of potential values, the effect of β = 25◦ and β = 40◦
on the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector was investigated, as shown
in Figure 8.
• α angle. Two vertical angles of attack, α = 0◦ and α = 10◦ , were studied, as shown
in Figure 8.
• With/Without flow separator. The functionality and aerodynamic performance pro-
vided by the flow separator were also studied.
The other geometric parameters are fixed, as detailed in Table 1 and shown in Figure 13.
Energies 2023,
Energies 16,16,
2023, x FOR
4793 PEER REVIEW 12 of 32 12
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 32

Figure 13. Fixed dimensions of the flow redirector geometry.

Figure13.13.
Figure Fixed
Fixed dimensions
dimensions of theofflow
theredirector
flow redirector geometry.
geometry.

Once
Oncethe MotoGP motorcycle-rider package and thethe
flow redirector were designed,
both Oncethe
were
MotoGP
the MotoGP
assembled.
motorcycle-rider
The motorcycle-rider
final geometry
package and
package
complied
flow
and
with
redirector
the
the
were designed,
flow redirector
external were desig
dimension
both were assembled. The final geometry complied with the external dimension require-
both set
ments were
requirements
bysetassembled.
theby
FIM Theforfinal
theregulations
FIM regulationsthefor geometry
theMotoGP
2022 complied
2022 MotoGP
World World with the external dimen
Championship.
Championship.
requirements set by the FIM regulations for the 2022 MotoGP World Championship.
3.3. Adaptation
3.3. Adaptation of of
Geometry
Geometrytoto
CFDCFD
As
3.3. Asshown
Adaptation in the
shown inof figures,
Geometry
the the design
to
figures, the CFD
design has
hasa complex
a complex geometry.
geometry. Given
Given that the
that thepresent
present
study
studyis is
focused
focused ononaerodynamic
aerodynamic performance,
performance, certain
certain geometric
geometric details
detailswere
wereconsidered
considered
As shown in the figures, the design has a complex geometry. Given that the pre
irrelevant
irrelevantandandpotentially
potentiallynegative
negative forfor
the
thequality
qualityofofthe
themesh.
mesh.Accordingly,
Accordingly, a aseries
seriesofof
studywere
changes
changes iswere
focused on aerodynamic
implemented,
implemented, with
withaim performance,
aimofofmaking
makingthethe certain
geometry
geometry geometric
continuous
continuous and details
andclosed
closedwere
and consid
and
irrelevant
minimising
minimising and potentially
possible
possible quality errors
quality negative
errorsinin
thethe for as
mesh,
mesh, the quality
asshown
shown of the14.14.
ininFigure
Figure mesh. Accordingly, a seri
• •changes
The
The were
entire
entire implemented,
engine
enginearea with
areaisiscovered
covered aim
totocreate ofa amaking
create closed the geometry continuous and closed
closedvolume;
volume;
• •minimising
The
The riderispossible
rider isjoined quality
joinedtotothe errorstoin
themotorcycle
motorcycle the
tounify
unifymesh,
the as shown
thegeometry
geometry insingle
Figure
inina asingle 14.
volume;
volume;
• •• The
Theswingarm
Theswingarm was
wasredesigned
entire engine redesigned to
to cover
cover the
area is covered to engine area
create area andcreate
and
a closed create
volume;aaclosed
closedvolume
volumefor
for the
the CFD
CFD analysis.
analysis.
• The rider is joined to the motorcycle to unify the geometry in a single volume;
• The swingarm was redesigned to cover the engine area and create a closed vol
for the CFD analysis.

(a) (b)
Figure 14.14.
Figure Motorcycle-rider geometry
Motorcycle-rider adapted
geometry forfor
adapted CFD simulations:
CFD (a)(a)
simulations: front view;
front (b)(b)
view; side view.
side view.

4. 4. Numerical
Numerical Methodology
Methodology
4.1. Mesh Generation
4.1. Mesh Generation
(a) Preparation
4.1.1. Geometry (b)
4.1.1. Geometry Preparation
The14.
Figure geometry was imported,
Motorcycle-rider placedadapted
geometry in the desired
for CFDposition, and a symmetry
simulations: cut was
(a) frontcut
view;
The geometry was imported, placed in the desired position, and a symmetry was(b) side vie
made for the simulations where the geometry would be in a straight position or tilted at
made for the simulations where the geometry would be in a straight position or tilted at
50◦ with respect to the ground, as is habitual in simulations with leaning geometry [19].
50°4.with
Numerical
respect toMethodology
the ground, as is habitual in simulations with leaning geometry [19].
Additionally, the geometry was cleaned of imperfections, eliminating intersections and
Additionally,
4.1. Mesh
excess the A
geometry
Generation
surfaces. was cleaned
contact surface of imperfections,
was created between theeliminating intersections
tyres and the and
ground to avoid
excess surfaces.
the acute A contact
angle between surface was created between the tyres and the ground to avoid
the wheels and the ground. This can be a major problem because
the4.1.1.
acuteGeometry Preparation
angle between the wheels and the ground. This can be a major problem because
The geometry was imported, placed in the desired position, and a symmetry cut
made for the simulations where the geometry would be in a straight position or tilte
50° with respect to the ground, as is habitual in simulations with leaning geometry
Additionally, the geometry was cleaned of imperfections, eliminating intersections
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 this angle can lead to the creation of low-quality elements in that area13ofof the
32 mesh
the boundary layers also meet.

this angle
4.1.2. can lead to the creation of low-quality elements in that area of the mesh, where
Domain
the boundary layers also meet.
To ensure a good estimation of the domain, the scheme of Fintelman et
4.1.2. Domain
depicted in Figure 15, was used as a reference, where H is the height of the
motorcycle-rider
To ensure a goodgeometry,
estimation ofapproximated to 1.5ofm.
the domain, the scheme Thus, based
Fintelman ondepicted
et al. [18], the previous
in Figure 15, was used as a reference, where H is the height of the straight motorcycle-rider
the following distances are applied as shown in Table 2 (straight geometry) and
geometry, approximated to 1.5 m. Thus, based on the previous scheme, the following dis-
(leaning geometry).
tances are applied as shown in Table 2 (straight geometry) and Table 3 (leaning geometry).

