Advertising Promotion and Other

Aspects of Integrated Marketing

Communications 9th Edition Shimp
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 THE ROLE OF PERSUASION IN INTEGRATED
Chapter 7 MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

Chapter Objectives
1. Understand the nature and role of attitudes in marketing communications, different hierarchy
of effects models, and under what conditions that attitudes should predict behavior.
2. Appreciate the role of persuasion in marketing communications.
3. Explain the tools of influence from the marketing communicator’s perspective.
4. Discuss the five important factors of persuasion: message strength, peripheral cues, receiver
involvement, receiver initial position, and communication modality.
5. Understand the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) and its implications for marketing
communications.
6. Understand practical marketing communications efforts that enhance consumers’ motivation,
opportunity, and ability to process messages.
7. Explain the theory of reasoned action (TORA) and basic attitude, preference, and behavior
change strategies.

Chapter Overview
Marketing communications in its various forms (advertising, social media, personal selling,
direct marketing, and so on) involves efforts to persuade consumers by influencing their attitudes
and ultimately their behavior. This chapter describes the role and nature of attitudes and different
hierarchies by which they are formed and changed. From the marketing communicators’
perspective, attitude formation and change represent the process of persuasion. The role of
measurement specificity and direct experience is discussed in trying to predict behavior from
attitude measures. Persuasion efforts on the part of the persuader are next described and
illustrated, including six influence tactics: reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof,
liking, authority, and scarcity.

The nature of persuasion is discussed with particular emphasis on an integrated framework called
the elaboration likelihood model (ELM). Two alternative persuasion mechanisms are described:
a central route, which explains enduring persuasion under conditions when the receiver is
motivated, able, and has the opportunity (MAO) to process the message; and a peripheral route,
in which one MAO elements may be deficient, yet a peripheral cue may account for short-term
persuasion. In this context, three attitude-formation processes are described: emotion-based
persuasion, message-based persuasion, and classical conditioning. The first two are mechanisms
for attitude change under the central route, whereas classical conditioning is a peripheral-route
process.

A treatment is then given to practical efforts to enhance consumers’ motivation, opportunity, and
ability to process marketing messages. This section includes descriptions and illustrations of
marcom efforts to heighten consumers’ motivation to attend and process messages, measures to

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accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 7

augment consumers’ opportunity to encode information and reduce process time, and techniques
used to increase consumers’ ability to access knowledge structures and create new structures.
A final topic covered is the theory of reasoned action (TORA) found in persuasion research and
basic attitude, preference, and behavior change strategies.

Chapter Outline
I. The Nature and Role of Attitudes

A. What Is an Attitude?
Attitudes are hypothetical constructs. A variety of perspectives attempt to describe
and measure attitudes. Attitude means a general and somewhat enduring positive or
negative feeling toward, or evaluative judgment of, some person, object, or issue.
Brands are our primary attitude object. Attitudes are learned. Attitudes are relatively
enduring. Attitudes influence behavior. Attitudes include an affective, cognitive, and
behavioral component.
1. Hierarchies of Effects
The high involvement hierarchy, also known as the standard learning hierarchy,
shows a clear progression under high involvement from initial cognition to affect
to conation. Other hierarchies include the low involvement hierarchy which
moves from minimal cognition to conation and then to affect, and the dissonance-
attribution and integrative models.

B. Using Attitudes to Predict Behavior

There are two important determinants in predicting behavior from attitudes. These are
measurement specificity and having direct versus indirect experience with the object
of attitude measurement.
1. Measurement Specificity
Involves four components critical to achieving accurate measures of attitudes. The
TACT of measurement specificity includes: (1) the target of the behavior, (2) the
specific action, (3) the context in which the behavior occurs, and (4) the time
when it occurs.
2. The Role of Direct Experience
Attitudes based on direct experiences are more reliably measured than those based
on indirect experience.

II. Persuasion in Marketing Communications

Persuasion is the essence of marketing communication.

A. The Ethics of Persuasion

Persuasion does not need to be unethical.

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 The Role of Persuasion in Integrated Marketing Communications

III. Tools of Influence: The Persuader’s Perspective

Robert Cialdini identified six tools of influence that are useful in persuasion. These tools
are reciprocation, commitment and consistency, social proof, liking, authority, and
scarcity.

A. Reciprocation
As part of the socialization process in all cultures, people acquire a norm of
reciprocity. We return a gesture with an in-kind gesture.

B. Commitment and consistency

After people make a commitment there is a strong tendency to be true to that choice.

