Aluminium Bauxite AlOx(OH)3-2x [where 0 < x < 1]

Kaolinite (a form of clay) [Al2 (OH)4 Si2O5]

Iron Haematite Fe2O3

Magnetite Fe3O4
Siderite FeCO3
Iron pyrites FeS2

Copper Copper pyrites CuFeS2

Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Cuprite Cu2O
Copper glance Cu2S

Zinc Zinc blend/Sphalerite ZnS

Calamine ZnCO3
Zincite ZnO

The GDP contribution of the mining industry varies from 2.2% to 2.5% only but
going by the GDP of the total industrial sector it contributes around 10% to 11%.
  Acanthite (cooled polymorph of Argentite): Ag2S for production of silver.
 The primary mineral of gold is the native metal and electrum (a gold-silver
alloy). Some tellurides are also important ore minerals such as calaverite,
sylvanite, and petzite.

What is the difference between minerals and ores?

Ore is the rock from which the metal is extracted in a convenient and economical way. Ore
has a composition that is definite. Metals that occur naturally in the earth’s crust are called
minerals. Minerals that can profitably be used to get the metal are called ores.
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid
chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal
structure that occurs naturally in pure form

What are the different types of ores?

Ores are the minerals from which metal is conveniently and profitably extracted. There are
mainly four kinds of ores like Ores Oxides; Ores Carbonate; Sulphide Ores; Ores Halides.
Resource: A Mineral Resource is a concentration or occurrence of solid material of
economic interest in or on the Earth’s crust in such form, grade or quality and
quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction.

A mineral reserve is “the economically mineable part of a measured and/or indicated

mineral resource.

Lithium in J&K:
Lithium is known for effectively converting chemical energy into electrical energy due to its
high durability, lightweight, and endurance.

The Geological Survey of India originally mapped and reported the presence of lithium
deposits in the region more than two decades ago, in 1999. Mapping by the Geological
Survey of India is the very first step toward identifying any mineral. It is followed by the next
phase of exploration where the inferred resources are calculated based on a physical and
chemical study of the surface and samples.
The country took two decades to move from the G4 (reconnaissance) stage, where the
mapping of resources takes place, to the G3 (prospecting) stage, where quantities are
inferred, based on interpretation of geological, geophysical and geochemical results and a
deposit is identified which will be the target for further exploration. In the next stage, G2
(general exploration), more studies are done to estimate the minerals’ shape, size and
grade. And finally, the G1 stage (detailed exploration) is where characteristics of the deposit
are established with a high degree of accuracy. A decision whether to conduct a feasibility
study next, can be made from the information provided by the G1 stage. The Geological
Survey of India adopted this classification of mining exploration of the United National
Framework Classification for mineral reserves of 2009.
Pankaj Srivastava, professor of Geology at Jammu University, told Mongabay-India that the
G3 exploration in Jammu and Kashmir is preliminary in nature, where the calculation
confidence is low. It needs to be backed by more proof to substantiate the quantum of
minerals available at such sites. The current study does not indicate whether metal
extraction is possible at the site.
“To be more sure, exploratory companies undertake the G2 level of assessment after G3,
where the indicative resources are calculated, which tells us how much of the deposit could
be mined with more facts. Later in the G1 level, some minor exploratory mining is done to
find if the area is ready for mining precisely, and the real ‘proved resource assessment’ is
done at this level,” he added.
Early estimates indicate that the amount of lithium in Reasi could be to the amount of 5.9
million tonnes. As indicated in the 1999 report of the Geological Survey of India, though, the
lithium in the Reasi district is mixed with bauxite. The final deposit amount could be less
than predicted at the G3 level. The lithium found in Reasi had more than 800 parts per
million quality, which hints at a higher level of enrichment. Any lithium mineral with more
than 300 per million quality quality is considered of good enrichment value, said Srivastava.
India also had another claim of lithium deposits, in 2021, when the India’s Atomic Minerals
Directorate for Exploration and Research claimed to find 1,600 tonnes of the metal in the
Marlagalla area in the Mandya district of Karnataka. Lithium reconnaissance resource (found
after G4 level of reconnaissance) are also explored along the Saraswati river in the Jodhpur
and Barmer districts of Rajasthan in the brines. Lithium is traced and extracted from rocks,
clays, sediments and the salty water (brine) on the surface of underground water bodies.

