SEPTEMBER 2020

ASHRAE
JOURNAL THE MAGAZINE OF HVAC&R TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS ASHRAE.ORG

Optimizing
Chiller Plant
For Office, Laboratory Facility

5 Factors for Boiler Plant Optimization

Load Calculations for Commercial Kitchen

Covering HVAC and COVID-19 | Building Readiness

COVID-19
Plan for SARS-CoV-2
-CoV-2 | IEQ in Cold Climates
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 CONTENTS
September 2020

FEATURES STANDING COLUMNS

Five Design Factors to Help 60 Engineers Notebook

14
Optimize a Boiler Plant Performance-Based Approach
By Kal Osman; Nicholas Lane To Laboratory Exhaust
Systems
By Nathan Ho, P.E.

Optimizing Boiler Plant 70 Refrigeration Applications

Deeper Into Vacuum
By Andy Pearson, Ph.D., C.Eng.
Filling the Knowledge Gaps:
HVAC and COVID-19 72 IEQ Applications

20
By Ed Light; James Bailey, P.E.; ASHRAE Headquarters:
Reid Lucas; Laurence Lee Building Readiness Plan for
SARS-CoV-2
By Wade H. Conlan, P.E.

HVAC and COVID-19

DEPARTMENTS
Improving IEQ to Reduce 4 Commentary
Transmission of Airborne 6 Industry News

30
Pathogens in Cold Climates 8 Letters
By Stephanie H. Taylor, M.D.; 12 Meetings and Shows
C. Michael Scofield; Patricia T. 76 Special Products
Graef, P.E., 78 InfoCenter
79 Classified Advertising
Cold Climate IEQ
80 Advertisers Index

Calculating Airflow Rates, Submissions: ashraejournal.submittable.com/submit

Archive: technologyportal.ashrae.org
Cooling Loads in Commercial

48
Letters: sfoster@ashrae.org
Kitchens Missing Issue: cservice@ashrae.org
By Iurii A. Tabunshchikov; ASHRAE® Journal (ISSN 0001-2491) PUBLISHED MONTHLY | Copyright 2020 by
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Chiller Plant Optimized Without
PUBLICATION DISCLAIMER | ASHRAE has compiled this publication

52
Capital Expenditures with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated and ASHRAE
expressly disclaims any duty to investigate any product,
By Kelley Whalen; service, process, procedure, design or the like which may
be described herein. The appearance of any technical data,
Jason Brooks, P.E.; Eric Mobley editorial material or advertisement in this publication does not
constitute endorsement, warranty or guarantee by ASHRAE
of any product, service, process, procedure, design or the like.
ASHRAE does not warrant that the information in this publication
is free of errors and ASHRAE does not necessarily agree with
any statement or opinion in this publication. The entire risk of the
Optimizing Chiller Plant use of any information in this publication and its supplement is
assumed by the user.

2 SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL VO LU M E 62, N O.9

 the ART of Building
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 COMMENTARY
COMMENTARY
1791 Tullie Circle NE
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
Phone: 404-636-8400
Fax: 404-321-5478 | www.ashrae.org

DIRECTOR OF ASHRAE PUBLICATIONS & EDUCATION

Mark S. Owen Always Working Toward Best Results
EDITORIAL
Editor Optimizing systems helps achieve the best results based
Sarah Foster
sfoster@ashrae.org on the conditions within which the system is operating
Managing Editor and criteria prioritized by stakeholders. A technical
Mary Kate McGowan feature (page 14) tackles optimizing a new condensing
mmcgowan@ashrae.org
boiler plant.
Assistant Managing Editor
Jeri Alger However, efficiency gains also can be realized by opti-
jalger@ashrae.org mizing existing equipment and controls. An article on page 52 dis-
Associate Editor cusses a project in Alabama where modifications to a chiller plant real-
Rebecca Matyasovski
rmatyasovski@ashrae.org ized huge savings in energy costs without any capital expenditures.
Associate Editor
Tani Palefski AS WITH OPTIMIZING SYSTEMS, building professionals need to be
tpalefski@ashrae.org
able to get results under the conditions we are all operating under.
Associate Editor
Courtney Payne “Filling the Knowledge Gaps: HVAC and COVID-19” (page 20) reviews
cpayne@ashrae.org recent research to give engineers the most up-to-date knowledge
PUBLISHING SERVICES
Publishing Services Manager needed for helping to make difficult decisions during the pandemic.
David Soltis An article that was being written just as the pandemic began is
Production “Improving IEQ to Reduce Transmission of Airborne Pathogens in Cold
Jayne Jackson
ADVERTISING
Climates” (page 30). The authors reworked it to reflect the challenges
Associate Publisher, of the COVID-19 pandemic.
ASHRAE Media Advertising
Greg Martin As I write this, COVID-19 infection rates are still high in many places.
gmartin@ashrae.org ASHRAE staff are working remotely and in the office on a staggered
Senior Coordinator—Advertising schedule as we prepare for moving to ASHRAE’s new headquarters
Production and Operations
Vanessa Johnson in October. “ASHRAE Headquarters: Building Readiness Plan for
vjohnson@ashrae.org SARS-CoV-2” (page 72) discusses the choices ASHRAE made for its own
Coordinator—Circulation Development building using guidance from ASHRAE’s Epidemic Task Force (ETF),
Austin Brafford
abrafford@ashrae.org standards, guidelines and more.
ASHRAE OFFICERS
President
Charles E. Gulledge III, P.E. THE ETF HAS UPDATED its “Building Readiness” guide (tinyurl.
President-Elect com/y5r92ohs) and continues its work to provide the best guidance
Michael Schwedler, P.E. and ASHRAE resources to building professionals. Previous ASHRAE
Treasurer Journal articles that discuss COVID-19 are available under Resources at
Farooq Mehboob, P.E.
ashrae.org/covid19.
Vice Presidents
Donald L. Brandt
K. William Dean, P.Eng. THANK YOU TO EVERYONE who has taken the time to fill out the
Malcolm Dennis Knight, P.E.
William F. McQuade, P.E. ASHRAE Journal surveys. It’s a great tool for letting us know which
Tim McGinn, P.E. articles and columns you find the most helpful. September’s survey is
Secretary & Executive Vice President located here: https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE.
Jeff H. Littleton
POLICY GROUP
2020 – 21 Chair Sarah Foster, ASHRAE Journal Editor
Publications Committee
Hugh D. McMillan III, P.E.
Washington Office
washdc@ashrae.org
Mission Statement: ASHRAE Journal reviews current HVAC&R technology of broad interest through publication of application- CELEBRATING
oriented articles. ASHRAE Journal’s editorial content ranges from back-to-basics features to reviews of emerging technologies,
covering the entire spectrum of professional interest from design and construction practices to commissioning and the service life 125
YEARS
of HVAC&R environmental systems.

4 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

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 INDUSTRY NEWS

Epidemic Task Force Update

ETF Updates Building Readiness Guidance
ATLANTA—The ASHRAE Epidemic Task
Force’s updated Building Readi-
ness guidance provides practical
information and checklists for
how buildings should operate
during and after the pandemic
and how to practically check op-
erations. The guidance addresses:
• Energy recovery ventilation
systems operation;
• Building readiness modes of
operation, such as Epidemic Operat-
ing Conditions in Place (ECiP) and
Post-Epidemic Conditions in Place
(P-ECiP);
• Increased ventilation and filtra-
tion; and
• Building exhaust air re-entrain-
ment.
The guidance also includes
information on tactical commis-
sioning and systems analysis to
develop a Building Readiness Plan
and how to make overall improve-
ments to a system’s ability to
mitigate virus transmission.
A specific building’s actual
conditions will vary, and the
adjustments that should be made
depend on factors such as local
climate, system complexity and
use, occupancy and activities that
happen in and around the build-
ing.
Download the guidance: tinyurl.
com/buildingreadinessguidance.

ETF Releases School Reopening Guidance

ATLANTA—As some schools prepare to reopen while
others are occupied for the fall academic year, the
ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force developed HVAC
systems operation guidance to help mitigate the air-
borne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. The guidance:
• Includes checklists such as starting up HVAC sys-
tems prior to occupancy and checks and verifications to
maintain during the academic year.
• Addresses determining building readiness, filtra-
tion upgrades, facility design recommendations and
controlling infection outbreak in school facilities.
A section of the guidance is designed to help
designers plan how to improve indoor air
quality and slow the transmission of viruses
via HVAC systems. Download the guidance:
tinyurl.com/schoolreopeninguidance.
Explore ASHRAE COVID-19 Resources
ATLANTA—ASHRAE’s COVID-19 response resources web-
page provides guidance from the Epidemic Task Force
for health-care facilities, schools and other building
types. The guidance includes recommended strategies
and specific “how-to” information for various chal-
lenges. Visit the page: ashrae.org/COVID19.

Industry Roundup
EPA Updates Pandemic
Benchmarking,
Certification Guidance
WASHINGTON, D.C.—The U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA)
has updated its guidance on
benchmarking and applying for
2020 Energy Star certification for
commercial buildings affected
by the COVID-19 pandemic. The
guidance allows for people to ap-
ply for certification while comply-
ing with medical experts’ recom-
mendations for reducing the risk
of exposure to the coronavirus.
Source: EPA
DOE Releases Updated
Energy Modeling Tools
WASHINGTON, D.C.—The U.S. Department
of Energy and its National Labora-
tories released updated versions
of their state-of-the-art, open-
source, whole-building energy
modeling tools: the EnergyPlus™
engine and the OpenStudio™
software development kit and
graphical application. The current
version of the EnergyPlus engine
includes refactored implementa-
tions of all coils and plant compo-
nents and fixes for 76 known issues
and bugs. Source: U.S. DOE

6 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

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Electrification,
Heat Pumps, and
Thermal Storage
Referring to “Electrification,
Heat Pumps and Thermal Storage”
by Mark M. MacCracken, P.E., in
the July 2020 ASHRAE Journal, it is
agreeable that electrification with
renewables is viable for sustained
decarbonization.
However, the second law of ther-
modynamics, which we often ignore
in practice, tells us that tracing the
downstream path along which and
how the so-called green electricity
is used is as important as where and
how it is generated. The second law
also tells us that once electric power
is generated from renewables (or
not), it is important to keep using it
as electricity as far as possible down-
stream along the power demand
chain.
The key is to question whether
any particular power demand has
options other than electricity. For
example, comfort cooling with elec-
trically driven chillers has options
like absorption and or adsorption
cooling with waste heat, but electric
lighting and electric public trans-
port do not. Indeed, industry and
transport above about 400°C have
no option other than electricity.
Therefore, electric power should be
directed first to the demand points
that have no option except electricity.
For example, in the Netherlands
state trains have the privilege, by
all means, to run on green electric-
ity generated from wind energy
because they do not have any other
option. In this respect, the author
did a fine eye-opening job in his
article. Yet revisiting the article
seems necessary.
8 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
LETTERS
For example, his data about a COP
of 5.5 seems quite impressive in
terms of the first law. But looking
at the same example in terms of
the second law, we see a different
picture: electric power is a “high-
quality” energy source of which
95% may be used in useful works
(0.95 kWh/kWh).
Compare such a high quality of
supplied energy with the quality
of temperature elevation process
from 26.7°C (299.85K, 80°F) to 35°C
(308.15K, 95°F) in their design case
where the chiller acts as a heat pump
in winter for morning warm-up.
According to the ideal
Carnot cycle, the energy qual-
ity of this temperature jump
is only 0.027 kWh/kWh
(1 − 299.85K/308.15K). This means
that the supplied unit exergy of
0.95 kWh/kWh is destroyed by
0.92 kWh/kWh.
Moreover, until the entire globe is
electrified by renewables, an indi-
rect fossil fuel-equivalent carbon
footprint will always exist in pro-
portion to the destroyed exergy.
This footprint is expressed as 0.31
times the destroyed exergy, as refer-
enced in the natural gas boiler data
given in the article (the net thermal
efficiency is 0.75), where natural
gas has about 0.2 kg CO2/kWh in
combustion and has unit exergy
of 0.87 kWh/kWh. This calcula-
tion comes from 0.2/(0.75 × 0.87)
and means that the heat pump will
be responsible for additional CO2
emissions of 0.285 kW = h/kWh
(0.31 × 0.92) even though the elec-
tricity comes from renewables,
because the electricity is used only
one step away from the plug by the
heat pump and then converted to a
heat of very low quality.
This responsibility would be zero
only if the COP of the heat pump
was 35 (0.95/0.027), which is practi-
cally impossible. Conversely speak-
ing, the exergy-based COP (COPEX)
of the heat pump is 5.5 × 0.027/0.95,
which is much less than one
(COPEX = 0.156).
Of course, the author is absolutely
right in looking for ways to save
energy in buildings, but it would
probably be better to compare
CO2 emissions savings of storing
energy in the ice tanks with the
COPEX value of the heating pro-
cess by the chillers. The second
law may have also guided us to
another option, which is using a
trigeneration system even if it runs
on natural gas because a typical
trigeneration system destroys only
about 0.15 kWh/kWh (therefore,
0.31 × 0.15 = 0.046 kg CO2/kWh)
and provides on-site heat, electric-
ity (without transmission losses)
and cold together using absorption
chillers.
Thermal storage (but not in the
form of ice) is indispensable in this
alternative, too. The total CO2 emis-
sions responsibility will include
the exhaust emissions of about
0.307 kg CO2/kWh at a partial ther-
mal efficiency of 0.65, and the total
CO2 emissions responsibility will
be 0.353 kg CO2/kWh. This respon-
sibility rate is not too far from the
design case presented in the article,
even if we ignore the ice-making/
ice-melting cycle losses, grid power
losses, etc. If all these are included,
these two cases will become even in
terms of decarbonization.
By the way, this letter is not
intended to criticize the design of
the authors, but only to underscore
that the second law is an important

tool, even in terms of the simple
Carnot cycle equation, in present-
ing and comparing other feasible
design alternatives beyond boilers
and chillers.
Birol Kilkis, Ph.D., Fellow ASHRAE, Cankaya, Turkey
The Author Responds
Thank for your kind words on
the article and for sharing your
perspective on the exergy of the sys-
tem. Of all the questions I thought
the article might generate, solving
the age-old question of exergy vs.
energy was not one I expected.
You obviously know the topic well,
so I won’t delve into the accuracy of
the calculations.
Long ago I let go of the skills for
those calculations, about the time
I was taught 1 Btu (1 match com-
pletely burned as per my article)
could lift a 1 lb weight 778 ft into the
air. I still can’t comprehend that is
the equivalent amount of energy,
but I accept it as fact.
To address your observation, first
let me say that the entire premise of
the article was based on the goal of
“electrification” and an efficient car-
bon emissions-free building, with
all energy coming from carbon-free
sources. So from that respect, your
solution of a much higher exergy
system using combustion at the site
is a nonstarter. Besides not includ-
ing all the upstream exergy losses
of getting and delivering that fossil
fuel to the site, you are ignoring the
downstream implications of the
emitted CO2.
However, your analysis highlights
an interesting point in the age-old
debate. Your explanation correctly
points out the first and second
laws of thermodynamics and then
goes on to apply it to a certain type
of energy, namely fossil fuels, of
which we have a limited supply
and that have sizable long-term
consequences. However, the renew-
able sources of energy supplied
to the Earth each day is massively
beyond our needs, limited only
by our ability to collect and store
it. If we look at the exergy of the
renewable sources, much of the
incoming energy is radiated back to
space which, as I understand it, is
an incalculable loss of exergy, or at
least incalculable for me.
So the realization I come to is,
in respect to electrification and
renewables, exergy may not be as
important a metric, since it will
all be either used by nature or
wasted away. Fossil fuels are a finite
resource, the creation of which took
millions of years to form and con-
centrate into a stored form. Their
unique “high level” and energy den-
sity will surely be needed for things
like aviation, for which we have
yet to invent a viable carbon-free
solution.
True, there indeed are other appli-
cations of using the “high level” of
electrical energy we collect, and for
that I say let’s collect more. But to
preclude it from being used in a way
that satisfies the need to remove
carbon-emitting combustion from
our buildings, based on the “loss”
of exergy that will be lost anyway,
doesn’t seem prudent.
Yes, if the grid is not all carbon
free, there is some shifting in where
emissions occur, but the grid is
likely to get to low or very low car-
bon before all buildings and cer-
tainly before transportation. Thanks
again for your comments.
Mark MacCracken, P.E., Life Member ASHRAE,
Miami Beach, Fla.
SEPTEM BER 2020
LETTERS
Makeshift
Negative Pressure
Patient Rooms
ASHRAE’s efforts and publications
regarding the response to COVID-19
are exactly what membership needs
ASHRAE to do.
As a practicing Florida engineer,
we have an eleventh lesson learned
following the 10 in the July 2020
ASHRAE Journal article “Makeshift
Negative Pressure Patient Rooms
in Response to COVID-19” by Frank
Shadpour, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE, and
Stefanie Johnson.
Stated simply, existing facili-
ties quickly run out of conditioned
makeup air for added exhaust to
transform positive pressure ICU
rooms into negative pressure rooms.
In California outside makeup air
has “no” humidity, and the addition
of exhaust may create a negative
pressure building, but without the
associated high humidity problems
we see in more humid regions. All
would agree that 100% exhaust is
the better solution, but when the
building lacks capacity for addi-
tional makeup air, HEPA recircula-
tion is a viable option allowed by the
guidelines and CDC.
Additionally, HEPA units can be in
short supply and other than an Office
of Statewide Health and Planning
and Development (OSHPD) alter-
nate, codes do not require HEPA fil-
tration of AII room exhaust.
In light of this, it would be of
interested to learn what discussion
the authors’ firm had with facility
infection control risk assessment on
the recirculation option using HEPA
filtration for temporary negative
pressure rooms.
Grady Burch, P.E., Member ASHRAE, Oakland, Fla.
ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 9
LETTERS
The Author Responds
One of the facilities we worked
with requested the recirculation of
HEPA-filtered air from the COVID-19
negative pressure rooms back to the
hospital. We contacted state officials
and the hospital’s infection control
officer to obtain approval. Both par-
ties did not recommend it.
The guidance from CDC, ASHRAE
and WHO generally support each
other; however, the details regard-
ing COVID-19 remain in flux. How it
spreads and proper methods of miti-
gation are still being explored by sci-
entists and engineers alike. Therefore,
as mentioned in the article, it is criti-
cal to perform any work in conjunc-
tion with the authorities having juris-
diction and to obtain prior approval.
We understand that within a cli-
mate such as Southern California,
high humidity is not generally a
problem. In this scenario, we closely
followed the California OSHPD
PIN-4 and coordinated with infec-
tion control staff to implement the
steps as included in the case study.
We also carefully reviewed the avail-
able capacities within the systems,
including makeup air and the effect
on adjacent areas. We suggest you do
the same and follow the guidelines
established by authorities having
jurisdiction in the state of Florida.
Frank Shadpour, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE, and Stefanie
Johnson, San Diego
Guidance for
COVID-19 Building
Operations
The May 2020 ASHRAE Journal
column “Guidance for Building
Operations During the COVID-
19 Pandemic” by Lawrence J.
Schoen, P.E., begins, “The HVAC
10 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org
systems in most non-medical build-
ings play only a small role in infec-
tious disease transmission, includ-
ing COVID-19.” The column’s HVAC
recommendations have also been
made by the CDC, ASHRAE and
OSHA and include better filtering,
longer operating hours and cleaning
HVAC equipment.
What is missing in most of the
published materials addressing
COVID-19 are evaluations of the
existing HVAC systems. It may
be implied, but this step is sorely
missing. The guidance should also
recommend verification that HVAC
systems have been properly main-
tained and that actual operation
meets the original design intent.
In many cases I have found that
the operation of HVAC systems
is determined by personnel with
limited knowledge of the system
design. Often, the staff technician
becomes the decision maker to
achieve energy savings and makes
the changes to HVAC operation.
Intervention by building occupants
has little effect where energy goals
are treated with greater interest and
urgency than occupant comfort,
health and productivity.
It is not appropriate for HVAC
technicians to unilaterally make
changes to the HVAC system without
a review by a competent HVAC engi-
neer, preferably one with operations
experience. There is a true need for
an inspection process for HVAC ven-
tilation operations. The ill effects of
modifying HVAC operation on peo-
ple is menacing and hard to detect.
It would be interesting to know if
other HVAC engineers have encoun-
tered similar circumstances.
Now we have the crisis of COVID-19.
Locations with poor IAQ plus a virus
SEPTEM BER 2020
are a hazardous combination. Are
ventilation systems operating properly
and capable of providing a healthy
indoor environment? Verifying that
the HVAC system is operating as
designed is a necessary first step.
Michael A. Miller, P.E., Fellow/Life Member ASHRAE,
West Monroe, N.Y.
The Author Responds
Michael, thank you for making
these important points, which I
agree with. Since I wrote the col-
umn, several well-researched
reports have been released demon-
strating COVID-19 transmission in
the absence of what I consider a mini-
mally effective HVAC system.
I still believe the HVAC system
usually plays a small role, provided
there really is one in place that is
properly maintained and operated,
with amounts of outdoor air, filtra-
tion and room air distribution meet-
ing a code or standard for the space
occupancy. My column, ASHRAE’s
Epidemic Task Force (ETF) and other
published guidance from authori-
ties, as you state, make further HVAC
recommendations. Avoiding dense
occupancy, using social distancing
and masks remain critical.
Evaluating and correcting existing
systems, as you emphasize, is essen-
tial, especially for buildings restarting
after a period of shutdown. Saving
energy is a lower priority than sav-
ing lives and good health at any time,
and especially during the pandemic.
Reopening guidance should prioritize
equipment checks and verification of
system performance.
Details to check include air deliv-
ery per person and correcting rooms
that receive minimal or no airflow.
The latter happens due to mistakes
such as moving or adding walls
without HVAC system changes, fire
 LETTERS

dampers closed or other dampers

improperly adjusted, thermostats
set to “fan auto,” VAV box mini-
mums too low and other operational
problems.
No magic bullets exist. They do not
substitute for outdoor air dilution
ventilation, high MERV particle filtra-
tion and air distribution to all rooms
during all operating hours, including
during cleaning.
Proper system performance and
good IAQ don’t happen automatically,
and I believe it requires a partnership
and collaboration among engineers,
building operations personnel, build-
ing management and occupants.
Lawrence J. Schoen, P.E., Fellow/Life Member ASHRAE,
Columbia, Md.
column, “Designing HVAC Systems and the updated column can be
for School Gyms,” the points were downloaded here in ASHRAE’s
Errata shifted in Figure 2 during produc- Technology Portal (free for mem-
In August’s Engineer’s Notebook tion. The corrected figure is above, bers): https://tinyurl.com/y4ytzf3a.

