Gr9 Mathematics U4 PDF

Topic
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
GRADE 9
Topic MATHEMATICS
UNIT 4
STATISTICS GRAPHS AND PROBABILITIES
Published by:
FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

PRIVATE MAIL BAG, P.O. WAIGANI, NCD
FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
2013
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 1 TOPIC 1 TITLE
UNIT 4
STATISTICS GRAPHS
AND
PROBABILITIES
TOPIC 1: READING & INTERPRETING

GRAPHS
TOPIC 2: STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS
TOPIC 3: PROBABILITIES
TOPIC 4: STATISTICAL ESTIMATION

GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the contribution of all Secondary teachers who in one

way or another helped to develop this Course.
Special thanks are given to the staff of the Mathematics Department-

FODE who played active role in coordinating writing workshops,
outsourcing of lesson writing and editing processes involving selected
teachers in Central and NCD.
We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided

through-out the processes of writing by the members of:
Mathematics Department- CDAD
Mathematics Subject Review Committee-FODE
Academic Advisory Committee-FODE
This book was developed with the invaluable support and co-funding of
the GO-PNG/FODE World Bank Project.
MR. DEMAS TONGOGO

Principal-FODE
Flexible Open and Distance Education

Papua New Guinea
Published in 2016
@ Copyright 2016, Department of Education

Papua New Guinea
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or any other form of reproduction by
any process is allowed without the prior permission of the
publisher.
ISBN: 978-9980-87-735-2
National Library Services of Papua New Guinea
Written by: Mr. Renato Ortega

Mrs. Luzviminda B. Fernandez
Finalised and compiled by: Mrs. Luzviminda B. Fernandez

Mathematics Department-FODE
Printed by the Flexible, Open and Distance Education

GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 3 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page
Contents 3
Secretary‘s Message 4
Unit Introduction 5
Study Guide 6
TOPIC 1: READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS 7
Lesson 1: Reading Bar Graphs 9
Lesson 2: Reading Histogram 15
Lesson 3: Interpolation and Extrapolation 20
Lesson 4: Population Pyramids 27
Lesson 5: Travel Graphs 32
Summary 36
Answers to Practice Exercises 1-5 37
TOPIC 2: STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS 41
Lesson 6: Cartesian Plane 43
Lesson 7: The Gradient 48
Lesson 8: Drawing Straight Line Graph 55
Lesson 9: Equation of a Straight Line 63
Summary 68
Answers to Practice Exercises 69
TOPIC 3: PROBABILITIES 73
Lesson 10: Basic Concepts of Probability 75
Lesson 11: Theoretical Probability 83
Lesson 12: Probability of Complementary Events. 89
Lesson 13: Adding Probabilities 96
Lesson 14: Multiplying Probabilities 103
Lesson 15: Union and Intersection of Events 110
Lesson 16: Mixed Probability Problems 118
Summary 124
Answers to Practice Exercise 10 – 16 125
TOPIC 4: SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 129
Lesson 17: Population and Sample 131
Lesson 18: Sampling Methods 143
Lesson 19: Survey 152
Summary: 157
Answers to Practice Exercises 17 –19: 158
REFERENCES: 160
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 4 MESSAGE
SECRETARY’S MESSAGE
Achieving a better future by individuals students, their families, communities or the

nation as a whole, depends on the curriculum and the way it is delivered.
This course is part and parcel of the new reformed curriculum – the Outcome Base
Education (OBE). Its learning outcomes are student centred and written in terms that
allow them to be demonstrated, assessed and measured.
It maintains the rationale, goals, aims and principles of the national OBE curriculum
and identifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that students should
achieve.
This is a provision of Flexible, Open and Distance Education as a alternative pathway

of formal education.
The Course promotes Papua New Guinea values and beliefs which are found in our
constitution, Government policies and reports. It is developed in line with the National
Education Plan (2005 – 2014) and addresses an increase in the number of school
leavers which has been coupled with a limited access to secondary and higher
educational institutions.
Flexible, Open and Distance Education is guided by the Department of Education‘s

Mission which is fivefold;
 to facilitate and promote integral development of every individual

 to develop and encourage an education system which satisfies the
requirements of Papua New Guinea and its people
 to establish, preserve, and improve standards of education throughout Papua
New Guinea
 to make the benefits of such education available as widely as possible to all of
the people
 to make education accessible to the physically, mentally and socially
handicapped as well as to those who are educationally disadvantaged
The College is enhanced to provide alternative and comparable path ways for
students and adults to complete their education, through one system, many path
ways and same learning outcomes.
It is our vision that Papua New Guineans harness all appropriate and affordable
technologies to pursue this program.
I commend all those teachers, curriculum writers and instructional designers, who
have contributed so much in developing this course.
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 5 INTRODUCTION
Unit Introduction
Dear Student,
This is the Fourth Unit of the Grade 9 Mathematics

Course. It is based on the CDAD Lower Secondary
Syllabus and Curriculum Framework for Grade 9
This Unit consists of four topics:
Topic 1: Reading and Interpreting Graphs

Topic 2: Straight Line Graphs
Topic 3: Probabilities
Topic 4: Statistical Estimation
In Topic 1- Reading and Interpreting Graphs- You will learn to read and use
mathematics to interpret different types of graphs
In Topic 2- Straight Line Graphs- You will learn to explore the Number Plane, draw
line graphs, learn the importance of gradient and write the equation of a straight line.
In Topic 3- Probability- You will learn the language of chance, and calculate the
chance of something happening. Furthermore, you will explore the different ways to
compute probabilities.
In Topic 4- Statistical Estimation- You will learn to use Statistics to estimate

different aspect of samples and population parameters. You will also learn the
different sampling methods.
You will find that each lesson has reading materials to study, worked examples to
help you, and a Practice Exercise. The answers to practice exercise are given at the
end of each topic.
All the lessons are written in simple language with comic characters to guide you and
many worked examples to help you. The practice exercises are graded to help you to
learn the process of working out problems.
We hope you enjoy using this unit.
Mathematics Department
FODE
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 6 STUDY GUIDE
STUDY GUIDE
Follow the steps given below as you work through the Unit.
Step 1: Start with Topic 1 Lesson 1 and work through it.