Figure Simulation
Figure15.15. domain
Simulation as a function
domain of H.
as a function of H.
Table 2. Domain dimensions with respect to the straight geometry for each of the space directions
Table 2. Domain dimensions with respect to the straight geometry for each of the space d
(see Figure 15).
(see Figure 15).
Domain Variables Value
Domain
X+
Variables 15 m
Value
Y+ X+ 0m 15 m
Z+ 9m
X−
Y+ 6m
0m
Y− Z+ 4.5 m 9m
Z− 0
X− 6m
Y− 4.5 m
Table 3. Domain dimensions with respect to the leaning geometry for each of the space directions
(see Figure 15). Z− 0

Domain Variables Value

Table 3. Domain dimensions with respect to the leaning geometry for each of the space d
(see Figure 15). X+ 15 m
Y+ 4.5 m
Z+ 9m
Domain
X−
Variables 6m
Value
Y− X+ 4.5 m 15 m
Z− 0
Y+ 4.5 m
Z+ 9m
It should be noted that only half of the domain was used when simulating the straight
X− 6m
motorcycle geometry due to its symmetry with respect to the ZX plane. Conversely,
the entire domain was usedY− for simulations of the leaning motorcycle, since4.5 m case
in this
symmetry cannot be applied.
Z− Within the domain, 4 refinement zones were implemented
0
(see Figure 16):
• Zone 1. Located in the lower part of the motorcycle, this is the area of maximum
It should be noted that only half of the domain was used when simulating the
refinement as it covers the lower part of the fairing and the wheels, critical for the
motorcycle geometry
aerodynamic study. due to its symmetry with respect to the ZX plane. Convers
•entire
Zonedomain wascovers
2. This area usedthefor simulations
entire of thecertain
geometry, leaving leaning motorcycle, since in th
margins.
symmetry cannot be applied. Within the domain, 4 refinement zones were imple
(see Figure 16):
• Zone 1. Located in the lower part of the motorcycle, this is the area of ma
Energies 2023,
Energies 16,16,
2023, x FOR
4793 PEER REVIEW 14 of 3232
14 of

• • Zone
Zone3. 3.
This area
This areacovers Zone
covers 2, 2,
Zone leaving
leavingmargins.
margins.
• • Zone
Zone4.4.This
Thisis is
thethe
outermost zone
outermost zoneof of
thethe
geometry, from
geometry, Zone
from 3 to
Zone the
3 to rear
the rearofofthe
the
volume
volumemesh.
mesh.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 16. Refinement zones and mesh layers: (a) isometric image of the domain with refinement
Figure 16. Refinement zones and mesh layers: (a) isometric image of the domain with refinement
zones; (b) isometric image of the geometry with refinement zones; (c) mesh layers: tyre bottom,
zones; (b) isometric image of the geometry with refinement zones; (c) mesh layers: tyre bottom,
contact patch, and road; (d) mesh layers: fairing, front wheel cover, and tyre.
contact patch, and road; (d) mesh layers: fairing, front wheel cover, and tyre.
The side view of the mesh presented in Figure 16 clearly shows how the refinement
The side view of the mesh presented in Figure 16 clearly shows how the refinement
regions created surround the body, concentrating the cells around it, and are intended to
regions created surround the body, concentrating the cells around it, and are intended to
provide the best prediction of aerodynamic forces. The smaller refinement region, Zone
provide the best prediction of aerodynamic forces. The smaller refinement region, Zone 1,
1, concentrates
concentrates the
the major
major part
part of
ofthe
thecells
cellsaround
aroundthe
thegeometry,
geometry,giving
givingspecial
specialtreatment
treatmentto
tothose
thosecritical
criticalzones
zonesof
ofthe
thebody.
body.

4.1.3.
4.1.3.Effect
Effectofof
the
theBoundary
Boundary Layer
Layer
The
The effect ofof
effect the boundary
the boundary layer
layerininthe wall
the wallwaswasmodelled,
modelled, defining
defining the first
the cell
first size
cell size
inin
order to obtain a y+ around 50 [28], which involves the use of wall functions
order to obtain a y+ around 50 [28], which involves the use of wall functions as opposed as opposed
totoa anear
nearwall
walltreatment,
treatment,which whichgenerally
generallyadopts
adoptsy+y+ around
around 1 when
1 when solving
solving forfor
a alow
low
Reynolds
Reynolds number
number [29].
[29].From
From this
thisestimation,
estimation, thetheheight
heightofof
the centre
the centreofof
the first
the cell
first ofof
cell the
the
boundary
boundary layer
layerwas
wascalculated
calculated totobebe
0.41
0.41mm.
mm. Thus,
Thus,the parameters
the parameters given
giveninin
Table
Table 4 were
4 were
applied
applied totomodel
model the effect
the effect ofof
thetheboundary
boundary layer.
layer.
It should be noted that the boundary layer was applied for all surfaces of the geometry
Table 4. Main
(except parameters
the internal partforofthe
themodel
rims)ofand
the the
effect of the boundary
ground (road), aslayer.
depicted in Figure 16c,d. As
the road is a type of moving wall, it was not necessary to have high resolution near the
Parameters Value
wall. Thus, an aspect ratio of 10% was used for the ground and only 6 layers were applied
y+ 50
to remove some elements.
y 0.41 mm
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 15 of 32

Table 4. Main parameters for the model of the effect of the boundary layer.

Parameters Value
y+ 50
y 0.41 mm
Height of the First Layer 0.8 mm
Type Value First Height Absolute
Growth Rate 1.15
Number of Layers 9

4.1.4. Volume Mesh

Finally, the volume mesh was created and the entire volume of the domain was meshed
using the Hexa Interior algorithm, which employs hexahedral elements, with prism and
pyramidal elements as transitions between small and larger hexahedral cells. Tetrahedral
elements (Tetra Rapid) were used to mesh the internal volume of the inner rim, a small
volume of complicated geometry (minimum volume: 1.61 × 10−11 m3 and maximum
volume: 0.048 m3 ). This type of algorithm allows a great variation in element length, thus
minimising the quality errors in that zone.

4.1.5. Multi-Reference Frame

A multi-reference frame was employed for the tyre volumes, allowing a rotation to
be assigned to them without modifying the mesh. As the front and rear wheels have
different diameters, these zones also have different angular velocities. The angular velocity
is calculated by dividing the velocity of the motorcycle by the tyre radius.

