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Performance of green concrete paving block
imbibed with industrial scrap steel mill scale for
sustainable building
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Mater. Res. Express 10 (2023) 035505 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/acc56b
PAPER
Performance of green concrete paving block imbibed with industrial
scrap steel mill scale for sustainable construction
Ganeshprabhu Parvathikumar1,ÿ , Gurukarthik Babu Balachandran2 and Brintha Sahadevan1
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, K.Vellakullam, Madurai District, Near
Virudhunagar, India
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, K.Vellakullam,
Madurai District, Near Virudhunagar, India ÿ Author
to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
Email: gp.civil@yahoo.in, ganeshprabhucivil@kamarajengg.edu.in, mspsbguru@gmail.com and skbrintha@gmail.com
Keywords: steel mill scale, M-sand, compressive strength, split tensile strength, paving blocks, eco-friendly, green concrete
Abstract
The utilization of industrial waste materials in concrete compensates the shortage of natural resources
by not only solving the problem due to disposal of waste but also by developing alternative solutions
to protect the environment as well as reduction in the area requirement for landfill. the concrete
made with such wastages using less energy during its production and eco-friendly is called as Green
Concrete. Variety of industrial wastes is employed as whole or partial substitution for coarse or fine
aggregate. Steel mill scale is one such kind of waste materials produced as a result of hot process of
rolling of steel in steel companies with rich source of iron content with least impurities. This research
study investigates the viability of adopting steel mill scale as a partial substitute material for fine
aggregate (M-sand). The current study investigates the influence on fresh and hardened concrete
paving blocks and its properties, when M-sand is replaced at 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%
with steel mill scale using a mix ratio of 1:1.6:2.1 at sustained water-cement ratio value of 0.5 and target
strength at 28 days of 30 Mega Pascals. Physical and chemical characterization of the materials, concrete
compressive strength, concrete split tensile strength, water absorption, and also micro-structural
examination of hardened paving blocks are experimentally investigated. Results suggest that 60% of
the replacements outperformed the originals. The research findings point towards the feasibility of
producing paving blocks from scrap steel mill scale for enhancing environmentally friendly
construction practices and sustainable pavement infrastructure.
abbreviations
M-Sand - Manufactured sand
SEM -scanning electron microscope
ES -Indian Standard
eds - Element Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
AGEX - Energy Dispersive x-ray Analysis
EITHER
-oxygen
Yeah -Silicon
To the - Aluminum
Faith -iron
na -Sodium
mg - Magnesium
AC -Calcium
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd
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k -Potassium

CSH-gel - Calcium silicate hydrate

SiO2 - Silicon Dioxide
ASTM -American Society for Testing and Materials
BS -British Standard

1.Introduction

In recent days, every part of the world fighting with extreme problems is regarding waste production and dealing
with the management of produced waste. Every city's periphery became a dumpyard, where the daily wastes
produced are in tons[1]. On the other hand, scarcity of river sand followed by the rise in price of river sand, which is
considered as one of the major material constituents used in conventional concrete production, was also reported.
The volume of natural resources used globally in buildings and infrastructure for transportation facilities has
shown a 23-fold increase between 1900 and 2010 [2]. Sand along with crushed rock and gravel referred to as solid
construction aggregates which are the resources extracted mainly for construction practices[3].