Upcoming challenges:
 The value of 5.9MT is inferred resource and have to wait for final value of proved
reserve.
 Need to develop an expertise in extraction of Lithium. To do so need combined effort
from Govt., investment in infrastructure development.
 unlike Chile, where there are lithium deposits, the Reasi region in Jammu and
Kashmir had lithium mixed with other minerals into the rocks. It can lead to more
challenges in terms of cost and technology of processing.
 Australia has similar lithium reserves like Jammu and Kashmir reserve, where lithium
is mixed with bauxite. We may need technology transfers and tie ups with the
lithium metal extraction industry outside,”
 Environment impact on Himalayas (form between 40 and 50 million years ago)
 Budget 2023 and mining Industry:
 FM reduces coal ministry's allocation by 51% to Rs 192.32 crore from Rs 394.24.
 The Centre’s Deep Ocean Mission, which aims to explore marine biodiversity for the
sustainable use of resources, has been allocated Rs 600 crore in the Union Budget
2023-2024 which is doubled YOY.
 Geopolitical factors affecting the world economy has resulted in rising inflation and
the world is now staring at a possible global slowdown. The Finance Minister in
November had said that keeping the global uncertainty and gas prices in view, coal
gasification assumed importance.
 Indian stock of coal would also be used for gas as transitional energy as the country
moves away from fossil fuels towards greener alternatives.
 Following the uncertainties of availability of crude, natural gas and coal due to the Russia-
Ukraine war, she had said that many governments were talking about going back to coal
because of global uncertainties, and India, too, would have to fall back on coal for its
energy needs for some more time.

Production* Offtake/Dispatch*

Actual
During
Actual Cores
During Cores period of
Ach. period of Growth Ach. previous
Company Target (Prov) previous year (%) Target (Prov.) year

CIL 700.00 619.70 542.38 14.26 700.00 630.75 602.00

SCCL 70.00 60.14 58.58 2.66 70.00 60.11 59.58

Captive 141.00 105.40 81.03 30.08 141.00 104.09 82.55

& Others

Total 911.00 785.24 681.98 15.14 911.00 794.96 744.13

Source: CCO Revised Production and dispatch target in respect of coal companies and others for Annual Pla
23 is 868.00 MT

COAL PRODUCTION AND OFFTAKE APRIL-FEB- 2022-2023 (IN MT)

Coal production of CIL during 2021-22 were 622.634 MT
 Coal 2021-22 2022-23(Prov.)*

Coking Coal 57.16 43.208

Non-Coking Coal 151.77 142.851

Total Coal Import 208.93 186.059

Coke 2.48 2.652

*Import upto December, 2022 (Source:-DGCI&S)

COAL GRADES
The gradation of non-coking coal is based on Gross Calorific Value (GCV), the
gradation of coking coal is based on ash content and for semi coking /weakly
coking coal it is based on ash plus moisture content, as in vogue as per
notification.
Grades of Coking Coal