4.1.6. Mesh Quality

The quality of the mesh was checked using the OpenFOAM checkMesh tool and the
yPlus function for the values of y+ throughout the geometry [3]. The average values of
each part of the geometry were found to be close to 50. Regarding the fairing, an essential
element for the study, the value was 47.54. It can therefore be concluded that the quality of
the mesh was good. In addition, the GCI methodology [30] was used to study the mesh
independence, using 3 meshes of variable refinement, as detailed in Table 5, and analysing
the variation of the variable φ. In this case the variable φ = Cd Sref , where Cd is the drag
coefficient and Sref is the frontal area of the geometry (0.550 m2 ).

Table 5. Characteristics of the meshes in the GCI study.

Mesh Type Cells Cd

Coarse (3) 6,326,706 0.4488
Medium (2) 8,861,227 0.4334
Fine (1) 13,037,125 0.4332

The results of the GCI study are given in Table 6.

Table 6. GCI study results.

Variables Results
r23 1.4006
r12 1.4713
φ3 0.2468
φ2 0.2384
φ1 0.2383
P 12.0057
GCI23 0.0564%
GCI12 0.0008%
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 16 of 32

The GCI values were within the asymptotic range of convergence, with the AR being
approximately 1, estimated from r = 1.44 [31]. As the percentage of error between the
medium and fine mesh was very small, and fine mesh requires far more computational
time, it was assumed that mesh independence could be obtained using the medium mesh
(8.8 M elements in symmetrical cases).

4.2. Boundary and Initial Conditions

To assign the boundary conditions, a velocity first has to be chosen for the simulation.
Simulations were carried out for both straight and leaning motorcycles and, although this
implies two totally different performance situations, a single velocity was estimated for
both circumstances.
• Corner exit. On exiting the corner, the rider straightens the motorcycle as fast as
possible and is able to reach velocities of 180–200 km/h [32].
• Fast corner. Velocities of 150–180 km/h are possible in a fast corner with a leaning
angle of more than 50◦ [32].
Accordingly, a speed of 180 km/h (50 m/s), reachable in both circumstances, was
applied for the simulations, and the following boundary conditions were applied:
• Inlet velocity (free stream velocity): 50 m/s;
• The road in the simulation is of the movingWall type, with a velocity of 50 m/s;
• Flow rotation according to the radius of curvature was not simulated for the leaning
motorcycle;
• Symmetry boundary conditions were applied to the side faces of the domain, as well as
to the top face and the face of the symmetryPlane when the simulation was symmetrical;
• The pressure outlet was at atmospheric pressure;
• Rotation was applied to the tyres and rims by assigning the rotatingWall boundary
condition, with a speed of 166.7 rad/s and 144.9 rad/s for the front and rear wheels,
respectively. The effect of the aerodynamic interaction of the rotation of a wheel is
clearly shown by Cravero and Marsano [33].

4.3. Solver and Turbulent Model

The simulation was carried out using OpenFOAM software [34], applying the simple-
Foam solver with incompressible and turbulent flow for steady state aerodynamics. The
gradient, divergence, and Laplacian terms of the Navier–Stokes equations were discretised
by means of the Gaussian schemes: at cell interfaces, the interpolation schemes were linear
(upwind) [35]. The GAMG (Geometric Algebraic Multi Grid) solver was applied for the
pressure equation, and the smoothSolver was selected for velocity and turbulence vari-
ables. Execution was performed by means of second-order schemes. For the turbulence
approach, a RANS type simulation was implemented and the k-ω SST turbulence model
was used [33], employing the wall functions listed in Table 7 for each parameter. Wall
functions for k, omega, and nut are used. These wall functions are used because of the
small cell requirements in certain areas of the mesh where boundary layer is dominant.
Hence, a finer application of the values of these parameters would be required to obtain a
more accurate solution. [35–37].

Table 7. Wall functions used by the OpenFOAM k-ω SST model.

Parameter OpenFOAM Wall Function

k kqRWallFunction
omega omegaWallFunction
nut nutWallFunction

To simulate the required thermodynamic conditions, it is necessary to estimate the

turbulence parameters [38]. The values of the initial conditions of the simulation are shown
in Table 8.
 Table 8. Simulation turbulence parameters.

Parameter Value
Free Stream Velocity (U) 50 m/s
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 Turbulent Intensity (I) 1% 17 of 32

Reference Length (l) 0.7 m

Kinematic Viscosity
Table 8. Simulation (ν) parameters.
turbulence 1.5 × 10−5 m2/s
Turbulence Kinetic Energy (k) 0.375 m2/s2
Parameter Value
Turbulence Model Constant (Cµ) 0.09
Free Stream Velocity (U) 50 m/s
Specific Turbulent Dissipation Rate
Turbulent Intensity (I) (ω) 1.597
1% s−1
Reference Length (l) 0.7 m
Kinematic Viscosity (ν) 1.5 × 10−5 m2 /s
4.4. Convergence and Verification of Results
Turbulence Kinetic Energy (k) 0.375 m2 /s2
Turbulence Model Constant (Cµ ) 0.09
Analysis of the residuals, including force values,
Specific Turbulent Dissipation Rate (ω)
revealed that all were below 1 × 10−3,
1.597 s−1
verifying that a reasonable convergence of simulation was achieved. When using the
steady state simpleFoam solver with
4.4. Convergence and aVerification
turbulence model, the residuals cannot be any lower
of Results
due to the unstable nature of the
Analysis velocity,
of the residuals,asincluding
one studyforce exemplifies
values, revealed[35]. The
that all conservation
were below 1 × 10−3 ,
of mass between the verifying that aoutlet
inlet and reasonable
was convergence of simulation
also confirmed, thewas achieved.
error betweenWhenthem
using the steady
being
state simpleFoam solver with a turbulence model, the residuals cannot be any lower due to
0.002%. Finally, thethe
results were verified by comparing them with the data of another
unstable nature of the velocity, as one study exemplifies [35]. The conservation of mass
study [21] and the experimental
between the inletdata
andobtained
outlet was by alsoFoale [39] for
confirmed, the a Honda
error RS them
between 500, as shown
being 0.002%.
in Figure 17. The Finally,
valuesthewithout wheel
results were verifiedrotation were
by comparing compared
them and
with the data the results
of another study [21]are
and
the
presented in Table 9. experimental data obtained by Foale [39] for a Honda RS 500, as shown in Figure 17.
The values without wheel rotation were compared and the results are presented in Table 9.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 17. ComparisonFigure 17. Comparison
of reference of referenceto
motorcycles motorcycles
verify theto verify the: (a)
results results: (a) Freddie
Freddie Spencer’s
Spencer’s 19841984
Honda NS500;
Honda NS500; (b) reference model(b) without
reference model without rimsby
rims designed designed by González-Arcos
González-Arcos [21];reference
[21]; (c) (c) reference
model designed for the present study.
model designed for the present study.
Table 9. Results verification.
Table 9. Results verification.
(González-Arcos,
Comparative Data Honda RS 500 Designed Model
2020)
(González-Arcos, Model
2020)
Comparative Data Honda
S Cd RS 500 0.240 0.234 Designed0.231
Model
Model
S Cd 0.240
5. Taguchi Design
0.234 0.231
5.1. Details of the Taguchi Methodology
5. Taguchi Design As blueprints of the Ducati MotoGP flow redirectors are unavailable, the design was
carried out by examining photographs and videos provided by Dorna [8]. Consequently, to
5.1. Details of the Taguchi Methodology
determine the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector, different values (levels) of
As blueprints of the Ducati
certain geometric MotoGP
parameters flow redirectors
(factors) are unavailable,
were studied. A full factorial the
study,design
with anwasequal
number photographs
carried out by examining of test data pointsand
at each level ofprovided
videos each factor, by
is acceptable if only
Dorna [8]. a few factors are to
Consequently,
be investigated, but it is not advisable when there are many factors, or the analysis requires
to determine the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector, different values (levels)
significant computational time [40]. For this reason, the Taguchi method was used, which
of certain geometric is aparameters
type of design(factors) were
of experiments studied.
(DoE). DoE is aAstatistical
full factorial
techniquestudy,
based onwith an
organising
and designing a series of experiments in such a way that with the minimum number of
tests it is possible to extract useful information to obtain conclusions and optimise the
configuration of a process or product [41]. The Taguchi method is a holistic approach to
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 18 of 32