Resources in common-pool are vulnerable to major tragedies due to the difficulties in regulating their
consumption, extraction by people self-centredly without taking into account the long-term effects, ultimately leading to
overexploitation or degradation. Although sand mining is well regulated, there occurs typically widespread
unlawful extraction and trafficking [4]. Yearly, the demand for sand in emerging countries rises; as a result, globally sand
has been extracted between a range of 32 and 50 billion tons[5]. Sand mining is a massive industry that has negative
social and environmental consequences, ultimately affecting freshwater eco-systems [6]. In order to overcome the
constant demand arose for river sand and to reduce the requirements for landfill area [7], researchers and construction
practitioners have spotted some alternatives namely slag, fly ash, manufactured sand, glass aggregate,
recycled concrete aggregate, blast furnace slag , siliceous stone powder, limestone powder etc in producing Green
Concrete [8].
Frequent increase in mining of river sand has prompted the Construction Engineers to look into an
alternative fine aggregate suitably, and one of this kind of alternative resource is found as manufactured sand ie, M-sand
[9] . Next to manufactured sand, one of the recent kind of alternative resources is steel mill scale produced by
a variety of trash, including sludges and scales from oil mill. Steel mill scale is typically a by-product from industries for
steel fabrication [10]. These are produced at the rolling mill during the cooling and rolling processes of hot steel [11].
Every year, generation of steel mill scales is approximately 13.5 million tons globally [12]. Certain scraps from metallurgy
and steelmaking have found ubiquitous application for the construction industry. Granulated slag obtained from the
pig iron manufacturing process is being used as aggregate substitute materials in concrete. Majority of studies
demonstrated that concrete made of slag aggregates outperform well compared to the concrete made with natural
aggregates in terms of strengths such as compressive, tensile, flexural, and modulus of elasticity [13, 14].

Various iron and steel manufacturing processes generate 500 kg/tonne of wastes in solid forms roughly; steel
mill scale is another one of those wastes, accounting for approximately 2% of steel produced [15]. In terms of
compressive strength, replacing steel mill scales at 40% instead of sand is the optimum composition for mortars made
of cement [16]. The results improved when 60 percent of the river sand in the concrete was replaced by steel mill
scale. So, it can be recommended to be used as a constituent of concrete to improve both mechanical and micro-
structural properties[17].
Few researchers studied various properties of concrete and compared it with steel mill scale, and more
researchers have done the same research on the properties of concrete made with M-sand. There are no
researches identified for concrete paving blocks with M-sand, and steel mill scale. As an addendum, this research study
is intended to scrutinize the viability of the utilization of steel mill scale and M-sand substituted in place of river sand in
concrete and its related properties with varying proportions in the production of paving blocks.

2. Experimental program

The primary goal in this research is the performance assessment of the paving blocks that comprised of fine
aggregate (M-Sand) partially replaced by steel mill scale. In order to evaluate the performance of paving blocks, various
experiments were conducted including, compression strength test, split tensile strength test, water absorption test
and SEM analysis. This section describes the materials used, mix proportions, specimen preparation, and the
experimental procedure employed throughout this investigation.

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Table 1. Physical properties of fine aggregates.

S.no. Properties river sand M - Sand steel mill scale

1 specific gravity 2.76 [21] 2.83 4.1

2 Loose Bulk Density (Kg mÿ3 ) 1398 [22] 1759.58 2478.22
3 Compacted Bulk Density (Kg mÿ3 ) 1582 [22] 2068.01 2857.14
4 Water absorption (%) 1.20 [23] 1.48 0.74
5 color Pale Brown Flock bluish black

Table 2. Particle size distribution of M-Sand and Steel Mill

Scale.

Percentage of finer
sl.no Snow size (mm)
M-Sand Steel Mill Scale

1. 4.75 98.2 95.5

2. 2.36 91.78 85.3
3. 1.18 70.82 61.3
4. 0.6 49.35 43.9
5. 0.3 7.23 16.1
6. 0.15 1.11 5.5
7. 0.075 0.21 1.3
8. <0.075 0.01 0
Fineness Modulus 2,807 2,724

Presently, there are industrial by-products which are considered as materials for replacement, mainly used as
an alternative for conventional construction materials. Waste materials from industries are recommended
mainly for low cost constructions and where higher strength in construction is needed [18]. One such latest
Waste material is steel mill scale, mainly collected from dumpyards of steel industries. Steel mill scale wastes are
collected depending upon the required particle size, to meet the general criteria and recommendations given in
IS: 10262:2009 [18]. Cement content of 385 kg mÿ3 , along with an average water cement ratio of 0.5 was adopted
for all the trail mixes to get a medium degree of workability. The mix proportions of both controlled mix concrete
as well as steel mill scale waste concrete in different partial replacement ratios is tabulated in table 2. The
controlled concrete grade used in this experimental work was M30, which is expected to exhibit the same or increase
in strength for the steel mill scale waste green concrete. Both M- sand and steel mill scale wastes behaves like river
sand belonging to zone II according to IS 383: 1970, resembling the properties of natural river sand.