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SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 11

 MEETINGS AND SHOWS
Because of the impact that COVID-19 is having on conferences, please check the conference’s website for the most up-to-date information.
OCTOBER
(Virtual) I2SL Annual Conference, Oct. 5–7, Chica-
go. Contact the International Institute for Sustain-
able Laboratories at 703-841-5484, info@i2sl.org or
www.i2sl.org/conference/2020/index.html.
(Virtual) SMACNA EDGE Conference, Oct. 13–15,
Austin, Texas. Contact the Sheet Metal & Air Con-
ditioning Contractors Association at 703-803-
2980, info@smacna.org or www.smacna.org/
annualconvention.
(Virtual) Solar Power International, Oct. 21–22,
Las Vegas. Contact organizers at customerservice@
sets.solar or www.solarpowerinternational.com.
(Virtual) RETA Conference, Oct. 27–29, Orlando,
Fla. Contact the Refrigerating Engineers and Tech-
nicians Association at 541-497-2955, info@reta.com
or www.reta.com.
NOVEMBER
(Cancelled) NAFA Annual Convention, Nov. 3–5,
Clearwater, Fla. Contact the National Air Filtration
Association at 608-310-7542, nafa@nafahq.org or
www.nafahq.org.
(Virtual) ABX, Nov. 4–5, Boston. Contact organiz-
ers at 972-536-6444, info@abexpo.com or www.
abexpo.com.
(Virtual) Greenbuild, Nov. 4–7, San Diego, Calif.
Contact organizers at 866-815-9824, info@
greenbuildexpo.com or www.greenbuildexpo.com.
(Virtual) CTBUH 2020, Nov. 17. Contact the
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat at
312-283-5645, info@ctbuh.org or https://2020.
ctbuhconference.com.
DECEMBER
HARDI Annual Conference, Dec. 5–8, Atlanta.
Contact the Heating, Air-conditioning, & Refrig-
eration Distributors International at 614-345-4328,
hardimail@hardinet.org or www.hardinet.org.
2021
JANUARY
ASHRAE Winter Conference, Jan 23–27, Chica-
go. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723, meetings@
ashrae.org or www.ashrae.org/chicago.
AHR Expo, Jan. 25–27, Chicago. Cosponsored by
ASHRAE. Contact the International Exposition
Company at 203-221-9232, info@ahrexpo.com or
www.ahrexpo.com.
FEBRUARY
IAQA Annual Meeting & Expo, Feb. 17–19, Austin,
Texas. Contact the Indoor Air Quality Association at
844-802-4103, info@iaqa.org or www.iaqa.org.
MARCH
ACEEE Hot Water Forum, March 2–4, San Diego.
Contact the American Council for an Energy-Ef-
ficient Economy at 202-507-4000 or www.aceee.
org/2021-hot-water-forum.
2021 ASHRAE Virtual Design and Construc-
tion Conference, March 8–10, Orlando. Con-
tact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723, meetings@
ashrae.org or www.ashrae.org/conferences/
topical-conferences/2021-virtual-design-and-
construction-conference.
12 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
IIAR Natural Refrigeration Conference &
Heavy Equipment Expo, March 28–31, Palm
Springs, Calif. Contact the International Insti-
tute of Ammonia Refrigeration at 703-312-4200,
annualmeeting@iiar.org or www.iiar.org.
APRIL
CxEnergy, April 20–23, Dallas/Ft. Worth, Texas.
Contact Anna Kosova, event manager, at 202-737-
7775, Anna@Commissioning.org, or https://www.
cxenergy.com.
MAY
Purdue Conferences on Compressor Engi-
neering, Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning, and
High Performance Buildings, May 23–27, West
Lafeyette, Ind. Contact Brian Barrett at 765-494-
6078, barret71@purdue.edu or https://tinyurl.com/
Purdue2020.
JUNE
THERMAG IX International Conference on Ca-
loric Cooling, June 6–10. College Park, Md. En-
dorsed by ASHRAE. Contact organizers at https://
ceee.umd.edu/events/thermag-ix.
AUGUST
Ventilation 2021: 13th International Industrial
Ventilation Conference for Contaminant Con-
trol, Aug. 15–18, Toronto, Canada. Contact ASHRAE
at 800-527-4723, meetings@ashrae.org or www.
ashrae.org/ventilation2021.
OCTOBER
ACEEE National Conference on Energy Efficien-
cy as a Resource, Oct. 18–20, Philadelphia. Con-
tact the American Council for an Energy-Efficient
Economy at 202-507-4000 or https://www.aceee.
org/2021-eer-conference.
OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA
FEBRUARY
FILTECH 2021, Feb. 23–25, Cologne, Germany
Contact organizers at 49 (0)2132 935760, info@
filtech.de or https://filtech.de.
ACREX India, Feb. 25–27, Bangalore, India. Con-
tact organizers at (011) 41635655, info@ishraehq.in
or www.acrex.in.
SEPTEMBER
PLEA Conference, Sept. 1–3, A Coruña, Spain.
Contact the Passive and Low Energy Architec-
ture Association at info@plea-arch.org or www.
plea2020.org.
Mostra Convegno Expocomfort, Sept. 8–11, Milan,
Italy. Contact Organizers at +39 02 4351 70.1, info.
mce@reedexpo.it or www.mcexpocomfort.it/en/
Home.
CIBSE ASHRAE Technical Symposium, Sept.
14–15, Glasgow, Scotland. Contact the Char-
tered Institution of Building Services Engineers
at symposium@cibse.org or https://cibse.org/
symposium.
IAQ 2020: Indoor Environmental Quality Perfor-
mance Approaches, Sept. 13–15, Athens, Greece.
Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723, meetings@
ashrae.org or www.ashrae.org/IAQ2020.
CALLS FOR PAPERS
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ASHRAE Journal seeks applications arti-
cles of 3,000 or fewer words. Submissions
are subject to peer reviews and cannot
have been published previously. Submit
abstracts to https://ashraejournal.
submittable.com/submit.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FOR THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
ASHRAE’s Science and Technology for the
Built Environment seeks papers on origi-
nal, completed research not previously
published. Papers must discuss how the
research contributes to technology. Pa-
pers should be about 6,000 words. Ab-
stracts and papers should be submitted
on Manuscript Central at www.ashrae.
org/manuscriptcentral. Contact Jeffrey
D. Spitler, Ph.D, P.E., at spitler@okstate.
edu.
ASHRAE TECHNICAL, CONFERENCE OR
TOPICAL CONFERENCE PAPERS:
For more information, contact
hblauridson@ashrae.org or tel: 678-539-
1121.
IEA Heat Pump Conference, Sept. 21–24, Jeju Is-
land, South Korea. Endorsed by ASHRAE. Con-
tact Phetradico Communication and Publishing at
info@heatpumpsnl.com or http://hpc2020.org.
OCTOBER
(Virtual) Fourth International Conference on Ef-
ficient Building Design, Oct. 1–2, Beirut, Leba-
non. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723, meetings@
ashrae.org or www.ashrae.org/Beirut.
BuildSim Nordic, Oct. 13–14, Oslo, Norway. En-
dorsed by ASHRAE. Contact Matthias Hassse
at matthias.haase@sintef.no or http://www.
ibpsa-nordic.org.
Chillventa, Oct. 13–15, Nuremberg, Germa-
ny. Contact organizers at +49 9 11 86 06-49 06 or
https://www.chillventa.de/en.
European Heat Pump Summit, Oct. 26–27,
Nuremberg, Germany. Contact organizers at www.
hp-summit.de/en.
15th Conference on Advanced Building Skins,
Oct. 26–27, Bern, Switzerland. Contact organiz-
ers at 49 89 20000-4161, info@abs.green or https://
abs.green.
NOVEMBER
Indoor Air 2020, Nov. 1–5, Seoul, Korea. En-
dorsed by ASHRAE. Contact organizers at +82-2-
566-5950, 6031, info@indoorair2020.org or http://
indoorair2020.org/.
Outlook 2020, Nov. 8–10, Sydney, Australia. En-
dorsed by ASHRAE. Contact the Australian Insti-
tute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating
(AIRAH) at 03 8623 3000, conferences@airah.org.
au or www.airah.org.au/Outlook2020.
Hurst announces AIA partnership for Online
Specifications Tool
Hurst has just added to its list of accomplishments with the addition of a Fire-tube Boilers
Specifications Section in the nation’s top industry specifications system, AIA Product
MasterSpec®. Adding this tool to our arsenal of online specification capabilities enables
architects and engineers all over the world to access, evaluate and specify our products
easily, and save valuable time. Subscribers to MasterSpec® can pick and choose the Basis
of Design content and documentation needed for their project and accelerate the process.
Hurst Boiler on MasterSpec®
In order to help designers with a specification description that fully explains our products
and how they should be installed, among other details, Hurst has included complete
product specification entries encompassing a broad spectrum of our Fire-tube Boiler
Product Line. The Product MasterSpec® section, 235239 Fire-Tube Boilers, will now
help designers quickly add necessary descriptions, specs and easily access CAD files and
PDF drawings when specifying Hurst’s products, providing them with a tool that saves
them time and money.
ers more than 950 copyrighted sections, which allows designers,
architects, and engineers to select expertly written specification content for thousands of
products without having to waste time writing detailed explanations that already exist.
For more information about
Hurst Boiler’s new specification section on MasterSpec® go here:
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HURST
 TECHNICAL FEATURE

Five Design Factors

To Help Optimize
A Boiler Plant
BY KAL OSMAN; NICHOLAS LANE, ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE

When designing boiler plants for today’s facilities, engineers need heat and hot water
solutions that save installation time, lower construction costs and deliver superior
performance to save energy and increase return on investment (ROI). The best solu-
tions to satisfy these parameters are systems with the highest efficiencies and smallest
footprints.
Condensing boilers are one piece of this design puzzle. (54°C) or lower when the exhaust O2 is approximately
They match output to the building load under all cir- 5%. If the O2 is higher, the exhaust condensing dew
cumstances to improve plant efficiency by eliminating point will be lower, requiring lower exhaust and return
many of the temperature and flow requirements asso- water temperatures to achieve the same condensing
ciated with non-condensing units. They are normally ability.
equipped with a modulating blower, modulating gas Other considerations affect boiler plant efficiency.
valve and mesh burner capable of firing at very low Engineers need to consider five important factors to
rates. In addition, these boilers are generally made reap the greatest ROI:
from materials that can withstand the corrosive nature • Design for plant function;
of exhaust gas condensate associated with low return • Piping design;
water temperatures, which significantly improves con- • Boiler selection;
densing boiler efficiency (Figure 1).1 • Boiler controller; and
These boilers rely on proper air/fuel mixture, a highly • Remote access.
efficient heat exchanger and low oxygen content in the
exhaust to increase the condensing dew point of the Design for Plant Function
exhaust gases.2 Thus, the boiler can condense at 130°F Plant designs can range from space heating only to

Kal Osman is director of product management (boilers) at AERCO. Nicholas Lane is a systems engineer at AERCO.

14 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

systems with multiple functionality, such as FIGURE 1 Thermal efficiency of a condensing boiler at different firing rates at 5% O2.
indirect hot water (DHW), reheat, etc. For com- 100
bination plants where there will be multiple 99 Boiler Firing Rate
98
temperature setpoints, three design options are 97
100%
5% O2 5%
available: 96
95

Efficiency (%)
94
Temperature Priority 93
5% O2
Temperature priority designs (Figure 2) allow 92
91
the temperature to be raised to satisfy the needs 90
of the higher of the two temperatures. There are 89 15% O2 9% O2 5% O2
two notable disadvantages—one side will sacri- 88
87
fice its temperature to satisfy the other (thereby 86
reducing comfort) and overall plant efficiency 85
will decrease. Even if additional valves and 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Return Water Temperature with 20 Degree Rise (°F)
controls are used to improve temperature con-
trol, overall plant efficiency is lowered because
FIGURE 2 Combination plant application with single setpoint temperature control.
the whole system supply and return temperatures are
Boiler Pump System Pump System Supply
increased.

Two Independent Plants

Another option is to have two independent plants,
Four-Port
each with its own boilers, pumps, controls and piping. Buffer
This approach requires a larger plant size and brings Tank
additional learning curve requirements. Furthermore,
if N + 1 redundancy is desired, an additional boiler is Boiler Indirect Water Heater
necessary for both plants, increasing major equipment
System Return
costs.

Single Plant with Smart Controller
The most efficient approach is one plant with a
smart controller that can meet temperature and load
requirements without the large oversizing associated
with two independent plants and dedicated controls.
It also significantly improves the overall plant effi-
ciency without sacrificing comfort and temperature
control.
What makes all this possible is the swing boiler con-
cept, which allows certain boilers to be assigned for
space heating while others are for DHW. In normal oper-
ation, each boiler is equipped with its own integrated
controller. The integrated controller of the master/
manager boiler manages all the slave/client boilers and
swing valves. This controller is mounted on the front of
the boiler and manages all the boilers’ electronic inputs
and outputs, allowing boilers with swing valves to be
easily switched from space heating to DHW or vice versa,
depending on load requirements.
This design adds a layer of security, as well. For
example, if the DHW boiler cannot meet its load, the
controller will direct the swing valves to divert its
designated boilers from space heating to DHW. As per
ASHRAE, it is assumed that both space heating and
DHW peak loads may not happen concurrently.3 This
offers a major benefit in reducing the number of boil-
ers required to meet plant peak load, shrinking the
footprint.
Another benefit is that the boiler system condenses
more because the high and low temperature supply
are separated. Models with dual returns can lever-
age this by allowing boilers to condense significantly
more when the lower temperature return water is
fed into a special inlet designed to reduce flue gas
temperatures further. When combined with a low-
mass boiler and its faster adaptation to plant load
changes, the footprint of the plant becomes even
more compact.

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 15

TECHNICAL FEATURE
Piping Design
Primary-secondary piping has been used much lon-
ger, as it was developed to help protect non-condensing
boilers from thermal shock and condensation. Initially,
both primary and secondary loops had fixed speed
pumps. Through the years, variable speed pumps were
introduced into the system loop. Though this improved
system efficiency, its full potential was not realized
because the difference in flow between the two loops
under low loads caused reverse flow in the connecting
common pipe, decoupling the two loops. The result was
a short-circuiting boiler loop that reduced plant supply
and return DT temperature control and was slower to
respond to load changes.
Variable-primary piping (Figure 3) leverages the
abilities of condensing boilers and ECM/variable speed
pumps to modulate to meet the system load through
flow reduction in boilers. System DT is improved, which
in turn reduces return water temperature to improve
boiler efficiency and lower pumping electrical energy.
In variable-primary piping, engineers design a bypass
line between the supply and return before the boilers to
help improve whole-building efficiency. This allows the
pump to flow some of the building return to mix with
the boiler supply back to the building. In these cases, the
boiler plant will be running at low firing rates, and the
flow through the plant will be very low. This allows the
boilers to condense more.
Another factor is if the boiler is fire- or water-tube.
Generally speaking, fire-tube boilers have lower pres-
sure drop across the heat exchanger (HX), making
them ideal for variable-primary piping. Conversely,
water-tube boilers tend to have higher pressure drop
and minimum flow requirements, so primary-second-
ary piping is typically used.
Design DT
Commercial heat and hot water systems are normally
designed with 20°F to 30°F (11°C to 17°C) temperature
drop across the heating plant water supply and return.
Since condensing boiler efficiency can significantly
improve if the return water temperature is dropped, it is
best to design for a higher DT.
Increasing the building DT to a minimum of 40°F
(22°C) helps improve the boiler plant efficiency and
saves on pump energy since it is correlated to flow. In
fact, a change in DT from 20°F to 40°F (11°C to 22°C)
16 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
FIGURE 3 Piping design concepts.
Variable Primary Primary Secondary
Pump Pump
Pump
Coil Coil
should require half the flow. That in turn, based on the
affinity laws, equates to reducing the pump energy use.
Boiler Selection
Plant square footage plays a role in the type of boiler
selected. Most condensing fire-tube boilers are low-
mass and have smaller footprints, making it easier to fit
through doors, stairs and elevators. If width is too large
or height is taller than a door or an elevator, walls may
need to be demolished and rebuilt and/or cranes may be
needed, adding installation time and cost.
Turndown is another criterion. Smaller ratios produce
short cycling at low-load conditions, which are common
in mild weather. These “shoulder months” are crucial, as
they represent the majority of the heating season (Table 1).4
Figure 4 shows the operation of two 3,000 MBH
(900 kW) boilers in a facility located in New York City. As
indicated, the plant operates at less than 10% of load for
10% of the year. Boilers with a turndown ratio of 15:1 can
reduce output to as little as 7% of its capacity, which will
lower energy costs during the shoulder months, com-
pared to units with turndown ratios of 5:1 and 10:1.
Proper Boiler Material
Unlike non-condensing units, condensing boilers must
withstand continuous exposure to the acidic exhaust
gases associated with natural gas combustion. Stainless
steel has been the material of choice for this corrosive
environment. Boilers made of other materials, such as
copper, cupronickel or cast iron, normally have an addi-
tional stainless steel heat exchanger at the end to handle
the condensation. Under certain circumstances, how-
ever, some condensation may take place in the first non-
stainless steel heat exchanger, which can significantly
 C H I CAG O
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TECHNICAL FEATURE

TABLE 1 ASHRAE weather data vs. Btu load: New York, N.Y. FIGURE 4 Approximately 10% of the time the plant shall be running below 10%
TEMPERATURE ANNUAL HOURS AT OPERATING LOAD PLANT EFFICIENCY
load. *Data is based on New York City climate zone using ASHRAE bin data.
TEMPERATURE (BTU/H) FIRING RATE 1,000
900

Annual Hours at Temperature

–10°F to –5°F 0.3 5,500,000 96% 89.6%
800
–5°F to –0°F 0.8 5,133,333 90% 89.6% 700
600
0°F to 5°F 7.1 4,766,667 84% 89.6%
500
5°F to 10°F 23.6 4,400,000 77% 90.1% 400
10°F to 15°F 51 4,033,333 71% 90.7% 300
200
15°F to 20°F 90.2 3,666,667 64% 91.2% 100
20°F to 25°F 201.6 3,300,000 58% 91.7% 0
6 13 19 26 32 39 45 51 58 64 71 77 84 90 96
25°F to 30°F 355.2 2,933,333 51% 92.2% Plant Firing Rate (%)
30°F to 35°F 600.9 2,566,667 45% 92.7%
35°F to 40°F 815.4 2,200,000 39% 93.2%
150 psi to 160 psi—ideal for high-rise buildings.
40°F to 45°F 764 1,833,333 32% 93.6%
45°F to 50°F 921.3 1,466,667 26% 94.6%
Boiler Controller
50°F to 55°F 887.5 1,100,000 19% 95.2%
Building management systems (BMS) are common
55°F to 60°F 846.6 733,333 13% 95.5%
options to control many building elements, specifically
60°F to 65°F 765.2 366,667 6% 96.0% HVAC equipment. Integration of boiler plant compo-
nents into the building automation system (BAS)/BMS
reduce equipment life and increase downtime. allows communication over multiple BAS protocols,
including BACnet and Modbus. Boilers and equipment
Different Return Temperatures and Dual Returns with multiple integrated BAS protocols and transmis-
Many facilities combine different heating systems sion options gives the controls contractor the ability to
to provide the optimum solution. Often, the systems choose the one that provides the best equipment control
require dissimilar supply temperatures, as well as dif- and monitoring without the additional complications
ferent return temperatures. Depending on the system, it associated with gateways.
is important to factor the low-temperature return loops.
Some loop temperatures can be reduced further by feed- Outdoor Reset
ing the return of a high-temperature loop into the sup- Boiler controls can also be used for outdoor reset and
ply of a low-temperature loop. In these cases, the lower to establish setback schedules for ongoing operational
return water temperatures significantly improve boiler benefits. Reset helps more efficiently meet heating
plant efficiency. loads while maintaining a comfortable environment. An
These benefits can be optimized by designing plants outdoor air temperature sensor determines the boiler
with dual return boilers. Normally, the lower inlet return supply temperature. When the outdoor air temperature
is used for the lower temperature return to significantly drops, the boiler supplies higher temperature water to
improve overall plant efficiency by as much as 7%. meet high load requirements. As the warmer weather
arrives, less energy is needed for space heating and
Building Height and Boiler Pressure Rating lower temperature water is supplied to the heating coils.
When designing boilers for high-rise buildings, it is Return water temperatures are also lowered. The result
important to consider the whole system’s operating is higher boiler efficiency.
pressure. Using equipment or components below the
required pressure may complicate system design and Parallel Modulation
add significant costs by requiring additional pumps, It requires less energy for a group of modulating boil-
valves, heat exchangers or pressure reducing stations. ers, each firing in parallel at “part load,” to heat a build-
A better approach is to design a plant using boilers and ing than for a single boiler operating at “full fire” to carry
all the required components with pressure ratings of the entire workload. In low-mass and mid-mass boilers,

18 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

operating at lower inputs with the same HX surface area
results in a more efficient heat transfer. This is converse
to more traditional non-condensing, high-mass boiler
plants that fire to 100% before bringing on the next unit.
Backup Manager
In a multiboiler plant, one unit serves as the “manager”
while the others are “clients.” Advanced controls establish
the next in command if the “manager” is offline due to
maintenance, repair or other issues. Advanced control-
lers can make this shift automatically to eliminate short
cycling and ensure optimal operating efficiency.
plant warranty and optimized performance.
Summary
Designing a heating and hot water plant for maxi-
mum efficiency and performance requires engineers
to consider several factors from the outset. Recognizing
the specific needs of the facility, selecting the proper
high-efficiency condensing boiler to best meet the load
requirements, integrating advanced controls and incor-
porating the optimized loop design early in the process
will save installation time, lower construction and oper-
ation costs and deliver superior performance.

