Multiple Input Integrated DC/DC Converters and

Supervisery Control for Fuel

Cell/Battery/Ultracapacitor Electric Vehicle
Seyoung Kim, Student Member, IEEE, and Sheldon S. Williamson, Member, IEEE
Power Electronics and Energy Research (PEER) Group
P. D. Ziogas Power Electronics Laboratory
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Concordia University
1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. W.
Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8, Canada
Phone: +1/(514) 848-2424, ext. 8741
Fax: +1/(514) 848-2802
EML: sheldon@ece.concordia.ca
URL: http://www.ece.concordia.ca/~peer/

Abstract—In this paper, a new multiple-input DC/DC
integrated converter is proposed for a fuel cell/
battery/ultracapacitor electric vehicle. The power density
increases in the order of fuel cell, battery, and ultracapacitor and
the energy density is reverse of the order. The proposed
converter combines interleaved type boost converters and two
parallel-connected bidirectional DC/DC converters. The
advantages of the proposed converter topology are improved
power density, due to the fact that a heavy power transformer is
not used, and the state of charge of battery as well as that of the
ultracapacitor can be controlled easily.
Keywords—DC/DC converter, electric vehicle, integrated converter,
fuel cell,battery, ultracapacitor
I. INTRODUCTION
The internal combustion (IC) engine has been major means
of land, sea, and air transportations since early 20th century.
The IC engine converts chemical energy into mechanical
energy by combusting fuel and oxygen mixture. Even though
the IC engine has been invented prior 19th century, it is widely
used as petroleum industries advancing. The IC engine
technology is considered as a matured, convenient, highly
reliable and safe technology. And the fuel infrastructures are
sufficiently developed from production, transport to
distribution. However even with the improvement of IC
engine vehicle technologies, because of growing
environmental problems and decreasing fossil fuel resources,
it is urgently needed to replace IC engine vehicles with more
clean, safe, and efficient alternatives. The combustion
byproducts such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides
(SOx), carbon monoxides (CO), hydrocarbons are main causes
of air pollution. Major auto manufacturers are working on
improving fuel economy and reducing carbon dioxide
emission [1]. For instance, new vehicle models sold in USA
have to have average fuel economy of 35 miles per gallon by
2016. Global warming induces ecosystem changes, natural
disasters, polar icecap melting, and sea level rises. Global
warming is mainly caused by carbon dioxides. Even though
carbon dioxides are naturally consumed by plants through
photosynthesis, excessive gas traps Sun’s radiation results in
the temperature of Earth increased. Carbon dioxides are the
byproduct of combustion of hydrocarbon fuel. 32% of Carbon
dioxides emission is from transportation. A reserves-to-
production ratio [2] indicates less than 50 years (46.2 years) of
oil reserves left globally. Therefore fossil fuel consumption
has to be reduced and alternative energy resources have to be
found before the fossil fuel supply running out. The IC engine
vehicles have to be replaced with clean and petroleum
independent electric vehicles. Because of the limited range of
the all electric vehicles, the hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
gained a natural attention. Main objective of HEVs is utilizing
the advantage of IC engine and electric motor. Overall
efficiency of vehicle can be doubled and Electric Vehicles
(EVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug in Hybrid
Vehicles (PHEVs) and Fuel cell Electric Vehicles (FEVs) are
considered to replace ICE vehicles in the near future [3]. The
hybrid system consists of power and energy storage devices.
The hybrid electric vehicle is more efficient, lower emission
and higher gas economy. There are several hybrid
configurations. Series hybrid vehicle and parallel hybrid
vehicle are typical configurations. In a series hybrid vehicle,
the IC engine runs as a battery charger. The IC engine operates
at its optimal operating region and it turns on and off
according to battery state of charge maintenance algorithm. A
parallel hybrid vehicle has both the IC engine and the electric
traction motor. Many combinations are possible to run the
electric motor and the IC engine. A typical way is using the
electric motor at low speeds and the IC engine kicks in when
higher speeds or power is required [4].
A fuel cell has been considered as a highly possible
candidate for the future electric vehicle power system.
Hydrogen has been used industries for many decades. It has
higher energy density (~40 kWh per kg) than gasoline (~13
kWh per kg) and it is most abundant element in the Earth.
Hydrogen always exists with other element such as oxygen
and carbon. The basic principle of fuel cells is simple. When
DC electric currents applied to two electrodes (anode and

