DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph

MIDTERM COVERAGE LESSONS

MODULE #1

The World and the Philippine Indigenous Peoples

Lesson 1.1: The Concept of Indigeneity

• Indigeneity refers to the state of being indigenous.

According to the International Labor Organization in 1989 and United Nations in 1986,
the concept of being indigenous is defined as follows:

• Tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural, and economic

conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and
whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their customs or traditions or by
special laws or regulations.
• Peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of
their descent from populations which inhabited the land, or a geographical region
to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonization or the
establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal
status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political
institutions.
Based on the definitions above, the word “indigenous” focused on:

• Historical continuity, distinctiveness, marginalization, self-identity, and self-

governance.
• Another way of defining indigenous people is through self-ascription.
• Some of the IP identified themselves based on territory and particular distinct
ways of living.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Lesson 1.2: World Indigenous People and Globalization Website: vsu.edu.ph

According to the United Nations, there are an estimated:

• 370 million Indigenous Peoples in the world,

• Comprising 5% of the world’s total population,
• And accounts for the 15% of the poorest,
• They speak of an estimated 7,000 languages; and
• Represent 5,000 different cultures.

Globalization is an increasing global interconnectedness, the expansion, and

intensification of social relations across world-time and world-space, a multidimensional
process involving diverse domains of activity and interaction in the economic, political,
and cultural spheres.

According to O’Sullivan in 2012, globalization evokes both an opportunity and neo-

colonial injustice.

On one hand, globalization:

• Paved the way to free-trade, foreign direct investment, and restructuring of

domestic policies.
The above mentioned are responsible for:

• Mass exportation and importation of goods and services,

• Establishment of Multinational Corporations and Transnational Corporations; and
• The restructuring of domestic policies allowing a respective country to be part of
the global political-economy which to a certain extent threatened its sovereignty.
All these happened simultaneously around the globe every day resulting to:

• Accumulation of wealth and power,

• Depletion of natural resources,
• Community displacements,
• Conflicts,
• Child labor and trafficking; and
• Disposition of land and even genocide.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
On the other hand, globalization: Website: vsu.edu.ph

• Enhances significant benefits in terms of economic opportunities,

• It also creates global activism and cooperation among the IPs.
In terms of economic opportunities, globalization connects IPs to the world market. This
is an avenue for them to engage in the cash-market system, which gives them a chance
to expand their economy. Resulting for them to earn money which they would use in
purchasing things they want and need.

Globalization and resistance

Saguier in 2012 considered activism, cooperation, and formation of organizations among
IPs around the globe as an alternative and a form of resistance to neoliberal globalization.
Because as echoed from Fenelon and Hall, globalization is an invasive system that
wanted to take over the ancestral land of the IPs.

Also, as part of globalization system is privatization, of which indigenous lands are not
exempted. Converting indigenous lands to private property is a shackle to the IPs
themselves required to undergo processes to have legal documents of their claim.

Unfortunately, private companies, private individuals, and even governments are also
claiming the lands of the IPs to develop it for economic gain. The process is often
disguised as eliminating poverty and enhancing a productive way of life, but reality
reveals that it is often the other way around – the accumulation by disposition.

Lesson 1.3: Who are the Philippine Indigenous Peoples?

The Philippines is home to various indigenous peoples, also called ethnic minorities,
cultural minorities, or tribal Filipinos. Population reports of the Philippine Indigenous
Peoples range from:

• 11-17 million,
• which is about 10-20% of the total population.
• The majority (61%) of them are found in Mindanao known to be called Lumads,
• The 33% are found in Luzon; and
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
• The remaining 6% are in Visayas. Website: vsu.edu.ph

However, many of them are already residing outside their ancestral territories living
sedentary and semi-nomadic lifestyles.

Based on IPRA, there are seven (7) ethnographic areas within the country namely:
1. Region I and Cordillera Administrative Region
2. Region II
3. Sierra Madre and the rest of Luzon (Regions 3,4,5)
4. Island-Groups (Mindoro, Panay, Negros, and Palawan)
5. Northern and Western Mindanao
6. Southern and Eastern Mindanao; and
7. Central Mindanao
DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph

Within these ethnographic regions are various groups of indigenous peoples who are
physically and linguistically unique with distinct ways of life.