Step 2: When you complete Lesson 1, do Practice Exercise 1.
Step 3: After you have completed Practice Exercise 1, check your work. The
answers are given at the end of TOPIC 1.
Step 4: Then, revise Lesson 1 and correct your mistakes, if any.
Step 5: When you have completed all these steps, tick the Lesson check-box
on the Contents Page like this:
√ Lesson 1: Reading and Interpreting graphs
Then go on to the next Lesson. Repeat the process until you complete all of the
lessons in Sub-strand 1.
As you complete each lesson, tick the check-box for that lesson, on the
Contents Page, like this √ .This helps you to check on your progress.
Step 6: Revise the Topic using Topic 1 Summary, then, do Topic test 1 in
Assignment 1.
Then go on to the next Topic. Repeat the process until you complete all of the four
Topics in Unit 1.
Assignment: (Four Topic Tests and a Unit Test)

When you have revised each Topic using the Topic Summary, do the Topic Test in
your Assignment Book. The Course Book tells you when to do each Topic Test.
When you have completed the four Topic Tests, revise well and do the Topic test.
The Assignment Book tells you when to do the Unit Test.
The Topic Tests and the Unit test in the Assignment will be marked by your
Distance Teacher. The marks you score in each Assignment Book will
count towards your final mark. If you score less than 50%, you will repeat
that Assignment Book.
Remember, if you score less than 50% in three Assignments, you will not be allowed
to continue. So, work carefully and make sure that you pass all of the Assignments.
UNIT 4
TOPIC 1
READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS
Lesson 1: Reading Bar Graphs
Lesson 2: Reading Histogram
Lesson 3: Interpolation & Extrapolation
Lesson 4: Population Pyramid
Lesson 5: Travel Graphs

GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 8 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
TOPIC 1: READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS
Introduction
In the field of Statistics, one should undergo the steps or aspect of
collecting, organising, displaying and interpreting of data.
For example, a teacher asked a class to write their favourite

subject. The students wrote them on pieces of papers and were
collected.
The data collected were presented below:
Mathematics Science Science Social Science Mathematics

Social Science English Mathematics English Science
Social Science English Mathematics Science Social Science
English Social Science Science Social Science Mathematics
Mathematics English Mathematics English Social Science
Mathematics Science Mathematics English Social Science
If the data would be organised in a frequency table:
Subject Frequency
English 7
Mathematics 9
Science 6
Social Science 8
Total 30
The data above can be displayed in the following forms:
FAVOURITE SUBJECT
FAVOURITE SUBJECTS Soc. Science
10
Science
Subject
Frequency
8
Mathematics
Soc. Science
6 Mathematics
English
Science
4
English
2
2 4 6 8 10
Subject
Frequency
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 9 TOPIC 1 LESSON 1
Lesson 1: Reading Bar Graphs
You learnt something about bar graphs in your Upper Primary

Mathematics.
In this lesson, you will:

 revise bar graphs
 read bar graphs.
In the previous unit, we learnt about the different types of data. Let us recall them.
If we collect data such as number of ‗kulau‘. Which of the following will not belong to
the group?
12, 13.5, 10, 5, 6.5, 7, …
The numbers 13.5 and 6.5 do not belong to the group. 13.5 and 6.5 will not have any
meaning when you are counting the number of ‗kulau‘.
The others are what we call discrete data.
Discrete data is information that is collected by counting.
Discrete data is illustrated with a bar graph.

You have to remember the following in drawing a bar graph:
 The graph must have a title
 The axes must have labels
 The bar can be horizontal or vertical. Often, horizontal ones are
called bar graphs while vertical ones are column graphs.
 The bars should be of the same width
 The bars should be the same distance apart
 The bars can be of different colours or of different shading
If we examine each of the following column graphs, determine what is missing in the
graph?
FAVOURITE SPORTS
50
Frequency
40 In the example given, notice

that the bars are of different
30
Basketball
distances apart.
Soccer
Rugby
Volleyball
20
There should be the same
10
distance apart for each bar.
Sports
12
10
What is lacking in the second
Frequency
8 example?
6
What would be the appropriate
4 C F title for this bar graph?
P
2
D UP
Grade
In the discussions on a field of mathematics, such as Statistics, we usually combine
skills in order to improve on them and practice the skills at hand. Using problem
solving skills, mathematical skills, as well as statistical skills, you would be able to
solve many problems.
For an illustrative example, consider the column graph below and answer the
following questions below.
GRADE 10 MATHEMATICS RESULTS
12
10
Frequency
8
6
4 C F
P
2
D UP
Grade
(i) How many students sat the Mathematics examination?
(ii) How many students were awarded Credit grade?
(iii) What percentage of the students was awarded a Credit grade?
(iv) What grade was the mode?
(v) What percentage were awarded Pass grade?
(vi) How many students were awarded Upper Pass or better?
(vii)Find the Mean Rating Index (MRI) of the group.
To obtain the Mean Rating Index of a group, the total number of students who got
Upper Pass or better were added, divided by the number of students who sat the
exam and multiplied by 100%.
Thus, to answer the first question, you need to add the number of frequency for each
grade:
D = 5, C = 9 , UP = 12, P = 11, and F = 9
(i) The total number of students who sat for the Mathematics examination
Total = 5 + 9 + 12 + 11 + 9 = 46 students
(ii) C = 9. Therefore there are 9 who were awarded Credit.

9
(iii) Percentage = x 100 = 19.56%
46
(iv) Mode is the item with the highest frequency. Thus, Upper Pass is the mode
11
(v) x 100 = 23.91%
46
(vi) Upper Pass or better would mean, UP, C and D. Thus 5 + 9 + 12 = 26
26 students got Upper Pass or better.
26
(vii) Mean Rating Index = x 100 = 56.52%
46
REMEMBER:
You have to remember the following in drawing a bar graph:
 the graph must have a title
 the axes must have labels
 the bar can be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal one are
called bar graphs while vertical ones are column graphs
 the bars should be of the same width
 the bars should be the same distance apart
 the bars can be of different colours or of different shading.
Different skills can be combined such as mathematical skills, problem

solving skills as well as statistical skills in order to solve problems.
NOW DO PRACTICE EXERCISE 1

Practice Exercise 1
1. On a day the Airlines PNG computer at Tokua received bookings to different

destinations as shown in the table below.
Destinations Passengers
Buka 35
Madang 10
Lihir 30
Kavieng 25
Hoskins 15
(a) Draw a column graph to illustrate the data.
Use the grid below.
Remember the properties of a bar graph

2. The bar graph shows the major areas of expenditure in a company, in hundred
thousand of Kina.
VIVA COMPANY EXPENDITURES
Administration
Transport
Major Areas
New Building
Wages
Maintenance
0 2 4 6 8 10
6
Expenses (per 100 thousand)
(i) What is the total amount of expenditure of Viva Company?
(ii) What percentage of the total expenditure is allotted for the New Building?
(iii) What percentage of the expenditure is the difference between Administration

and Maintenance?
(iv) The next year‘s expenditure has increased by 5%, what is the amount that
would be allotted for the Wages next year?
(v) If a pie chart would be made to display this data, how many degrees will be
allocated for Transport?
3. The graph below represents the favourite pets of a particular Year 9 Class.
FAVOURITE PETS
10
Frequency 6
Dog Cat Bird Lizard Mouse