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cathode) in water, water is electrolysed into hydrogen and
oxygen. Fuel cell operation is reverse of electrolysis. At the
anode side, the hydrogen is ionized and release electrons and
protons (H+),
2 4 4 energy to achieve original charge capacity. When temperature
At the cathode, oxygen combines with protons and forms
water,
4 4 2 The ultracapacitor also known as supercapacitor or
Since reactions occur very slowly in ambient temperature,
catalyst or high temperature environment is necessary. Protons
pass through the platinum coated porous electrolyte, so called
proton exchange membrane or PEM. PEM only passes protons
and when an external circuit made, electrons pass through
external circuit, i.e. electric current from the positive cathode
to the negative anode. Hydrogen powered fuel cell power
systems have been developed for applications from a space
explorer to a residential/auxiliary/off-grid power generation. A
fuel cell system has a higher efficiency than IC engine and
generates electricity without emissions or pollutions. Heat and
reaction water are produced as a byproduct. As long as fuel is
supplied, fuel cell will provide power on demand. Fuel cell
systems have many challenges to overcome: fuel generation,
storage, filling, handling, durability, reliability, safety, and
cost. Due to intrinsic characteristics of fuel cell, powering
electric vehicle with a fuel cell only is not a viable and
practical solution. Therefore other kind of energy storage
system is required to operate fuel cell power system. Thus fuel
cell system is a hybrid system in nature. The efficiency of fuel
cell systems can be affected by the parasitic loads, subsystems,
operating conditions, ambient pressure/temperature/humidity,
long-term degradation, and etc. Generally the efficiency is
higher when fuel cell output power is lower because fuel cell
systems use lesser parasitic loads during a low power output
operation. Air supply and cooling system is major parasitic
loads of the fuel cell systems. The size of fuel cell system and
energy storage system can be optimized with a load drive
cycle. The energy storage system supply power during start-up
or power surge. Also more importantly the energy storage
system recuperates regenerative braking energy.
Battery is most popular energy storage system [5]. It
converts chemical energy into electric energy. There are two
types of batteries: primary and secondary battery. Primary
battery is a disposable battery and secondary battery is a
rechargeable battery. Lead-acid, NiCd, NiMH, Lithium-ion
(Li-ion) and Lithium polymer (LiPo) battery are significant
secondary battery for automotive applications. Deep discharge
below 20 % of state of charge should be avoided because the
battery will lead to shorter life of battery pack or be damaged
permanently. Battery efficiency depends on discharge rate,
temperature, and age. Higher discharge rate reduce the state of
charge quickly. The loss when battery is charged or
discharged is mainly due to internal resistance. Slower
charging and discharging is more efficient because the internal
resistance is lower when a charging/discharging current rate is
lower. The efficiency is reduced under lower temperature and
heavy discharge rate. Battery efficiency is divided as coulomb
efficiency and voltage efficiency. A coulomb efficiency is
defined as (discharge A-hours)/ (charge A-hrs) and a voltage
efficiency is defined as (discharge voltage)/ (charge voltage).
The Coulomb efficiency means how much energy is required
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to charge battery in full. At beginning of charge cycle,
Coulomb efficiency is almost 100% and decrease as charging.
Near the end of charge cycle, the Coulomb efficiency can be
improved by reducing charge rate. Battery needs more charge
is low, the Coulomb efficiency increases because the battery
has lower state of charge.
electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) is another type
of the energy storage system. It has lower energy density (~28
kWh per kg) but capable of supplying very high peak current
for short period of time. Its capacity is typically from several
farads to several tens of farads. Also, ultracapacitor can be
charged faster than the battery and this approach can extend
the life span of battery. Deep discharge is not limited but
practically 50% of ultracapacitor voltage is the minimum