2.1. Cement
Locally purchased branded ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade according to IS: 4031–1991, with specific
Gravity value as 3.15 and fineness of 3.5 percent, was used.

2.2. Fine aggregate

2.2.1. M-Sand
M-sand is collected from a local source near the experimental laboratory. Manufactured sand (4.75 mm to 75
micron) collected holds specific gravity value of 2.83, a loose bulk density of 1759.58 kilogrammes per cubic
meter and a compacted bulk density of 2068.01 kilogrammes per cubic meter. Physical property of the M-sand
used in this experimental program is determined based on the provisions given in IS 2386–2016 [19].

2.2.2. steel mill scale

Steel mill scale was hoarded from the dumpyards of steel industry located in Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India. The
steel mill scale has properties like specific gravity with a value of 4.1, a loose bulk density of 2478.22 kilogrammes
per cubic meter and a compacted bulk density of 2857.14 kilogrammes per cubic meter. Due to the higher values
in specific gravity and bulk density of steel mill scale, it is evident that slag particles having higher specific gravity
are stronger and more stable [20]. Physical properties of steel mill scale determined through various laboratory
tests are listed in table 1. Results of particle size distribution of steel mill scale and M-Sand after conducting sieve
analysis test, is listed in table 2. The results depict that, the pattern and range of distribution of steel mill scale
particles adhere with the values obtained for M-sand. Maximum particles are distributed within the sieve sizes
ranging from 4.75 mm to 0.6 mm, which clearly shows that steel mill scale can be actively used as a substitute
material for fine aggregates.

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Figure 1. SEM Images of M-Sand and Steel mill scale.

23. Coarse aggregate

According to IS:15658(2006) criteria, natural, locally accessible, clean angular-shaped coarse aggregates with a
size of 10 millimeters were employed. Tests on determination of physical properties of coarse aggregates used in
this study was done based on the recommendations given in IS: 2386–1963 [19]. The specific gravity value of
coarse aggregate obtained was 2.61; the impact value obtained as 10.1 percent; and the water absorption rate
was 3%.

2.4. Toilet
For casting and curing the concrete specimens, clean water free of pollutants such as solid particles, oil, and acids
was employed.

2.5. Microstructural SEM analysis of fine aggregates

2.5.1. SEM analysis of fine
aggregates The SEM analysis provides enlarged details of size, shape, crystallography, composition, and other
chemical and physical properties of materials through image outputs[24]. The shape, dimension, distribution
of particles along with the topographical flaws like voids and fissures have the greatest influence on the inherent
microstructure features[17].
SEM pictures were examined for M-sand, and also steel mill scale. Figures 1(a), and (b), depict the form of
particles of M-Sand, and steel mill scale. The photos demonstrate that particles of M-sand are more angular and
abrasive. The angularity of the particles of M-Sand in concrete can be able to increase its flexural and compressive
strength [25]. Abrasive particle's cementation with the cement paste leads to improvement in strength. In
comparison to concrete made with natural sand, concrete made with M-sand has higher unit consumption of
water, stronger strength on compression, superior permeability, and resistance against frost due to grain form
and M-sand's surface state [26] . The steel mill scale particles are irregularly shaped and exhibit a rough surface
[27]. This feature of steel mill scale may aid in improving particle bonding in concrete [17], due to the irregular
shape with sharp points and the straight line pattern exhibited throughout the structure.

2.5.2. EDAX analysis of fine aggregates

The materials' elemental composition can be examined through energy dispersive x-ray analysis, often known as
EDS or EDAX. With this analysis, Materials along with product research, deformation, troubleshooting and
related applications are possible. EDX systems, as an attachment to electron microscopy instruments use
imaging capability of microscope to identify the specimen of interest. Analysis through EDX produces spectra
with peaks related to the components comprising the sample's real composition being studied. Analysis of Image
and mapping of element of a particular sample too are available [28]. EDAX pictures of M-sand and steel mill
scale are examined. Figures 2(a) and (b), depict the form of composition of M-Sand, and steel mill scale particles,

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Figure 2. EDAX images of M-Sand and Steel mill scale.

Table 3. Details of concrete mix proportion.