Pet
(i) How many students preferred a dog as a pet?
(ii) How many students in the class had a favourite pet?
(iii Which was the least favoured pet?
(iv) How many times more popular than mouse are dogs?
(v) If there are 28 students in the class, how many do not have a favourite pet?
CORRECT YOUR WORK, ANSWER ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 1

Lesson 2: Reading Histograms
You learnt how to read bar graphs in Lesson 1.
In this lesson you will:

 revise histograms
 interpret histograms.
In lesson 1, you recalled about discrete data. This time let us recall continuous data.
In the previous example of the number of ‗kulau‘ in which our examples were 12,
13.5, 10, 5, 6.5, 7, …, it was noted that 13.5 and 6.5 were not discrete data.
If we considered the diameter of the ‗kulau‘, then 13.5 and 6.5 would be included.
These are called continuous data.
Continuous data is information that is collected by measuring.
Continuous data can be illustrated using a histogram.
A histogram is a type of bar graph where there are no gaps between

the bars, used to represent continuous data.
You have to remember the following in drawing a histogram:

- the histogram must have a title
- the axes must have labels
- the bars are usually vertical
- the bars should be of the same width
- the bars should be the same distance apart
- there are no gaps between the bars.
- the bars should have the same colour or have the same shading
An example of a histogram is shown:

STUDENTS HEIGHTS
10
8
Frequency
145 146 147 148 149 150

Height (cm)
For example, consider the table representing the number of customers, per 5-minute
interval, to enter a shop.
Number of Frequency
Customers
0-4 3
5-9 6
10 - 14 2
15 - 19 0
20 - 24 1
Drawing a histogram, you should consider the following steps,
1. Draw up a set of axes with

frequency marked on the
vertical axis. SHOP CUSTOMERS
6
2. Decide on your column
width and start the values 5
for the horizontal axis one-
Frequency
half column width from the 4

vertical axis.
3
3. Draw the columns to 2

represent each frequency
leaving no gaps between 1
them. You should note
that a frequency of 0
means no column gets 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
drawn, but a gap must be Number of Customers
left in the appropriate
place or position.
Let us consider the histogram showing the number of eggs produced daily by the
School Poultry project on the next page.
NUMBER OF EGGS PRODUCED
10
Frequency
8
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30

Class midpoints
i) What is the modal class number of eggs?
(ii) In which class would you find the median value?
(iii) Calculate the mean number of eggs produced daily.
(iv) Write the numbers of days in which 16 or more eggs are produced as a
percentage?
Solutions:
(i) The modal class is one that has the highest frequency. The highest frequency is
10, thus the modal class is 11-15.
(ii) There are 30 days of recording the median will be the 15th and 16th recording.
It would be in 11—15 and 16- 20.
(iii) Considering the midpoint of each class, 1- 5 midpoint is 3, 6-10 midpoint is 8,
...etc. Thus the mean can be calculated as:
Class Midpoint
(3  3)  (8  5)  13  10   (18  3)  (23  7)  28  2

Mean 
3  5  10  3  7  2
Frequency
450
Mean = = 15
30
(iv) The total number of days where there are more than 16 eggs produced is
3 + 7 + 2 = 12.
12
Percentage of days = x 100 = 40%
30

Practice Exercise 2
1. Use the grid below to draw the histogram of the following. Note the different
properties you have to consider in drawing histogram.
Number of Brothers and Frequency

Sisters
0 3
1 10
2 5
3 2
4 1
2. Refer to the histogram representing the mass of pupils in a class to answer the
questions that follow.
PUPILS’ MASS
7
5
Frequency
40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64

Mass (in kg)
(i) What is the modal class mass?
(ii) What is the median class mass?
(iii) What percentage of the pupils has masses of 55 kg or more?
(iv) Calculate the mean mass of the pupils.
3. Below is the histogram showing the number of hours played per week by Year 9
students.
GRADE 9’S HOURS PLAYED
16
14
12
Frequency
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hours of Sport Played
(i) Which is the most common number of hours of sports played per week?
(ii) Which is the least common number of hours of sports played per week?
(iii) How many students play at least 6 hours of sports per week?
(iv) How many students were included in the survey?
(v) What is the average number of hours of sports played per week?
CORRECT YOUR WORK, ANSWERS ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 1

Lesson 3: Interpolation and Extrapolation
You learnt to interpret and read histogram in the last lesson.

 define interpolation and extrapolation
 identify steps to interpret data by interpolation and
extrapolation
 read data using interpolation and extrapolation
Interpolation and extrapolation are mathematical terms given to the process of

reading graphs
Interpolation - estimating information within a graph.

Extrapolation - extending the graph to estimate information.
To understand the concept above, let us use the graph of the cost for rental to a
certain tool in Bosco Rentals.
BOSCO TOOL RENTAL COST

60
55
50
45
Cost (Kina)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Hours
(i) How many hours can you rent the tool for K44.00?
(ii) How much will it cost to rent the tool for 3.5 hours?
(iii) How much will it cost to rent the tool for 10 hours?
(iv) How many hours can you rent the tool for K80.00?
We can answer the first two questions by looking at the line between the plotted
points. This is called interpolation. The result obtained in this way is usually very
accurate.
The other two questions can be solved by looking at the line extended beyond the
plotted points. This is called extrapolation. The results obtained in this way may not
always be accurate.
Let us use the graph to estimate the answer to questions (i) by interpolation.