voltage because energy in the ultracapacitor is below 25% of
its capacity when voltage is below 50%. Thus the operation
range of state of charge is 100% to 25%. The ultracapacitor
are slowly charged in the beginning and as the internal
impedance become smaller, the charge rate can be increased.
Both the charge rates of the battery and ultracapacitor must be
carefully controlled to prevent overcharging, over temperature
and etc.
Fuel cell, battery and ultracapacitor have different
voltage/current characteristics and different efficiency curves.
In general, fuel cell system has highest energy density among
fuel cell, battery and ultracapacitor. Ultracapacitor have
highest power density and able to supply very high peak
power load. Battery is in between fuel cell and ultracapacitor.
Energy sharing between fuel cell systems and other energy
storage systems is a key factor to achieve a high fuel economy,
reliability, durability and longer endurance. By combining
energy source (fuel cell) and power sources (battery and
ultracapacitor), overall system size can be optimized. It would
be possible to improve system efficiency with using
ultracapacitor for peak loads and battery for medium loads. It
also has cell balancing issues.
Many multiple input converter topologies have been
proposed. It can be classified to parallel connected, series
connected, magnetically coupled, interleaved topology,
resonant topology and etc. A parallel connection is used when
single converter cannot supply enough power or to achieve a
redundant power system however equal load sharing is very
difficult with this topology. A series connection is used to
increase the output voltage. Ripple voltage from each
converter will be added so additional filtering is required.
Magnetically coupled converter is connected with transformer.
The advantage of magnetically coupled converter is that
different voltage level sources can be connected through
transformer. However weight and cost of transformer is a
drawback. Interleaved converters can be seen as a parallel
connection of converters to single source. This toplogy offers
lower current ripple on the input and output capacitors, faster
transient response to load changes, improved power handling
capabilities at greater than 90% power efficiency [6].
In this paper, a new multiple input integrated DC/DC
converter is proposed. It combines two quadrant bidirectional
converters for battery and ultracapacitor and boost converters
for fuel cell. Fuel cell can supply power to battery and
ultracapacitor through boost converters individually or
simultaneously according to the state of charrge. Regenerative
energy can recharge either ultracapacitor or battery also
according to the state of charge. There is no charge/discharge
between battery and ultracapacitor. Load sharring is controlled
by the state of charges of battery and ulltracapacitor, the
voltage level of the sources and load drive cyccle. This paper is
presented as follows. Chapter II describes thee topology, mode
of operation, rule based control method, and analysis of
converter operation. Simulation results are proovided in chapter
III and conclusions are in chapter IV.
II. TOPOLOGY
A. Topology
Figure 1 is the proposed three input inntegrated DC/DC
converter topology. It combines two boost coonverters and two
parallel connected two quadrant bidirectionaal converters. As
mentioned in the introduction, three sourcees have different
characteristics. The power density increases inn the order of fuel
cell, battery, and ultracapacitor and the ennergy density is
reverse of the order. For example, an ultraccapacitor will be
main power supply in high power demand such as vehicle
acceleration (0 ~ 50 sec and 300 ~ 320 sec) inn Figure 2. As the
state of charge of ultracapacitor decreases, a battery becomes
main power source. Regenerative braking m may feed energy
back to the battery and/or ultracapacitoor through the
bidirectional converter (50 ~ 100 sec, 280 ~ 300 sec and 350 ~
380 sec) depend on the sign of torque.
Motor
Drive
and
Battery Ultracapacitor
Fuel Load
Cell
Figure 1 Proposed Topology
Figure 2 Drive Cycle
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Fuel cell is connected to the twwo boost converters. Thus it
can be seen as series hybrid sttructure. The fuel cell is
controlled to operate at its optim mum operating region. The
output voltages of the boost convertter are controlled according
to the state of charge of battery andd ultracapacitor. There is no