C. Social proof
People may decide how to behave based on the choices of others.

D. Liking
People may be persuaded by those they like. Likability is based on physical
attractiveness and similarity.

E. Authority
People tend to be influenced by people in positions of authority. Authority may come
from one’s position or by one’s credible knowledge in an area.

F. Scarcity
Scarcity is based on the principle that people want things more when they are in high
demand but short supply. The theory of psychological reactance explains why
scarcity works. The theory suggests that people react against efforts to reduce their
freedom to choose.

IV. The Influence Process: The Persuadee’s Perspective

There are five factors fundamental to the persuasion process. These are message
arguments, peripheral cues, communication modality, receiver involvement, and initial
position.

A. Message Arguments
The strength or quality of the message arguments is often the major determinant of
whether and to what extent persuasion occurs. People are more persuaded by
believable messages.

B. Peripheral Cues
Peripheral cues include elements like background music, scenery, and graphics.

C. Communication Modality
Mode of communication is important, especially when considered alongside
likability.

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 Chapter 7

D. Receiver Involvement
Persuasion results from self-generated thoughts that people produce in response to
persuasive efforts. Cognitive responses may be support arguments or
counterarguments. Support arguments occur when the receiver agrees with the
message and counterarguments occur when the receiver disagrees. Agreement was
discussed in Chapter 6. Other responses include source bolstering and source
derogation.

E. Receiver’s Initial Position

Self-persuasion is based on cognitive and emotional responses. Two forms of
cognitive responses are support arguments and counterarguments. Support arguments
are when a receiver agrees with a message argument. Counterarguments are when the
receiver challenges a message claim.

V. An Integrated Model of Persuasion

The factors reviewed can be combined into a coordinated theory of persuasion. Figure 7.4
presents a model of routes by which persuasion occurs. This explanation is based on
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model (ELM). Elaboration deals with the
mental activity in response to a message such as an advertisement. Motivation to
elaborate is high when a message relates to a person’s present consumption-related goals
and then consumers are more motivated to elaborate or process a message. Opportunity
involves the matter of whether it is physically possible for a person to process a message.
If the opportunity is restricted, elaboration may be low. Ability concerns whether the
person is familiar with the message claims and has the necessary skills to comprehend the
message. When ability is low, elaboration will be low and vice versa. These three factors
determine each person’s elaboration likelihood. Elaboration likelihood (EL) represents
the chance that a message receiver will elaborate on a message by thinking about it and
reacting to it. Depending upon the EL, receivers may follow two routes to persuasion:
central route or peripheral route.

A. The Central Route

When EL is high, receivers will focus on the message arguments more so than
peripheral cues. This is shown in Figure 7.4. The consumer may accept some
arguments but counterargue others. Consumers may use emotion-based persuasion or
message-based persuasion in the central route depending upon how involved they are
with the message.

B. The Peripheral Route

When MOA factors are at low levels, the peripheral route is followed. Peripheral cues
involve elements unrelated to the primary selling points in the message.
1. Classical Conditioning of Attitudes
Pavlov trained dogs to salivate on hearing a bell ring. In this situation, meat
powder was an unconditioned stimulus (US), and salivation was an unconditioned
response (UR). By repeatedly pairing the bell (a conditioned stimulus, or CS) with
the meat powder, the bell by itself eventually caused the dog to salivate. The dog,
in other words, had been trained to emit a conditioned response (CR) upon

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 The Role of Persuasion in Integrated Marketing Communications

hearing the bell ring. The dog had learned that the bell regularly preceded meat
powder, and thus the ringing bell caused the dog to predict that something
desirable—the meat powder—was forthcoming.
Something similar to this happens when consumers process peripheral cues. For
example, brand advertisements that include adorable babies, attractive people, and
majestic scenery can elicit positive emotional reactions. Think of these peripheral
cues as analogous to meat powder (the US), the emotional reactions as similar to
the dog’s salivation (the UR), and the advertised brand as similar to the bell in
Pavlov’s experiments (the CS). The emotion contained in the cue may become
associated with the brand, thereby influencing consumers to like the brand more
than they did prior to viewing the commercial. Through their repeated association,
the CS (advertised brand) comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR) similar to
the unconditioned response (UR) evoked by the US itself (the peripheral cue).
2. Temporary versus Enduring Attitude Change
According to ELM, people experience only temporary attitude changes when
persuaded by peripheral cues.

C. Dual Routes
It is possible for both routes to work simultaneously. This is shown in Figure 7.4.

VI. Enhancing Consumers’ Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process

Advertisements
The appropriate influence strategy depends both on consumer characteristics and on
brand strengths.