Percentage of Replacement (%) 0 twenty 40 60 80 100

Water(lit/block) 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53

Cement (kg/block) 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
Fine aggregate (kg/block) 1.53 1.22 0.92 0.61 0.30 0
Steel mill scale (kg/block) 0 0.46 0.93 1.40 1.87 2.20
Coarse aggregate (kg/block) 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34

which reveals that M-sand is composed of higher Si mineral content and Steel mill scale has Fe as the major
mineral component. Silica content leads to the effective binding of constituents of concrete paving blocks,
whereas, Fe content provides higher strength of the concrete mix, while minerals including Na, Mg, Ca, O, K etc
occupies the composition in minimum proportions.
The constituent elements as depicted by Energy dispersive Spectrometer of M-sand and steel mill scale are
depicted in figure 2. Chemical components present in steel mill scale and M-sand are very similar(O, Si, Al, and
Fe) in the context that Si and Fe contents are richer in M-Sand & Steel mill scale respectively. The presence of
iron and alumina in steel mill scale and M-sand will aid in developing Bogue's compound in hydration of
cement. Iron and alumina oxides present in steel mill scale can react with the silica content in fine aggregate for
generating a CSH gel [17].

2.6. mix ratio

Paving blocks were made using M30 grade concrete mixed with M-sand in the proper proportioning ratios.
To replace M-sand, steel mill scale was added in various mix combinations of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%.
The materials were chosen in accordance with IS: 15658–2006 [20] recommendations. The mix design was
carried out with extreme carefulness in accordance with IS 10262–2009 [29] recommendations, without altering
its core qualities. The study's design mix proportion was arrived as 1:1.6:2.1 (Cement: Fine aggregate: Coarse
aggregate), adopting w/c ratio as 0.5. Table 2 exhibit the specimen mix combinations. Details of concrete mix
proposition is given in table 3.

2.7. Preparation of specimen

Laboratory tests were conducted on hardened concrete paving block specimens to evaluate specified strength
parameters, abrasion resistance, water absorption, and microstructure. The specimen was prepared at
250 × 123 × 80 mm, according to IS 15658 (2006)[30]. Figure 3 depicts the finished concrete paving block. Six
specimens were casted for each ratio of the total six mixes, within which three specimens were tested at 14 days
and the remaining 3 specimens were subjected to testing at 28 days of curing, for a total of 108 specimens for the
water absorption and strength tests. According to the provisions of BS 1881 [31, 32], hardened concrete paving
block samples were subjected to get tested for split tensile and compressive strengths[33].

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Figure 3. Casted paving block specimen.

Figure 4. Slump value for various replacements.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Workability tests

3.1.1. Slump cone
test Workability is a quality of concrete that indicates how easily it can be mixed and laid with minimal human effort.
Slump cone test is the predominantly used testing method to test concrete's workability. The Slump test was
completed in accordance to IS 1199–1959 [34] recommendations. The test results were shown in figure 4.
From figure 4, it was observed that from 0 percent to 100 percent, the workability of the concrete is
continuously reduced. From 0 percent to 60 percent of replacement, the slump values lie from 50 to 100. So it
shows that 0 to 60 percent replacements have medium workability. The slump value is between 25 and 50
percent above 60 percent replacement. As a result, more than 60% of replacements have low and poor
workability because of less water absorption by steel mill scale, as the particles are devoid of voids. This is
particularly due to the densely packed structure of steel mill scale particles depicted in figure 1(b). M-sand
concrete possesses higher unit water consumption, because of the grain form and M-sand's surface state [17]. The
decrease in workability with rising steel mill scale replacement levels might be related to steel mill scale particles'
fineness, which may reduce the water absorption by steel mill scale particles despite the need to supply required
water content over the increased specific surface area of the steel mill scale and M-sand blended matrix.
The presence of M-sand and steel mill scale increases the need for water consumption, which in turn reduces the
workability of the concrete [35, 36].

3.1.2. Compaction factor test

For measuring the fresh concrete's workability for various volumes of steel mill scale replacements, test on
compaction factor was carried out as per IS: 1199–1959 [ 37] codal procedure. Figure 5 depicts outcomes due to
the compaction test.
Results from the graph shows that the reduction of compaction factor values of concrete takes place with
steel mill scale addition at various replacement levels. Compaction factor reduces from a starting value of 0.99 at

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Figure 5. Compaction factor for various replacements.