power exchange between the battery y and ultracapacitor i.e. they
can be charged by either fuel cell or regenerative braking. If the
state of charge of battery is lower than predetermined range,
the fuel cell will charge more at the cost of lower efficiency.
B. Converter Building blocks-bidirrectional converter
The building blocks of this top pology are a two quadrant
bidirectional converter and boost converter.
c A two quadrant
bidirectional converter consists of an inductor, two switches
and filter capacitors (Figure 3). In the
t boost (discharge) mode,
the source supplies power to the DC link and in the buck
(charge) mode, regenerative energ gy is recuperated from DC
link. All the inductor currents are assumed to be continuous,
i.e. the converters operate in a co ontinuous conduction mode
(CCM)
The bidirectional converter opeerates as a boost converter.
L, Rds, RL, R2, CL, CH, V1, VL, V2, VH are an inductance,
transistor ON resistance, inductor resistance, low side filter
capacitance, high side filter capaccitance, low side terminal
voltage, low side source voltage, high side terminal voltage
and high side source voltage, respectively. The switch Q2 is
closed and the switch Q1 is open and a the current flows from
the V1 through the inductor during 0 < t < DT, where D and T
is a switch duty ratio and switching period.
Figure 3 Two Quadrant Bidirrectional Converter
0 < t < DT,
diL 1
= {V1 − iL ( RL + Rds )} (1)
dt L
dV1 1 V − VL
= − {iL + 1 } (2)
dt CL R1
dV2 V − VH
= iCH = − 2 (3)
dt R2
During DT < t < T, switch Q2 iss open and D1 conducts.
 diL Driving Schedule (UDDS) and New York City Cycle (NYCC)
= V1 − V2 − iL ( Rds + RL ) (4) [7]. However these drive cycles give only vehicle velocity
dt information, actual load (power) varies and depends on many
dV1 1 V − VL factors such as weight, grade, payload, and etc. Modes are not
=− {iL + 1 } (5) sequential, i.e. any mode can transit from/to any mode at any
dt CL R1 time. And the initial state of charge of battery and
dV2 V − VH ultracapacitor is assumed to have higher than the threshold of
= iL − 2 (6) each mode. Note that if the open circuit voltage of the battery,
dt R2 ultracapacitor or fuel cell is higher than load voltage, they will
supply power through series diode in the converter. This
The state space average model equations of this model are information can be used to set system voltage.
diL
L = −iL ( Rds + RL ) + V1 − V2 + DV2 (7) • Mode I: Vehicle start and low speed operation
dt When the vehicle starts to move, the ultracapacitor
dV V −V provides power. In Mode I, the required power ( Preq ) is lower
C L 1 = −i L − 1 2 (8)
than the Mode I threshold power ( PMode1 ). The vehicle
dt R1
continues to move and as the state of charge of ultracapacitor
dV2 V − VH
CH = (1 − D )i L − 2 (9) drops to the threshold point ( SOCucMode1 ), then the system
dt R2 transits to Mode II, i.e. the battery takes over load sharing and
supplies traction power.
To find minimum inductance required for a CCM
operation, the inductor current can be described as • Mode II: Vehicle acceleration
In Mode II, required power is higher than the battery
V1 ( PModeII ) or the state of charge of ultracapacitor is lower than
iL ,max = iL ,min + DT (10)
L SOCucMode1 . In this mode, the battery supplies power and the
ultracapacitor is not contributing load sharing until the state of
DT × 0 + (1 − D) × T (iL ,max + iL ,min ) V2 − VH charge of ultracapacitor increases to the SOCucMode1 . With the
( ) = (11) battery and ultracapacitor current sensing, balanced load
T 2 R2 sharing between the battery and ultracapacitor side
V − VH V bidirectional converter can be possible. If the state of charge of
i L ,max = 2 + 1 DT (12) the battery drops to the threshold, the fuel cell system also
R2 (1 − D ) 2 L contributes load sharing. In this case, the operating point of the
V − VH V fuel cell system may be moved to the less efficient point to
iL ,min = 2 − 1 DT (13) meet the required loads.
R2 (1 − D ) 2 L
• Mode III: Vehicle constant cruise
The inductor ripple current, Δ is In the Mode III, the fuel cell system supplies power to the
V1 DT load ( Pmod eIII < Preq < PFC ). The battery and ultracapacitor can be
Δi = (14)
L charged if the fuel cell output power is higher than the
And the minimum inductor current can be calculated for required load, otherwise the state of charge of battery and
maintaining CCM operation. ultracapacitor are remained.