60
55
K44 50
45
A
Cost in Kina
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
4.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Hours
STEPS:
1. Locate the point corresponding to K44 on the cost, as shown. Draw a line
parallel to the horizontal axis till it intersects the graph at point A.
2. Draw another line perpendicular to the line drawn from the point A till it
intersect the axis for number of hours.
3. Estimate the number of hours. Thus it is approximately 4.8 hour
Another solution is using algebra and proportion. There is another need to find two
known points on the graph. We consider the points, (8h, K60) and (2h, K30)s.
8h K60.00
y 16
6 xh K44.00 30
2h K30.00
Difference Difference Difference Difference

between 8h between 8h between K60 between K60
and 2h and xh and K44 and K30
y 16
To solve for y, take 
6 30
y (30) = 6(16)
96
y= = 3.2
30
Therefore, y = 3.2
To get x, subtract 3.2 from 8. Hence, you have 8 – 3.2 = 4.8 hours.
Using the graph or using algebra, let us try solving questions (ii) How much will it cost
to rent the tool for 3.5 hours?
Use the graph below, to answer question (ii).
60
55
50
Steps:
45
K37.5
1. Locate the point 3.5 h by
Cost (Kina)
40
drawing an arrow.
35
2. Estimate the corresponding 30
cost for 3.5 hours. Indicate the
cost to the graph. Thus it is 25
approximately K37.5. 20
15
10
5 3.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Hours
Use the diagram below to solve question (ii) using algebra. Write the numbers and
variables necessary.
8h K60.00
6h 4.5 h y K30
3.5 h Kx
2h K30.00
Use the space below to show the solution:
4.5 y

6 30
6y = 4.5(30)
135
y== 22.5
6
To get x, subtract K22.5 from K60. Hence you have K60 – K22.5 = K37.5.
The answer should be K37.50
(iii) How much will it cost to rent the tool for 10 hours?
Solving questions (iii) by extrapolation,

2h K30.00
6 30 y
8 8h K60.00
10 h Kx.00
6 30
To solve for y, 
8 y
6y = 8(30)
240
y= = 40
6
To get x, add 40 to 30 thus x = K70.00
(iv) How many hours can you rent the tool for K80.00?
Solving question (iv) by extrapolation,
2h K30.00
6 30 50
y 8h K60.00
xh K80.00
6 30
To solve for y, 
y 50
300
y= = 10
30
To find x add 10 h to 2 h, then x = 2 + 10 = 12 hours

To use extrapolation in the graph, there is a need to extend the graph in order to find
solution to problems (iii) and (iv).
(i) Locate the point 10 hr on the horizontal axes. Draw the necessary lines till it
intersects the drawn line. Indicate on the graph, the required cost.
(ii) Locate on the vertical axes K80.00. Draw the necessary lines till they intersect
the drawn line. Indicate on the graph the required number of hours.

80
75 K70
70
65
60
55
50
Cost (Kina)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 12 h
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of Hours
Remember:
Interpolation is the reading of data between the line of points used to construct
the graph.
Extrapolation is the reading of data outside the line of points used to construct
the graph.

Practice Exercise 3
1. A car owner checked how far his car would travel on an amount of petrol.
He did this four times. The graph below has the four points plotted and a line
of best fit drawn.
PETROL USE RATE
Distance Travelled (kilometres)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Amount of Petrol Used (litres)
(i) How far would a car be expected to travel on 8.5 litres of petrol?
(ii) How much petrol would you expect to use on a journey of 40 kilometres?
(iii) How much petrol would you expect to use on a journey of 10 kilometres?
(iv) How far would the car be expected to travel on 12 L of petrol?

2. The graph shows the cost of renting a hall for a dinner function.
COST FOR DINNER BANQUET HALL
400
Cost (Kina)
300
25
200
100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of person
(i) Use interpolation to determine the cost for 25 guests
(ii) Verify the answer in (i) using algebra.
(iii) How many guests could pay for K1100? Use extrapolation or algebra to
find the answer.
CORRECT YOUR WORK. ANSWERS ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 1

Lesson 4: Population Pyramids
You learnt what interpolation and extrapolation were in the last

lesson. You also learnt to interpret data on graphs using
interpolation and extrapolation.

 define a population pyramid
 read population pyramids
We can use many diagrams to display and compare continuous data. Some of the
main ones were discussed earlier in Unit 3 such as the following:
1. Stem and leaf diagrams

2. Frequency tables and frequency polygons
3. Histograms
4. Cumulative Frequency polygon
Remember that continuous data is usually collected in groups, so most of these

diagrams use groups to display data.
In this section, we are going to display and compare two sets data using the
population pyramid.
A population pyramid is a pyramid shaped diagram which shows the age

distribution of a population. The youngest are represented by a rectangle
at the base and the oldest by one at the apex or top.
A population pyramid, also called an age picture diagram, is a graphical

illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (usually
that of a country or region of the world) which forms the shape of a pyramid when the
population is growing.
In Ecology a population pyramid is used to determine the overall age distribution of a

population, this is an indication of the reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the
continuation of a species.
Usually, a population pyramid consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the
population plotted on the x-axis and age on the y-axis, one showing the number of
males and one showing females in a particular population in five-year age group.
Males are conventionally shown on the left and females on the right, and they may
be measured by a raw number or as a percentage of the total population.
A population pyramid is useful for comparing two sets of continuous

data. It looks like a bar chart with the bars back to back.
Example 1
Shown below is a population pyramid showing the number of people in PNG, infected
with HIV in the year 1987 to 1992.
PEOPLE INFECTED WITH HIV IN PNG 1987 - 1992
Male Female
Using the population pyramid, we can answer the following questions:
(i) What was the total number of people infected with HIV from 1987 to 1992?
(ii) Find the total number of people, between the ages of 15 to 29, who were
HIV infected from 1987 to 1992?
(iii) Find the percentage of people, between the ages 15 to 29, who were infected
with HIV from 1987 to 1992.
(iv) Discuss why most of the people infected with HIV are between the ages of 15
to 29.
Solutions:
(i) No. of Male = 4 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 14 + 8 + 6 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 0 = 43 Males

No. of Female = 3 + 0 + 0 + 10 + 8 + 10 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 32 Females
Total = 75 people
(ii) 2 + 10 + 14 + 8 + 8 + 10 = 52 people
(iii) 52
x 100%  69.3%
75
(iv) This is the age in which people are most sexually active.
Example 2
Use a population pyramid to illustrate this data showing the distribution of supporters
of a soccer match. (All data has been rounded to the nearest ten.
Age (years) Male Female

0-9 380 270
10-19 890 620
20-29 1250 970
30-39 1140 510
40-49 830 210
50-59 740 80
60 - 680 50
Solution:
Step1: Draw the age groups in the centre. Mark axes on either side.
Step 2: Draw the data for males.

Draw the data for females.
Age
(years)
60-
50-59
40-49
30-39
20-29
10-19
0-9
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of males (hundreds) Number of females (hundreds)
Note that the final age group in the table doesn‘t have an endpoint. In the pyramid we
have chosen 69 as the endpoint so the rectangle is the same width as the other age
group.