A. Motivation to Attend to Messages

Figure 7.5 shows that one of the communicator’s objectives is to increase the
consumer’s motivation to attend to the message and to process brand information.
Two major forms of attention, as discussed in Chapter 6, are voluntary and
involuntary attention.
1. Appeals to Informational and Hedonic Needs
Figure 7.6 shows an appeal to informational needs. Under high EL, consumers
can be attracted to stimuli which serve information needs.
2. Use of Novel Stimuli
Novel messages are unusual, distinctive, unpredictable, and somewhat
unexpected. It works because it gets more attention when consumers see messages
that are not familiar. This is explained by the concept of human adaptation.
Psychologists call it habituation. Figure 7.7 provides an illustration.
3. Use of Intense or Prominent Cues
Intense cues work by leading to involuntary attention. Figure 7.8 and 7.9
illustrate.
4. Using Motion
Figure 7.10 illustrates using motivation to attract attention.

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 Chapter 7

B. Motivation to Process Messages

Enhanced processing motivation means that the ad receiver has increased interest in
reading or listening to the ad messages to determine what it has to say that might be
of relevance. Marketers do this by enhancing relevance and enhancing curiosity.
Methods for doing so include using fear appeals, dramatic presentations, rhetorical
questions, humor, and suspense or surprise. Figure 7.11 reveals an example.

C. Opportunity to Encode Information

Marketing messages have no chance of effectiveness unless consumer comprehend
the information and store it for later use. Therefore, marketers wish for consumers to
encode the information. The secret to ensuring information is encoded is repetition,
especially under low involvement situations.

D. Opportunity to Reduce Processing Time

Opportunity to process is enhanced if the communicator takes effort to reduce the
time it takes for consumers to consume the information. This is sometimes done with
images. Figure 7.12 illustrates.

E. Ability to Access Knowledge Structures

A brand-based knowledge structure represents the associative links in the consumer’s
long-term memory between the brand and thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about the
brand. Verbal framing is one way of providing context.

F. Ability to Create Knowledge Structures

Marketing communicators may need to create knowledge structures for information
they want consumers to have about the brand. This can be accomplished using
exemplar-based learning. An exemplar is a specimen or model of a particular concept
or idea. Figure 7.13 illustrates the use of analogy to create a knowledge structure.
1. Concretizzations
Used to facilitate consumer learning and retrieval. This was covered in Chapter 6.
Figure 7.14 provides an example.

VII. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA)

The message-based persuasion process described above has been fully developed in the
well-known theory of reasoned action (TORA). This theory proposes that all forms of
planned and reasoned behavior (versus unplanned, spontaneous, impulsive behavior)
have two primary determinants: attitudes and normative influences.
Attitude formation according to TORA can best be described in terms of the following
equation.
n
ABj =  bij • ei Equation 7.1
i=1

where:
ABj = attitude toward a particular brand (brand j)
bij = the belief, or expectation, that owning brand j will lead to outcome i

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 The Role of Persuasion in Integrated Marketing Communications

ei = the positive or negative evaluation of the ith outcome

A consumer’s attitude toward a brand (or, more technically, toward the act of owning and
consuming the brand) is determined by his or her “cognitive structure” (i.e., the beliefs
regarding the outcomes, or consequences, of owning the brand multiplied by the
evaluations of those outcomes). Outcomes (expressed in Equation 7.1 as i =1 through n,
where n is typically fewer than 7) involve those aspects of product ownership (e.g., a
running shoe) that the consumer either desires to obtain (e.g., getting in shape, improving
one’s race time) or to avoid (e.g., knee or foot injuries, abnormal shoe wear). Consumers
approach benefits and avoid detriments. Beliefs (the bij term in Equation 7.1) are the
consumer’s subjective probability assessments, or expectations, regarding the likelihood
that performing a certain act (e.g., buying brand j) will lead to a certain outcome. In
theory, the consumer who is in the market for a product has a separate belief associated
with each potential outcome for each shoe brand he or she is considering buying, and it is
for this reason that the belief term in Equation 7.1 is subscripted both with an i (referring
to a particular outcome) and j (referring to a specific brand).
Because all outcomes are not equally important or determinant of consumer choice, we
need to introduce a term that recognizes this influence differential. This term is the
evaluation component, ei, in Equation 7.1. Evaluations represent the value, or importance,
that consumers attach to consumption outcomes (e.g., getting into shape, improving race
times, avoiding foot injury). It is important to note that outcome evaluations apply to the
product category in general and are not brand specific. It is for this reason that we need
only a single subscript, i, to designate evaluations and not also a j as in the case of beliefs.