DoE based on the use of orthogonal arrays (OA) to perform factorial experiments that range
from small and highly fractionalised to larger full factorial designs [2]. Each OA has a given
maximum possible resolution. Selecting an OA depends predominantly on (in order of
priority) (i) the number of factors and interactions of interest, (ii) the number of factor levels,
and (iii) the desired experimental resolution or cost constraints [42]. This strategy minimises
the total number of tests to be performed while still providing meaningful information.
A designer will aim to reduce the time, effort, and costs associated with conducting
tests, and numerical simulation can provide advantages in this regard. The application
of the Taguchi method in software and computer design has been reported, and Taguchi
techniques are demonstrated to be effective simulation-based strategies for narrowing
down geometric parameter combinations, reducing solution space, and optimizing the
number of simulations [43]. Thus, from the perspective of a designer, the application of
the Taguchi method with a numerical simulation technique, such as CFD, helps to reduce
the number of test repetitions. The results for the same geometric design parameters,
meshing, and simulation conditions remain constant, unlike in a manufacturing process,
where a certain amount of variation is inherent in each product due to tolerances. Another
important advantage of the Taguchi method is that it is an open tool unrestricted by
software and accessible to any end-user. The disadvantage is that the obtained solution is
just close to the optimal, does not introduce constraints, and it is difficult to use it to solve
multi-objective problems and uncertainty quantification [44,45].

5.2. Procedure
The Taguchi method involves the simultaneous evaluation of two or more factors
(parameters) for their ability to affect the mean values or variability of a particular product
or process. To achieve this in an effective and statistically sound manner, factor levels
are strategically varied, the results of specific test combinations are observed, and the
complete set of results is analysed, so that the influential factors and preferred levels can be
determined. This analysis helps to identify whether increases or decreases in these levels
will potentially lead to further improvements. It should be noted that this is an iterative
process, and the initial round in the DoE may lead to subsequent rounds of experimentation.
The main difference between a Taguchi-based DoE and a classical design lies in the
way factors are assigned to a specific OA to determine the test combinations. Taguchi
designs use OAs to estimate the effects of factors on the response mean and variance. An
OA ensures that the design is balanced, in that the factor levels are equally weighted. This
allows each factor to be evaluated independently of all other factors, so that the effect of
one factor does not affect the estimate of another factor.

5.3. Control and Noise Factors

Taguchi separates the factors into two main groups: control and noise factors.
• Control factors are set by the designer and cannot be directly modified by the end-user.
The control factors were chosen after an audio-visual study of the flow redirectors of
a MotoGP motorcycle, and hypotheses were proposed to explain their aerodynamic
performance. Therefore, the parameters considered most relevant for the aerodynamic
performance of the appendage were selected.
• The control factors were divided into levels, which offered advantages for each control
factor. The levels had to comply with FIM regulations and be adjusted to the reality of
the designs, so they were based on audio-visual studies and the riding performance of
a Ducati MotoGP motorcycle.
• Noise factors are not directly controlled by the designer but vary according to the
environment and end-user. In this study, wheel rotation was set as a noise factor to
observe its effect on the simulation.
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 19 of 32

5.4. S/N Signal

To analyse the data and determine the optimal levels of the selected factors, the Taguchi
method uses the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) as a performance measure to choose the control
levels that best cope with the noise effects. In addition, to fully understand the effects of the
factors, it is also necessary to determine the means and standard deviations. A prominent
statistical variable is the p-value, which is a probability that measures the evidence against
the null hypothesis and concludes whether there is a statistically significant association
between the response characteristic and the term.
As the objective was to maximize the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector,
the values of Cd and Cl were minimized (to reduce aerodynamic drag and increase down-
force) in response to the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), which was adjusted to lower-is-better
(LB). Therefore, Cd and Cl were the responses to be studied in the Taguchi analysis.