Practice Exercise 4
1. The population pyramid below shows the distribution of the population of

China in 2000. Use the population pyramid to answer the following questions:
POPULATION OF CHINA IN 2000

Male Female
Population (in Millions)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base.
(i) How many Chinese males are there in the age group 30—34 years old?
(ii) How many Chinese females are there in the age group of 30—34?
(ii) What age group has about 30 000 000 for each gender?
(v) What is the ratio of the number of males in the age groups 35 -39 to 55 - 59?
2. The age distribution for two suburbs of a city A and B are shown as follows:
Age Group 0-14 15-29 30-44 45-59 60-74 75+

A 1000 1660 950 1120 1690 680
B 1110 1570 1380 1710 1250 550
Represent the data using population pyramid.
15 18
CORRECT YOUR WORK. ANSWER ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 1

Lesson 5: Travel Graph
You learnt how to read and interpret population pyramid in the

previous lesson.

  define travel graph
 read travel graph.
Travel Graph
Travel graphs are line graphs that show the relationship between distance and time
travel. The distance travelled is represented on the vertical axis and the time taken to
travel the distance is represented on the horizontal axis.
Below is an example of a time graph which indicates a travel at a constant speed.
A WALKER’S JOURNEY
20
Distance in (km)
15
10
0
1 2 3 4
Time in hours
1. What distance has the walker travelled after 2 hours?
2. What is the average speed of the walker? (Note: To get the average speed is
to divide a speed with the time travelled)
3. Did the walker stop at any time?
Solution:
(1) The distance travelled after 2 hours as shown in the graph is 10 km

(2) Dividing 10 km by 2 hours will give us the average speed of 5 km / hr.
(3) From the graph given, the walker did not stop. Stops can be indicated by
horizontal line on a given time or period of time.
Let us have another example of a travel graph. The graph shows Kal-el journey when
he visited his friend. He stopped for refreshment before he reached his friend.
Distance in kilometres
5
KAL-EL’S JOURNEY
10 20 30 40
Time in minutes
Using the graph, answer the following questions:
(i) How far away does his friend live?
(ii) After what time did he stop for the refreshment? How far was this from home?
(iii) How long did he stop for refreshment?
(iv How long did it take Kal-el to reach his friend?
Solutions:
(I) Since the graph shows Kal-el journey to see his friend. The place of his friend
will be at the end of the graph. Thus his friend lives 5 km from home
(iii) He stopped after 14 minutes travelling from home, which is 1.5 kilometres
from home.
(iii) The scale on the horizontal axis is 1 unit = 2 minutes. The horizontal line on
the graph represents the stop, and it is 5 units long. Thus the stop is 10
minutes long.
(iv) It took him 40 minutes to reach his friend‘s place.

Practice Exercise 5
Refer to the graph below to answer Questions 1 and 2.
TRAVEL GRAPH
A
80
Distance in (km)
60
40
B
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time in hours
One line represents the journey of a cyclist, the other, the progress of a walker.
1. Which graph do you think represents the
(i) walker?
(ii) the cyclist‘s journey?
2. (i) What was the total distance the cyclist travelled in 5 hours?
(ii) What is the average speed of the cyclist?
(iii) What is the average speed of the walker?

3. The graph of a motoring trip is shown below, study it carefully and answer the
questions concerning the trip.
A MOTORING TRIP
240
Distance in kilometres 5
200
5
160
120
80
40
8 10 12 2 4
am am noon pm pm
Time of Day
(i) What time did the motorist begin his trip?
(ii) How far did he go in the first three hours?
(iii) What was his speed in the first three hours?
(iv) How many stops did the motorist make during the journey?
(v) How far from home was the motorist at 3 p.m.?
(v) What was the total distance travelled on the trip?
(vii) At what time did the motorist begin the trip home?
Viii At what time did he arrive home?

GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 36 TOPIC 1 SUMMARY
TOPIC 1: SUMMARY
This summarizes the important terms and ideas to remember.
 Discrete data refers to information that is collected by counting.
 You have to remember the following in drawing a bar graph:

(a) The graph must have a title.
(b) The axes must have labels.
(c) The bars can be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal ones are called bar
graphs while vertical ones are called column graphs.
(d) The bar should be of the same width.
(e) The bars should be the same distance apart.
(f) The bars can be of different colours or of different shading.
(g) Different skills can be combined such as mathematical skills, problem
solving skills as well as statistics skills in order to solve problems.
 Continuous data is information that is collected by measuring.
 A histogram is a type of bar graph where there are no gaps between the
bars. It is used to represent continuous data.
 Interpolation is estimating information within a graph.
 Extrapolation is extending the graph to estimate information.
 Population Pyramid usually consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the
population plotted on the x-axis and age on the y-axis. One shows the number
of males and the other shows the number of females in a particular population
in five-year age groups.
 Travel graphs are line graphs that show the relationship between distance
and time travelled. The distance travelled is represented on the vertical axis
and the time taken to travel the distance is represented on the horizontal axis.
REVISE LESSONS 1-5 THEN DO TOPIC TEST 1 IN ASSIGNMENT BOOK 4.

GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 37 TOPIC 1 ANSWERS
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1-5
Practice Exercise 1
1. AIRLINES PNG BOOKINGS

40
No. of passengers
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Buka Madang Lihir Kavieng Hoskins
Destinations
2. (i) K 2 400 000
(ii) 16 2/3 % or 16.67%
(iii) 8 1/3% or 8.33 %
(iv) K 840 000
(v) 30°
3. (i) 8 (ii) 23 (iii) Mouse (iv) 4 times (v) 5
Practice Exercise 2
1.
BROTHERS AND SISTERS
12
10
Frequency
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4
Number of Brothers and Sisters
2. (i) 45-49 (ii) 50-54 (iii) 25% (iv) 50.75

3. (i) 5 hours
(ii) 1 hour
(iii) 15 students
(iv) 63 students
1
(v) 4.33 3 or 4 hours
3
Practice Exercise 3
1. (i) 42.5 km
(ii) 8 litres
(iii) 2 litres
(iv) 60 km
2. (i) K225
(ii) 20 K200
5 y
10 25 x 50
30 K250
5 y

10 50
y = 25
x = K200 + y
x = K200 + K25 = K225
(iii) 200 guests
Practice Exercise 4
1. (i) 65 million
(ii) 60 million
(iii) 50-54 age group
(iv) 2:1
2. AGE DISTRIBUTION OF TWO SUBURBS
Suburbs A Suburbs B
75+
60-74
45-59
30-44
15-29
0-14
2 1 1 2
Number of people in thousands
Practice Exercise 5
1. (i) B (ii) A
2. (i) 90 km (ii) 18 km / h (iii) 5 km / h
3. (i) 8 am (ii) 140 km (iii) 46 2/3 km / h (iv) 2
(v) 180 km (vi) 400 km (vii) 2.15 p.m. (viii) 5

p.m.
END OF TOPIC 1
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 40 VACANT PAGE
TOPIC 2
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS
Lesson 6: Cartesian Plane
Lesson 7: The Gradient
Lesson 8: Drawing Straight Line Graph
Lesson 9: Equation of the Line