A. Attitude Change Strategies

With Equation 7.1 in mind, we can identify three strategies that marketing
communicators employ in attempting to change consumer attitudes: (1) changing
beliefs, (2) altering outcome evaluations, or (3) introducing a new outcome into the
evaluation process. The first attitude-change strategy attempts to bolster attitudes by
influencing brand-related beliefs, which thus explains the term “belief change” to
characterize this strategy. This strategy “operates” on the bij term from Equation 7.1.
A second attitude-change strategy is to influence existing evaluations (the ei term in
Equation 7.1). This evaluation-change strategy involves getting consumers to reassess
a particular outcome associated with brand ownership and to alter their evaluations of
the outcome’s value. A third strategy used by marketing communicators to change
attitudes is what we might call an add-an-outcome strategy. The objective is to get
consumers to judge brands in a product category in terms of a new product benefit on
which “our” brand fares especially well.

VIII. Changing Preferences and Behavioral Modification Strategies

A preference is a behavioral tendency that exhibits itself in how a person acts toward an
object. Preferences can be both cognitively and affectively based. Marketing
communicators’ efforts at changing preferences by appealing to cognitions may meet
with failure if the preferences have an affective basis. Furthermore, even when a
preference is primarily cognitive-based, affect may become independent of the cognitive
elements that were originally its basis. The only way to influence some strongly held

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accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 7

preferences may be by using methods that have direct emotional impact (e.g., graphic
visual warnings shown to smokers with entrenched beliefs).
In addition to emotional conditions, marketers use a variety of other methods to change
consumer preferences (and behavior) that do not require changing cognitions. These
behavioral modification methods include various forms of classical and operant
conditioning, modeling, and ecological modification. Shaping is one application by
which marketers attempt to shape certain behaviors through a process of changing
preceding conditions and behaviors. Coupons, loss leaders, special deals, and free-trial
periods are all examples to help shape future consumer behavior.
Vicarious learning or modeling is an attempt to change preferences and behavior “by
having an individual observe the actions of others … and the consequences of those
behaviors.”

Chapter Features

Can We Be Persuaded to Overcome Bad Habits? The Cell-Free Club

Changing habits can be especially difficult when it involves overcoming bad habits such as
excessive phone use. People may be persuaded by celebrities, by anti-branding, by stages of
change, and other tactics.

Ad Persuasion for Global Public Causes

Persuasion is even more difficult across different languages and cultures. Ads of the World
(http://adsoftheworld.com) provides thousands of creative ads for different categories and
countries. In particular, public interest ads are included.

Faster Than a Microwave Oven: Better Than a Conventional Oven

The Advantium oven claimed to have the benefits of being faster and better than microwave or
conventional ovens. GE had to convince consumers that the claims were true. It did so by using
cooking demonstrations to credibly show the message argument.

Answers to Discussion Questions

1. Explain the cognitive, affective, and conative attitude components. Provide examples of each
using your attitude toward the idea of personally pursuing a career in selling and sales
management. Contrast the high involvement (standard learning) hierarchy with that of the
low involvement one.

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 The Role of Persuasion in Integrated Marketing Communications

Answer:
Student answers will vary depending upon their attitudes toward sales but each explanation
should include components of feeling, thinking, and doing and follow the low and high
involvement hierarchies in terms of the order of think, feel, do or do, feel, think.

2. Distinguish between message arguments and peripheral cues as fundamental determinants of

persuasion. Provide several examples of each from actual television commercials or other
advertisements.

Answer:
Student examples from commercials will vary. The message arguments should be primary
selling points and may include evidence to support the arguments. The peripheral cues will
be components not directly related to the selling points such as music and endorsers.

3. Receiver involvement is the fundamental determinant of whether people may be persuaded

through a central or a peripheral route. Explain.

Answer:
The more involved a person is the more likely they will have high elaboration likelihood.
High EL uses the central route.

4. There are three general strategies for changing attitudes. Explain each, using, for illustration,
consumers’ attitudes toward a fast-food chain of your choice (McDonald’s, Burger King,
KFC, etc.).

Answer:
To change someone’s attitude one can use the central route, the peripheral route, or a dual
route. For instance, a fast-food chain which seeks to change a negative attitude against it may
provide documentation on how healthy the food is (central route) or it may use a popular
spokesperson (peripheral route) or it may do both.

5. Assume that your target audience is composed of people who can afford to purchase a
“hybrid” automobile such as the Chevy Volt, Honda’s Insight, or Toyota’s Prius. (Note:
Hybrid automobiles are high-mileage cars that combine efficient gasoline engines with
electric motors powered by batteries.) Assume that your target audience is composed of
people who have negative attitudes toward hybrid vehicles. Using material from the chapter,
how would you attempt to change their attitudes if you were the advertising agency
responsible for this campaign? Be specific. Do the same for all-electric vehicles, such as the
Nissan Leaf.