Remote Access References

Arming the facility owner and maintenance personnel
with remote monitoring reduces the time spent physi-
cally monitoring the system. When it is combined with
maintenance and service alerts, the maintenance team
is immediately notified of issues that may improve per-
formance or reduce tenant complaints. The staff is also
made aware so it can provide maintenance to help keep
1. AERCO. 2013. “Benchmark 2000 Efficiency
Curves.”
2. 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and
Equipment, Chap. 32, Figure 7, “Relationship of
Dew Point, Carbon Dioxide, and Combustion
Efficiency for Natural Gas.” https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
3. 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications, Rate this Column
Chap. 51, Figure 25, “Sizing Factor for Combination Heating and
Water-Heating Boilers.”
4. ASHRAE. 2013. “Weather Data Viewer, version 5.0 (CD-ROM).”

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SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 19

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

Filling the Knowledge Gaps

HVAC and COVID-19

BY ED LIGHT, CIH, MEMBER ASHRAE; JAMES BAILEY, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE; REID LUCAS, ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE; LAURENCE LEE, CIH

Many HVAC-related factors could be significant with respect to the spread of

COVID-19. Increased ventilation, advanced filtration, humidification and improved
mechanical hygiene are being included in measures intended to reduce its spread.
ASHRAE has issued general guidance for HVAC operation during the COVID-19
pandemic based on the very limited information available at this time,1 but there is
considerable uncertainty over where these measures are effective. This paper summa-
rizes what is known about the virus responsible for COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) and simi-
lar viruses regarding the role of HVAC in both the spread and control of infection. It
also identifies critical information gaps and recommends research priorities.
Scientific publications were reviewed (including 2020
preprints of COVID-19 research) and papers previously
published on related viruses such as SARS (2003 pan-
demic). The authors considered this information based
on their experience as mechanical engineers special-
izing in HVAC design and operation and as industrial
hygienists specializing in indoor air quality. It should
be noted that this subject is rapidly evolving as efforts to
control the pandemic continue.
Significance of Airborne Transmission
Transmission of respiratory infections through the
air is classified as direct contact (within a few meters)
or airborne (i.e., beyond a few meters). SARS-CoV-2 is
infectious until it degrades (inactivated), but it has not
been established how long the virus remains infectious
in air. Because viruses generally have a minimum dose
at which they cause infection and show a dose-response
relationship, health risk is related to concentration
in air and duration of exposure. These factors are not
known for SARS-CoV-2.
CDC and WHO guidelines for COVID-19 response
assume that the important routes of COVID-19 trans-
mission are direct contact with the patient, short-range
droplet exposure and transfer from surfaces where
aerosols have settled (fomites).2 Based on this assump-
tion, recommended response measures by public health
agencies are generally limited to social distancing,
face coverings, handwashing and surface sanitizing.
However, increasing evidence suggests that smaller
aerosols remain suspended in the air, where they
expose occupants (airborne transmission).
A group of Australian and Chinese researchers con-
cluded that there is now sufficient evidence of airborne
transmission of COVID-19 to justify improving ventila-
tion and filtration where this would reduce SARS-CoV-2

This peer-reviewed article does not represent official ASHRAE guidance. For more information on ASHRAE resources on COVID-19, visit ashrae.org/COVID19.
Photo: spatesphoto – stock.adobe.com
20 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

exposure,3 and ASHRAE has adopted that position.4
Environmental epidemiology provides the most direct
way to establish the significance of airborne trans-
mission in the spread of COVID-19 and the efficacy of
measures to limit airborne exposure. Environmental
epidemiological studies require collaboration between
engineers and health scientists to consider the location
and timing of cases and environmental conditions asso-
ciated with these.
The following epidemiological studies suggest airborne
transmission of COVID-19.
Poorly Ventilated Restaurant. A detailed engineer-
ing evaluation was performed of conditions at the
time of a COVID-19 outbreak at a restaurant in China.
After mapping case locations, conditions experienced
by both infected and unaffected customers and staff
were characterized. The role of different transmission
routes was evaluated by comparing factors influencing
exposure of the two groups. Findings from this study
included:
• Ten of the 73 restaurant customers were infected.
• Those 10 were seated at three adjacent tables on one
side of the dining room, approximately 1 m to 5 m (3 ft to
16 ft) from a customer who had just arrived from Wuhan
before community spread in the rest of China.
• HVAC consisted of five fan coil units (FCU) with no
outside air and exhaust fans (off at the time).
• Measured ventilation rates (infiltration only) were
an order of magnitude below ASHRAE Standard 62.1-
2019.
• Modeling of airflow patterns established that a
“bubble” was formed by each FCU, dividing the room
into five separate zones containing contaminants re-
leased in that zone.
• Modeling results also suggested that discharge from
the FCUs directed air in the breathing zone between
customers.
• The three impacted tables were within the same
zone.
• Air from the contaminated zone did not mix signifi-
cantly with the rest of the room, and no customers were
infected in those areas.
• Surveillance videos showed that close contact be-
tween individuals and fomite contact were not signifi-
cant.
Ed Light, CIH, is president, James Bailey, P.E., is vice president and Reid Lucas is a controls specialist at Building Dynamics in Savage, Md. Laurence Lee, CIH, is owner and founder
of Pacific Industrial Hygiene in Kirkland, Wash.
TECHNICAL FEATURE
• Waiters did have brief contact with infected custom-
ers, but that was insufficient to cause infection.
This study concluded that SARS-CoV-2 was trans-
mitted by a combination of close contact (i.e., drop-
let exposure within 2 m [7 ft]) and aerosol exposure
beyond that distance (extended short-range airborne).
Poor ventilation resulting in little dilution of the virus
was considered a very important factor. This study
cannot be used to draw general conclusions on the
prevalence of airborne transmission due to the atypi-
cal HVAC configuration. Lack of customer infection
in adjacent zones suggests that SARS-CoV-2 was suf-
ficiently isolated to prevent disease transmission. Lack
of waiter infection suggests that brief contact was not
sufficient to transmit COVID-19.5
Poorly Ventilated Bus. One hundred twenty-six peo-
ple traveled to a religious event in China in two buses,
each with a recirculating air-conditioning system (no
outside air). An infected individual from Wuhan was on
one of the buses. All passengers mixed with the infected
individual at a three-day religious event, along with 172
other attendees who had not been in the buses. Thirty
persons subsequently contracted COVID-19, and they
were classified as follows:
• No passengers on the bus without the infected indi-
vidual had COVID-19.
• Seven attendees who had not been in the buses
contracted COVID-19 but were in close contact with the
infected individuals during the event.
• Twenty-three riders on the bus with the passenger
from Wuhan were infected. By location, there were
more cases in individuals sitting beyond 2 m (7 ft) of the
infected passenger.6
Poorly Ventilated Conference Center. Also in China,
30 people attended a three-day event with an infected
individual from Wuhan in a building with poor ventila-
tion (HVAC cycled on only 15 minutes per four hours).
It was not determined who had been in close proxim-
ity to the infected individual, and thus within droplet
range. Fifteen attendees were subsequently infected.
Investigators concluded that some infections were due
to airborne exposure after comparing the infection
rate to similar outbreaks and that ineffective dilution
because of poor ventilation appeared to be a major
contributor.6
SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 21
TECHNICAL FEATURE
Well Ventilated Cruise Ship. Epidemiological inves-
tigation of the 696 COVID-19 cases aboard the Diamond
Princess provided an opportunity to evaluate the role
of a recirculating HVAC system that was reported to
be operating with ventilation rates consistent with
ASHRAE standards. Infection cases were classified
into three categories: (a) individuals interacting with-
out restriction (i.e., passengers prior to quarantine);
(b) passengers quarantined in their cabin with no
COVID-positive individuals present; and (c) pas-
sengers quarantined in their cabins where they were
directly exposed to an infected person. Infections only
occurred in categories (a) and (c). Passengers quaran-
tined in cabins free of infected individuals continued
to be exposed to recirculated air from spaces with
infection. The lack of cases in category (b) suggests that
circulation and dilution of air through the HVAC sys-
tem did not cause infection.7
Korean Call Center. All 1,145 occupants of an office/
apartment building were tested for COVID-19, and a
cluster of cases was found on one floor, a densely occu-
pied call center. There, 44% of the employees tested
positive, and 94% of those were located on one side of
the building. Only five cases were found on the rest of
the floor, where the majority of employees worked. Any
contact between occupants of the affected side of the
floor with the other employees was very brief. Uniform
spread throughout the affected area suggests there was
airborne transmission beyond direct contact. No infor-
mation was provided to determine the relationship
between case location and HVAC zoning.8
Other COVID-19 studies sampled SARS-CoV-2 in air
and on surfaces but did not correlate this with infection
patterns. While measured contaminant concentrations
established airborne exposure away from the infected
individual, it was not determined if this exposure trans-
mitted the infection to others.
Oregon Hospital. Surfaces were tested for SARS-CoV-2
inside a recirculating HVAC system with COVID-19
patients in some rooms. Sites with positive samples
included the prefilter receiving mixed air (return and
outside) and supply air dampers after filtration. These
recently reported results establish, for the first time,
that the virus can be transmitted through the HVAC
system. Analysis did not determine if the virus was still
infectious (airborne virus inactivates over time), and air
quality was not tested.9
22 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
Two Wuhan Hospitals. Airborne SARS-CoV-2 was
sampled at two Chinese hospitals and nearby outdoor
locations. Investigators classified some samples by parti-
cle size and estimated surface deposition rates. Findings
included:
• Virus was detected in the air at most sites with pa-
tients present.
• Concentrations were lower in the temporary
hospital, where air infiltration was greater than in the
permanent hospital.
• Elevated airborne concentrations were found in a
bathroom (potential fecal contribution).
• Deposition tests associated particle settling with
fomite contamination.
• Airborne virus settled on surfaces beyond the im-
mediate area surrounding the source and subsequently
resuspended, contributing to airborne exposure.
• Elevated air concentrations were measured in a
staff changing area with used personal protective equip-
ment (PPE) (suggesting resuspension of settled virus).
• Concentrations were lower in the staff changing
area after more rigorous sanitizing was instituted.
• Particle size distribution varied, with >1 micron
(droplets) dominating at one site, <1 micron (airborne)
dominating at another, and a third site equally divided
between droplets and small particles.
Investigators concluded that their findings supported
airborne transmission.10
Nebraska Hospital. This study also detected
SARS-CoV-2 in the air more than 2 m (7 ft) from the
patient, including in the adjacent hall.11 SARS-CoV-2
was not detected in the air around infected patients in
Singapore and Iranian hospitals. Insufficient informa-
tion was provided to determine if negative results were
due to methodological limitations.12,13
A similar virus to SARS-CoV-2 was artificially gener-
ated and measured for infectivity. Infectious virus was
detected after three hours in the air and three days on
surfaces.14 Another study found airborne virus infec-
tious after 12 hours.15
Sampling studies represent occupant exposure, but
not necessarily disease transmission. Most analyses cited
above were by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which
measures total SARS-CoV-2 RNA, including viruses that
have been inactivated and can no longer cause infection.
Methods are also available that measure only infectious
virus.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE

Research on Similar Viruses
To understand the spread of COVID-19, it is instructive
to review research on similar viruses. During the severe
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemic in 2003,
public health agencies and some researchers concluded
that respiratory infections were primarily spread by
direct exposure to droplets at close range. Other inves-
tigators, however, concluded that the disease was also
being spread by airborne transmission.
SARS in Hong Kong Hospital. Infections spread from
one patient (index case) to patients and medical stu-
dents in a ward with four rooms, each a separate HVAC
zone. Outside air was provided by a central system and
mixed with recirculated air from a fan coil unit (FCU)
in each room. Air was returned to each FCU from a hall
running adjacent to the rooms. A model of air distribu-
tion and bioaerosol was developed to estimate relative
concentrations of airborne virus by location. Simulated
exposures generally correlated with actual cases of
infection as follows:
• Twenty-one people were infected in the zone with
the index case. Some of these were within 3 m (10 ft) of
the index case, but others were further away.
• Eleven people were infected in the room across the
hall. Because the return grilles for each zone were near
each other in the hall, air mixed between zones.
• Approximately six people were infected in the two
rooms further down the hall. They return from the same
hall, but airborne virus would be more dilute.16
SARS in Apartment Building. In Hong Kong, a major
SARS outbreak was clustered within certain areas of an
apartment building. The location of infected individuals
was mapped and compared to environmental condi-
tions. Investigators found the disease pattern consistent
with airborne transmission. One suggested that sewer
gas was a contributor. Others concluded infection sites
occurred with typical air distribution in high-rise apart-
ment buildings.17,18
SARS in Airliner. A study of how respiratory infec-
tions spread on an airliner mapped the location
of passengers who developed infection in relation
to their distance from the index case (individual

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 TECHNICAL FEATURE

already infected). Passengers were classified as either
within 2 m (7 ft) or further away. An equal number of
infected passengers were seated near the index case
compared to those seated further away. The same
paper examined three flights with clusters of H1N1
(swine flu). Each flight showed different case pat-
terns, one with nearby passengers dominating and
the other two with similar numbers of nearby and
distant cases.19
Overall, these findings suggested that the spread of
SARS included airborne transmission.16
HVAC Operations
Ventilation
The studies cited above establish that SARS-CoV-2
can be airborne beyond the immediate vicinity of
an infected individual and that concentrations can
be diluted by increasing ventilation.20 SARS (2003
pandemic) investigators suggested that increased air
exchange may have reduced disease spread, but they
lacked information to support a minimum ventilation
rate.21,22 At least one investigator has suggested that
proper ventilation could play a key role in containing the
spread of COVID-19.23
Although window opening has been suggested as an
option to reduce the risk of COVID-19 transmission, no
studies related to this were available.
Air Distribution
The authors’ field evaluation of wall-mounted fan
coil units has identified situations where supply air
blows directly on occupants, potentially transmitting
virus from an infected individual to other occupants.
Our examination of airflow patterns reported in the
Guangzhuo restaurant outbreak study5 suggests that
this could have been a contributing factor. Air blowing
directly on surfaces can also resuspend settled aerosols
containing virus.10 Air distribution also determines
whether infectious droplets disperse or concentrate
locally. Relative pressurization can also contain or
spread contamination. No data were found relating air-
flow patterns to COVID-19 transmission.

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TECHNICAL FEATURE
Filtration
Newly reported surface sampling inside recirculat-
ing HVAC systems in an Oregon hospital provides an
indicator of filter efficiency. The amount of virus col-
lected on the prefilter, final filter and supply air damper
allows for comparison of virus in mixed air before and
after prefilters (MERV 10) and after discharge from the
final filters (MERV 15). The amount of virus collected on
surfaces decreased by approximately 70% after passing
through the prefilters but did not decrease further after
the final filters.9
A modeling study of influenza spread found that
higher efficiency air filters could lower flu infection
risk.24 Although COVID-19 response measures now
include installation of filters with higher MERV ratings,
there have been no studies to determine whether fil-
ter rating makes any difference in transmission of the
disease.
Experience suggests that, with appropriate design and
positioning, HEPA filtration units within a space could
potentially reduce SARS-CoV-2 exposure by directly
capturing air in the vicinity of infected patients or by
removing airborne virus near susceptible individuals.
However, designers must also be aware that discharge
air could also blow virus between occupants and resus-
pend settled virus from surfaces.
Air Disinfection
Ultraviolet (UV) light systems for infection control can
either be in the space (upper-room) or HVAC system (in-
duct). These systems are occasionally used in hospitals
to help control airborne infectious agents but are rarely
used in non-healthcare facilities.
Upper-room UV was found in one study to prevent the
spread of measles, mumps and chicken pox. However,
the authors also noted that it might not be effective in
the protection of susceptible individuals against other
pathogens.25 No studies were found related to the use of
UV to control SARS-CoV-2.
Humidity Control
Coronaviruses survive under dry conditions, and occu-
pants can be more susceptible to respiratory infection at
lower relative humidity (RH). Humidification has been
suggested as a means of controlling flu. Comparison of
initial COVID-19 cases by region or country suggested
that infection rates might be greater in areas with higher
26 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
humidity.26 However, COVID-19 also spread during ini-
tial stages of the pandemic in humid areas.27
Continuing high rates of COVID-19 in the United States
this summer further suggest that humidity is not an
important factor. The National Academy of Sciences con-
cluded that differences in humidity only explain a small
fraction of the overall variation in COVID-19 transmis-
sion rates.28
Wastewater
SARS-CoV-2 has been found in feces, urine, sewage,
toilet surfaces and air in restrooms. The release of drop-
lets containing virus from these sources is likely, but no
monitoring results were found.
Mechanical Hygiene
SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces inside HVAC systems was
recently documented where hospital systems recircu-
lated air in zones with COVID-19 patients. The virus was
detected on prefilters receiving mixed air, the surface of
final filters receiving air after prefiltration and supply
air dampers after the final filters.9 In an earlier study,
the surface of an exhaust outlet in a Singapore hospital
tested positive.12
Preliminary Conclusions
Further study is needed to determine whether HVAC
systems actually transmit COVID-19 infection and if
HVAC modifications can help control its spread. Review
of available information revealed very little detail in this
regard.
Airborne Transmission. Limited sampling has estab-
lished that SARS-CoV-2 is airborne and can expose (but
not necessarily infect) occupants well beyond 2 m (7 ft).
Recent findings further establish that the virus can cir-
culate through some HVAC systems. While several out-
breaks of COVID-19 infection have suggested airborne
transmission, these have generally been in areas with
poor ventilation, raising the possibility that dilution
by code-required building ventilation inhibits disease
transmission.
Ventilation. Increasing outdoor air dilutes the concen-
tration of airborne SARS-CoV-2. Minimum acceptable
ventilation rates have not been established for operation
of buildings where infected occupants may be present.
It is not known whether increasing ventilation rates
above ASHRAE minimums actually reduces disease

transmission. Natural ventilation has not been evaluated
with respect to COVID-19.
Air Distribution. Studies suggest that how air is
discharged and circulates within a space could be an
important factor determining whether exposure is suffi-
cient to cause disease. For example, wall-mounted FCUs
can discharge air into the breathing zone, potentially
directing virus to other occupants. Relative pressuriza-
tion can also contain or spread contamination. No field
data were available showing the impact of air distribu-
tion on COVID-19 exposure.
Filtration. Recently reported results of surface
sampling inside recirculating HVAC systems provide
an indicator of filter efficiency. Data suggest that a
MERV 10 prefilter reduced the amount of deposited
SARS-CoV-2 by approximately 70% and that a MERV
15 final filter may not have removed additional virus.
Insufficient field data are available to guide filter
selection for COVID-19. Filtration within the space
(i.e., portable HEPA units) could reduce virus expo-
sure in localized areas with appropriate design and
placement.
UV Disinfection. Although UV light has the potential
to reduce virus exposure in some situations, there are
insufficient data to support widespread application.
Humidity Control. It has been demonstrated that
coronaviruses survive longer and occupants are
more susceptible to respiratory infection in drier
conditions. Although COVID-19 initially spread in
areas with drier (i.e., winter) conditions, there was
also community spread in humid areas (i.e., tropi-
cal climates and southern hemisphere summer).
Continuing high rates of COVID-19 in the United
States this summer further suggest that humidity is
not an important factor. Available information does
not support humidification when the RH is below 40%
as a control for COVID-19.
Sewage. SARS-CoV-2 has been found in feces and
urine, making sewer gas and sewage a potential source
of exposure. Studies are needed to develop effective
strategies to avoid infecting occupants.
Mechanical Hygiene. SARS-CoV-2 has been detected
on surfaces inside recirculating HVAC systems. It is not
known if this can contaminate the airstream.
Recommendations for Expedited Research
Research is urgently needed to identify and
TECHNICAL FEATURE
implement cost-effective measures to operate build-
ings during the pandemic. While basic research can
take years, valuable data could be compiled much
faster using available epidemiology and by testing
buildings.
Environmental Epidemiology. Studies can suggest
the relative role played by the various routes of dis-
ease transmission and evaluate the efficacy of control
measures. To accomplish this, engineers and health
scientists collaborate to compile exposure factors
(i.e., ventilation, airflow patterns, filtration, occupant
density and spacing) to determine their relationship
with case location and timing. If outbreak investiga-
tions, contact tracing and evaluation of widespread
testing could include the collection of environmental
information, findings would help support the selec-
tion of HVAC response measures. Critical questions
that could be addressed by epidemiological studies
include:
• What do infection patterns suggest with respect to
the significance of airborne and fecal transmission as
the cause of infection?
• How do ventilation, air distribution and humidity
affect infection rates?
• How effective are various filtration and air disinfec-
tion measures in reducing exposure?
Field Studies. Valuable information can be produced
by sampling for contaminants in occupied buildings
for airborne and surface SARS-CoV-2 (both total RNA
copies and infectious virus). Comparison of data col-
lected in buildings with varying systems, uses and
infection rates would provide valuable information to
guide response efforts. Field measurements of particu-
lar value include:
• Concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 in air with recircu-
lating HVAC systems in spaces with and without infected
individuals;
• Both air and surface SARS-CoV-2 in ducts and air
units recirculating air from spaces with infected indi-
viduals;
• SARS-CoV-2 concentrations over time after removal
of infected occupants;
• SARS-CoV-2 in air over time in relation to opening
windows;
• SARS-CoV-2 concentration in air associated with
different ventilation rates and filter efficiencies;
• Pilot testing of space conditioning measures, such
SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 27
TECHNICAL FEATURE
as portable HEPA filtration and UV light; and
¥ SARS-CoV-2 exposure associated with sewage and
sewer gas.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to William Bahnfleth, Ph.D., P.E., chair,
ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force; Shelly Miller, Ph.D.,
P.E., University of Colorado; Lew Harriman, P.E.,
retired; Lidia Morawska, Ph.D., Queensland Institute
of Technology; Steve Taylor, P.E., Taylor Engineering;
and to Larry Schoen, P.E., Schoen Engineering; and
Bernard Fontaine, CIH, The Windsor Consulting
Group, for providing additional information and
suggestions.
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consultation on SARS-CoV-2 survival in relation
to temperature and humidity and the seasonality
for the COVID-19 pandemic.” National Academy https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
of Science. https://tnyurl.com/wvrgsz6. Rate this Column
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 TECHNICAL FEATURE

Improving IEQ
To Reduce Transmission
Of Airborne Pathogens
In Cold Climates
BY STEPHANIE H. TAYLOR, M.D.; C. MICHAEL SCOFIELD, FELLOW/LIFE MEMBER ASHRAE; PATRICIA T. GRAEF, P.E., FELLOW/LIFE MEMBER ASHRAE

Winter indoor environments in cold climates often stabilize at a low relative humid-
ity (RH) due to high outdoor air ventilation rates required for schools and high-occu-
pancy office buildings. Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is heavily impacted due to
the low RH. Recent studies have concluded that low indoor RH and reduced outdoor
air ventilation result in reduced student and worker productivity and increased
short-term sick leave.1,2 The variable air volume (VAV) design discussed in this article
uses adiabatic hydration (humidification) of all outdoor air during cold-dry ambient
conditions.