5.5. Taguchi Approach

As mentioned, the Taguchi method is an iterative process. In the first round of
the analysis, a few important and influential factors among the many possible factors
involved in a process design are determined. The recommended strategy is to start with
the smallest orthogonal matrix that can accommodate the largest number of actors, which
are simultaneously evaluated at two levels. Therefore, the first step is to assign the control
factors and their levels.
Control factors. A total of four control factors:
• α (see Figure 8b);
• β (see Figure 8a);
• Flow separator (see Figure 8c);
• Leaning motorcycle (see Figure 9).
Levels. Each factor consists of two levels:
• α: Low level (1) = 0◦ or high level (2) = 10◦ ;
• β: Low level (1) = 25◦ or high level (2) = 40◦ ;
• Flow separator: Low level (1) = NO or high level (2) = YES;
• Leaning motorcycle: Low level (1) = NO-perpendicular or high level (2) = YES-50◦ .
Once these parameters are established, the orthogonal matrix is obtained. All possible
combinations of the above factors would be (24 ) but, by applying an L8 OA (24 ), only
eight trials/meshes were required. It should be noted that wheel rotation did not require
a change in mesh quality but simply a modification in the boundary conditions. It was
therefore considered a noise factor and applied in all models. The orthogonal arrangement
is shown below in Table 10.

Table 10. Matrix L8 OA used for the study.

1st Modification 2nd Modification 3rd Modification 4th Modification

L8 OA Internal Matrix
1 2 3 4
(Control Factors)
Control Factor A B D G
Test No. (Row)/Factor No. (Column) α [◦ ] β [◦ ] Flow Separator [-] Leaning Motorcycle [-]
1::1 0 25 NO NO
2::1 0 25 YES YES
3::1 0 40 NO YES
4::1 0 40 YES NO
5::1 10 25 NO YES
6::1 10 25 YES NO
7::1 10 40 NO NO
8::1 10 40 YES YES
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 20 of 32

As mentioned, the study was focussed on analysing the aerodynamic coefficients Cl

and Cd in models with rotating or non-rotating wheels. Additionally, reference simulations
were performed in which the motorcycle was without any aerodynamic appendages.

6. Results and Discussion

6.1. Reference Models
To shed light on the aerodynamic advantage provided by a flow redirector, the bench-
mark simulations depicted in Figure 17 were analysed in comparison with the simulations
that include the appendage. The reference simulations were divided into two models:
• Motorcycle-rider model without aerodynamic appendages in a straight position (per-
pendicular to the ground);
• Motorcycle-rider model without aerodynamic appendages in a leaning position (50◦
to the normal to the ground).

6.1.1. Reference Model with Straight Geometry

The results for the straight geometry are presented in Table 11.

Table 11. Aerodynamic coefficients for the reference model with a straight motorcycle.

Aerodynamic Without Rotating

Rotating Wheels Difference (%)
Coefficients Wheels
Cd 0.42033 0.41131 −2.15
Cl 0.04197 0.05076 20.94

6.1.2. Reference Model with Leaning Geometry

The results for the leaning geometry are presented in Table 12.

Table 12. Aerodynamic coefficients for the reference model with a leaning motorcycle.

Aerodynamic Without Rotating

Rotating Wheels Difference (%)
Coefficients Wheels
Cd 0.46209 0.44717 −3.23
Cl 0.08766 0.12009 36.00

6.2. Matrix L8 OA Models

In the assumptions about the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector, a
differentiation was made according to whether the motorcycle is in a leaning or straight
position. To simplify the simulation results, the Taguchi models are similarly divided.

6.2.1. Models of a Straight Motorcycle

From this first block of results, models 1::1, 4::1, 6::1, and 7::1 were obtained (Table 10).

Streamlines
The streamlines of each model are presented in Figure 18. The images of Figure 18
illustrate how the appendage collects the flow from the rear of the front wheel and generates
vortices that displace the wake of the front wheel, thus fulfilling one of the initial hypotheses
of this work (see Section 2.3.1). Regarding the effect of wheel rotation on the streamlines, it
can be seen that the flow redirector receives more flow in models with wheel rotation vs.
without. For example, in model 1::1, the flow redirector can generate a far more energetic
vortex when the wheels are rotating, allowing the wake of the front wheel to move further.
Moreover, the wake generated by the front wheel is lifted, creating a high-speed flow
near the fairing, and moving the flow so that it has no contact with the rear wheel. With
non-rotating wheels, the flow around the flow redirector increases (not going through its
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 21 of 32

interior) and generates a vortex at the exit of the appendage, as can be seen in model 6::1,
for example.
Regarding the effect of the flow separator (see Figure 8c), the images of Figure 18
show that in the models with the separator, the flow inside the appendage decreases and,
therefore, the generated vortex is also less energetic. Finally, it should be noted that for
models 6::1 and 7::1, the flow entering the appendage is also reduced, which may be due to
the vertical angle of entry (α = 10◦ ).

Cp of the Lower Fairing

The Cp of the underside of the fairing in each model is illustrated in Figure 19.
In all the models in Figure 19, it can be seen that the Cp is reduced in the fairing area
downstream of the flow redirector (X = 0.85 m to X = 1 m). However, models 6::1 and 4::1
have the lowest pressure peak as both include the flow separator, which accelerates the
flow leaving the appendage, thus creating a reduced pressure zone in the lower part of
the fairing.
Another phenomenon shown in the previous graphs is that above X = 1 m, models
4::1 and 7::1 cannot maintain the low-pressure zone in the lower part of the fairing. The
explanation can be seen in Figure 18, which shows that these two models generate the
least energetic vortex and therefore cannot maintain the low-pressure zone throughout the
fairing, resulting in a separation of flow.

Aerodynamic Coefficients of Straight Models

The aerodynamic coefficients of models implemented in the L8 OA matrix and the dif-
ferences between the reference model and the straight motorcycle are presented in Table 13.
Based on the above results, model 1::1 with rotating wheels stands out, as it achieves
a minimal reduction of both the lift and drag coefficients. Notably, this is the model that
generates the most energetic vortex and manages to maintain a low Cp along the entire
lower part of the fairing. Therefore, the initial hypothesis that the flow redirector can reduce
the aerodynamic drag by clearing the wake of the front wheel is fulfilled. It should also
be noted that models 1::1 and 6::1 without rotating wheels achieve a higher percentage
of reduction in the lift coefficient (creating more downforce). This is consistent with the
results observed in Figure 19, where these two models maintain the Cp below the reference
values throughout the lower fairing. Finally, the large difference in results obtained for
the same model with and without wheel rotation suggests that the tested aerodynamic
appendage is very sensitive to inlet flow, at least in a motorcycle in a straight position (it
should be pointed out that the model without wheel rotation is merely a simulation tool
and does not reflect a real-life situation).

6.2.2. Models of Leaning Motorcycles

The models with leaning geometry are 2::1, 3::1, 5::1, and 8::1 (see Table 10).