TOPIC 2: STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS
Introduction
Welcome to the second Topic of your Grade 9 Mathematics Unit 4.
Graphs are found in many areas of everyday life. Often, in

different media such as television, newspaper, and even on the
internet, graphs are shown to enhance the facts that are being
presented.
The graphs below are examples of such graphs.
In lesson 5, you were able to read travel graphs. However, drawing such graph is
necessary in other areas too.
It is important for you to learn how to draw graphs in order to use them in problems
solving. Finding the rules of a given straight line will also be given emphasis.
These are the things that you will learn in this course.
Lesson 6: Cartesian Planes
You learnt something about coordinate planes in your Grade 8

Mathematics.

 define Cartesian Plane and identify its parts
 locate points on a Cartesian Plane
 plot points on a Cartesian Plane
You learned about the basic (counting) number line back in your primary school:
Later on, you were introduced to zero and negatives, which completed the number
line:
In Grade 7 and 8, you learnt the Rectangular Coordinate System commonly known
as the Cartesian Coordinate Plane, named after Rene Descartes who popularized
its use in Analytic Geometry.
Descartes' breakthrough was in taking a second number line, standing it up on its

end, and crossing the first number line at zero.
y-axis
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x-axis
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
When two perpendicular number lines intersect, a Cartesian plane is formed. The
point where the axes intersect is called the origin.
The axis going from left to right on a page is called the horizontal axis and the axis
from bottom to top of a page is referred to as the vertical axis.
It is important that the axes are scaled accurately. On each of the axes the length
representing a unit must be the same all along the axis. However, the length
representing a unit does not have to be the same on the vertical as it is on the
horizontal axis.
The axes divide the Cartesian plane into four quadrants. The quadrants are
commonly labelled first, second, third and fourth, as shown.
origin
vertical axis
y 5
4
Second 3 First horizontal axis
quadrant 2 quadrant
1
x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5
-1 1
Third -2 Fourth
quadrant -3 quadrant
-4
-5
Points on the Cartesian plane are called 'ordered pairs'.
When identifying a point on a Cartesian plane, the coordinates relating to the

position on the axes are quoted in brackets with the coordinate that relates to the
horizontal axis given first.
y 5
4 The coordinates of a point is in the ordered
3 pair form of (x , y).
A
2
1
Thus A has the x-coordinate of 2 and a y-
B x
E coordinate of 3. Thus the coordinates of
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 point A are (2 , 3)
-1
F
-2 D B has the x-coordinate of –2 and a y-
-3 G coordinate of 1. Thus the coordinates of
C -4 point B (-2 ,1)
-5
The coordinates of the other points C, D, E, and F are (-3 , -4), (4, -2) , (3 , 0) and (0,
-1), respectively.
What are the coordinates of point G?

Let us now learn to plot points on the Cartesian plane.

H
Let us locate the point H whose y
5
coordinates are (3, 2). Would it be the
same point as A on the number plane 4
above? 3
A
2
Definitely not.
1
Point H is the point as shown. 0 x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Try to plot the following points.
-2
Point I with the coordinates of (4, - 5) -3
-4
Point J with the coordinates of (-4, 5)
-5
Point K with the coordinates of (-4, -5)
And L with the coordinates of (-4, 0)
Examine the points you plotted. Place the letter beside the point.
Try to examine it again.
If you are sure of your ANSWERS, then try to look at the next page to check your
ANSWER.
y
J 5
4
3 How many points have you located
2 H
H correctly?
1
0 Encircle how many?
-5 -4 L-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
0 1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
K -5 I

Practice Exercise 6
1. Complete the following statements.
(a) The x– axis and the y-axis intersect at a point called ____________
(b) The horizontal axis is commonly called the _______________
(c) The vertical axis is commonly called the _________________
(d) The ordered arrangement of numbers in the form (x, y) is called
_____________ _______________.
(e) (-3, 2) can be found in _____________ quadrant.
(f) The coordinates of the point of origin are _________.
2. Write the coordinates of the named points on the space provided.

y
7
N Q 6
5 Point Coordinates
4
M
3
2 M N
1
O
P 0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x
-1 P
-2
Q
-3 R
-4 R
-5 O
-6 S
S
-7
-8
3. Plot the named points on the Cartesian Plane on the next page. Indicate the dot
and write the letter corresponding to the coordinates.
Point Coordinates
T (-3 , 5)
U (0 , -8)
V (4, 6)
W (-4, 2)
X (-2 , -4)
Y (7 , -4)
Z (5 , -3)
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
4. From the plotted points above, name the parallelogram formed.

Lesson 7: The Gradient
You learnt the meaning of a Cartesian plane and its features in

the last lesson. You also learnt to locate and plot points on the
coordinate plane.

 define gradient
 find the gradient of a line
Let us consider travel graphs below showing the journeys of a cyclist and a walker.
TRAVEL GRAPH
80 (i) Which graph is steeper than the

other?
Distance in km
60
(ii) Which way of travelling is faster
than the other?
40
(iii) Name the graph that is less steep.

20
0
1 2 3 4 5
Time in hours
Notice that the faster the transport, the steeper the slope of a graph. In the graph
above, the graph of a cyclist was steeper than the graph of a walker.
The slope of the graph is called the gradient.
The Gradient (also called Slope) of a straight line shows how steep a
straight line is.
To find the gradient, we consider two points on the graph.
Then we divide the distance up the graph by the distance along the graph.
y
positive direction
distance up in a
Dis tance up
Thus, Gradient =
Dis tance along
distance along in a
positive direction
x
Notice that the distance up is the change in y coordinates and the distance along
is the change in x coordinates.
Sometimes the horizontal change is called "run", and the vertical change is called
"rise" or "fall":
y
Thus we also say that;
Change in x
Gradient =
Change in y
Rise or fall
Rise
Or Gradient =
Run Run
x
They are just different words, none of the calculations change.
Example 1 y
3 B
The gradient of line AB is = 1.
3
3
So, the gradient is equal to1.
A
3
x
Example 2
y
D
6
The gradient of line CD is = 2.
3
So, the gradient is equal to 2. 6
3
C
x
The line is steeper so it has a larger gradient or slope.
The gradient of a line has a value that can be given:

(a) as a whole number
(b) as a fraction (in its simplest form)
(c) as a decimal.
Example 3 y
(2, 7)
C7,
The line CD leans or slopes downwards
6).7
from left to right.
To find the gradient of line CD, use the

points C and D.
 The change along the y-axis is 6 (decrease)