In his study of the Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines, De Vera (2007), found that a
vast majority of the 12 million population of Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines who
reside in the uplands are among the poorest and the most disadvantaged social groups
in the country. Just like other Filipinos, illiteracy, unemployment, and poverty incidence
are prevalent among IPs.

Unfortunately, our country has no updated cultural mapping, even local government
offices do not have an updated census of the IPs in their jurisdiction.

The Problem of Indigeneity

IPRA’s definition of indigenous people focuses on those who live in their ancestral
domains and who remain untouched by colonization. It is a definition based on historical
continuity, distinctiveness, self-identity, self-governance, and territoriality. Territoriality in
this matter is very important considering that many indigenous peoples nowadays are
already going out of their ancestral domains; these are migrant IPs. Therefore, the
concept of territoriality should not be a requirement in identifying and recognizing a
community as indigenous, for it will disqualify those who have no territory either due to
eviction or migration.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph

MODULE #2

Historical Process and IP Rights

Lesson 2.1: The Philippine Pre-Historic Period

Accordingly, if you want to know how early Filipinos look like, you just need to look at the
Indigenous Peoples – the pure-blooded ones, not those of intermarriages. Or if you want
to have a glimpse of the early Filipino culture, look at the IPs – the less tainted ones, not
those that are much assimilated already.

Most of the Philippine Indigenous Peoples, also called as Indigenous Cultural

Communities, can retain their culture, customary practices, and even physical
appearance despite centuries of subjugation by colonizers. But their story was never a
walk in the park.

Before the arrival of the colonizers, early Filipinos had already encountered and traded
with other nationalities like Chinese, Cambodians, Siamese, Malays, Japan, Arab, and
Indian merchants.

There were also continuing arrivals of migrants from different parts of South and
Southeast Asia. As you learned in your elementary years, the term barangay came from
the word balangay, known as the Malay’s boat, which they used to arrive in the
archipelago and settled.

Another historical account from Zafra stated that when the Malays came in the shores of
the archipelago, they formed a political and social organization, of which this unit and
pattern is called balangay.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Antonio de Morga, a Spanish Chronicler, described the early Filipinos
Website: by region as follows:
vsu.edu.ph

• In the province of Cagayan, the natives are of medium height, a complexion like
stewed quinces, both men and women have well-features, they have a very black
hair and thin beards, smart, keen, passionate, and of high resolution; and
• The Pintados (Bisayans) from Leite, Ybabao, Camar, Bohol, the island of Negros,
Sebu, Panay, Cuyo, and the Calamianes are well-featured, of a pleasant disposition,
of better nature, and nobler in their actions.
• Morga did not describe the people of Mindanao in detail, which indicated that this
part of the country was not subdued by the Spaniards.
Early Filipinos were also described based on different clothing types:

• The use of leaves to cover only the private parts,

• While others weaved clothes with colorful stripes,
• Other groups used ornaments made of beads, gold, or other precious stones in
their body for beautification,
• While others have tattoos that are culturally significant.

In the book of Zafra in 1956, there were an estimated 500,000 population occupying the
country, while Constantino in 1975, said that there were about 750,000 based on the
census of tributes ordered by Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarinas. But the latter is only
confined to the lowlands of Luzon and Visayas indicating that the population in the
archipelago before the colonial period was more these numerical figures.

Most of the barangays were found in the coastal area riverine because the source of
protein came from the sea and river.

These groups of people or the barangay itself, are not a political unit in its entirety;
instead, these are more like social units. Most of the community members were related
to one another by blood or marriage - this is called a kin-based community.

Rulers

• Governed their respective barangays or confederacies of barangays.

• They are not absolute rulers because their authority is based on established laws,
customs, and procedures.
• The position is attained by an exhibition of strength and traits useful for the
survival of the community.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
• Despite being the ruler, they still retain their occupationWebsite:
as farmers
vsu.edu.ph and do what

the rest of the community does.

Freemen

• Assisted the ruler on matters regarding the community’s welfare.

Dependent

• Below the freemen

• They were also known as debt peons
• The natives did not use money, instead, they lent and borrowed rice.
• Rice was so precious that lending it entailed both risk and sacrifice.
• The borrower had to repay double of what he borrowed or more depending on the
local custom.
• Failure to pay will result in peonage – meaning the debtor is bound to render
service because of debt. After paying their debts, they are already free from such
servitude.

Primitive economies or subsistence economies do not allow surpluses because they

were not geared to exchange and profit. Instead, production is to satisfy the immediate
needs for direct consumption.