Streamlines
The streamlines of the individual models are presented in Figures 20–23.
The images of motorcycles with a leaning geometry reveal that, in all cases, part of
the flow entering the appendage closest to the ground exits through the lower part of the
fairing towards the outside of the curve. This observation verifies the initial hypothesis
(Section 2.3.1) that the appendage generates a diffuser effect by drawing the flow to the
outer curve when the motorcycle is cornering. It can be seen that the flow separator
accelerates the flow inside the appendage, which facilitates the diffuser effect, particularly
affecting the flow passing through the lower part of the appendage.
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 33

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 22 of 32

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 18. Streamlines of models with straight geometry: (a) side view of streamlines with velocity
Figure 18. Streamlines
magnitude of models
(m/s) in model with straight
1::1 without geometry:
wheel rotation; (a) side
(b) side view view of streamlines
of streamlines with velocity
with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 1::1 without wheel rotation; (b) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 1::1 with rotating wheels; (c) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 4::1 without wheel rotation; (d) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 4::1 with rotating wheels; (e) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) of model 6::1 without wheel rotation; (f) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) of model 6::1 with rotating wheels; (g) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 7::1 without wheel rotation; (h) side view of streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 7::1 with rotating wheels.
 show that in the models with the separator, the flow inside the appendage decreases and,
therefore, the generated vortex is also less energetic. Finally, it should be noted that for
models 6::1 and 7::1, the flow entering the appendage is also reduced, which may be due
to the vertical angle of entry (α = 10°).

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 Cp of the Lower Fairing 23 of 32

The Cp of the underside of the fairing in each model is illustrated in Figure 19.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 19. Cp of the lower fairing in models with a straight geometry: (a) Cp of the lower fairing in
Figure 19. Cp of the lower fairing in models with a straight geometry: (a) Cp of the lower fairing in
model 1::1; (b) Cp of the lower fairing in model 4::1; (c) Cp of the lower fairing in model 6::1; (d) Cp
model 1::1; (b) Cp of the lower fairing in model 4::1; (c) Cp of the lower fairing in model 6::1; (d) Cp of
of the lower fairing in model 7::1.
the lower fairing in model 7::1.
In all the models in Figure 19, it can be seen that the Cp is reduced in the fairing area
Table 13. Difference in % between each straight model and the reference model. The objective was to
downstream of the flow redirector (X = 0.85 m to X = 1 m). However, models 6::1 and 4::1
reduce the two aerodynamic coefficients, aiming for a negative percentage.
have the lowest pressure peak as both include the flow separator, which accelerates the
flow leaving the appendage, thus creating a Aerodynamic
reduced pressure zone in the lower part
Difference of
from
Model Simulation Type Value
the fairing. Coefficient Reference (%)
Another phenomenon
1::1 shown
Without Rotating in the previousCgraphs
Wheels d
is that above X = 1 m,
0.43751 models
4.09
4::1 1::1
and 7::1 cannot maintain
Without the
Rotating low-pressure zone
Wheels Cl in the lower part of the fairing.
0.03713 −11.53 The
1::1
explanation Rotating
can be seen Wheels
in Figure Cd these two0.40788
18, which shows that models generate −0.83
the least
1::1 Rotating Wheels Cl 0.05044 −0.63
4::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cd 0.43813 4.23
4::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cl 0.04845 15.43
4::1 Rotating Wheels Cd 0.42670 3.74
4::1 Rotating Wheels Cl 0.06835 34.65
6::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cd 0.44609 6.13
6::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cl 0.03408 −18.80
6::1 Rotating Wheels Cd 0.42059 2.26
6::1 Rotating Wheels Cl 0.05572 9.77
7::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cd 0.44617 6.15
7::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cl 0.05484 30.66
7::1 Rotating Wheels Cd 0.41863 1.78
7::1 Rotating Wheels Cl 0.05572 9.77
 6.2.2. Models of Leaning Motorcycles
The models with leaning geometry are 2::1, 3::1, 5::1, and 8::1 (see Table 10).

Energies 2023, 16, 4793 Streamlines 24 of 32

The streamlines of the individual models are presented in Figures 20–23.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure20.
20.Streamlines
Streamlineswith
with magnitude
magnitude of velocity (m/s)
of velocity (m/s) around the flow
around the flow redirector
redirectorininmodel
model2::1:
2::1:
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 without wheel rotation;
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 without wheel rotation;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 with rotating wheels;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 with rotating wheels;
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model
2::1 without wheel rotation; (d) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 with rotating wheels.

Finally, in models with wheel rotation, the diffuser effect of the flow redirector is lower,
as less flow is drawn to the outside of the curve. The reduction of the diffuser effect is
observed, above all, in the models without a flow separator (models 3::1 and 5::1).

Aerodynamic Coefficients in Leaning Models

The aerodynamic coefficients of each leaning model with an appendage and the
differences with respect to the reference model are shown in Table 14.
Analysing the above results, the lift coefficient is clearly reduced in all models with a
flow redirector irrespective of their geometric characteristics, indicating that this appendage
provides an aerodynamic advantage by generating downforce. Among the models with-
out wheel rotation, models 3::1 and 5::1 (without a flow separator) have a considerable
aerodynamic advantage, the lift coefficient being reduced by more than 100%. With wheel
rotation, the reduction in the lift coefficient is very similar for each model (around 65–84%).
This is consistent with the results reported in the previous section, which show that wheel
rotation has a greater impact on the diffuser effect of models without a flow separator.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, 4793
25 of 32
25 of 32

without wheelthe
Additionally, rotation; (d) rear reduces
flow separator view of the
the appendage
flow redirector
flow,and the in
so that streamlines withsimilar
general very velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 2::1 with rotating wheels.
performances are obtained for all the models with wheel rotation.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 21. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 3::1:
Figure 21. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 3::1:
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 3::1 without wheel rotation;
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 3::1 without wheel rotation;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 3::1 with rotating wheels;
(b)rear
(c) bottom view
view of streamlines
of the withand
flow redirector velocity magnitudewith
the streamlines (m/s) in model
velocity 3::1 with (m/s)
magnitude rotating wheels;3::1
in model
without wheel rotation; (d) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines withmodel
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in velocity
3::1 without(m/s)
magnitude wheelinrotation; (d)with
model 3::1 rear rotating
view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity
wheels.
magnitude (m/s) in model 3::1 with rotating wheels.