Answer:
Responses will vary but the explanations should follow the ELM and may also reference the
six tools of influence.

6. Have you personally experienced unethical persuasive efforts from marketing

communicators? Under what circumstances would you most expect to find unethical

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 Chapter 7

marketing communications, and when would unethical communications most likely be

effective in marketing? Draw upon the integrated model of persuasion (e.g., ELM, see Figure
7.4) in forming your answer.

Answer:
Student answers will vary but will reference the tools of influence and the ELM. Students
may note the need to use counterarguments when dealing with unethical marketing.

7. In the discussion of the influence tactic of reciprocation, you were introduced to the concept
of contingency, or “it-depends,” thinking. What “it-depends” factors best explain when the
scarcity tactic would and would not be effective?

Answer:
Whether and when a tactic is effective depends upon the circumstances and the
characteristics of the people involved. Scarcity would likely be most effective when the item
in scarce supply is desirable to the consumer.

8. Assume that you are on the fundraising committee for a non-profit institution. Explain how
in this situation you could use each of the six influence tactics discussed in the text. Be
specific.

Answer:
Student responses should refer to the six tactics of reciprocity, commitment and consistency,
social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. Prospective donors might receive a gift and be
inspired to reciprocate with a donation. They might be asked to make a pledge
(commitment). They might be invited to participate by someone they like. They may feel that
time is running out to save the cause (scarcity). They might be told of the importance of the
charity by someone in a position of authority. All of these tactics could encourage donations.

9. Describe the similarity between the concept of elaboration and active synthesis, which was
explained in the prior chapter.

Answer:
Elaboration means to think about content. Synthesis involves making sense of the content.
Both concepts are very similar.

10. Locate two advertisements that illustrate exemplar-based learning and provide detailed
explanations as to how specifically your chosen advertisements facilitate exemplar-based
learning.

Answer:
Student responses will vary.

11. Pretend you are in charge of advertising for an online retailer. You know that consumers
have positive evaluations for the convenience of online shopping but many are distrustful of
unknown retailers and of giving out credit card numbers online. Using material from this

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 The Role of Persuasion in Integrated Marketing Communications

chapter, explain how you would attempt to change consumers’ attitudes about the risks of
online shopping. Visit several actual online retailers and describe instances where the
retailers have addressed consumers’ risk perceptions.

Answer:
To change attitudes on something of this level of risk, central route processing should be
used. Student answers should identify credible content which could illustrate safety.
Examples will vary.

12. Visit the Internet sites of approximately five brands that appeal to you. Based on the
framework in Figure 7.5, identify at least one example of each of the following efforts to
enhance consumers’ MOA factors: Locate an effort to increase consumers’ motivation to
process brand information. Identify an Internet advertisement that attempts to enhance
consumers’ opportunity to encode information. Find an advertisement that uses an exemplar
to assist consumers in either accessing or creating a new knowledge structure.

Answer:
Student answers will vary.

13. The opening Marcom Insight posed this question: Can we be persuaded to overcome bad
habits? What is your viewpoint on this matter? Please back up your position with appropriate
content from the chapter.

Answer:
The Marcom Insight suggests that habits are difficult to change. Students will present their
opinions.

14. Identify two magazine advertisements of your choice, presumably involving brands/products
that hold some interest for you. With each advertisement, indicate what you consider to be its
message arguments and peripheral cues. Then explain why you regard these as message
arguments/peripheral cues.

Answer:
Student answers will vary.

15. Construct an illustration to demonstrate your understanding of Equation 7.1. Identify three
brands in a product category that is personally relevant. Then specify four “outcomes” (i.e.,
benefits and detriments) pertinent to that category. Next, assign a numerical value from 1 to 5
to each outcome, where 1 equals “virtually no importance” and 5 equals “extreme
importance.” Then assign a value from 1 to 5 to represent your beliefs regarding how well
each of the three brands satisfies each of the four outcomes. In assigning your beliefs, treat 1
as indicating that the brand performs very poorly on this outcome, 5 as indicating the brand
performs extremely well, and 2-through-4 reflecting increasingly positive performance.

Answer:
Student answers will vary.

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accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 7

16. Assume that all outcomes (i = 1… n outcomes) are equally important to customers in a
particular product category. If this were so, how would adjust the attitude model in Equation
7.1 to capture the attitude-formation process?

Answer:
The numerical value assigned would be the same for each option considered.

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accessible website, in whole or in part.