 The change in the x-axis is 3 (increase)
(5, 1) D
Change in y 7, x
The gradient of line CD =
Change in x 6).7
6
=
3
= –2
 When an increase along the x-axis gives a decrease along

the y-axis we say the gradient is negative.
Example 4
Consider the line drawn on the Cartesian plane on the right.
Base on the graph, the table is completed. y

7
6
Distance Distance Rise 5
Two
Up Along 4 E
Points Run
(Rise) (Run) 3
2 D
1
A&B 1 2 1
2
0 x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 -1
C&D 4 8
2 C -2
B -3
1 A
D&E 2 4 -4
2 -5
1 -6
A&E 8 16 -7
2
-8
Rise
What can you say about the ratio for any two points on the line?
Run
What can you say about the gradient at each place on the line?
For a straight line graph, the gradient is the same for any part
of the line wherever two points are considered.
y
Example 5
7
N 6
Let us consider line KL. 5
4
3 K 3
Gradient =
6 2
1
Note that the run is negative, 0 x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
since it is opposite to the -1
direction of distance up. -2 L D
-3
1 -4
Gradient of line KL = 
2 -5
-6
-7
-8
If you look at the line in example 4 and line KL, you will notice that the two graphs
have the same steepness. A line leaning to the right has a positive gradient, while
line that leans to the left has a negative gradient. The sign of the gradient only
indicates where the graph is leaning or sloping.
What could be the sign of line ND? Why?
Let us check by computing the gradient:
6
Gradient of line ND = = –2.
3
In summary, the gradient of a straight line can be described in this way:

 A line which slopes upwards from left to right has a positive
gradient.
 A line which slopes downwards from left to right has a negative
gradient.
Zero Gradient and Horizontal lines

y
Considering the horizontal lines AB and CD,
the gradient can be obtained by using the A B
formulas
y1
rise 0 x
Gradient of AB =   0
run y1
C D
y2
rise 0
Gradient of CD =   0
run y2
Undefined Gradient and Vertical Lines
y Consider the vertical lines EF and GH. The

gradient of each lines are:
rise x
Gradient of EF =  1  undefined
E G
run 0
x1
x x
x2 rise
F Gradient of GH =  2  undefined
H run 0
In summary, the gradient of a horizontal line is 0 while the gradient of

a vertical line is undefined.

Practice Exercise 7
1. Find the gradient of each of the following lines.

y y
(a) (b) 6
4
3 5
4
2
3
1
0 x 2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 1
-2 0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-3
-2
-3
6 y
(c) (d) 4
5
3
4
2
3
1
2
0 x
1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 y -2
-1
-3
-2
-3
2. Shown below are five lines I, II, III, IV and V.

y
II 4
3 I
III
IV 2
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
V -3
(a) Which of the lines from I to V, have negative gradient?
(b) Which of the lines is the steepest? What is its gradient?
(c) Which of the lines is the least steep? What is its gradient?

Lesson 8: Drawing Straight Line Graphs
You learnt the meaning of gradient in the last lesson. You also
learnt to calculate the gradient of a straight line.

 use table of values to draw a straight line graph.
A graph showing the linear relationship between two variables is a straight line and is
called a linear graph.
To obtain a linear graph, we need to be given information to be able to draw it. One
way is to use a linear equation and work out coordinate points to plot.
Let us consider the graph of y = 2x – 3.
First we would complete a table of corresponding x and y values which follow the rule
y = 2x – 3.
You need to choose any value of x as shown in the table of values.
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
After choosing the value of x, substitute the x value and solve for y:
If x = - 2, y = 2 (- 2) - 3, then y = - 7
If x = - 1, y = 2 (-1) - 3, then y = - 5
If x = 0, y = 2 (0) - 3, then y = - 3
If x = 1, y = 2 (1) - 3, then y = - 1
If x = 2, y = 2 (2) - 3, then y = 1
If x = 3, y = 2 (3) - 3, then y = 3
If x = 4, y = 2 (4) - 3, then y = 5
Completing the table, you will have
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5
You can still continue adding values of x and compute for y if you want.
Then plot these points into a number plane, joining them with a straight line as shown
on the next page.
y 5
Notice the 7 points plotted on the
4
Cartesian plane and the straight line
3 that joined them.
2
What is the value of x when the
1 graph intersects the x-axis?
x
0
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 Yes, it‘s 1.5. This is called the x-
-1 intercept
-2
-3 What is the value of y when the

straight line intersects the y-axis?
-4
-5 The line y = 2x –3 intersect the y-

axis at –3. –3 is called the
-6 y-intercept.
-7
-8
Let us have another example.
Let us graph the straight line y = 1 – 2x.
Choose the values of x as shown on the table of values.
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
We solve for the corresponding values of y.
If x = - 4, y = 1 - 2 (- 4), then y = 9
If x = - 3, y = 1 - 2 (- 3), then y = 7
If x = - 2, y = 1 - 2 (- 2), then y = 5
If x = - 1, y = 1 - 2 (- 1), then y = 3
If x = 0, y = 1 - 2 (0), then y = 1
If x = 1, y = 1 - 2 (1), then y = - 1
If x = 2, y = 1 - 2 (2), then y = - 3
Completing the table of values, you will have
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
y 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3
The graph of y = 1 - 2x is the one below.
y
10 In which direction does the line
y = 1 - 2x leans? What could be
9
the sign of the gradient of this
8 line?
7
6
What is the x-intercept?
5
3
What is the y-intercept?
2
0 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
There are special lines that have definite form of an equation.
One of these has the equation x = a, where a is any number.
Example
Consider the equation x = 3.
This would mean that 3 is always the value of x no matter what is the value of y.
Completing the table of values for x = 3, we will have
x 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The graph of x = 3 is shown below.

y
What kind of line is it?
What is the gradient of such kind of

line?
x The line x = 3 is parallel to the x-axis

3
or the y - axis?
Another type of special line is y = b, where b is a number.
Consider the equation y = -2. This would mean that –2 is always the value of y and
the value of x will be any number.
Completing the table of values for y = -2, we will have
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
y -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
The graph of y = -2 is shown below
y What kind of line is it?
What is the gradient of such kind of

line?
x
The line y = -2 is parallel to the x-axis
or the y - axis?
-2
To graph a straight line using table of values, you should

1. Choose values of x and place them on table of values.
2. Using the equation, find the corresponding values of y for
each value of x
3. Plot all the points on a Cartesian plane and connect all the
points by a straight line.
The graph of x = a, where a is a number, is a vertical line that cut the x-
axis at the value of a.
The graph of y = b, where b is a number is a horizontal line that cuts
the y - axis at the value of b.