Figure 6. Compressive strength of paving blocks.

0% replacement to 0.93 at 100% replacement. Compaction factor test exhibits results similar to slump cone results,
depicting the fact that steel mill scale addition in concrete affects workability. Generally, medium workable
conventional concrete have compaction factor values ranges between 0.92 and 0.94; and workability occurs for the
compaction factor value greater than 0.95 [38]. Based on the above statement and from the results obtained for
compaction factor tests, it is evident that upto 60% replacement of steel mill scale, workability lies under high workable
range, and subsequently steel mill scale concrete shows medium workability after 60% replacement levels. This
reduction in workability is due to the less water absorption by steel mill scale particles with the increased addition in
percentage replacement levels of steel mill scale, especially after 60% replacement instead of M-sand.

From the workability results obtained from both Slump test and Compaction factor test, due to poor
workability of concrete mix leads after 60% replacement levels, voids may increase after hardening, due to
segregation of concrete mix, which may affect the strength and durability properties of the paving blocks.'

3.2. Compressive strength

Figure 6 shows the evolution of strength on compression of hardened concrete paving blocks. The compressive
strength increased up to 60 percent steel mill scale substitution. However, as the steel mill scale amount grows
beyond 60 percent of replacement, interlocking concrete paving block units' characteristic compressive strength
decreases.
On the other hand, the usage of 80 percent and 100 percent steel mill scale replacement reduced compressive
strength of concrete paving blocks after 14th and 28th days of curing. This improvement in strength up to 60%
replacement levels is because of good adhesion between the mill scale and the cement paste, which increases

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Figure 7. Split tensile strength of paving blocks.

strength [39]. Furthermore, the rougher surface roughness and steel mill scale's high angularity increase binding capacity
with cement, resulting in extremely thick concrete, that definitely increases strength against compression [35, 39, 40]. The
minimum compressive strength of paving blocks is 30MPa, according to IS 15658 [30]. At all replacement levels, the 20
to 100 percent M-sand replaced concrete with steel mill scale produced more than 30 Mega Pascal.

Compressive strength is calculated by using the formula:

F PA
=/ 1()
Where,
F = compressive strength of paving block specimen (Mega Pascal), P =
Maximum load applied in N, A =
Cross-sectional area of paving block specimen in mm2 The
results from figure 6 indicate that compressive strength undergoes an increased strength pattern upto 60% both at
14 days and 24 days curing and started decreasing till it reaches 100% replacement. But, it is found that compressive
strengths attained for concrete mix from 20% to 100% replacements are greater than that of 0% conventional mix without
steel mill scale replacement. Hence it is clear that optimum steel mill scale content of 60 percent will be significant for the
concrete paving blocks of the specific size and thickness considered in present study, after which the dormant
appearance of steel mill scale materials in the concrete mixes, which could have been responsible for lower strength
relatively at increased percentage replacement viz. 80 and 100 percent steel mill scale [38]. Another factor includes the
drop in workability of steel mill scale concrete after 60% replacement levels, leading to reduced binding effect between the
ingredients of concrete. Furthermore, lesser pore sizes of steel mill scale particles absorbs less amount of water at higher
replacement levels giving rise to less workable concrete with reduced strengths. This condition with reduction in strength
may be improved by the addition of super-plasticizers to improve workability.

3.3. Split tensile strength

Figure 7 represents the change in split tensile strength in concrete paving block caused by steel mill scale addition after
14th day of curing and 28th day of curing. According to figure 7, value of tensile strength increased as the percentage
substitution of M-sand with steel mill scale increased from 0% to 60%. The strength increase could be attributed to the
reaction takes place chemically between the SiO2 content present in steel mill scale and also in cement content, which
results in creating calcium silicate hydrate gel [17].
2F
Split tensile strength = ÿÿÿpÿ ( 2)
DL

Where,
F = force applied in N, D
= specimen's diameter in mm L =
specimen's length in mm The
split tensile test done on concrete paving block units shows strength results found decreased at 80 and 100 percent
levels of replacement. The decreasing performance of the concrete paving block unit samples with respect to tensile
strength is similar to the fall in compressive strength. Increase in split tensile strength up to 60%

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Figure 8. Water absorption behavior of paving blocks.