On the other hand, the drag coefficient increased in all models, but only to a small
extent (maximum increase of less than 5%), a result that can be expected after the addition
of the appendage. However, in the leaning position, the increase in the drag coefficient
is less relevant as the main goal is a lower lift coefficient. The results of model 5::1 are
striking, as it provides the greatest reduction in the lift coefficient with both rotating and
non-rotating wheels.

6.3. Taguchi Method Results

In this section, the results obtained in the Taguchi analysis are presented. The Minitab®
19 software package (State College, PA, USA) was used for additional data processing. In all
experiments, the significance level was set as 0.05, and means and standard deviations were
calculated for all control factors. A p-value below 0.05 indicates a statistically significant
association between the response characteristic and the term. A p-value between the

(a) (b)
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 26 of 32

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 33

significance levels of 0.05 and 0.1 was used to evaluate terms and was considered to have
practical significance. A higher p-value indicates that no statistically significant differences
were observed.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 22. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 5::1:
Figure 22. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 5::1:
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 without wheel rotation;
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 without wheel rotation;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 with rotating wheels;
(b)
(c) bottom view
rear view of streamlines
of the withand
flow redirector velocity magnitudewith
the streamlines (m/s) in model
velocity 5::1 with
magnitude rotating
(m/s) wheels;
in model 5::1
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s)
without wheel rotation; (d) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity in model
5::1 without(m/s)
magnitude wheelinrotation; (d)with
model 5::1 rear rotating
view of wheels.
the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 with rotating wheels.

In this study, only the leaning motorcycle had p-values lower than alpha, being 0.027
for Cl and 0.015 for Cd . Therefore, only the leaning motorcycle had a statistically significant
association with the aerodynamic performance coefficients Cl or Cd . Additionally, the
interaction between both angles of the flow redirector (α and β) was tested, but the results
were not statistically significant.

Main Effects on S/N Ratios

Main effect plots show how each factor affects the response characteristic (S/N ratio,
means, slopes, standard deviations), providing a graphic visualization of the importance of
the chosen control parameters. The larger the vertical increment between the two levels
and the higher the slope in each factor, the more influential the parameter [43]. In the
present study, as the values of Cl and Cd needed to be as low as possible, the criterion
 (c) (d)
Figure 22. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 5::1:
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 27 of 32
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 without wheel rotation;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1 with rotating wheels;
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 5::1
without wheel rotation;
of lower-is-better (LB)(d)
wasrear viewThe
used. of the flow
main redirector
effects and the for
determined streamlines with
the Cl are velocity
presented
magnitude (m/s)
in Figure 24. in model 5::1 with rotating wheels.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 23. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 8::1:
Figure 23. Streamlines with magnitude of velocity (m/s) around the flow redirector in model 8::1:
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 8::1 without wheel rotation;
(a) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 8::1 without wheel rotation;
(b) bottom view of streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model 8::1 with rotating wheels;
(c) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity magnitude (m/s) in model
8::1 without wheel rotation; (d) rear view of the flow redirector and the streamlines with velocity
magnitude (m/s) in model 8::1 with rotating wheels.

The above graph shows that the factor with the greatest effect on the S/N ratio was the
leaning position of the motorcycle. Furthermore, analysing the levels of each control factor
and obtaining the levels for which the S/N ratio is highest revealed the best combination
for the Cl , as shown in Table 15.
As can be seen, the best Cl result was obtained when the motorbike was leaning, which
is consistent with the aerodynamic results. All the combinations resulting in an optimum
Cl coincide with model 5::1, which also stands out in the aerodynamic analysis. The results
of the main effects on the Cd are depicted in Figure 25. The ideal combination of the control
factor levels for the Cd was extracted from the above graph and is presented in Table 16.
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 28 of 32
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 32

Table 14. Difference in % of each of the leaning models with respect to the reference model. Downforce
of the
gain is appendage.
Cl reduction. However, in the leaning position, the increase in the drag coefficient is
less relevant as the main goal is a lower lift coefficient. The results of model 5::1 are
striking,
Model
as it provides the greatest reductionAerodynamic
Simulation Type
in the lift coefficient with both
Value
rotating
Difference and
from
non-rotating wheels. Coefficient Reference (%)
2::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cd 0.47637 3.09
6.3. Taguchi
2::1 Method Results
Without Rotating Wheels Cl 0.02382 −72.83
2::1 Rotating Wheels Cd 0.46619 4.25
In this section, the results obtained in the Taguchi analysis are presented. The
2::1 Rotating Wheels Cl 0.04213 −64.92
Minitab® 19 software package (State College, PA, USA) was used for additional data
3::1
processing. Without
In all Rotating Wheels
experiments, Cd
the significance level was set0.46262 0.11
as 0.05, and means and
3::1 Without Rotating Wheels Cl −0.00188 −102.14
standard
3::1
deviations were calculated
Rotating Wheels
for all control
Cd
factors. A p-value
0.46096
below 0.05 indicates
3.08
a statistically
3::1 significant association
Rotating Wheels between the response
Cl characteristic
0.03024 and −the term. A
74.82
p-value between the significance levels of 0.05 and 0.1 was used to evaluate terms and was
5::1 Without Rotating Wheels C 0.46216 0.02
considered
5::1 to have practical
Without significance.
Rotating Wheels A higherCdp-value indicates
−0.00714 that no−statistically
108.15
l
significant
5::1 differences wereWheels
Rotating observed. Cd 0.45744 2.27
In this study, only
5::1 the leaning
Rotating Wheels motorcycle hadCp-values
l lower than
0.01942 alpha,−being
83.83 0.027
for C8::1
l and 0.015 for Cd. Therefore, only the leaning motorcycle had a statistically significant
Without Rotating Wheels Cd 0.47393 2.56
association
8::1 with the aerodynamic
Without performance coefficients
Rotating Wheels Cl C0.01901
l or Cd. Additionally,
−78.31 the
interaction
8::1 betweenRotating
both angles of the flow redirector
Wheels Cd (α and β)0.45479
was tested, but 1.70
the results
were8::1 Rotating
not statistically Wheels
significant. Cl 0.03104 −74.15