V2 − V H V • Mode IV: Vehicle deceleration

≥ 1 DT
R2 (1 − D ) 2 L
V1 D (1 − D ) R2T
iL ,min ≥=
2(V2 − VH )
III. MODE OF OPERATION
In this chapter, the modes of operations are described. A
rule based supervisory control strategy based on the state of
charge of battery and ultracapacitor is set up. The fuel cell
system will supply average cruise power and the ultracapacitor
and the battery will supply power for peak accelerations and
high power demand by a driver. To decide system size, a load
drive schedule is necessary such as Urban Dynamometer
(15) In Mode IV, either ultracapacitor or battery can be charged
by regenerative braking. However the ultracapacitor is charged
first unless the state of charge of ultracapacitor is full. If both
state of charge s are full, dynamic braking will be used, i.e.
(16) dissipates all the energy as heat.
• Mode V: Fuel cell charging battery and/or
ultracapacitor
The fuel cell system is charging either ultracapacitor or
battery. Because the fuel cell power system require start-up
time (several 10th of seconds), it does not contribute the load
sharing if the vehicle keyed in and starts right away before the
fuel cell system is online. When the fuel cell system is online,
it charges either ultracapacitor or battery. The fuel cell system
operates in most efficient range in this mode.

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 Table 1 summarizes the mode transition conndition. Ultracapacitor model is simpliified with a series resistor
Mode Condition Poower Source and large capacitor. Its series resisttance, capacity and voltage
are 0.0504 ohm, 20 Farad and 125V V, respectively. The SOC of
I Preq < PMode1 ultracapacitor is defined as the ratior of energy and it is
U
Ultracapacitor estimated as equation,
and _
_
SOCUC > SOCUCModeI _ _
II PModeI < Preq < PModeII U
Ultracapacitor
_
and or _
The battery and ultracapacitor charge
c current limit feature
SOCUC < SOCUCModeI U
Ultracapacitor is not included in the simulation beccause it is part of battery or
PModeI < Preq < PModeII And battery ultracapacitor cell balancing systemm practically. And because
simulation time is limited to 200 seeconds, it is not possible to
or show all mode of operation with a single drive cycle. Error!
SOCUC > SOCUCModeI Reference source not found.Figu ure 5 shows a mild torque
curve. The load is motoring mode during
d 4 to 28 seconds and
III Pmod eIII < Preq < PFC Fuel cell
32 to 136 seconds and the load is generator mode during 32 to
60 seconds and during 140 to 200 2 seconds. The SOC of
VI Torque < 0 R
Regenerative
ultracapacitor and battery will be maintained
m as,
energy
50% < SOC_Ultracapacitor < 99 9%
V Fuel cell 75% < SOC_Battery < 99%
Preq < PFC
And charge ultracapacitor first then charge battery.
Table 1 Mode of Operation

IV. SIMULATION
To verify the proposed converter topoloogy and control
methods, the converters are simulated with S Simulink. A load
chosen in the simulation is a 5 HP, 240V, 1220 rpm permanent
magnet DC motor. It is adjusted with torquee parameter in a
lookup table. The sign of torque is used to deccide regenerative
mode. Average load is 5 HP or 3730 Watt. Motor back-emf
constant is 2.4V/rpm, total inertia is 1 kg-m^22. Therefore fuel
cell system size is chosen to supplly 3730 Watt.
Simulink/Simpower system package in Siimulink/Simulink
supports PEM fuel cell model. It is customizeed to output 18 %
more power (4400 Watt) than average load ddrive cycle. This
additional power rating is arbitrarily chosen.. Figure 4 is I-V Figure 5 Torq
que 1
characteristic of the fuel cell stack. Lithium
m-Ion battery is a
150V-5Ah or 750 Watt-hour. Figure 6Error! Reference sou urce not found. shows the
SOC of ultracapacitor. It shows the operation of Mode I and
Mode VI. The initial SOC of ultrracapacitor is 90% and the
ultracapacitor side converter disch
harges up to the threshold
SOC, 50%. The SOC of ultracapaccitor is maintained between
70% and 90% because the drive cyccle is mild.