Grade Ash Content

Steel Grade – I,22531 Not exceeding 15%

Steel Grade -II,20457 Exceeding 15% but not exceeding 18%

Washery Grade -I,6312 Exceeding 18% but not exceeding 21%

Washery Grade -II Exceeding 21% but not exceeding 24%

Washery Grade -III Exceeding 24% but not exceeding 28%

Washery Grade -IV,3571 Exceeding 28% but not exceeding 35%

Washery Grade – V Exceeding 35% but not exceeding 42%

Washery Grade -VI Exceeding 42% but not exceeding 49%

Grades of Semi-coking and Weakly Coking Coal

Grade Ash+Moisture
 Semi Coking Grade -I Not exceeding 19%

Semi Coking Grade -II Exceeding 19% but not exceeding 24%

Grades of Non-coking Coal

GCV BAND (K.Cal./Kg.) GRADE

Exceeding 7000 G-1, 13290

Exceeding 6700 and not exceeding 7000 G-2,7860

Exceeding 6400 and not exceeding 6700 G-3,7568

Exceeding 6100 and not exceeding 6400 G-4

Exceeding 5800 and not exceeding 6100 G-5,7640

Exceeding 5500 and not exceeding 5800 G-6

Exceeding 5200 and not exceeding 5500 G-7

Exceeding 4900 and not exceeding 5200 G-8

Exceeding 4600 and not exceeding 4900 G-9

Exceeding 4300 and not exceeding 4600 G-10,3099

Exceeding 4000 and not exceeding 4300 G-11

Exceeding 3700 and not exceeding 4000 G-12

Exceeding 3400 and not exceeding 3700 G-13

Exceeding 3100 and not exceeding 3400 G-14

Exceeding 2800 and not exceeding 3100 G-15

Exceeding 2500 and not exceeding 2800 G-16

Exceeding 2200 and not exceeding 2500 G-17,625

How to Extract Lithium
Conventional Lithium Brine Extraction
The majority of today’s commercial lithium production is from those that extract lithium
from underground brine reservoirs (salars). Most takes place in the so-called Lithium
Triangle, high-up in the Andes, where the borders of Bolivia, Argentina and Chile meet, and
in China.
Lithium brine recovery is a straightforward but time consuming process. Salt-rich water is
pumped to the surface and into a series of evaporation ponds. Over a period of months, the
water slowly evaporates and a variety of salts precipitate out, leaving a brine with an ever-
increasing concentration of lithium.

During the evaporation process, a slurry of hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) is added to the brine to
precipitate out unwanted elements, particularly magnesium and boron (as magnesium
hydroxide and calcium boron salts). When lithium concentration reaches a certain point, the
brine is pumped to a recovery facility to extract the metal, a process that usually includes the
following steps.

 Brine purification to remove contaminants or unwanted elements.

 Chemical treatment to precipitate out desirable products and byproducts.
 Filtration to remove the precipitated solids.
 Treatment with soda ash (Na2CO3) to precipitate out lithium carbonate (Li2CO3).
 Washing and drying of the lithium carbonate into the final product.

Hard Rock Mining

Hard rock mining is a considerably more complex and energy-intensive process than
conventional brine extraction. Although there are over 145 minerals that contain lithium,
only five are used for commercial lithium extraction: spodumene, lepidolite, petalite,
amblygonite, and eucryptite.
Of these, spodumene(LiAl(SiO3)2) is the most abundant, yielding the vast majority of
mineral-derived lithium. Australia accounts for much of the world’s spodumene production,
with some smaller operations in Brazil, and other mineral-based lithium operations in
Portugal, southern Africa and China. By 2025, additional mines are expected to be online in
North America and Finland.
After the ore is mined, it is crushed and roasted(Roasting is a process of metallurgy where ore
is converted into its oxide by heating it below its melting point in the presence of excess air)
at 2012°F (1100°C). It is then cooled to 140°F (65°C), milled and roasted again, this time
with sulfuric acid, at 482°F (250°C), a process known as acid leaching(Leaching is a process
widely used in extractive metallurgy where ore is treated with chemicals to convert the
valuable metals within into soluble salts while the impurity remains insoluble). During this
last step, the hydrogen in the sulfuric acid is replaced with lithium ions, to produce lithium
sulfate and an insoluble residue.
As in brine-based lithium extraction, lime is added for the removal of magnesium (a
constituent element in spodumene), and soda ash is used to precipitate lithium carbonate from
the final purified, filtered solution. Lime slurry may also be used as a pH adjuster to
neutralize excess acid from the acid leaching process.