A 45°F (7°C) dew-point (DP) minimum supply to
core building VAV terminals will reduce fan energy
and room air change rate. Other studies have linked
artificially high air change rate with room air turbu-
lence within the human breathing zone, which may
lead to the projection of flu virus and other airborne
pathogens further from the primary human host and
result in infecting other room occupants.3 Air-to-air
heat exchangers are used to recover heat from build-
ing exhaust air that was generated by people, lights
and plug loads inside the building. Low-cost humidi-
fication is provided to the building using an adiabatic
This peer-reviewed article does not represent official ASHRAE guidance. For more information on ASHRAE resources on COVID-19, visit ashrae.org/COVID19.
cooler/humidifier (AC/H) in a central station air-han-
dling unit (AHU).
Air Hydration for Human Health and Well-Being
During the winter in cold climates, people spend at
least 85% of their time indoors,4 so it is not surprising
that the indoor environment exerts a powerful influ-
ence on occupants. Existing ASHRAE guidance refers to
managing indoor air to accommodate occupant comfort.
However, new data clearly show that occupant health, a
more pressing consideration than comfort for most of
us, is impacted by IEQ.5

30 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

FIGURE 1 Relative humidity of 40% to 60% is optimal for human health. Courtesy of Dr. Stephanie Taylor.

Virus (Lipid Membrane) High Infectivity of Pathogens Low Infectivity High Infectivity of Pathogens
Influenza, Coronavirus, RSV,
Parainfluenza., Measles, Rubella,
Herpes
Virus (Non-Lipid Membrane)

Bacteria (Gram Neg.)

Legionella (Aerosolized)

Bacteria (Gram Pos.)

Mycoplasma (No Cell Wall)

Human Illness from Infections Healthiest Humans Human Illness from Infections
Adult In-Patients (Acute Care)
Elderly Patients in Long-Term Care
Preschool Children
Poor Human Functioning Poor Human Functioning
Employee Productivity
Employee Sleep Quality

Student Learning

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Relative Humidity (%)

Indoor RH, especially in temperate climate winters,
can stabilize at dry levels of 20% or lower when cold
outdoor air is brought into a building and heated to
temperatures comfortable to lightly clothed people.
New research findings are revealing the magnitude of
occupant health problems associated with low indoor
RH. While many of these health issues have been noted
in the past,2 they are now receiving additional attention
because new data are reinforcing the significance of this
relationship.
Much of the new information about dry air and health
arises from a greater understanding of the coexistence
of microbes with humans. New medical diagnostic tests
implement tools used to sequence the human genome
in 2003. These tests can probe deeply into the causes
of acute infections, chronic inflammation and autoim-
mune disorders. These genetic analysis tests have given
rise to revolutionary information about the coexistence
of vast numbers of microbes, meaning bacteria, viruses
Stephanie H. Taylor M.D., is a Harvard Medical School Incite Health Fellow in Boston. Mike Scofield, P.E., is president, Conservation Mechanical Systems, Sebastopol, Calif., and is a
consultant to California Hydronics Corp., San Francisco. Patricia T. Graef, P.E., is retired and lives in Fort Myers, Fla.
and fungi, on and within our bodies.6
This information directly challenges our long-held
hygiene theory that microbes are disease-causing germs
that need to be eradicated as quickly as possible. We now
know that most microbes in our personal ecosystems,
called our microbiome, are not only beneficial to our
health, but are essential to human survival.
When humans occupy a building, they shed their
microbes from direct contact, skin flakes and expired
droplets into the built environment. Accumulated
occupant microbes combine with those from outdoor
sources, giving rise to dynamic microbial communi-
ties known as the building microbiome.7 This building
microbiome is further shaped by ongoing occupant
shedding, ventilation strategies and surface materials
(Figure 1). In addition:
¥ When indoor air is less than 40% RH, the effective,
natural immunological defenses of human airways, eyes
and skin are impaired. The loss of moisture from these

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 31

TECHNICAL FEATURE

tissues leaves occupants significantly FIGURE 2 In ambient RH of 50%, the respiratory system is optimally protected from Influenza A disease.8
more vulnerable to infectious, inflamma-
tory and allergic diseases8 (Figure 2).
• A dry air-environment with low RH Improved Mucociliary
carries more infectious bioaerosols than Clearance
hydrated air. Airborne pathogens stay
Enhanced Protection
buoyant and viable for longer periods of Induced by Interferon
time in dry atmospheres, and they can
be spread more readily within the indoor Decreased Inflammation
human breathing zone.9 and Tissue Damage Enhanced
Tissue
• For reasons still not completely Repair
understood, when ambient RH is low, the
viruses and bacteria in aerosolized drop- • Legionnaires’ disease outbreaks have focused the
lets are more virulent to a secondary host. 10 public’s attention on hazards associated with building
• Humans have a vast surface area that loses signifi- water and HVAC systems.
cant water to the environment through breathing and Nevertheless, we now know more clearly than ever that
skin exposure.11 In dry air, this insensible water losses dry interior environments are harmful to our health,
result in mild dehydration that stresses brain func- productivity and learning.
tioning,12 impairs natural respiratory tract immunity Adding water vapor to hydrate indoor air to 40% to 60%
(discussed above), decreases skin health and wound RH benefits occupants in several ways. First, balanced
healing13 and overstimulates blood clotting, which is air-hydration directly supports healthy and functional
associated with poorer outcomes of heart attacks and skin and mucosal barriers8 necessary to resist invading
strokes.14 pathogens and facilitate appropriate immune system
In summary, dry indoor air is harmful to occupant responses to microbes. In addition, properly hydrated
health by causing skin and mucus membrane water air reduces skin production of unhealthy stress hor-
losses and by creating building conditions that foster the mones,16 improves cognitive abilities, which increase
survival and transmission of pathogenic microbes. Thus, employee productivity and student learning17 and sup-
ventilation choices clearly link human health to the built ports healthy eye physiology. Additionally, RH of 40% to
environment. Despite these findings of harm, under- 60% fosters a building microbiome with communities of
standing and remediating dry indoor environments has diverse microorganisms, which are beneficial to human
been largely overlooked by both building and clinical health.
professionals. The reasons for this are several-fold: Despite the health benefits from balanced indoor air
• While the temperature of surrounding air is imme- hydration, there are building-related concerns about
diately evident to nerve endings in our skin, the degree providing indoor humidification. Water in buildings,
of dryness is not felt and, therefore, is not experienced even in the form of vapor, generally has a bad reputa-
as discomfort. 15 tion because poorly insulated building envelopes or cold
• Acute infections from pathogens that we now know surfaces can allow unintended condensation to occur.
are transmitted via airborne infectious aerosols in dry Building owners and managers worry about this con-
air have historically been incorrectly attributed to con- densation and associated mold growth.
tact transmission routes alone. While liquid water will support mold growth, water in
• Chronic illnesses associated with dry air often arise the vapor form will not because fungal organisms are not
slowly and, therefore, are not immediately associated hygroscopic when the RH is between 40% and 60%.18 The
with low humidity indoor environments. effective and rational solution to inhibit mold growth,
• Providing humidification requires dedicated HVAC therefore, is to adequately insulate cold building surfaces
equipment (humidifiers) that must be run (using water and use vapor barriers to prevent high water activity in
and energy) and maintained (by human attention) for interstitial spaces. The result should not be an overdry
safety. indoor environment that compromises occupant health.

32 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

TECHNICAL FEATURE

Wet
-B ulb 200
FIGURE 3 The Sea Level Psychrometric Chart shows the boundary of Climate Tem
Zones 1, 2 and 3 for the 22 cities listed in Table 1. All ambient conditions in p erat
ure—
Climate Zone 1 require supplemental heat to produce a 45°F dew-point (DP) °F
180
building delivery with 100% outdoor air. Climate Zone 2, between 23°F dry bulb
(DB) and 45°F wet bulb (WB) are ambient conditions where a high sensible
efficiency heat wheel may be used to deliver a 45°F DP off the adiabatic cooler/
humidifier (AC/H) without supplemental heating. In Figure 4, Dampers A and 80 160
B modulate to produce a 45°F WB mixed-air condition delivered to the AC/H
with all outdoor air. Climate Zone 3 contains all the ambient conditions between

Humidity Ratio—Grains of Moisture Per Pound of Dry Air

45°F WB and 55°F WB when the heat wheel is off and bypassed on the supply 140
side with Damper B open and Damper A closed. In Climate Zone 3 all outdoor air
is cooled and hydrated to a leaving air condition that is allowed to float between
45°F DP to 55°F DP. Sensible cooling is produced with a cooling energy efficiency 120
ratio (EER) ranging between 80 to 100 with refrigeration off. 70

RH
60%
100

RH
60 80

40%
45°F DP
Room Target Range 70°F – 75°F DB
40% – 60% RH 60
50

45°F DP/DB/WB Room Load 45°F DP

40 40
Hum Adiaba 55°
idifi tic FW
45° cati B
Seattle Winter Design 30 FW on Outdoor Air Hydration
23°F DB/22.1°F WB Climate Zone 2 B
Climate Zone 3 20
Supplemental Heat Heat Recovery 5°F DP
Climate Zone 1
10 23°F 30 40 50 60 70°F 75°F 80 90 100 110 120
Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)

A Wet-Bulb Heat Recovery Economizer
For more than three decades, air-to-air heat exchang-
ers have been used to recover building generated heat
and comply with the minimum winter ventilation
requirements of ASHRAE Standard 62.1.19 These con-
ventional systems use the VAV 55°F (13°C) air delivery
setpoint of the building. Figure 3 demonstrates a novel
method to deliver 70°F (21°C) air at 40% relative humid-
ity using heat recovery and adiabatic cooling/humidifi-
cation (AC/H).
Since VAV systems operate at their lowest flow rates
on the coldest days, heat recovery from the building
is required to furnish the code-minimum outdoor air
to the building. The code minimum airflow rate may
be more than that needed at 45°F (7°C) DB to meet the
cooling load in core conference rooms and north-facing
perimeter zones (in the northern hemisphere). VAV ter-
minal reheat will be required for those mixing boxes.
ASHRAE Research Project RP-1515 demonstrated that,
with good aspirating ceiling diffusers, the turndown of
a VAV terminal to 10% flow will not lose flow control and
will not result in “dumping” of cold air into the space.
On the contrary, overcooling complaints in the buildings
tested went down, eliminating cold room issues while
saving fan energy.20
In many northern hemisphere cold climates, high-rise
buildings with south-facing glass experience design
cooling loads in January and February due to the low
angle of the sun and the radiant energy on the south-
facing side of the building.21 A 45°F (7°C) DB delivery
to these VAV terminals will provide comfortable indoor
environments with reduced fan energy during these
peak cooling loads.
When we can hold indoor RH in winter at a minimum
of 40%, room thermostat setpoints may be reduced
to 70°F (21°C) or lower, saving heating energy. This

34 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

TABLE 1 Bin weather data distribution for 22 northern U.S. cities, listing the total annual hours and percent of annual hours where heat recovery and adiabatic cooling and
humidification may be used to furnish 100% outdoor air, without supplemental heating energy (Climate Zones 2 and 3 in Figure 3), to produce a 45°F to 55°F dew-point
(DP) building delivery condition. The building duty cycle is assumed to be 24/7/365, and the VAV fan turndown is 50% of full flow during cold ambient conditions.
CITY, STATE ELEVATION CLIMATE ZONE 1 CLIMATE ZONE 2 CLIMATE ZONE 3
(FT) PREHEAT REQUIRED FOR 100% HUMIDIFICATION WITHOUT PREHEAT WITH 100% HUMIDIFICATION OF 100% OUTDOOR AIR WITHOUT
OUTDOOR AIR OUTDOOR AIR AND HEAT RECOVERY PREHEAT OR REFRIGERATION
WET-BULB RANGE 45F TO 55F
HOURS % HOURS % HOURS %

Boise, ID* 2,996 225 2.6% 4,214 48.1% 3,050 34.8%

Chicago, IL 658 692 7.9% 4,272 48.8% 1,304 14.9%
Des Moines, IA 938 903 10.3% 3,797 43.3% 602 6.9%
Boston, MA 133 619 7.1% 3,879 44.3% 1,419 16.2%
Detroit, MI 583 709 8.1% 3,824 43.7% 1,287 14.7%
Grand Rapids, M 841 721 8.2% 3,851 44.0% 1,276 14.6%
St. Paul, MN 834 1,404 16.0% 3,236 36.9% 1,166 13.3%
Billings, MT* 3,567 822 9.4% 4,618 52.7% 1,968 22.5%
Great Falls, MT* 3,525 1,016 11.6% 4,820 55.0% 2,224 25.4%
Buffalo, NY 590 520 5.9% 4,050 46.2% 1,331 15.2%
Bismarck, ND* 1,647 1,772 20.2% 3,297 37.6% 1,822 20.8%
Grand Forks, ND 911 2,138 24.4% 3,159 36.1% 1,192 13.6%
Cleveland, OH* 1,208 504 5.8% 3,804 43.4% 1,340 15.3%
Columbus, OH 824 472 5.4% 3,386 38.7% 1,248 14.2%
Harrisburg, PA 308 242 2.8% 3,642 41.6% 1,302 14.9%
Pittsburgh, PA* 1,137 491 5.6% 3,575 40.8% 1,365 15.6%
Rapid City, SD* 3,276 961 11.0% 4,320 49.3% 1,989 22.7%
Sioux Falls, SD* 1,418 1,351 15.4% 3,280 37.4% 1,789 20.4%
Seattle, WA* 47 18 0.2% 3,814 43.5% 2,747 31.4%
Spokane, WA* 2,462 291 3.3% 4,718 53.9% 3,026 34.5%
Madison, WI 858 1,018 11.6% 3,612 41.2% 1,187 13.6%
Casper, WY* 5,338 827 9.4% 4,841 55.3% 2,539 29.0%
22 Northern Cities Average 9.2% 44.6% 19.3%
*Western cities and cities at high altitude.
Reference Ecodyne. 1980. Climate Data Handbook. McGraw-Hill.

is because the skin evaporation rate for humans is
lower at 40% RH compared to 20% RH. The percep-
tion of comfort is better for the zone occupant at lower
indoor temperatures and lower VAV box flow rates.
Cold-climate buildings often include a radiant heat-
ing system around the building perimeter to treat
cold exterior walls and to raise the room mean radiant
temperature (MRT). This separate heating system will
also allow exterior space zones to reduce the room set
temperature.
The psychrometric chart in Figure 3 shows the heat
recovery process (red line) provided by a high-efficiency
sensible heat wheel. The adiabatic process (blue line) of
a high saturation efficiency AC/H provides the outdoor
air hydration to the 45°F (7°C) DP. The high efficiency
of the adiabatic device is critical. With a 95% wet-
bulb depression efficiency (WBDE) adiabatic device,
the leaving DB can be accurately measured and will
always be within 1°F (0.6°C) of the leaving DP condi-
tion. Commercial grade DP (enthalpy) sensors are not

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 35

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recommended for this FIGURE 4 VAV unit schematic and description of components and controls.
application because when
EA
installed in an air duct after Damper C
a humidifier, they require
frequent maintenance and
calibration.22

AFS
RA

PF
With normal room load

Heat Wheel
VAV-EAF Damper D
lines in high-occupancy
buildings, such as class-
rooms, the room target of

CW Coil
HW Coil

AC/H

AFS
SA

FF
40% to 60% room RH can be
maintained. PF
Damper B VAV-SAF
VAV Central Station
Damper A
Air-Handling Unit OA
OA
Figure 4 shows a schematic
layout of a VAV central sta- Heat Wheel Air-to-air heat exchanger selected at 75% sensible Dampers A and B: These dampers modulate to deliver a
effectiveness at full cfm flow. More humid climates with many 45°F DP to the building during ambient conditions in Climate
tion air-handling unit, ambient hours above a 55°F dew point (DP) would select an Zone 2 (Figure 3) by mixing all outdoor air to produce a 45°F WB
which positions the heat enthalpy heat wheel. mixed-air condition delivered to the AC/H.
AC/ H: An adiabatic cooler/humidifier selected at 90% or higher Dampers A and C: Shut-off dampers for night and weekend
wheel between the build- wet-bulb depression efficiency (WBDE) at full cfm flow. Delivery building shutdown.
ing return air (RA) and the air dry bulb (DB) should be within 1°F of the delivery DP after Damper D: This damper is open during morning warm-up and
adiabatic humidification when the VAV flow is 50% of full flow prehumidification (Figure 5) of the building after night or weekend
outdoor air (OA). The heat during cold ambient conditions. Hydration of cold-dry winter shutdown with Dampers A, B and C closed and the heat wheel off.
wheel is sized for full cool- outdoor air is shown in Figure 3.
AFS: Airflow sensors for building pressurization and verification
ing airflow requirements HW Coil: Hot water coil is the heating source for maintaining of ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019.
a minimum 45°F DP delivery condition to the building during
and selected at a 75% sensi- extreme cold ambient conditions (see Climate Zone 1, Table 1). PF and FF: Pre and final filters.
ble effectiveness. As airflow CW Coil: Chilled water cooling coil to maintain a minimum 55°F VAV-SAF and VAV-EAF: Variable air volume supply air fan and
delivered DB temperature to the building, after heat recovery of exhaust air fan for the air-handling unit (AHU).
requirements are reduced the outdoor air, at ambient conditions above 55°F DP and above
during cold outdoor con- 55°F wet bulb (WB).
ditions, the effectiveness
of the sensible heat wheel opens to provide enough sensible cooling to hold the
increases to 87% at 50% of rated airflow. This is due to delivery setpoint at 55°F (13°C) DB.
the reduced mass flow through the fixed surface and For humid climates with a significant number of
increased “dwell time.” hours above 55°F (13°C) DP, it is advantageous to use
During cold outdoor conditions, with Damper C open an enthalpy heat wheel (total heat wheel) as well as an
and Damper D closed, Dampers A and B modulate to airside economizer and minimum outdoor air. ASHRAE
deliver 45°F (7°C) DB off the AC/H using 100% outdoor Standard 62.1-2019 can be met by modulating Dampers
air. The hot water coil (HW) adds supplemental heat A and D with Damper B closed when the outdoor air
during extreme cold conditions below 23°F (–5°C) DB. temperature is above 75°F (24°C) DB. An outdoor airflow
When Damper A is closed and Damper B is 100% open, sensor (AFS) is needed at Damper A. The total enthalpy
the heat wheel is bypassed, and the supply-side static wheel is activated to lower the temperature and humid-
pressure penalty for heat recovery is eliminated. As the ity of the warm outdoor ventilation air.
supply air temperatures off the AC/H start to rise above The AFS is used to verify ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019
45°F (7°C), the VAV 100% outdoor air supply fan speeds minimum required outdoor ventilation air to the build-
up to satisfy the interior cooling load at the higher deliv- ing, which also maintains building positive pressure.
ery temperature. When the delivery temperature to the The AC/H is selected for design airflow and a 90%
building exceeds 55°F (13°C), the refrigeration system minimum WBDE. The maximum static pressure pen-
is enabled, and the chilled water cooling coil (CW) valve alty should be 0.14 in. w.g. (35 Pa). This selection will