Excess was granted to certain extent, but it was only exchanged for other goods with
other groups or within the group.

Lesson 2.2: Indigenous Peoples Under Colonial Rule

When the Spaniards settled in the archipelago, they established a centralized

government. Colonization of the archipelago converted indigenous lands into exploitative
institutions that geared toward exchange and profit. This, among others was the start of
the struggle-causing changes.

1. Encomienda System – the said system was technically a land grant. But in the
Philippines, this was used to extract tribute from natives on the ground that the
Spaniards did not have enough funds. Since the time of Legazpi in the earlier part

of the Spanish rule, tributes were the most
natives:
DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
consistently complained
Website: vsu.edu.ph of by the

a. Excessive collection – local officials required the natives to pay more than the
law required.
b. Tortured and/or imprisoned – the natives did not find justifiable; they either
cannot pay the tribute or chose not to, of which the officials send soldiers to
force natives to pay, and those who cannot pay were tortured or imprisoned.
c. Forced displacement

2. Forced Labor- men between 16-60 were required to serve for forty days each year
in the labor pool.
3. Bandala – this was an annual quota assigned to each province, which was
subdivided among towns. Failure to do so will lead to usurpation of the lands.

The Indigenous Peoples under American Occupation

• The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10. 1898, ceded the Philippines to the
U.S.
• William Howard Taft articulated a slogan “The Philippines for the Filipinos”
• President Roosevelt sent Taft to Rome to negotiate with the Pope.
• America finally bought 410 000 acres of the friars’ estates for some seven million
dollars.
• The estates will be given to some sixty thousand tenants who worked on the land,
however it’s impossible for the tillers to gain back what was taken from them
because the selling price for the land was beyond the reach of the tenants.

*The IPRA will no longer be included since a copy was already given to you.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph

MODULE #3

Culture, Cultural Adaptation, and Man-Environment Relationship

Lesson 3.1: The Concept of Culture

Culture – complex whole which includes knowledge, language, belief, arts, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Characteristics of Culture:
1. Culture is symbolic – a symbol is anything that has cultural meaning attached
2. Culture is shared – a culture must be shared for a community or society sharing
the same patterns of behavior and understanding the same meanings to symbols
to co-exist, cooperate, and be stable.
3. Culture is learned- since culture is not part of human’s genetic make-up, a member
of the society needs to learn its respective culture.
4. Culture is integrated – each part of culture as a system has functions to make the
entire culture work

Culture, although considered as a way of life, can also change. Social interactions
between various groups of people are currently intensifying due to the advent of
technology and east transportation. Meeting of cultures may be in a first-hand or second-
hand contact basis.

Diffusion

• The spread of culture. It does not require face-to-face contact.

• Media like the internet, television, and other platforms are capable of
disseminating information that is enough to influence others – consciously or
unconsciously.
Acculturation

• Takes place after an intensive contact

 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
• This will result to subsequent massive changes in the original culture patterns of
Website: vsu.edu.ph

one or both groups, and the process is in two-way direction, but not necessarily
egalitarian.
Assimilation

• It is uni-directional and often heading towards adopting the culture of the dominant
group.

Not to be confused with acculturation, enculturation refers to the process of transmitting

culture from one generation to the next.

Culture varies from one place to another, from one community to another, even within the
same country.

Adaptation is defined as a natural process by which organisms achieve a beneficial

adjustment to an available environment. This process will result in possession of
characteristics that will help human overcome the hazards and challenges of the
environment to secure the necessary resources from the same environment.

Those cultural traits that persisted through time in a particular setting are considered
adaptive. And those that are eliminated are maladaptive or not beneficial at all.

Unfortunately, since culture varies, there is a problem in the relativity of adaptation.

What may be considered adaptive for a particular group is possibly maladaptive for other
groups. The problem arises in the co-existence and interactions of different groups
having different cultures in a specific context, often between the dominant and minority
group.
 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Visca Baybay City, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines
Phone: +63 53 525-0346 loc.1028
Email: dlabs@vsu.edu.ph
Website: vsu.edu.ph

*This material is protected by the intellectual property rights of the author. Unauthorized
distribution, circulation, and uploading of the material is strictly prohibited. For review
purposes only.

Prepared by:
Ms. Alaina G. Larrazabal
Instructor I
Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences

“Don’t wish for it, work for it.”