Replacement of steel mill scale is due to the angular shaped particles exhibiting well packed bonding with the
binder along with the adequate water absorption by M-sand. With higher levels of steel mill scale addition viz. 80
percent and 100 percent, absorbing less water along with lesser percentage of M-sand addition, decrease in
workability is assessed up to 100% replacement of steel mill scale. This may again leads to less binding ability of
concrete constituents and further leads to reduction in split tensile strength. Split tensile strength decreases
passably, without showing drastic decline at 80% and 100% replacement levels and the values obtained for split
tensile strength for the above mentioned replacement levels exhibited almost nearer values obtained for 60%
replacement of steel mill scale in concrete. This again proves that, the addition of steel mill scale above 60%
replacement levels will not accelerate any progressive gain in strength.

3.4. Water absorption test

Figure 8 exhibits the water absorption behavior of concrete paving blocks made of M-sand with partially
replaced steel mill scale. Water absorption decreased as the proportion of steel mill scale increased from 0% to
60%. Water absorption is quite poor when M-sand is replaced by steel mill scale to 60 percent due to the reduced
porosity properties and voids ratio exhibited by the steel mill scale materials.
The proportion of water absorption in the control specimen is 3.97%, whereas it is 3.67% in the 60 percent
replacement specimen. It is mostly due to the concrete's packing density steadily increasing when the steel mill
scale is added incrementally. The concrete surface with 60% steel mill scale replacement was found to be
exceptionally solid and free of porosity [17]. The rough surface, angular shape, affinity of M-sand towards water, as
well as the rough surface and irregular shape exhibited by steel mill scale, generate good bonding with cement
particles and due to this, high workable composition, concrete is more dense at 60 percent M-sand replacement.
After 60 percent replacement, the voids in the paving blocks may increase due to reduction in M-sand addition,
which may absorb more amount of water, depending upon the quantity added to concrete, workability may
decrease leading to decrease in binding ability of the concrete matrix leading to increase in number of pores.
SEM image of 100 percent replacement is evident for this statement. Also, the strength of paving blocks reduces
after this increase in number of pores after 60% replacement level.

3.5. Micro structural analysis

All of the above-mentioned testing results demonstrate that replacing M-sand with steel mill scale at 60% levels of
replacements delivers the best performance. Better particle packing has been recognized as the key
explanation for the enhanced behavior of concrete containing 60 percent steel mill scale and 40 percent M-
sand. To confirm the foregoing inference, a scanning electron microscope was used for microstructural
examination. After curing for 28 days, the samples were taken deeply from the hardened specimens' cores.
Figure 9 shows the Micro-structural images of concrete paving block specimens. Micro-structural images of
Concrete paving block specimens were taken using SEM testing for 0 percent, 60 percent, and 100 percent
replacement. For better comparative results, the same magnification of 20 microns was maintained in all the
images. The pore size of the SEM images is measured using a SEM testing machine. At 0 percent replacement
sample has average pore size of 12.72 microns, meanwhile 60 percent replacement sample has average pore
size of 3.18 microns, and the 100 percent replacement sample has average pore size of 8.15 microns. When
we compare void zero of a 0 percent replacement specimen with a 60 percent replacement specimen, the 60 percent

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Figure 9. Micro-structural images of concrete paving block specimens.

replaced specimen has very low average voids. Likewise, when we compare 60 percent replacement levels with
100 percent replacement levels, 60 percent has a very low average void size. When 0 percent replaced specimen is
compared with the 100 percent replaced specimen, the 100 percent replaced specimen has a void size is
comparatively high. Due to the reduced void sizes, dense packing of steel mill scale concrete is possible with
increased mechanical strength possessing optimum water requirements and workability, same like required for
conventional concrete up to the replacement level (60 percent) which shows good workability. Also, at 100%
replacement levels, void sizes are higher than other replacement levels, and thus may entertain the ingression of
natural agencies into the hardened concrete that may affect durability.