38 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

210
200

FIGURE 5 The Prehumidification and Morning Warm-Up Psychrometric 85 190

process using building recirculated air to recharge moisture capaci- 180
tance before building occupancy after night or weekend building
shutdown. Reheat may be provided, as needed, at the air-handling unit Wet- 170
or at the VAV terminal box. B ulb T
80 emp 160
eratu
re—°
F 150

Humidity Ratio—Grains of Moisture Per Pound of Dry Air

140
75
130
120
70
110
100
65
90
60 80
Reheat 55°F DP 70
55
55° 60
50 FW
B
50
45
Hum Adiaba Hydration
40 idifi tic 40
cati
35 on
30
30 RH
25 20% 19°F DP 20
Preheat 10

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60°F 65 70 75 80°F 86°F 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)

increase to a 95% WBDE at 50% of design airflow, while humidity to drop to 20% or lower, especially after week-
the static pressure will decrease to 0.05 in. w.g. (12 Pa). end or holiday shutdown periods. Morning warm-ups
The marriage of the heat wheels and AC/H in a VAV should include building prehumidification prior to
design results in significant energy savings because building occupancy.
effectiveness increases and the parasitic losses decrease The AC/H component may be used with recirculated
with reduced air mass flow. The building owner benefits building air to prehumidify the building. Figure 5 shows
from the increased energy exchange efficiency and out- the psychrometric process for humidification of the
door air hydration during cold weather. building return air. In Figure 4, Dampers A, B and C are
closed, and the heat wheel is off with Damper D open
Morning Building Prehumidification and the VAV supply fan on. The reheat after the AC/H
And Warm-Up Control Strategy may be provided by a coil downstream of the AC/H in the
In cold climates, it is customary for buildings with day- AHU or by the VAV terminal reheat coils in each zone of
time-only duty cycles to schedule a “morning warm-up” the building.
cycle after night, holiday or weekend shutdowns, when A column from the September 2017 issue of ASHRAE
indoor temperatures are allowed to drop to 60°F (16°C) Journal entitled “It’s All Relative”23 explains the mecha-
or lower to save energy. Moisture migration from the nism by which vapor may be stored inside buildings
building during shutdown often allows indoor relative on hygroscopic materials. Water vapor molecules are

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 39

TECHNICAL FEATURE
stacked in the vapor state on these indoor “storage
surfaces” and are released to the room when there is a
drop in room relative humidity. This “building capaci-
tance for moisture storage” may be replenished after
night shutdown during the morning prehumidification
control cycle. The daytime release of the water vapor
molecules indoors will allow the building to maintain a
much more stable indoor relative humidity level during
building occupancy.
Key to Control:
Rigid Media Adiabatic Evaporative Cooler/Humidifier
The rigid media evaporative cooler/humidifier AC/H
is a very simple device that can consistently cool and
humidify the air very close to the saturation line over
a wide range of airflows. The media efficiency changes
little with variations in water flow, so there is no need
to modulate the amount of water supplied to the
media to maintain downstream conditions. Earlier
discussions explained how conditions are controlled
by dew point. Figure 6 is an illustration of the wet sec-
tion of a wetted media AC/H that shows all the critical
components.
Since all evaporation of water occurs from the surface
of the media, there is no excess, unevaporated water
carried downstream. Only water vapor is added to the
air. Contaminants in the water, such as minerals, stay in
the recirculated water and are flushed out by continuous
bleed and/or regular flush and dump cycles.
During operation, the AC/H naturally cools the water
down to the wet-bulb temperature of the air. For this
design, the wet-bulb temperature is between 45°F (7°C)
to 55°F (13°C). Legionella bacteria is dormant when the
water temperature is below 77°F (25°C). When the water
temperature is 77°F (25°C) to 108°F (42°C), it is favorable
for Legionella bacteria growth.24
Maintenance of the AC/H is simple:
• If necessary, use nonoxidizing biocides approved by
the media manufacturer and the authority having juris-
diction. Oxidizing biocides such as chlorine will destroy
the media.
• The media, water distribution and sump should be
flushed quarterly.
• Monthly inspection of the media, water distribution
and sump will warn the team if more frequent cleaning
is necessary. Quarterly cleaning is usually sufficient if
the air has been filtered and the water is of good quality.
40 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
FIGURE 6 Adiabatic evaporative cooler humidifier section that illustrates the oper-
ation of the device. Water is stored in the tank below the media or in a remote
reservoir. The pump circulates the water over the evaporative media. Air passes
through the channels of the media where evaporation occurs. The media is made
from a porous substrate that provides an extended surface for efficient evapora-
tion. Water that is not evaporated returns to the sump where it can be filtered
and recirculated over the media. A portion of the water is discharged to drain to
keep contaminants from concentrating in the water or depositing on the media.
The float valve makes up water that was used for evaporation and bleedoff.
Distribution Header
Evaporative
Media
Float Fill
Valve
Bleed Line
Submersible Pump
Overflow
Drain
• Monthly, verify that the makeup valve is adjusted
and functioning properly.
• Monthly, check the water conductivity or total dis-
solved solids to ensure there is sufficient bleedoff.
• Annually, calibrate the conductivity controller if one
is installed.25
Bin Weather Analysis of 22 Northern U.S. Cities
Figure 3 shows the heat recovery/humidification psy-
chrometric chart split into three cold weather climate
zones for ambient wet-bulb (WB) conditions below 55°F
(13°C). The control sequence for the VAV-AHU when
ambient WB is 45°F (7°C) to 55°F (13°C) would be to
allow the AC/H to generate a range of saturated delivery
DP conditions from 45°F (7°C) to 55°F (13°C). The refrig-
eration is off in Climate Zones 1 to 3. In Climate Zone 3,
all outdoor air would be furnished to the AC/H through
Damper B with Dampers A and D closed. The heat wheel
would be off, and the supply-side parasitic loss would be
shunted out of the system. The AC/H cooling in Climate
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Indoor Unit Outdoor Unit N-Generation
TECHNICAL FEATURE
Zone 3 has energy efficiency ratios (EERs) that approach
100.
Building ventilation rates would be far in excess of
the ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019 minimum outdoor
air requirements of 15 cfm/person (7 L/s per person) at
the higher VAV delivery temperatures. Room RH in the
range of 40% to 60% would be maintained. Table 1 shows
for the northern cities that an average of 44.6% of annual
hours land in Climate Zone 2. The heat wheel is able to
transfer the heat required to maintain the 45°F (7°C) DP
delivery off the AC/H unit with 100% outdoor air through
the modulation of Dampers A and B to reach the 45°F
(7°C) WB condition.
Only 9.2% of the average annual hours reside in
Climate Zone 1, requiring additional heating by the hot
water coil to meet the 45°F (7°C) DP condition for a tar-
get value of 40% RH in the building.
Clearly, western U.S. climates and arid climates at
higher altitudes benefit the most from this VAV design
strategy for hydration of outdoor air.
Seattle Simple Payback Through
Humidification Cost Avoidance
The factory-installed cost of a high-performance heat
wheel and a 12 in. (305 mm) deep rigid media AC/H
is estimated to be $68,000 ($1.70/supply cfm) for a
40,000 cfm (18 878 L/s) custom AHU costing $267,350.
For Seattle, hours per year at each average dry bulb
(ADB) and mean coincident wet-bulb (MCWB) condi-
tions, were used to estimate humidification energy
avoidance provided by the heat wheel in Climate Zones
1, 2 and 3.
Not included in this energy avoidance are the fan
energy savings in Climate Zone 2 and 3 when the VAV
delivery temperature to the building is below the
conventional 55°F (13°C) DB setpoint. If the VAV ter-
minal boxes in the building are set to satisfy the room
cooling load at 55°F (13°C) delivery temperature,
temperatures lower than 55°F (13°C) will result in
reduced fan flow into and out of each core zone where
the cooling load is fairly constant. A typical or aver-
age ambient condition for Climate Zones 2 and 3 in
Seattle is the bin temperature of 47°F (8°C) ADB/45°F
(7°C) MCWB. The VAV box delivery to the core zones
would be approximately 45°F (7°C) DB at 45°F (7°C)
DP. If the room target temperature is 75°F (24°C)
DB, then the airflow to that zone would be reduced
42 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
by 33.3% compared to a 55°F (13°C) supply air tem-
perature delivery. Since there are 6,561 hours/year
in Climate Zone 2 and 3, fan energy savings would be
significant.
Using the same Seattle bin condition of 47°F (8°C)
ADB/45°F (7°C) MCWB and assuming a 50% VAV flow
of 20,000 cfm (9439 L/s) over the 2,747 hours/year in
Climate Zone 3, given a central plant cooling energy
consumption at 0.8 kW/ton (0.2 kW/kW) of cooling,
we can estimate sensible cooling energy avoidance in
Climate Zone 3 at 40,289.33 kWh/year. At the Seattle
electrical energy cost of $0.108 per kWh, avoided cooling
energy is estimated to be $4351.24 per year.
Assuming that the average VAV supply fan flow is
50% of full VAV flow for all ambient conditions in
Climate Zones 1, 2 and 3, the boiler energy avoided
through heat recovery is estimated at 71,263 therms
when a boiler and piping loss factor of 0.8 is applied.
The approximate value of the annual avoided energy
at a Seattle energy cost of $1.127/therm would be
$80,313.40. If the factory cost for heat recovery and
adiabatic humidification components is increased by
25% to reflect the sales representative and mechanical
contractor’s markup, the simple payback for a deliv-
ered heat wheel and AC/H would be 1.06 years. Other
west coast cities such as Vancouver, Portland and San
Francisco will reflect similar paybacks for avoided
humidification energy.
More difficult to assess in Climate Zone 3 is the value
to a building owner of increasing the outdoor air venti-
lation rate above the minimum code requirement of 15
cfm/person (7 L/s/person) required by ASHRAE Standard
62.1-2019. Studies have attempted to assign a value to
increased worker productivity and the reduction in
short-term sick leave absence due to better outdoor air
ventilation.1
As a check against the bin hour method tabulation
shown in Table 1, Seattle TMY2 hour-by-hour typical
year points may be overlaid on the psychrometric chart
(Figure 7). There are zero hours in Climate Zone 1, 3,836
hours in Climate Zone 2 and 3,231 in Climate Zone 3 or
a total of 80.7% of the annual Seattle hours. Hydration
and sensible cooling of 100% outdoor air are produced at
a very low energy cost for Climate Zones 2 and 3. Central
refrigeration plants may be shut down for Climate Zones
2 and 3 climate conditions, the majority of which occur
in the spring, winter and fall.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE

Wet 200
-B ulb
Tem
FIGURE 7 Seattle TMY2, hour by hour, typical year ambient conditions p erat
ure—
overlay on Figure 3. In Climate Zone 1 there are zero annual hours. °F 180
There are 3,836 hours per year between 23°F DB and 45°F WB. There
are 3,231 annual hours from 45°F WB to 55°F WB, or a total of 80.7%
of the year, that the adiabatic cooler/humidifier can furnish beneficial
outdoor air humidification without the assistance of the hot water coil 80 160
in the central station unit and provide energy-efficient sensible cooling
without refrigeration.

Humidity Ratio—Grains of Moisture Per Pound of Dry Air

140

120
70

100

RH
60%

RH
60 80

40%
Room Target Range 70°F – 75°F DB
DB 40% – 60% RH
60
50
45°F DP/DB/WB Room Load
Adia 45°F DP 40
Seattle Winter Design 40 bati
cH 55°
23°F DB/22.1°F WB umi FW
30 dific B Outdoor Air Hydration
ati o
23°F n
20 Heat Recovery 20

20°F DP
Climate Zone 1 Climate Zone 2 Climate Zone 3
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)

During the spring and fall outdoor air often contains refrigerant. Water vapor released to the atmosphere
large amounts of airborne pollens that can cause aller- returns to the earth as rain, sleet or snow.
gies in susceptible humans. Pollen ranges in size from
10 microns to 100 microns and should be removed Conclusions
from the outdoor air before it is supplied to the Through the 50 years that VAV systems have been used
building. in the HVAC industry for commercial building air-con-
When wet, the 12 in. (305 mm) deep rigid media ditioning systems, the use of airside economizers to save
pads in the AC/H have 90% or better removal efficiency heating and cooling energy have often compromised
of pollen spores larger than 10 microns in diameter. the fresh air fraction being furnished to meet code or
AC/Hs are often referred to as “wet scrubbers.” ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and have wasted energy.26 Dry
The use of air-to-air heat exchangers (sensible heat indoor conditions in winter have led to an increase
wheels) and rigid media AC/Hs are key to the success in respiratory infections and the spread of airborne
of this system including ease of control, environ- pathogens such as the influenza virus. IEQ and VAV had
mental health, energy savings and low maintenance. become two mutually exclusive acronyms.
Refrigerant 718, better known by its chemical formula This VAV design offers the hydration of all outdoor
H2O, has zero global warming potential (GWP), is inex- air in cold climates and offers resiliency in the face of
pensive, nonflammable, nontoxic and is a sustainable climate change. In the future, more and more annual

44 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 MANUFACTURED
IN ROCKMART, GA

hours are expected to move from Zone 1 into Zones 2 and

3 shown in Figure 3. If the building being analyzed has
less than a 24/7/365 duty cycle, daytime ambient condi-
tions in cold climates will have more ambient hours in
Zones 2 and 3.
There appears to be a direct correlation between low
WE DONÕT PUT
indoor RH and artificially high air change rates with the YOUR EGGS IN
spread of airborne pathogens in winter. If we can cost ONE BASKET
effectively maintain a 40% to 60% indoor RH in win-
ter while simultaneously reducing supply and return/
exhaust VAV fan energy costs, why not do it? Quoting
another ASHRAE Journal author from a recent column,
“...but for most building types, we have yet to find any
that perform better on a life-cycle cost basis than a ‘well
designed’ VAV system.”27 When it comes to your steam generation needs,
keeping all your eggs in one basket by relying
on a single firetube boiler can be a huge risk,
COVID-19 Pandemic and ASHRAE because if your boiler goes down, chances
Best Practices for Mitigation are you will lose production. Miura’s Modular,
After the substantial completion of this article On-Demand steam solution is like having every
egg in its own basket. Plus, Miura provides N+1
and prior to its publication, an ASHRAE Epidemic redundancy with less total installed horsepower,
Task Force was formed that is chaired by William P. providing cost savings and unparalleled
Bahnfleth, Ph.D., P.E., Presidential Member/Fellow reliability and efficiency.
ASHRAE. At that time, the SARS-CoV-2 virus had
shown itself to be an airborne pathogen easily spread
indoors by an infectious aerosol. The Epidemic Task
Force recommends the following steps to mitigate the
spread of COVID-19 indoors.
• Air-handling systems that permit building air recir-
culation should increase outdoor air ventilation above
code minimums, and consider installing MERV 13 filters
if they are not in place.
• Control indoor relative humidity between 40% to
60% RH. Miura’s LX-300 in M.I. configuration
• Flush the building prior to occupancy with all offers a range of advantages.

outdoor air to remove any residual infectious aerosols

indoors.
The authors would like to point out that all three of
these remedial actions are addressed in this article. The Turn-Key Boiler Room Solutions
section entitled “Morning Building Prehumidification
Full Steam in Under Five Minutes
and Warm-Up Control Strategy” would need to be
accomplished with all outdoor air in lieu of recirculated Optimum In-Service Efficiency
air. Online Monitoring Systems

Acknowledgments us.info@miuraz.com
The authors would like to thank United Metal Products 888.309.5574
of Tempe, Ariz., for their assistance in providing cus- miuraboiler.com
tom air-handling unit costs for the direct evaporative

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 45

TECHNICAL FEATURE

cooling/humidification and sensible heat wheel air-to-
air heat recovery systems under consideration.
References
1. Seppänen, O., W.J. Fisk, O.H. Lee. 2006. “Ventilation and
performance in office work.” Indoor Air 16(1):28 – 36.
2. Sterling, E.M., A. Arundel, T.D. Sterling. 1985. “Criteria for
human exposure to humidity in occupied buildings.” ASHRAE
Transactions 91(1):611 – 621.
3. Pantelic, J., K.W. Tham. 2013. “Adequacy of air change rate
as the sole indicator of an air distribution system’s effectiveness
to mitigate infectious disease transmission caused by a cough
release in the room with overhead mixing ventilation: a case study.”
HVAC&R Research 19(8):947 – 961.
4. Klepeis, N.E., C.W. Nelson, W.R. Ott, J.P. Robinson, et al. 2001.
“The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource
for assessing exposure to environmental
pollutants.” Journal of Exposure Analysis and
Environmental Epidemiology 11(3):231 – 252.
5. Taylor, S., M. Tasi. 2018. “Low indoor-
air humidity in an assisted living facility is
correlated with increased patient illness and
cognitive decline.” Proceedings ISIAQ 744:1 – 8.
6. Gilbert, J.A., M.J. Blaser, J.G.
Caporaso, J.K. Jansson, et al. 2018. “Current
understanding of the human microbiome.”
Nature Medicine Review 24(4):392 – 400.
7. Gilbert, J.A., B. Stephens. 2018.
“Microbiology of the built environment.”
Nature Reviews, Microbiology 16(8):661 – 670.
8. Kudo, E., E. Song, L.J. Yockey, T. Rakib,
et al. 2019. “Low ambient humidity impairs
barrier function and innate resistance against
influenza infection.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Science 116(22): 10905–10910.
9. Reiman, J.M., B. Das, G.M.Sindberg,
M.D Urban, et al. 2018. “Humidity as a non-
pharmaceutical intervention for influenza
A.” PLoS ONE 13(9).
10. Lowen, A.C., J. Steel. 2014. “Roles
of humidity and temperature in
shaping influenza seasonality.” Journal of
Virology 88(14):7692 – 7695.
11. Taylor, A.S., C. Machado-Moreira. 2013.
“Regional variations in transepidermal
water loss, eccrine sweat gland density,
sweat secretion rates and electrolyte
composition in resting and exercising
humans.” Extreme Physiology & Medicine. 2. 4.
https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-7648-2-4.
12. Pross, N. 2017. “Effects of dehydration
on brain functioning: a life-span
perspective.” Annals of Nutrition and
Metabolism 70(suppl 1):30 – 36.
13. Junker, J., et al. 2013. “Clinical impact
upon wound healing and inflammation in
moist, wet, and dry environments.” Advances
in Wound Care 2(7): 348 – 356.
14. Galson, S.K. 2008. “Prevention of
deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary
embolism.” Public Health Reports
123(4):420 – 421.
15. Sunwoo, Y., C. Chou, J. Takeshita,
M. Murakami, et al. 2006. “Physiological
and subjective responses to low relative
humidity in young and elderly men.” Journal
of Physiological Anthropology 25(3):229 – 238.
16. Zhu, G., Z. Janjetovic, A. Slominski.
2014. “On the role of environmental

46 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

humidity on cortisol production by epidermal keratinocytes.” “Survival of a Pseudomonas fluorescens and Enterococcus
Experimental Dermatology 23(1):15 – 17. faecalis aerosol on inert surfaces.” International Journal
17. Zimmerman, E. 2017. “Influence of temperature, relative of Food Microbiology 55(1 – 3):229 – 34.
humidity and carbon dioxide levels on student well-being and Taylor, S. 2014. ”Infectious microorganisms do
performance.” Maturaarbeit Schlussbericht G4f Betreuung (personal not care about your existing policies.” Engineered
commuication). https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
Systems (11):42.
Rate this Column
18. Block, S. 1953. “Humidity requirements for mold growth.” Appl Tang J.W. 2009. “The effect of environmental
Microbiol 1(6):287 – 293. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC 1056928. parameters on the survival of airborne infectious agents.” Journal of
19. Scofield, C.M., J.R. Taylor. 1986, “Building ventilation: a heat the Royal Society Interface 6(Suppl 6):S737 – S746.
pipe economy cycle.” ASHRAE Journal (10).
20. Paliaga, G., et al. 2019. “Eliminating
overcooling discomfort while saving
energy.” ASHRAE Journal 61(4):64.
21. Arens, E., et al. 2018. “Sunlight and
indoor thermal comfort.” ASHRAE Journal
(7):12 – 21.
Helping Leaders Create
22. Harriman, L. 2009. “Humidity Control
and Design.” Atlanta: ASHRAE.
23. Lstiburek, J. 2017. “Magic and mystery
Healthy Working Environments
of the water molecule: it’s all relative.”
ASHRAE Journal 59(9):68 – 74.
24. ASHRAE Guideline 12-2020, Minimizing
for Hard-Working People
the Risk of Legionellosis Associated with Building
Water Systems.
25. 2016 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems
& Equipment, Chap. 41, “Evaporative Air-
Cooling Equipment.”
26. Koenigshofer, D. J. Roberts. 2018. “Do
OA economizers make ‘cents’ in hospitals.”
ASHRAE Journal (11):12 – 21.
27. Taylor, S. 2018, “Making VAV great
again.” ASHRAE Journal 60(8):64 – 71.