Figure 4 4400 Watt I-V Polarization Curve

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 Figure 8 SOC of Ultrracapacitor

Figure 6 SOC of Ultracapacitor

Figure 7Figure 8 is another simulation show

wing Mode II, IV
and V operation with harder drive cycle. L Load is motoring
mode between 0 to 100 seconds and it is generrator mode in the
rest of cycle. In this scenario, the initial SOC
C of battery and
ultracapacitor is 80% and 100%, respectivvely. When load
works in generator mode, both ultracapacitorr and battery are
charged. The SOC of battery slightly decreasees between 100 to
160 seconds. It is because load voltage generaated by back-emf
is lower than the battery output voltage so that battery also
contributes to charging ultracapacitor. Frrom 35 to 110
seconds, fuel cell output is supplying power through forward
biased diode in the boost converter. This case can be Figure 9 SOC of Battery
eliminated if lower voltage fuel cell stack is selected. If fuel
cell voltage is depressed lower than load voltaage, fuel cell will
not supply power any more.

Figure 10 Fuel Ceell Power

Figure 7 Torque 2 Figure 11 and Figure 12 is simulated with same torque

curve (Figure 7) with low voltage fuel cell stack (PEM fuel
cell - 6kWatt and 45Volt). There iss no power draw from fuel
cell in this case. However the SOC C of battery decrease more
because fuel cell is not contributing load sharing.

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 Figure 11 SOC of Ultracapacitor with Low Vooltage Stack Figure 14 Fuel Celll Current

Figure 12 SOC of Battery with Low Voltagge Stack Figure 15 Fuel Ceell Power

Form Error! Reference source not foound. to Error!

Reference source not found. shows another simulation result
with lower output voltage PEM fuel cell; 6kW Watt and 45Volt.
Error! Reference source not found. is the I-V polarization
curve of the fuel cell stack. Hard drive cyycle (figure 8) is
used. Fuel cell supports battery voltage so thaat fuel cell supply
average power and battery supply peak pow wer. Fuel cell is
supplying up to 1700 watt. Compare with preevious simulation
result (Error! Reference source not found. and Error!
Reference source not found.), Error! Referrence source not
found. and Error! Reference source not foound. shows that
the SOCs of battery and ultracapacitor havee lower variation
which means less stress to storage devices.
Figure 16 Polarization Curvee (6 kWatt, 45 Volt)

V. CONCLU
USION

In this paper, a new multiplee input integrated DC/DC

converter topology is proposed. It I is composed of two 2-
quadrant converter and two boost converters. The power
density increased in the order off a fuel cell, battery and
ultracapacitor and the energy density is reverse of the order.
The fuel cell is connected to the boost converters and each
boost converter charges the batteryy and ultracapacitor both or
individually. Two 2-quadrant conv verters discharge power to
the load or recharge the battery an nd/or the ultracapacitor by
Figure 13 Fuel Cell Voltage regenerative braking. Proposed co onverter has advantages of
improved power density because of o no transformer coupling
and the ease of state of charge contrrol. Rule based supervisory

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control strategy is applied to control proposed converter
topology. Simulation results validate the proposed converter
topology and the rule based supervisory control strategy. For
future works, fuel cell emulator will be implemented for
experiment. And more accurate ultracapacitor model will be
researched and used for simulation. The efficiency of fuel cell
will be considered and integrated to the control strategy so that
fuel cell operates in its most efficient range.
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[3] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, and A.Emadi, “Modern electric hybrid electric and
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