MainAnalysis
Effects onofS/N
theseRatios
levels reveals that they coincide with model 1::1, which is the only
model found
Main to be
effect capable
plots showofhow
reducing the drag
each factor coefficient
affects in the characteristic
the response aerodynamics(S/N analysis.
ratio,
means,Finally, an standard
slopes, analysis of all the results
deviations), shows that
providing the flow
a graphic redirector isofdesigned
visualization mainly
the importance
to the
of provide
chosenancontrol
aerodynamic advantage
parameters. in cornering
The larger byincrement
the vertical increasingbetween
the downforce
the two of the
levels
motorcycle. With the motorcycle in a completely straight position, one model
and the higher the slope in each factor, the more influential the parameter [43]. In the (1::1) provided
an aerodynamic
present study, asadvantage
the valueswith
of Claand
slight
Cd reduction
needed toin bedrag andaslift
as low coefficients.
possible, However,
the criterion of
the aerodynamic performance of a straight motorcycle can be improved
lower-is-better (LB) was used. The main effects determined for the Cl are presented mainly by thein
downforce,
Figure 24. generated by wing-like appendages mounted in the highest part of the fairing.

Figure
Figure 24.
24. Main
Main effects
effects plot
plot for
for the
the C
Cll..

The above graph shows that the factor with the greatest effect on the S/N ratio was
the leaning position of the motorcycle. Furthermore, analysing the levels of each control
factor and obtaining the levels for which the S/N ratio is highest revealed the best
combination for the Cl, as shown in Table 15.
 Factors α β Flow Separator Leaning M
Level 2 1 1 2
Value 10 25 NO YE
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 29 of 32
As can be seen, the best Cl result was obtained when the motorbike w
which is consistent with the aerodynamic results. All the combinations resu
Table 15. Best C
optimum combination
l coincideforwith
the Cl according to thewhich
model 5::1, Taguchi Method.
also stands out in the aerodynam
TheFactors
results of the αmain effectsβon the Flow Cd are depicted Leaning
Separator in Figure 25. The ideal c
Motorcycle
of the control factor
Level 2 levels for 1the Cd was extracted
1 from the above
2 graph and i
Value
in Table 16. 10 25 NO YES

Figure
Figure 25.25. Main
Main effects
effects plot
plot for for
the Cd. the Cd.

Table 16. Best combination for the Cd according to the Taguchi Method.
Table 16. Best combination for the Cd according to the Taguchi Method.
Factors α β Flow Separator Leaning Motorcycle
Factors
Level
α1 1
β 1
Flow Separator
1
Leaning M
Level
Value 10 25 1 NO 1 NO 1
Value 0 25 NO NO
7. Conclusions
The research objective of this study, which was to characterize the aerodynamic per-
Analysis of these levels reveals that they coincide with model 1::1, which
formance of flow redirectors in a MotoGP motorcycle, has been fulfilled. The appendages
model found
deployed to be
by Ducati, the capable of reducing
first manufacturer the drag
on the MotoGP coefficient
grid to implement inflow
the redirec-
aerodynami
Finally,
tors, are of largeran analysisthan
dimensions of all theused
those results shows
by their that
rivals. Thethe flowmotorcycle
Ducati redirectorhasis desig
several features that allow these flow redirectors to be mounted without
to provide an aerodynamic advantage in cornering by increasing the downf breaking any FIM
regulations or causing reliability issues, such as a narrow fairing, reduced air intake to the
motorcycle. With the motorcycle in a completely straight position, one m
radiator, and a rounded lower fairing.
provided an aerodynamic
In confirmation of an initial advantage
hypothesis, the with a slight
ad hoc reduction
CAD models in drag
generated and lift c
in this
However, the aerodynamic performance of a straight motorcycle can be impro
study indicate that being able to create a vortex in the lower part of the straight motorcycle
is of great importance, as it displaces the wake of the front wheel. However, the anticipated
by the downforce, generated by wing-like appendages mounted in the highest
advantages for aerodynamic performance in terms of drag and lift reduction were only
fairing. in one model. The models with straight geometry showed that wheel rotation
observed
also has a significant aerodynamic effect, especially in the creation of downforce. Therefore,
the aerodynamic performance of the flow redirector is highly sensitive to the type of inlet
7. Conclusions
flow when the geometry is in a straight position.
The research objective of this study, which was to characterize the ae
performance of flow redirectors in a MotoGP motorcycle, has been fu
appendages deployed by Ducati, the first manufacturer on the MotoGP grid to
flow redirectors, are of larger dimensions than those used by their rivals.
motorcycle has several features that allow these flow redirectors to be mount
Energies 2023, 16, 4793 30 of 32

The leaning models reveal that the flow redirector provides an aerodynamic advantage
in terms of added downforce compared to the reference model, resulting in a reduction
in the Cl. This verifies the hypothesis that the main function of the appendages is to
create downforce while cornering. In contrast with the straight models, wheel rotation
has a more predictable effect on aerodynamic performance when the motorcycle is at an
angle, particularly in downforce generation, since in all cases it reduced the aerodynamic
advantages of the appendage somewhat. The explanation lies in that the flow affecting the
appendage on the side leaning into the corner is less disturbed, resulting in fewer significant
changes in performance. The aerodynamic analysis is supported by the statistical results of
the Taguchi method, which identify the most significant control factor and the associated
geometry. Moreover, the models that stand out in the aerodynamic investigation coincide
with the optimum combinations obtained in the statistical analysis.
Finally, it should be noted that this is a first approximation to a Taguchi-based design
of experiments for the aerodynamic analysis of the flow redirector, and therefore the results
are preliminary. In future work, it is proposed that the range of the matrix be increased
(more simulations) as well as the number of levels (to three) for the factors of the flow
separator and leaning position, as these were found to be the most influential. In addition,
parameters from the turbulence model and set-up of the simulation can be introduced as
noise factors in OpenFOAM® 7.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.G.-A. and P.J.G.-M.; methodology, B.G.-A. and P.J.G.-M.;
software, B.G.-A.; validation, B.G.-A. and P.J.G.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, B.G.-A.;
writing—review and editing, B.G.-A. and P.J.G.-M.; supervision, P.J.G.-M.; project administration,
P.J.G.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the Generalitat de Catalunya for provid-
ing the necessary support to the research groups IAFARG (SGR 286, https://iafarg.upc.edu, accessed
on 1 April 2023), CATMech (Tecnio, https://catmech.upc.edu/home, accessed on 1 April 2023).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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