Bibliography
Adams, R.I., A.C. Bateman, H.M. Bik, J.F.
Meadow. 2015. “Microbiota of the indoor
environment: a meta-analysis.” Microbiome
3:49.
Cox, C.S. 1998. “The Microbiology of Air.”
In: L. Collier, A. Balows, M. Sussman (Eds.)
Topley & Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial
Infections. 9th Edition. London; Arnold,
Oxford University Press, pp. 339 – 350. ESC-SERIES
Kembal, S.W., E. Jones, J. Kline, D. Semi-Custom Evaporative Cooling Technology
Northcutt, et al. 2012. “Architectural design
influences the diversity and structure of the ✔ 12 Two-Stage Models Ranging from 2,400 to 56,000 CFM
built environment microbiome.” International ✔ Indirect, Indirect/Direct, and Direct with Heat Exchanger Options Available
Society for Microbial Ecology Journal 6:1469 – 1479.
Kramer A., I. Schwebke, G. Kampf. ✔ Available with Indirect Fired or Hot Water Heating Section
2006. “How long do nosocomial pathogens
persist on inanimate surfaces? A systematic
review.” BMC Infectious Diseases 6(1):130.
Lowen, A.C., S. Mubareka, J. Steel, P.
Palese. 2007. “Influenza virus transmission
is dependent on relative humidity and
temperature.” PLoS Pathogens 3(10):e151.
Noti, J.D., F.M. Blachere, C.M. McMillen,
W.G. Lindsley, et al. 2013. “High humidity
leads to loss of infectious influenza virus from
simulated coughs.” PLoS One 8(2):e57485. www.cambridgeair.com • 800.899.1989
Popkin, B.D, K.E. Anci, I.H. Rosenberg. S-Series HTHV Heaters • M-Series Make-Up Air • ESC-Series Evaporative Cooling
2010. “Water, hydration and health.” To learn more  www.cambridgeair.com
Nutrition Reviews 68(8):439 – 458.
Robine, E., D. Derangere, D. Robin. 2000.

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 47

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

Calculating Airflow
Rates, Cooling Loads
In Commercial Kitchens
BY IURII A. TABUNSHCHIKOV, FELLOW ASHRAE; ALEXANDER N. KOLUBKOV; MARIANNA M. BRODACH; IURII S. AVAKIAN, ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE

This article describes the method of calculation for airflow rate and cooling loads
of ventilation and air-conditioning systems in commercial kitchens that takes into
account full heat gains and moisture loads. The accuracy of this method is not abso-
lute but is sufficient for designing ventilation and air-conditioning system air condi-
tioning systems that successfully handle peak loads and provide desired air tempera-
ture and humidity in an occupied zone. Unlike the simplified method, in which only
sensible heat is considered, this calculation method considers total loads and provides
the most accurate result. This method is described in Reference 1.

In general terms, the calculation algorithm is as fol- where

lows: find heat and moisture loads, find airflow rates, Q 1 = Total heat gains from kitchen appliances, kW
set the supply air temperature and calculate the indoor Q 2 = Total heat gains from people, kW
air parameters of the kitchen. If the result is not in the Q 3 = Heat gains from electrical lighting, kW
desired range, set another supply air temperature and/ Q 4 = Solar heat gains through windows and walls, kW
or increase the exhaust airflow rate and repeat all calcu- Q 5 = Total heat gains from outdoor air, kW
lations of the indoor air parameters.
Let’s look at these steps in detail. Q 1 can be found by using Tables 5A through 5F in
Reference 2 for hooded and unhooded appliances dur-
Calculation of Heat and Moisture Loads ing its idle (ready-to-cook) and cooking conditions. In
Equation 1 describes total heat gains in the kitchen (kW): estimating appliance load, probabilities of simultaneous
use must be considered.2 References 3 and 4 recommend
Q tot = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 + Q 5 (1) multiplying the heat gain from cooking appliances by the
Iurii A. Tabunshchikov is president of ABOK and professor at Moscow Institute of Architecture (State Academy), Moscow. Alexander N. Kolubkov is vice president of ABOK and
director of LLC PPF “AK,” Moscow. Marianna M. Brodach is vice president of ABOK and professor at Moscow Institute of Architecture (State Academy). Iurii S. Avakian is certified
ABOK specialist and chief HVAC specialist at LLC “APEX project bureau,” Moscow.

48 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

reduction factor called the simultaneous coefficient, TABLE 1 Recommended values for simultaneous coefficient.3
which is the quotient of the number of appliances in use KITCHEN TYPE SIMULTANEOUS COEFFICIENT K SIM
and the total number of appliances (Table 1). Hotel 0.6 – 0.8
Equation 2 describes total moisture emission in the Hospital 0.5 – 0.7
kitchen (kg/h): Cafeteria 0.5 – 0.7
School 0.6 – 0.8
W = W1 + W2 + W3 (2)
Restaurant 0.6 – 0.8
Industrial 0.6 – 0.8
where
W1 = Moisture emission from people, kg/h
W2= Moisture emission from kitchen appliances, where
which are not equipped with exhaust hoods, kg/h L ad = Volume airflow rate from the adjacent spaces,
W3 = Moisture emission from outdoor air, kg/h m3/h
ρad = Density of the air that comes from the adjacent
W2 can be found by using Tables 5A through 5F from spaces, kg/m3
Reference 2 or Table A1 from Reference 5, in which the The supply mass flow rate Msup (kg/h) is estimated from
data about specific moisture emissions from different the air-balance equation for the kitchen as compensa-
types of kitchen appliances is provided. tion the exhaust air:

Calculation of the Exhaust Airflow Rate M sup = M ex − M ad (5)

Exhaust mass flow rate is described by Equation 3 as the
sum of exhaust airflow rates of exhaust hoods and gen-
eral exhaust ventilation of the room (in the presence of
it) (kg/h):
M ex = ∑ ( Loi ρi ) + Lgv ρgv (3)
where
Loi = Exhaust volume airflow rate in the i th kitchen
exhaust hood or ventilated ceiling (can be
found by the calculation method described in
Reference 3), m3/h
Lgv = Volume airflow rate, exhausted by general
exhaust ventilation from the upper zone of the
kitchen, m3/h
ρi = Density of the air, exhausted by the i th kitchen
exhaust hood or ventilated ceiling, kg/m3
ρgv = Density of the air, exhausted by the general
exhaust ventilation from the upper zone of the
kitchen, kg/m3
Calculation of the Supply Airflow Rate
The amount of air exhausted from the kitchen should
be at least 10% higher than the airflow supplied to the
kitchen.3 The mass flow rate (kg/h) that comes from the
adjacent spaces is defined as following:
Mad = Lad ρad (4)
Calculation of the Air Parameters in the
Occupied Zone of the Kitchen
This algorithm of calculations is also described in
Reference 1. To calculate supply airflow rate in a com-
mercial kitchen, we first need to find the process line
of the air parameters in this kitchen. The process line ε
(kJ/kg) is a quotient of total heat gains in the kitchen Q tot
and total moisture emission W:
3600Qtot (6)
ε=
W
Calculation of ε for the commercial kitchen cannot be
precise, but using Equation 6 is an acceptable rough esti-
mation. According to Reference 4, the value of ε varies from
5000 kJ/kg to 7000 kJ/kg (2,150 Btu/lb to 3,009 Btu/lb) dur-
ing the maximum load of the kitchen equipment, depend-
ing upon the type of catering enterprise. To estimate the
ε value, it is acceptable to take the average value from this
range, which omits calculating moisture emissions.
The value of enthalpy (kJ/kg) of air in the occupied zone of
the kitchen is estimated from the energy balance equation:
hoz =
(3600Q tot + M sup hsup + M ad had ) (7)
M ex
where
hoz = Enthalpy of the supply air, kJ/kg

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 49

TECHNICAL FEATURE
had = Enthalpy of the air of adjacent spaces, kJ/kg
Enthalpy of the mixture of supply air and air from the
adjacent spaces (kJ/kg) is estimated from the same kind
of equation:
hmix =
(M h
sup sup + M ad had ) (8)
M ex
To find hsup, the designer must choose the supply air
temperature (usually 3°C to 5°C [5°F to 9°F] below the
designed indoor air temperature) and then find the
value of hsup by using the Mollier chart or by calcula-
tion taking into account the cooling process (in the
presence of it). Indoor air parameters can be found by
using the Mollier chart. From the point that character-
izes the supply air parameters (knowing the ε value), a
designer should draw the process line of the indoor air.
At the point of intersection of the process line and the
line of the calculated indoor air enthalpy, the rest of
the parameters of the indoor air can be found.
50 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
Conclusions
This calculation method takes into account the latent
heat in the kitchen. This allows for achieving not only
the desired temperature value, but also the desired air
humidity value in the working area. The calculation
algorithm requires passing through a bigger number
of operations, but they can be easily turned into a com-
puter spreadsheet.
References
1. ABOK. 2019. “R NP ABOK: Recommendations for the Design
of Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Public Catering
Enterprises/Public Catering Enterprises. Ventilation and Air
Conditioning,” pp. 7 – 17. (In Russian.)
2. 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.
3. Halton. 2007. “Halton Kitchen Design Guide.”
4. TSNIIEP of Engineering Equipment. 1975. “Recommendations
for the Calculation of Ventilation and Air
Conditioning Systems in the Hot Shops of
Catering.” Moscow:Gosgrazhdanstroy. (In
Russian.)
5. Association of German Engineers.
2006. “VDI 2052, Ventilation Equipment for https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
Rate this Column
Kitchens.”
2020 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES

Chiller Plant
Optimized
Without Capital
Expenditures

All savings in the 640,000 ft2 (55,700 m2) tower were gained from
modifications to existing equipment and controls that increased
efficiency. Since 2005, the EUI has been reduced 39%.

BY KELLEY WHALEN, MEMBER ASHRAE; JASON BROOKS, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE; ERIC MOBLEY, ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE

52 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 HONORABLE MENTION | 2020 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES
The ADTRAN East Tower in Huntsville, Ala., used several
optimization methods to radically reduce energy use
without costly equipment replacements. The project was
completed without any capital expenditures; all results
were gained strictly from modifications to the existing
equipment and controls to increase efficiency. These
methods saved over $71,326 annually in energy costs
with a simple payback of 1.86 years.
The chiller plant consists of three
440 ton (1547 kW) chillers, three
490 ton (1723 kW) cooling towers,
three constant volume chilled water
pumps, three condenser constant
water pumps, two heat exchangers,
four auxiliary pumps, and one water
heater.
Energy Efficiency
At the beginning of the proj-
ect, ADTRAN was consuming
28,390,000 kWh annually on a
campus level, which is comprised of
three towers that occupy 1.04 mil-
lion ft2 (96 619 m2). The East Tower,
which accounts for 640,000 ft2
(59 458 m2) of the total footprint
(slightly over 60%) consumes about
60% of that total use. Changes
implemented in this project are
saving ADTRAN over 950,000 kWh
annually in energy consumption
from just targeting the chilled water
plant that serves the East Tower.
The savings are based on mea-
surement and verification of data
gathered over several years of build-
ing automation system (BAS) data
and actual power meter data from
ADTRAN and the engineering com-
pany’s power loggers for over 10
months. Using regression analysis
Kelley Whalen is facilities supervisor–energy management,
HVAC & Electrical at ADTRAN. Jason Brooks, P.E., is direc-
tor, engineering, and Eric Mobley is energy engineer at
Sain Engineering Associates, Inc.
SEPTEM BER 2020
and engineering calculations on
trended and measured data, sav-
ings were determined (see Cost
Effectiveness section).
In addition to these savings,
changes have been implemented,
achieving the following:
• Increased business continuity
from changes that make it unneces-
sary for ADTRAN to run more than
two chillers, which also creates
another layer of redundancy in the
system if a chiller goes down.
• Proper cooling of the East Tower
D-Wing, which has historically had
issues with cooling, through chang-
ing the system to allow more water
flow.
Given that this project was com-
pleted without any capital expendi-
tures, all results were gained strictly
Building at a Glance
ADTRAN East Tower
Chilled Water System Optimization
Location: Huntsville, Ala.
Owner: ADTRAN
Principal Use: Office building, laboratory spaces, data
centers, electronics testing
Gross Square Feet: 640,000
Conditioned Square Feet: 640,000
Substantial Completion/Occupancy: December 2018
ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 53
2020 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES
from modifications to the existing equipment and con-
trols that increased efficiency.
Existing Operation Before This Retrocommissioning Project
In 2005, ADTRAN created an energy program, and
since then hundreds of ECMs and many retrocommis-
sioning (RCx) projects had already taken care of the low-
hanging fruit.
Below are highlights of activities that took place under
this retrocommissioning project:
• Trended over 300 points pertaining to the plant in
one-minute time intervals, capturing over 131 million
readings using the BAS, which aided in analysis of the
plant’s current operation and aided in monitoring as
changes were made.
• Installed four power loggers/analyzers capturing
over two million power consumption readings over 10
months. This data is used for measurement and veri-
fication of savings calculations. Virtually all the equip-
ment in the building was monitored including chillers,
pumps, cooling towers and air-handlers. Space temper-
atures and water temperatures are also trended.
• Developed equations to calculate plant energy use for
individual equipment and total plant energy consump-
tion, which allowed for the modeling of the plant’s energy
use to aid in decision-making and savings calculations.
These equations were developed using regression analysis
of power data from the loggers versus an independent
variable (such as speed for pumps) from the BAS.
• Performed functional testing, evaluated all existing
plant programming, monitored the chilled water system
and reviewed several years of historical building data.
• Modified chilled water flow and condenser wa-
ter flow to maximize the amount of cooling capacity
delivered to air-handling units with the highest cooling
demand, which allowed those units to meet their cooling
demand, a feat the units previously could not achieve.
• Simulated the building and chiller plant in multiple
iterations of models with various configurations to help
visualize the effects that various changes would have on
the system.
• Developed new energy saving sequences of opera-
tion by reprogramming 30 inefficient existing programs
while measuring the actual plant energy consumption
reductions.
• Modified control setpoints so they are automatically
calculated based on real-time building inputs received
54 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
FIGURE 1 EUI history.
140
135 134
130 130 EUI
125 121
Trend (kBtu/ft2)
120 118 118
115
110 109 108 110 107 110
104 103
105
100
95 94
89
90
85 82
80
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Since 2005 baseline, EUI has been reduced 39%. (Revised 1/8/20)
from the building automation system, allowing the sys-
tem to have better response times to changing building
conditions.
• Tested all new programming through various
scenarios, temperatures, flows, modes of operation and
building loads to ensure that the sequences would work
across all situations.
As this project was specific to the East Tower, the fol-
lowing descriptions detail the previous operation of
some of the key pieces of equipment and the associated
changes made to them.
• Chiller Operation. If the chilled water supply tem-
perature (CHWST) got 2.5°F (1.38°C) above the CHWST
setpoint of 38°F (3.3°C) for 30 minutes, an additional
chiller is enabled and starts until the difference between
the CHWST and chilled water return temperatures
(CHWRT) gets below the setpoint. The chiller add se-
quence was modified so that the ∆T required for another
chiller to come on varies with time of day (see Innova-
tion section). A CHWST reset was also added based off
building load. A reset was programmed previously, but
it was not able to operate correctly due to the decreased
flow from the chillers. This was rectified in this project.
• Cooling Tower Operation. The cooling towers
were staged so that once one of them reached its max
speed, the next tower would turn on and ramp up. The
condenser water setpoint was set to 78°F (25.5°C). The
cooling towers staging was modified so they ramp to-
gether to take advantage of the power savings associated
with the fan laws. The condenser water setpoint was
programmed to track the wet-bulb temperature with an
offset so that the cooling towers would output the coldest
water possible to increase the efficiency of the chillers.
• Heat Exchanger (HX) 2 operation. The auxiliary
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2020 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES

pumps for the HX2 and self-contained

unit (SCU) loop, used to run continuously
without regard for if the HX2 leaving water
temperature was below its setpoint. Pump 8
operation was changed to have a mini-
mum speed of 15%. The programming was
changed to shut the pump off if the leaving
water temperature from HX2 dropped 10°F
(5.5°C) below its setpoint. Pump 8 will not
cut on again until the HX2 leaving water
temperature raises 5°F (2.7°C) above its
setpoint. Pump 10 operation was changed
so that it runs at a constant 20% instead of
35%.
• HX1 operation. Used only when the
The East Tower chiller plant.
chiller plant has the waterside econo-
mizer mode enabled, which occurs when the closed as the discharge air temperature dropped below
outside air temperature is below waterside economizer its setpoint.
mode enabled setpoint. Once the waterside econo- These programming modifications allows an addi-
mizer is enabled, the chillers are shut off and isolation tional 45,000 cfm (21 238 L/s) of cool outside air,
valves on the condenser and chilled water side close which will reduce CO2 levels and increase indoor
to isolate the chillers. Next, the cooling tower fans air quality during early morning operation of the
ramp to a speed of 100%. The cooling tower attempts to building.
produce condenser water at temperatures of near 35°F See the Maintenance and Operation section for discus-
(1.6°C). With the changes made to the airside econo- sion on occupant comfort.
mizer operation, the plant can stay inside waterside
economizer mode for much longer stretches of time. Innovation
• Airside Economizer Operation. See indoor air To address the single setpoint that added a chiller regard-
quality section. less of time of day or day of the week, the add sequence was
changed to take into account the load pattern through-
Indoor Air Quality out the day. From Figure 2, it is observed that the load of
The original operation of the air handlers would the building varies throughout the day.
allow for the units to go into economizer mode if it was Monday thru Friday 4 a.m. to 8 a.m.: A second chiller
Monday through Friday between 7 a.m. and 5 p.m. and will be added if the CHWST exceeds the chilled water
the air handler was in cooling mode with a return air supply setpoint by 3.5°F (1.9°C), the third at 7.0°F
dew-point temperature greater than the outside air dew- (3.9°C). The time from 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. shows a sharp
point temperature but less than 50°F (10°C), outside air increase in the rate of change of the building load due to
dry-bulb between 65°F (18.3°C) and 40°F (4.4°C) and the equipment turning on (Figure 2).
chilled water valve greater than 10% open. The updated Monday thru Friday 8 a.m. to 5 p.m: A second chiller
sequence was modified to allow for airside economizer will be added if the CHWST exceeds the chilled water
operation if the air handler is occupied and in airside supply setpoint by 4.5°F (2.5°C), the third at 7.5°F
economizer mode, regardless of time of day and day of (4.1°C). The time from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. shows a gradual
week, and the outside air dry bulb is less than 68°F (20°C). increase in the rate of change. This is partly due to the
In addition, instead of having the air handler come out typically increasing outside air temperature.
of economizer mode when the outside air temperature All other times: A second chiller will be added if the
is below 40°F (4.4°C), the sequence was modified so CHWST exceeds the chilled water supply setpoint by
that the outside air damper for the unit would modulate 6.5°F (3.6°C) the third at 8.5°F (4.7°C). These times were

56 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

2020 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES

observed to be the lowest load times and the FIGURE 2 Building load.
most constant load times. 8 am to 5 pm
4 am to 8 pm
350
Maintenance and Operation 330
Preventing the second chiller and third Chiller/Building Load (Tons)
310
chiller from coming on not only signifi-
cantly reduces energy cost, it also reduces 290

Chiller Load (Tons)

the run hours, operations and maintenance 270
cost, extending the life of the chillers by sev- 250
eral years. Due to the cost of a chiller being
230
approximately $1 million each, extending
the life of the chiller plant postpones this 210
investment for several years. 190
Other O&M savings are from the reduced 170
number of work orders, many of which were
150
from the facility having cold and hot spots. 12 am 6 am 12 pm 6 pm 12 am
After all measures were implemented, the
amount of work orders was reduced by
TABLE 1 Total savings.
nearly 50% from an average of 80 work orders per year
TASK ANNUAL COST ENERGY
for 2015, 2016, and 2017 to 47 work orders in 2018. This SAVINGS ($) SAVINGS (KWH)
allows additional time for the staff to perform preventa-
Chiller Plant/Waterside Equipment Optimization $33,101 441,347
tive maintenance, which further helps with operations
and occupant comfort. Airside Equipment Modifications $38,225 509,660
During this process, trends and reports were created for Annual Savings for this Project $71,326 951,007
all the equipment in the plant, which have continued to be
available to the staff. These trends and reports aid ADTRAN Greenhouse Gas Emissions
in analytics and diagnostics of equipment conditions. • 143 passenger vehicles driven for one year.
• 1,642,527 miles (2 643 390 km) driven by an average
Cost Effectiveness passenger vehicle.
Implemented changes are saving ADTRAN over $71,326
annually in energy costs with a simple payback of 1.86 CO2 Emissions
years based off on a project cost of $133,000. • 75,593 gallons (286 151 L) of gasoline consumed.
In addition to these savings, other implemented • 65,991 gallons (249 803 L) of diesel consumed.
changes have achieved a cost avoidance equal to • 734,422 pounds (333 128 kg) of coal burned.
approximately $1 million from not having to buy a • 8.9 tanker trucks’ worth of gasoline.
fourth chiller since only two chillers are required. • 80.4 homes’ energy use for one year.
Table 1 details the total savings. • 117 homes’ electricity use for one year.
• 3.7 railcars’ worth of coal burned.
Environmental Impact • 1,555 barrels of oil (247 225 L) consumed.
All reduction of global climate change gases (i.e. car- • 85,661,940 number of smartphones charged.
bon dioxide emissions), elimination of CFCs, reduction
in waste discharge and other environmentally favor- Greenhouse Gas Emissions Avoided
able items has been calculated using the United States • 234 tons (212 281 kg) of waste re-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Greenhouse Gas cycled instead of landfilled.
Equivalence Calculator. The calculation is based on a • 33.5 garbage trucks of waste re-
950,000 kWh reduction. The calculator can be found at cycled instead of landfilled. https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
https://tinyurl.com/j3glbf8. • 29,312 trash bags of waste recycled. Rate this Column

58 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

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 ENGINEERS NOTEBOOK
COLUMN

Nathan Ho

Performance-Based
Approach to Laboratory
Exhaust Systems
BY NATHAN HO, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE

Laboratory facilities serve as a critical nexus for innovation and discovery, but they
often come with the potential for high operational cost (HVAC energy consumption)
and high risk (air quality performance). A prescriptive approach to designing labora-
tory exhaust stacks has been common. It will likely have a place in the future based on
the need for broadly applicable minimum design criteria that can be enforced consis-
tently through code adoption and inspectors. However, achieving superior energy
performance and acceptable air quality requires a performance-based approach to
laboratory exhaust stack design.