4. Conclusion

The performance of steel mill scale as a substitution for M-sand for manufacturing concrete paving blocks is
evaluated in this study. This study leads to the following conclusions:
The steel mill scale's density is higher when compared to that of density of M-sand. Specific gravity of steel mill
scale is 4.1, which is far greater than the values obtained for M-Sand and river sand. This leads to a clear view that
the steel mill scale may be considered as stronger aggregates therefore adhering with the physical properties of
conventional fine aggregates used in concrete. But, due to higher density of steel mill scale, self-weight of
concrete may increase and therefore, care should be taken while if steel mill scale is used in structural
reinforced elements.

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Water absorption values obtained for steel mill scale, while assessing its physical properties was found less ie 0.74,
which is less when compared to that of M-sand and traditional aggregates.
The results reveal that a consistent rise in the split tensile strength and compressive strength of the paving
block has taken place, when the proportion of steel mill scale is increased up to 60% replacement. with a former value
of 2.82 Mega Pascal at 14 days and 3.32 Mega Pascal at 28 days and the later shows an ultimate compressive strength
of 28.28 Mega Pascal at 14 days curing and 37.47 Mega Pascal at 28 days curing. Following then, compressive
and split tensile strength is reduced for higher replacement levels. Though, 100% replacement level shows less strength
of about 26.27 Mega Pascal at 14 days and 33.1 Mega Pascal at 28 days than the compressive strength attained at
60% replacement, 100% steel mill scale replaced concrete exhibited mechanical strength greater than the 0%
replacement levels(26.48 Mega Pascal and 32.81 Mega Pascal both at 14 and 28 days respectively). The
above mentioned statement fits with the assessments made for split tensile strength of the specimens also.

The decline in both compressive strength and split tensile strength may be due to less water absorption
properties of Steel mill scale, which may lower the workability, and in turn affects the binding ability of
aggregate-binder at higher replacement levels. Porosity may be increased due to the lesser binding of the
concrete matrix, furthermore reduces the overall strength of the specimens after 60 percent replacement levels of steel
mill scale.
Water absorption is greater in 0% steel mill scale replaced concrete specimens than in M-sand and steel mill scale
blended paving block specimens. At 60% replacement levels, water absorption is relatively low, leading to a densely
packed structure of steel mill scale and the higher level of water absorption by M-Sand. After 60 percent replacement,
water absorption of hardened paving blocks started increasing from 3.71 percent for 80 percent steel mill scale
replacement to 3.83 percent at 100 percent replacement levels. This may be resulting due to the lesser quantity of
M-Sand, to the mix along with lesser water absorption by the steel mill scale which therefore leads to inadequate
water content to bind the concrete constituents initially during plastic state before hardening takes place. This reduced
consumption of water in the concrete mix may lead in initiating voids in the concrete matrix after hardening phase
starts, which later on may be creating paths for the water to seep through, thereby increasing the water absorption.
Therefore, workability enhancing mixtures may be required after 60% replacement levels.

When compared to other percentages of replacement, the paving block produced with 60% replaced steel mill
scale and M-sand combination has better micro-structural outcomes. The concrete prepared with steel mill scale at 60%
replacement level was packed densely with a small average pore size and hence performed better in tests.
However, due to the higher iron content in 100% replacement, a detailed research is required to learn about
the behavior of 100% steel mill scale replaced paving blocks relating durability in terms of corrosion.
This study reveals that scrap steel mill scale material can effectively be used in making eco-friendly concrete
paving blocks of higher densities than the standard concrete paving blocks thereby reducing waste accumulation and
pollution. The study also clearly shows that steel mill scale may be used as one of the alternative novel
construction materials with concrete constituents for achieving durable infrastructure build out and greener
environment, wherever IS 15658 codal recommendations are adopted. Therefore, more insights may be a
requisite on durability properties, which can be obtained by conducting comprehensive durability tests, before adopting
for practical applications.

Data availability statement

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files). The data
that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

ORCID iDs

Ganeshprabhu Parvathikumar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1936-2912

Gurukarthik Babu Balachandran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6164-6441 Brintha
Sahadevan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9929-0890

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