Examples of Prescriptive Design Criteria
A performance approach begins with an understanding
of the origins and limitations of prescriptive design crite-
ria. Local code and recognized industry standards often
serve as the basis of prescriptive criteria a designer would
use to design a laboratory exhaust stack. Let us exam-
ine the California Mechanical Code, California Energy
Code and the American National Standards Institute/
American Industrial Hygiene Association Standard for
Laboratory Ventilation (ANSI/AIHA Z9.5) as examples.
2019 California Mechanical Code1
“502.2.2 Product Conveying Ducts. Ducts conveying
explosive or flammable vapors, fumes or dusts shall
terminate not less than 30 ft (9 m) from a property line,
10 ft (3 m) from openings into the building, 6 ft (2 m)
from exterior walls or roofs, 30 ft (9 m) from combus-
tible walls or openings into the building that are in the
direction of the exhaust discharge and 10 ft (3 m) above
adjoining grade. (Emphasis is the author’s.)
Other product-conveying outlets shall terminate not
less than 10 ft (3 m) from a property line, 3 ft (914 mm)
from exterior walls or roofs, 10 ft (3 m) from openings
into the building and 10 ft (3 m) above adjoining grade.”
(Emphasis is the author’s.)
2019 California Energy Code2
“140.9 (c) Prescriptive Requirements for Covered
Processes, Prescriptive Requirements for Laboratory
and Factory Exhaust Systems.
Nathan Ho, P.E., is an associate principal and engineering group leader with P2S Inc., in Irvine,
Calif. He is the chair of ASHRAE SPC 110.

60 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020


3. Fan System Power Consumption. All newly installed
fan exhaust systems serving a laboratory or factory
greater than 10,000 cfm (4719 L/s) shall meet subsection
A and either B, C or D:
A. System shall meet all discharge requirements in ANSI
Z9.5-2012.” (Emphasis is the author’s.)
ANSI/AIHA Z9.5-2012, Laboratory Ventilation3
“5.4.6 Exhaust Stack Discharge. In any event the dis-
charge shall be a minimum of 10 ft (3 m) above adjacent
roof lines and air intakes and in a vertical up direction.
Exhaust stack discharge velocity shall be at least
3,000 ft per minute (fpm) (15.2 m/s) [emphasis is the
author’s] unless it can be demonstrated that a specific
design meets the dilution criteria necessary to reduce
the concentration of hazardous materials in the exhaust
to safe levels at all potential receptors.
The air intake or exhaust grilles shall not be located
within the architectural screen or mask unless it is dem-
onstrated to be acceptable.”
A relationship exists between codes and standards.
Often, codes are mostly sections of existing industry
standards with modifications made by the authority
having jurisdiction. Therefore, to identify the design
parameters to address with a performance approach to
laboratory exhaust stack design, it is necessary to under-
stand the context and limitations of the referenced stan-
dard. It is also essential to keep in mind that the pre-
scriptive criteria for stack height and exit velocity have
substantial disclaimers, such as the one in Appendix 3 of
ANSI/AIHA Z9.5-2012.
ANSI/AIHA Z9.5-2012 Appendix 3, Selecting Laboratory Stack Designs3
“The 10 ft (3.05 m) minimum stack height called for in
the body of this standard is primarily intended to pro-
tect maintenance workers from direct contamination
from the top of the stack. However, the minimum height
of 10 ft (3.05 m) is not enough by itself to guarantee that
harmful contaminants would not be re-ingested. (Emphasis
is the author’s.)
Similarly, a minimum 3,000 fpm (15.3 m/s) exit veloc-
ity is specified in the body of this standard, but this exit
velocity does not guarantee that re-ingestion will not occur.”
(Emphasis is the author’s.)
It has been the author’s experience that stack height,
exhaust plume exit momentum and physical location
with respect to building massing, site topography and
COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK
FIGURE 1 Results vs. effort qualitative comparison of analysis methods.
Accurate
Wind Tunnel Validation
Results
Computational
Fluid Dynamics
2019 ASHRAE
Handbook—HVAC
Applications
Calculation Method
Conservative Effort and Resources Required
areas sensitive to air quality, such as outdoor air intakes,
operable windows and populated areas, are critical vari-
ables that must be evaluated holistically to achieve opti-
mum design outcomes.
Many laboratory projects are developed as renova-
tions; as such, the site topography and areas sensitive to
air quality are typically fixed variables, and the options
of locations to install the laboratory exhaust systems are
often limited. Therefore, stack height and exit momen-
tum are usually the remaining variables a design team
can explore and evaluate. This column presents a basic
framework for a design process and a case study high-
lighting the results of this process when applied to a
laboratory renovation project.
Figure 1 presents three conventional methods to evalu-
ate laboratory exhaust plume dispersion performance
and qualitatively ranks what a designer can anticipate
concerning the accuracy vs. effort trade-off between
each method. The designer should exercise extreme
caution when using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) to model exhaust plumes for laboratory pollutant
sources, as CFD models can both over- and underpredict
concentration levels by orders of magnitude, leading to
potentially unsafe designs.4 The author agrees with the
2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications, Chapter 46
recommendation to use a wind-tunnel analysis to vali-
date the results from a CFD analysis.
Figure 2 describes a process this author has used to
collaborate with design team stakeholders to achieve
optimum laboratory exhaust system design based on
the project priorities and values. Step 5 is optional,
but recommended by the author to achieve optimum
design results; wind tunnel validation can yield substan-
tially more accurate performance results with higher
confidence than computational modeling or manual
SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 61
COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

calculation results. The following case study is an exam- FIGURE 2 Collaborative design input cycle to optimize design of lab exhaust system.
ple of how all five steps of the collaborative design pro-
cess were used on a project.

Case Study—Institutional Research Laboratory in Southern

California: Prescriptive vs. Performance Design
A research-focused higher education institution set
out to renovate a historic building to provide a modern
laboratory facility for a newly recruited principal inves-
tigator and her team. Given the potential for growth
of the research, the laboratory program required a
highly flexible HVAC system that could provide stable,
responsive and reliable operation on day one, while also
being capable of supporting rapid growth. This institu-
tion decided to use a design-build delivery to mitigate
potential construction budget and schedule risks and
provided the criteria as part of the bridging documents
(Table 1).
The university requested a wind study to inform the
design of the HVAC system and provide the university
Collaborative Effort
Owner, Mechanical Engineer,
Wind Consultant, Architect,
Structural Engineer etc.
1 Identify primary design variables and objectives.
2 Collaborate with owner and design team to determine project priorities to optimize
balance between variables. Develop early design concept based on this input.
3 Perform preliminary analysis of design concept performance based on the
2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications, Chapter 46 Calculation Method or
Computational Analysis. If preliminary results are not compatible with project
requirements, return to Step 2 and iterate as necessary.

with metrics on air quality to mitigate the risk of odor 4 Produce detailed design layout and evaluate constructibility.

or air quality concerns. The wisdom of this decision 5 Confirm feasibility of design concept and execute wind tunnel validation of performance.
Use results to finalize hardware and controls design. Iterate process as necessary to
became immediately apparent upon inspection of the achieve optimum project solution.
project site shown in Figure 3.
A typical first cost vs. energy effi- TABLE 1 Project background information and owner design criteria.
ciency discussion took place within PROJECT BACKGROUND INFORMATION UNIVERSITY DESIGN CRITERIA
the design-build team. Our team
1954 five-story building with three stories above grade. Centralized laboratory exhaust system.
agreed to compare a code-driven
prescriptive lab exhaust design to Continuously renovated to suit changing research needs. N + 1 fan redundancy, minimum three fans total.
a performance laboratory exhaust Organic addition of fume hoods over time. Motorized isolation dampers and backdraft dampers.
design (Table 2). The code-driven Perform study of wind and air quality conditions to
New lab renovation requires additional lab exhaust inform
prescriptive lab exhaust design uses infrastructure and new rooftop air-handling unit. design of laboratory exhaust stacks and rooftop
air-handling unit outdoor air intake.
bypass air to enable variable air
volume (VAV) laboratory ventilation
FIGURE 3 Rooftop topography and existing conditions.
controls within the building while
maintaining a constant volume
discharge.
The performance laboratory
exhaust design is capable of elimi- Proposed New Lab Exhaust Existing Lab Exhaust Fans
nating bypass air and achieving VAV And AHU Area On Adjacent Roof
discharge to minimize exhaust fan Existing Lab Exhaust
energy consumption along with Fans on Same Roof
reduced sound power, operational
Existing Lab Exhaust Fans
complexity and wear on fan bear- On Adjacent Roof
ings. See Figures 4 and 5 for screen
shots of our model for the prescrip-
tive exhaust system design option

62 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

PETRA OFFERS A WIDE RANGE OF HVAC PRODUCTS TO MEET DIFFERENT SPECIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

TABLE 2 Exhaust system design features: prescriptive vs. performance. FIGURE 4 Prescriptive exhaust system design concept, viewed from the south.
PRESCRIPTIVE EXHAUST SYSTEM FEATURES PERFORMANCE EXHAUST SYSTEM FEATURES
Separate exhaust stacks terminating at Clustered exhaust stacks terminating at
10 ft above the finished roof. 24 ft above the finished roof.
No discharge nozzles on stacks to
Discharge nozzles to achieve target exit promote fully developed turbulent airflow
velocity of 3,000 fpm. profile at exit of stack.a
Bypass air to maintain constant discharge No bypass air.
air volume at the exit of each stack.
“Hidden” outdoor air intake. “Hidden” outdoor air intake. FIGURE 5 Prescriptive exhaust system design concept, viewed from the north.
aMany numerical distribution models use the Briggs plume rise formulas that were based on fully developed
turbulent flow profiles at the stack exit.5 It has been speculated that using a nozzle on the discharge of the
stack could compromise the stack’s ability to achieve fully developed turbulent flow profiles at their point of
discharge.

and Figures 6 and 7 for the performance exhaust system

design option.
Visual inspection of the existing rooftop conditions
suggested that existing-to-remain nearby laboratory
exhaust fans may render the rooftop air unsuitable as FIGURE 6 Performance exhaust system design concept, viewed from the south.
a source of outdoor air for the new air-handling unit.
Therefore, our team decided to “hide” the outdoor air
intake from the existing rooftop exhaust fans to pas-
sively enhance the air quality of the outdoor air brought
in through the air-handling unit. Per the 2019 ASHRAE
Handbook—HVAC Applications,4 a conservative dilution
factor of 2.0 may be anticipated when the air intake is
“hidden” from the line of sight of an emissions source.
FIGURE 7 Performance exhaust system design concept, viewed from the north.
To provide an objective analysis of exhaust stack design,
the air-handling unit outdoor air intake was kept identi-
cal in both design options evaluated.
The prescriptive-based and performance-based
exhaust stack design options were both located as far
from the roof edge as practical to minimize the effects
of the wake zone formed by wind passing over the edge
of the roof. Exhaust stacks that terminate within the
“recirculation region” of a wake zone will tend to require
substantially more power for their exhaust plume to
escape the roof (Figure 8). Pollutant Dispersion from Building Exhaust Stacks,” to
Laboratory exhaust plume dispersion performance passively enhance the exhaust plume momentum by
tends to be strongly influenced by stack height and the clustering the exhaust stacks. Per ASHRAE RP-1167, ter-
momentum of the exhaust stream exiting the stack. minating stacks within a range of ~1.3 diameters of the
Discussions with the facility owner confirmed that a stack centerline with similar discharge velocities from
maximum stack height of 24 ft (7 m) above the roof was multiple active stacks will yield conditions where the
aesthetically acceptable. So our team used this height plume from each active stack will tend to merge, com-
to minimize the exhaust stream momentum required bining momentum.6
to achieve adequate exhaust contaminant dilution. Our The laboratory exhaust airflow demand profile in
team then applied the knowledge gained from ASHRAE Table 3 was determined for this project and used as the
research project RP-1167, “The Effect of Ganging on basis for the project’s wind study. These parameters

64 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

are essential because they establish FIGURE 8 Figure 6, “Design Procedure for Required Stack Height to Avoid Contamination,” from Chapter 46 of
upper and lower boundaries on the the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications.4
laboratory exhaust system operation Undisturbed Z1 Roof Recirculation Region
Flow
for analysis. Designers can eliminate Z2 High-Turbulence Region
Z3 Roof Wake Boundary
bypass air if the volumetric airflow
rate for acceptable plume dilution
Building Wake
is less than the absolute minimum Recirculation
volumetric airflow rate required 1.5R Region
by the laboratory exhaust system
5:1
as determined by the wind-tunnel UH HC 10:1 hs A
analysis (Table 3). XC
LC H
H
Wind Tunnel Analysis Results
The owner’s design require-
ment stipulated that the laboratory L Lr
exhaust system shall use a minimum
of three fans with an operational TABLE 3 Facility exhaust airflow demands for various operational scenarios.

redundancy of N + 1; N is the number of fans required OPERATIONAL SCENARIO MIN. EA FLOW MAX. EA FLOW

to meet the design load. Our design team determined Day 1 10,060 cfm 13,125 cfm
that a capacity of 26,000 cfm (12 271 L/s) was needed to Day 1 + Shell Spaces 11,455 cfm 17,300 cfm
meet the demand of the project. Therefore, a laboratory Day 1 + Shell Spaces + Spare Capacitya 11,455 cfm 26,000 cfm
exhaust system composed of three 13,000 cfm (6136 L/s) aTotal overall system capacity provided is 39,000 cfm including redundant fan.

capacity fans with individual exhaust stacks terminating

at 10 ft (3 m) above the finished roof were studied under
this option to represent an exhaust stack design that
prescriptively complied with local code requirements.
Prescriptive Design Performance Observations
The 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications4 pub-
lishes a general use laboratory exhaust dilution value of
400 µg/m3 per g/s as an evaluation benchmark for loca-
tions sensitive to air quality. Our wind tunnel validation
testing determined that a minimum exhaust stack exit
velocity of 16,552 fpm (84.1 m/s) would be required to
achieve this criterion at the outdoor air intake of the
new air-handling unit. When compared to the com-
monly referenced prescriptive approach of 3,000 fpm
(15.2 m/s) for exhaust stack exit velocity, these results
highlight ANSI/AIHA Z9.5’s disclaimer that the use of
their prescriptive criteria does not guarantee that re-
ingestion will not occur. Designers should carefully con-
sider these disclaimers when applying broad, general-
ized rules for their applications.
For this project, a prescriptively designed exhaust
stack would have operated with an exit velocity that is
essentially an order of magnitude slower than the proj-
ect conditions require to achieve acceptable dilution
performance. The resultant air quality would have
been significantly compromised using a prescriptive
approach.
Our team then sought to determine at what height
would an exit velocity of 3,000 fpm (15.2 m/s) yield our
target dilution criteria. We discovered through addi-
tional wind tunnel testing that a 20 ft (6 m) stack would
be needed, which is twice as tall as the minimum pre-
scriptive criteria required by local code (Figures 9 and 10).
Evaluating the Impact of Stack Height and Volumetric Flow on Performance
The results from the single stack, single fan scenario
show there is a strong correlation between stack height
and associated minimum exit velocity to achieve accept-
able exhaust plume dispersion performance (Table 4).
This relationship has diminishing returns with the most
significant potential reduction in minimum exit veloc-
ity achieved up to a height of 22 ft (6.7 m) and rapidly
diminishing reductions beyond ~22 ft (6.7 m) for this
specific project. While it has been the author’s experi-
ence that this trend of diminishing returns is generally
applicable, the height and rate of performance gains are
particular to each project and should be evaluated for
each project.

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 65

COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

FIGURE 9 Single Fan Operation: Stack height vs. exit velocity required to achieve FIGURE 10 Single Fan Operation: Stack height vs. exit velocity required to achieve
target dilution criteria. target dilution criteria (20+ ft height with higher y-axis resolution).
18,000 Single Fan (10,060 cfm) 3,500
16,000 Single Fan (10,060 cfm)
Single Fan (13,000 cfm)
Stack Exit Velocity (fpm)

14,000 3,000 Single Fan (13,000 cfm)

Stack Exit Velocity (fpm)

12,000
10,000 2,500
8,000
2,000
6,000
4,000 1,500
2,000
0 1,000
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 20 21 22 23 24 25
Exhaust Stack Height (ft) Exhaust Stack Height (ft)

Airflow moving over the edge of a building tends to TABLE 4 Stack height vs. reduction in exit velocity required to achieve target dilu-
create a “wake zone” of turbulent airflow downstream of tion criteria for a single stack in operation.
the building edge. Exhaust stacks that terminate within
AVERAGE VELOCITY REDUCTION PER
a wake zone experience a substantial exhaust plume STACK HEIGHT
FOOT INCREASE
STACK EXIT AIRFLOW RATE

dispersion performance penalty as the turbulent air will

10 ft to 20 ft 1,351 fpm per ft 13,000 cfm
locally recirculate the exhaust plume back toward the
surface of the roof. Significant exhaust plume momen- 20 ft to 21 ft 474 fpm per ft 10,060 cfm
tum is required to overcome the forces exerted by the
21 ft to 22 ft 375 fpm per ft 10,060 cfm
turbulent air within the wake zone. The single stack, sin-
gle fan scenario results demonstrate the influence of the 22 ft to 25 ft 184 fpm per ft 10,060 cfm
building wake zone. Lower stack heights within the wake
zone recirculation region require significantly higher TABLE 5 Airflow rate increase vs. exit velocity reduction to achieve target dilution
criteria for a single stack in operation.
exit velocities than taller stack heights that terminate
above the wake zone recirculation region. STACK HEIGHT
AVERAGE VELOCITY REDUCTION PER STACK EXIT AIRFLOW RATE
1,000 CFM INCREASE RANGE TESTED
While it may be possible to compensate for lower
stack heights by increasing exhaust plume momen- 20 ft 55 fpm per 1,000 cfm 13,000 to 14,000 cfm
tum through increased exit velocity, the designer will
eventually need to consider increasing mass flow rate
at the stack discharge. The stack discharge exit veloc- that was achieved by clustering the exhaust stacks
ity tends to be practically limited to “near” 3,000 fpm together (Figure 11). The data show that it is possible to
(15.2 m/s) due to sound power emitted from the stack achieve a reduction in volumetric airflow required at
and fan power considerations. Both sound power and the exit of each stack when clustering stacks as a design
fan power tend to escalate quickly, as exhaust stack pres- strategy. In this case, two clustered stacks running at
sure drop is primarily a function of velocity squared. 6,250 cfm (2950 L/s) each with a stack height of 20 ft
Our team tested adding 1,000 cfm (472 L/s) to the dis- (6 m) require an exit velocity of 2,865 fpm (14.6 m/s)
charge flow rate to the 20 ft (6 m) stack scenario and compared to the 3,040 fpm (15.4 m/s) needed for a
found that increasing the flow rate from 13,000 cfm single stack running at 13,000 cfm (6136 L/s) at the same
(6136 L/s) to 14,000 cfm (6607 L/s) decreased the mini- stack height of 20 ft (6 m).
mum required exit velocity by a very modest 55 fpm Our analysis of the two fans in operation scenario
(0.3 m/s) (Table 5). evaluated stack exit airflow rates of less than the Day
1 minimum airflow load to determine how low each
Performance Design: Multiple Stack Operation stack could operate. This was used to inform the fan
Our team’s wind tunnel validation testing was able to staging strategy to optimize fan power performance
quantify the benefit to plume dispersion performance (Figure 12).

66 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

FIGURE 11 Clustered Stack Design: Stack height vs. discharge velocity with two FIGURE 12 Exhaust system fan power.
fans running.
25 1 EF Running
3,000 Two Fans (6,250 cfm Per Fan) 2 EFs Running
Stack Exit Velocity (fpm)

Total Exhaust Fan Power (bhp)

2,500 Two Fans (13,000 cfm Per Fan)
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
20 21 22 23
Exhaust Stack Height (ft)
We ran similar tests to evaluate the impact of increasing
height and volumetric airflow rate on stack performance
for the clustered stack design (Tables 6 and 7). Similar to
the single stack scenario, raising the stack height yields
a more significant impact on plume dispersion perfor-
mance compared to increasing volumetric airflow rate.
Performance Design: Optimizing VAV Fan Power
With exhaust stack minimum airflow requirements
established based on our wind tunnel validation
20
3 EFs Running
15
10
24 25 26 5
0
9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000 19,000 21,000 23,000 25,000 27,000
Building Exhaust Airflow (cfm)
testing, we were able to model the range of different
exhaust fan operational scenarios to determine the
aggregate system fan power required (Figure 12). Using
these exhaust system power curves, we can decide on
ideal staging points to stage up or down between the
three fans provided in this system for energy efficiency
and develop appropriate hysteresis to help promote
stable system operation.

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68 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 COLUMN ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

TABLE 6 Stack height vs. reduction in exit velocity required for two clustered FIGURE 13 Performance exhaust stack design installed.
stacks in operation.

AVERAGE VELOCITY
STACK HEIGHT EXIT AIRFLOW RATE PER STACK
REDUCTION PER FOOT INCREASE

20 ft to 21 ft 497 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

21 ft to 22 ft 379 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

22 ft to 23 ft 294 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

23 ft to 24 ft 233 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

24 ft to 25 ft 189 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

25 ft to 26 ft 154 fpm/ft 6,250 cfm

TABLE 7 Airflow rate increase vs. exit velocity reduction for two clustered stacks across different appli- FIGURE 14 Close-up of cluster stack
in operation. cations and could result from performance design option
installed
AVERAGE VELOCITY REDUCTION STACK EXIT AIRFLOW
in higher contaminant
STACK HEIGHT
PER 1,000 CFM INCREASE RATE RANGE TESTED concentrations than
are acceptable. Using
20 ft 80 fpm per 1,000 cfm 6,250 to 13,000 cfm
a performance-based
design approach will
TABLE 8 Prescriptive vs. performance design results summary.
give greater confidence
PRESCRIPTIVE EXHAUST SYSTEM RESULTS PERFORMANCE EXHAUST SYSTEM RESULTS in achieving higher
performance and
10 ft stack height. 24 ft stack height.
acceptable air quality.
16,552 fpm minimum exit velocity 2,049 fpm minimum exit velocity Laboratory exhaust sys-
required per stack when in use. required for single-stack operation. tem performance tar-
1,462 fpm minimum exit velocity
gets can be quantified
13,000 cfm minimum volumetric airflow required per stack for two-stack opera- and achieved through
rate required per fan when in use. tion; less if all three stacks are running
in parallel. design team collabora-
tion and modeling of stack dispersion performance
10,060 cfm minimum volumetric airflow with the performance-based approach. Design strate-
rate required for single stack operation.
gies using taller stack heights and clustering exhaust
6,250 cfm minimum volumetric airflow stacks can result in substantial improvement of labora-
rate required for two-stack operation; less
if all three stacks are running in parallel. tory exhaust dilution performance.

Prescriptive vs. Performance Design Results Summary References

Table 8 summarizes the final results between the 1. IAPMO. 2019. “2019 California Mechanical Code.”
2. ICC. 2019. “2019 California Energy Code.”
prescriptive vs. performance-based approach design 3. ANSI/AIHA/ASSP Z9.5-2012, Laboratory Ventilation.
options for the project evaluated within this case study. 4. 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications.
Figures 13 and 14 show images from the performance- 5. Briggs, G.A. 1984. “Plume rise and buoyancy effects.”
“Atmospheric Science and Power Production,” D.
based approach design option installed. Richardson, Editor. U.S. Department of Energy,
DOE/TIC-27601.
Conclusions 6. Petersen, R.L., J.D. Reifschneider, 2008.
“The effect of ganging on pollutant dispersion
A laboratory exhaust system prescriptive-based from building exhaust stacks.” ASHRAE https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
design approach does not yield consistent results Transactions 114(1):458 – 470. Rate this Column

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 69

REFRIGERATION APPLICATIONS
Column
Andy Pearson

Deeper into Vacuum

BY ANDY PEARSON, PH.D., C.ENG., FELLOW ASHRAE

In last month’s column I wrote about the process of pulling a vacuum on refrigerating
systems and highlighted some good practice points for care of the vacuum pump and
how it is connected to the system for best effect. Here are some more tips for maxi-
mizing the benefit and avoiding some horrible pitfalls.
Don’t use a gauge manifold to connect the vac pump pressure. Strictly speaking this should be understood to
and gauges to the system. Firstly, the hoses are too small be one millionth of a metre of mercury (in other words
diameter and too long to enable the best effect to be a “milliTorr”) but there always seems to be too much
achieved. Secondly, the gauge needs to be on a different room for confusion about whether it is a micrometer or
part of the system in order to indicate the true level of a microinch. The reason I like the unit of Torr is that it is
vacuum that has been achieved. absolutely unambiguous.
Do make sure to use a sufficiently accurate vacuum To make sense of the whole vacuum process it is essen-
gauge for this purpose. It needs to tell the difference tial to understand what you are trying to achieve (which
between a system holding a vacuum of 29.7 inches of mer- is not always the same thing from job to job). As men-
cury and 29.8 inches of mercury. The gauges on a mani- tioned last month, removal of air (or pressure test gas) is
fold are just not that accurate. Nowadays it is possible to one reason but removal of moisture or even free water
buy a simple electronic vacuum gauge for less than $100 is also important. A small amount of water in the system
and a high quality calibrated electronic Removing water is harder if it turns to ice. will hinder the vacuum process because
gauge for less than $1,000. The saving in it will start to boil when the pressure
time spent messing around will pay for gets down to the saturation point for the
this many times over. temperature of the water. This is obvious
By the way, do understand the many if you know what to look for because the
ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/ZIGGY1

and varied units used to measure pressure will plateau at a level equivalent
vacuum and be very precise in how you to the prevailing temperature. However if
use them, especially when specifying there is a lot of free water inside the sys-
vacuum procedures to other people. The tem it could take weeks to boil it dry using
units I used above, inches of mercury, the vac pump. On the other hand, if the
are particularly devilish because they measure from the geometry of the system enables the pressure to fall well
other end. Zero inches of mercury (sometimes abbrevi- below the saturation point and it gets down to the triple
ated as “in Hg”) is atmospheric pressure and 29.92 inches point of water (6.1 mBar abs, 4.5 Torr or 29.74 in Hg)
of mercury is absolute vacuum. The higher the number, then some of the water will freeze and it is much more
the lower the pressure. I prefer to use the unit “Torr” difficult to remove it through the vac pump. Even worse,
although it is neither Systeme International (SI) nor inch- I was once involved in a project where evaporators were
pound (I-P). Named after the Italian scientist, Torricelli, being installed inside an existing cold store. The evapo-
a Torr is equivalent to the pressure required to raise rators were badly contaminated with
mercury by 1 mm (0.039 in.) in a Fortin barometer. The water but it froze before the vacuum was
inch of mercury (whichever end of the scale you measure pulled, so everything seemed fine until
from) has the same origin—nominal atmospheric pres- the system was charged and the water https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
sure is 760 Torr or 29.92 inches of mercury absolute. I also flooded back to the receiver. Rate this Column

recommend avoiding the “micron” as a measurement of Andy Pearson, Ph.D., C.Eng., is group managing director at Star Refrigeration in Glasgow, UK.

70 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

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 IEQ APPLICATIONS
COLUMN

Wade Conlan

ASHRAE Headquarters

Building Readiness
Plan for SARS-CoV-2
BY WADE H. CONLAN, P.E., BCXP, MEMBER ASHRAE

The ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force (ETF) has quickly created a number of useful guid-
ance documents for operating buildings during an epidemic, which are posted on
ASHRAE’s COVID-19 website pages (www.ashrae.org/covid19). Many of these docu-
ments would also apply after the epidemic has passed. Since the existing ASHRAE
Headquarters (HQ) was observing shelter-in-place orders to help flatten the trans-
mission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19, the building was unoccupied
for several weeks. The ETF believed, and ASHRAE leadership agreed, that the ASHRAE
HQ should be evaluated using the same analysis approaches it is suggesting for its
members and their clients.
Members of the Building Readiness Team that is systems and to identify potential improvements to
part of the ETF performed the analysis on the current the system and potential failure points that could be
ASHRAE HQ to determine which mitigation strategies checked by the building’s maintenance contractor. The
should be implemented prior to staff returning to the team used the existing building automation system
building. This team also looked at the new ASHRAE HQ (BAS) graphics, as-built floor plans and BAS trend data
under construction to determine if any engineering to conduct this effort. The building has a dedicated
controls could be added to improve its ability to miti- outdoor air system (DOAS) that delivers all the outdoor
gate virus transmission in alignment with the Building air to the spaces. Local cooling and heating is provided
Readiness Guide (https://tinyurl.com/y5r92ohs). using different terminal equipment on each floor:
For the existing HQ building, a team of individuals was the first floor is conditioned using ground source heat
formed to perform the analysis that consisted of ETF pumps; and, the second floor is conditioned using vari-
members, the commissioning provider for the last reno- able refrigerant flow fan coil units. Each of the terminal
vation to the building and the building operations team units has a filter box to provide increased filtration
for ASHRAE. (See “Analysis Team” on the facing page.) capability in addition to the filtration incorporated into
The intent of the analysis was to review the HVAC
Wade H. Conlan, P.E., is commissioning and energy discipline manager at
This peer-reviewed column does not represent official ASHRAE guidance. For more Hanson Professional Services, Inc., in Maitland, Fla. He currently leads the
information on ASHRAE resources on COVID-19, visit ashrae.org/COVID19. Building Readiness Team of ASHRAE’s Epidemic Task Force.

72 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 COLUMN IEQ APPLICATIONS

the DOAS unit. There is only one exhaust system for

the building, and that is via the DOAS unit through the Analysis Team
energy recovery wheel that is located on the roof. Wade Conlan, P.E., Member ASHRAE, Hanson Professional Services, Inc.
The first step in this effort was to identify potential
issues for the HVAC systems maintenance contractor to Dennis Knight, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE, Whole Building Systems
check on their next visit to the building. Then the team
Justin Garner, P.E., Member ASHRAE, Engineered Air Balance Co., Inc.
tried to identify improvements that might need to be
implemented. ASHRAE staff wanted a list of things for Jon Sheppard, Associate Member ASHRAE, Atlantic Testing
the maintenance contractor to check in addition to the
normal quarterly checkup. Jason DeGraw, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE, Oak Ridge National Lab
The first issue identified was to confirm the status of
Rick Hermans, P.E., Life Member ASHRAE, Retired
the filters in the DOAS and at each of the filter mixing
boxes at the terminal equipment in the spaces. ASHRAE Jay Enck, Member ASHRAE, Commissioning & Green Building Solutions, Inc.
staff was able to confirm that the interior electrostatic
filters had been replaced around the time of the 2019 Ginger Scoggins, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE, Engineered Designs, Inc.
Winter Conference in Atlanta and were still within use- Mike Vaughn, ASHRAE Staff
ful life. These electrostatic filters allow the terminal
equipment to achieve MERV 13 filter performance. Jeff Littleton, ASHRAE Staff
There are two sets of filters in the DOAS. One set of
supply filters is installed after the return bypass and occupied hours, the demand controlled ventilation was
energy wheel that are MERV 13 equivalent, which to be “disabled” for the system. The team agreed that
reduced concern over potential wheel crossover or
return path leakage. To be safe, it was suggested that
the maintenance team disconnect or disable the return
damper and seal that pathway to further mitigate poten-
tial transmission by having the unit function with 100% Innovation
outdoor air and 100% exhaust air.
The second set of filters was on the building return/
relies on trust
relief to the unit prior to the energy wheel. These fil- Let UL’s industry-leading
engineering teams help you
ters need to be confirmed to be MERV 8 as originally
achieve success in a dynamic and
required in the design, which was based on having demanding market to meet the
MERV 13 filters before the air is supplied to the space. new DOE commercial boiler energy
There was an extended discussion on the operation efficiency standards becoming
of the DOAS unit and its capacity to bring in outdoor effective January 10, 2023.
air during the occupied times as well as provide for
Learn more at UL.com/HVACR.
pre- and postoccupancy flush cycles. The team agreed
to a sequence to keep the unit at its maximum outdoor
airflow setpoint during occupied modes and then to
perform the analysis recommended in the Building
Readiness Guide to determine the number of hours
required for these flush cycles. The Building Readiness
Guide suggests three air changes of outdoor air to flush
the building of approximately 95% of its contaminants.
Quick calculations showed that this would require three
hours of flushing and was noted that this should be
UL and the UL logo are trademarks of UL LLC © 2020.
added to the BAS schedule programming.
To maximize the ventilation airflow to the space during

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 73

COLUMN IEQ APPLICATIONS
changing the space CO2 setpoint to 300 ppm would
effectively “disable” the demand control ventilation
(DCV) sequence and allow for minimal programming
time now and when it is time to re-enable this energy
savings strategy post pandemic.
The BAS also monitors building pressure via sensors
located throughout the building. The team agreed it
was appropriate to have the maintenance contractor’s
testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) personnel check
the calibration of these sensors to verify the system was
working properly.
Other strategies HQ will be using that are not HVAC
related include staggering employees’ workdays and areas
to create separation and reduce occupancy, improved
cleaning processes and frequency, minimizing elevator use
and limiting conference room occupancy and use.
For the new ASHRAE HQ under construction, the team
met with the project oversight committee lead, Ginger
Scoggins, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE, to review the systems’
design and capabilities. This building will also be using a
DOAS system equipped with MERV 14 filters, ultraviolet
74 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
germicidal irradiation (UVGI) sized at a lamp intensity to
provide for a kill strength using a single pass and energy
wheels located relative to the fans to minimize any cross
contamination.
The contract documents require a pressure profile
be completed during TAB to verify compliance with the
performance levels outlined in ASHRAE’s “Practical
Guidance for Epidemic Operation of Energy Recovery
Ventilation Systems” (https://tinyurl.com/y2wyth7o).
Zone/space airflow is controlled via air terminal equip-
ment that will use the same space CO2 ppm adjustment
discussed for the existing HQ to temporarily disable the
DCV strategy. The team analyzing the systems felt that
the design of the new facility had incorporated many of
suggested mitigation strategies and did not need further
alterations to align with the ETF guidance.
Thanks to the ASHRAE Epidemic Task
Force for creating the guidance, as well
to as the individuals that led the effort
to analyze the existing and new ASHRAE https://bit.ly/3k9ecVE
buildings. Rate this Column
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 INFO CENTER
SPECIAL ADVERTISING SECTION

THE MOST ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

IN BOILER CONTROL

The NURO® Touch-Screen Control

System maximizes boiler and water
heater efficiency by monitoring
and modulating combustion and
FRENIC-Ace Inverters ignition. It utilizes the most stable
Performance you need. technology in a totally easy-to-use
Reliability you can count on. package. This ensures safe, efficient
and reliable boiler performance
• 3-Year Standard Warranty
year-after-year.
• Built-In STO (Safe Torque Off)
• 200 Steps of Customizable Logic
• Permanent Magnet Motor Control NURO® Connect App Available
Android and iOS devices
Fuel usage calculator
Notifications & service reminders
Unlimited boiler and site connectivity
Real-time data with history download
Service version for trained technicians

Website: www.pattersonkelley.com
Phone: 570.476.7261
Toll Free: 877.728.5351
americas.fujielectric.com/ace

ASHRAE Learning Institute

Your Cost-Effective Training Solution

GOOD REASONS
FOR R-32

ASHRAE Learning Institute (ALI) takes a proactive role

THERE’S MORE THAN ONE GOOD REASON
TO SWITCH FROM R- 410A RE FRIG E R ANT
T O R - 3 2 . I N FA C T, T H E R E A R E 3 2 O F T H E M .
S E E T H E M A L L AT R 3 2 R E A S O N S . C O M .
in training professionals with up-to-date requirements
for the design, construction, and renovation of new and
existing buildings and their systems.
ALI offers a variety of instructor-led courses, developed
by industry experts.

Never stop learning. See how ASHRAE Learning

WITH MORE THAN 100 MILLION UNITS
INSTALLED WORLDWIDE, R-32 IS ENDORSED BY: Institute can assist with your training needs.

Visit ashrae.org/ali for the complete list of

instructor-led training.

78 ASHRAE JOURNAL ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020

 CLASSIFIEDS COMMENTARY

RATE SCHEDULE: SOFTWARE

Classified line advertisements Everything Your Reps Need…

are inserted in 7-point type at the
...to increase sales
rate of $6.00 per word. This
includes heading and address. For All HVAC Products
Maximum insertion 15 lines. Prices
are net. Classified line insertions Selection
Pricing / Configuration
for members are $2.00 per word.
Submittals
Parts
Classified Column Inch
Border Advertisements Customer Support
are inserted in 8-point bold heading More...
and address type of 7-point body www.bcatech.com
type at the rate of $145.00 per 407-
407-659-
659-0653
column inch, includes heading and
address. Maximum length 5 inches.
Maximum width 2-1/8”. Prices are
net. Border classified insertions for
members are $65.00 per column
inch.

Classifieds are accepted in the

categories of Job Opportunities,
Rentals, Business Opportunities,
and Software.

Closing date:
Copy must be received by the
classified department by the 3rd of
the month preceding date of issue.

Address: Send request for further

information to:

ASHRAE JOURNAL
Vanessa Johnson
1791 Tullie Circle NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
Phone 678-539-1166
Fax 678-539-2166
E-mail: vjohnson@ashrae.org

SEPTEM BER 2020 ashrae.org ASHRAE JOURNAL 79


Advertisers Index/Reader Service Information
Two fast and easy ways to get additional information on
products & services in this issue:
Go to www.ashrae.org/freeinfo to search for products by category or
company name. Plus, link directly to advertisers’ Web sites or request
information by e-mail, fax or mail.
*Regional
Company Page
AAON Inc .........................................51
AAON Inc ................................4th Cvr
Aerco ................................................33
AHR Expo Chicago 2021 .............. 17
A-J Manuf. Co. Inc.........................19
Armacell...........................................25
*ASHRAE eLearning......................41
ASHRAE Learning Institute......... 68
Automatic Airflow Balancing ...... 46
Badger Meter Inc.......................... 55
Belimo Aircontrols USA...................5
Belimo Aircontrols USA.................77
Big Ass Fans ............................ 36-37
80 ASHRAE JOURNAL
Company Page
Cambridge Engineering ................47
Daikin North America LLC................
............................................. 2nd Cvr-1
Daikin North America LLC............78
ebm-papst Inc ................................23
Ebtron...............................................43
Ebtron......................................3rd Cvr
Fuji Electric Corp of America.......78
Greenheck .......................................29
Hurst Boiler & Welding Co. Inc ...13
Metraflex..........................................24
*Mitsubishi Electric Sales Canada
Inc.....................................................41
Miura America Co. Ltd................. 45
Munters Corp..................................67
ashrae.org SEPTEM BER 2020
ADVERTISING SALES
ASHRAE JOURNAL
1791 Tullie Circle NE | Atlanta, GA 30329
(404) 636-8400 | Fax: (678) 539-2174
www.ashrae.org
Greg Martin | gmartin@ashrae.org
Associate Publisher, ASHRAE Media Advertising
Vanessa Johnson | vjohnson@ashrae.org
Sr. Coordinator Advertising Production & Operations
NORTHEAST U.S.
Nelson & Miller Associates –
Denis O’Malley
5 Hillandale Ave., Suite 101
Stamford, CT 06902
(203) 356-9694 | Fax (203) 356-9695
sales@nelsonmiller.com
Company Page
Niles Steel Tank..............................71 SOUTHEAST U.S.
Millennium Media, Inc. –
590 Hickory Flat Road
Alpharetta, GA 30004
Panasonic Life Solutions Co of Doug Fix (770) 740-2078 | Fax (678) 405-3327
Lori Gernand-Kirtley (281) 855-0470 | Fax (281) 855-4219
America............................................ 11 dfix@bellsouth.net; lg@lindenassoc.com
OHIO VALLEY U.S.
Chagrin Valley Media Partners – Tom Lasch
Patterson-Kelley............................ 59 512 East Washington St.
Chagrin Falls, OH 44022
tlasch@larichadv.com
(440) 247-1060 | Fax (440) 247-1068
Patterson-Kelley.............................78
MIDWEST U.S.
Kingwill Company – Baird Kingwill; Jim Kingwill
330 W. Colfax Street, Unit 102
Palatine, IL 60057
Petra Engineering ..........................63 (847) 537-9196 | Fax (847) 537-6519
barry@kingwillco.com; jim@kingwillco.com
SOUTHWEST U.S.
Pottorff...............................................7 Lindenberger & Associates, Inc. –
Gary Lindenberger; Lori Gernand-Kirtley
7007 Winding Walk Drive, Suite 100
Houston, TX 77095
(281) 855-0470 | Fax (281) 855-4219
gl@lindenassoc.com; lg@lindenassoc.com
Reliable Controls ..............................3
CANADA & WEST U.S.
Chagrin Valley Media Partners – Tom Lasch
512 East Washington St.
Riello.................................................75 Chagrin Falls, OH 44022
tlasch@larichadv.com
(440) 247-1060 | Fax (440) 247-1068
Rotor Source Inc...........................74 KOREA
YJP & Valued Media Co., Ltd – YongJin Park
Kwang-il Building #905, Dadong-gil 5
Jung-gu, Seoul 04521, Korea
82-2 3789-6888 | Fax: 82-2 3789-8988
Schebler.......................................... 50 hi@YJPvm.kr
EUROPE & MIDDLE EAST
Steve Comstock
Seiho International Inc..................57 32 (0)2 234 77 11 | comstock@ashrae.org
INTERNATIONAL
ASHRAE – Greg Martin
(678) 539-1174 | gmartin@ashrae.org
Shortridge Instruments Inc..........74
RECRUITMENT ADVERTISING AND REPRINTS
ASHRAE – Greg Martin
(678) 539-1174 | gmartin@ashrae.org
UL LLC .............................................73
AIRFLOW AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Now available with velocity-weighted enthalpy or dew point!

NEW!
Hinged cover

For over thirty-five years, EBTRON has been the industry leader in airflow measurement with unsurpassed
connec�vity solu�ons for building automa�on systems. Our new Gold Series GTx116e-P+ can be provided
with an integral humidity sensor for accurate humidity, enthalpy and/or dew point measurement.

• Directly measure actual or standard (mass) airflow, temperature and relative humidity.
• Velocity-weighted temperature results in accurate enthalpy and/or dew point calculations using
relative humidity measurement.
• Improve enthalpy switchover control on airside economizer-based systems.
• Time-tested thermal dispersion technology uses stable bead-in-glass thermistor probes for airflow
and temperature measurement.
• Ruggedized capacitive polymer RH sensor is designed for long-life in harsh environments.
• Two line alpha-numeric backlit LCD and easy to remove transmitter cover.

EBTRON, Inc. | 1663 HWY 701 S., Loris, S.C. 29569 | Internet: EBTRON.com | Phone: 800 2 EBTRON | email: sales@ebtron.com