Practice Exercise 8
1. (a) Complete the table of values of y = 3x + 2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
(b) Plot all the points and connect by a straight line

y
.
11
10
(c) Find the gradient of the
9 line.
8
7
6
5 (d) At what value of x does

the graph intersect the x-
4
axis?
3
0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(e) At what value of y does
-2 the graph intersect the y-
-3
axis?
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
2. (a) Complete the table of values of y = -2x + 5
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
(b) Plot all the points and connect by a straight line.

y
11
10
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
(c) Find the gradient of the line.
(d) At what value of x does the graph intersect the x- axis?
(e) At what value of y does the graph intersect the y- axis?

3. Write four points that lie on the following lines and graph them on the grid.
(a) y = 4 (b) x = - 1
y
6
1
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
CORRECT YOUR WORK. ANSWERS ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 2.

Lesson 9: Equation of a Straight Line
In the last lesson, you learnt to graph a straight line using a table
of values.

 identify the equation of a straight line
 find the equation of a straight line.
Let us recall the example that you have had in drawing straight line. The graph is
shown on the right.
y
5
Let us compute the gradient of the line,
considering the points (3, 3) and (1, -1). 4
rise 3  ( 1) 4 3
   2
Gradient = run 3 1 2
2
The y-intercept as you would recall is the 1
y-value of the intersection of the graph x
and the y-axis. The y-intercept is –3. -3 -2 -1
0
1 2 3 4 5
-1
Recall too that the equation of the line is
y = 2x—3. -2
-3
Can you see the gradient of 2 and the y-
intercept of –3 in the equation y = 2x – -4
3?
-5
The gradient is the same as the number -6
in front of x and the y-intercept is the
same as the constant. -7
-8
The equation of the line is in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are

numbers. The number in front of x which is m is the gradient of the line,
while the value of c is the y-intercept. This equation is called the gradient
- intercept form of a straight line.
Another equation equivalent to y = 2x –3 is 2x - y - 3 = 0. This is in the general form

of a straight line.
The general form of an equation of the line is Ax + By + C = 0. Where A, B

and C are real numbers, A and B are not both 0.
You can change the gradient-intercept form of a straight line into the
general form by transposing the expression on one side so that the other
side would be zero.
Thus, from y = 2x –3, you can change it 2x –y – 3 = 0
Example 1
2 1
Write the equation – x + y = 1 in the general form.
3 2
2 1
Solution: – x+ y=1
3 2
6 2 1  6
  x  y = 1 
1 3 2   1
-4x + 3y = 6
4x - 3y + 6 = 0
Example 2
Find the equation of the line.

y
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
(i) First, you need to find the gradient of the line. Considering the points given,
rise 4
Gradient = = – = –2
run 2
Note that a negative sign was place in front because the line leans to the left.
(ii) The y- intercept is –4.
(iii) Thus the equation of the line is y = - 2x – 4.
(v) Writing it in general form, 2x + y + 4 = 0.

Special Lines x = a and y = b
Let us consider lines that are parallel to the x-axis and y– axis.
l y
6
5
4
3
m
2
1
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
-3
(i) Lines that are parallel to the y-axis have the equation
x = a, where a is a number
a is also the x-intercept
(ii) Lines that are parallel to the x-axis have the equation
y = b, where b is a number
b is also the y- intercept.
Let us find the equation of line l and m.
Line l is parallel to the y– axis, and the x-intercept is –4.
Then the equation of line l is x = -4.
Line m is parallel to the x-axis, and the y-intercept is 3.
Thus, the equation of the line is y = 3.

Practice Exercise 9
1. Complete the following table.
Equation of the Line Gradient y - intercept
i) y = –3x + 5
ii) y = 4 – 2x -2 4
iii) 1 –1
3
iv) y = –x
v) 2 5

3
2. Write the equations in Question 1 (i-v) in general form.
3. Find the equation of each of the following line. Write the equation in gradient-
intercept form and general form.
y y
(a) 10 (b) 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 x 0 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
y y
(c) 4 (d) 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
0 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
-2 -2
4. Match the line with its corresponding equation.

Write the letter of the correct name of the line
y
B
D A 6
_____(a) y = 5
5 C
_____(b) y =  3 x  1 B
2 4
_____(c) x = 0 3
2
_____(d) x + 1 = 0
1
_____(e) y = 3x + 3
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
-3

TOPIC 2: SUMMARY
 The Cartesian plane is a plane with rectangular coordinate system that

associates each point in the plane with a pair of numbers
 Gradient of the line refers to a number associated with the steepness of the
line. Another term used for gradient is slope
 For a straight line graph, the gradient is the same wherever two points are
considered. The gradient of the line can be obtained, by first getting two points
that are exactly on the grid, then divide rise by run. Leave the ANSWERS
without a sign, when the line leans to the right. Affix a negative sign if the line
leans to the left.
 The gradient of horizontal lines is 0 while the gradient of vertical line is

undefined.
 To graph a straight line using a table of values, you should:

1. choose values of x and place them on table of values.
2. using the equation, find the corresponding values of y for each value of x
3. plot all the points on a Cartesian plane and connect all the points by
straight line.
 The graph of x = a, where a is number is a vertical line that cut the x-axis at
the value of a, while the graph of y = b , where b is a number is a horizontal
line which cuts the y - axis at the value of b.
 The equation of the line is in the form of y = mx + c, where m and c are

numbers. The number in front of x which is m is the gradient of the line, while
the value of c is the y-intercept. This equation is called the gradient-intercept
form of a straight line
 The general form of an equation of the line is Ax + By + C = 0. You can

change a gradient-intercept form of a straight line into a general form by
transposing the expression on one side so that the other side is equal to zero.
 Lines that are parallel to the y - axis have the equation x = a, where a is a
number and a is the x-intercept. Lines that are parallel to the x– axis have
the equation y= b, where b is a number and b is the y-intercept.
REVISE LESSONS 6-9 THEN DO TOPIC TEST 2 IN ASSIGNMENT BOOK 4.

Practice Exercise 6
1. (a) origin (b) x-axis (c) y-axis

(d) Ordered pairs (e) second (f) (0, 0)
2. M (4,2) N (-5, 6) O (4, - 5)

P (-4, 0) Q (0 , 6) R (3, -3)
S (-5 , -6)
3.
4. Parallelogram TVZX
Practice Exercise 7
2
1. (a) (b) –2 (c) 0 (d) undefined
5
2 (a) II, III, IV
(b) IV and V with gradient –1 and 1, respectively
(c) II with gradient of 2.5

Practice Exercise 8
1. (a)
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -7 -4 -1 2 5 8 11
y
(b)
11
10
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
(c) 3
2
(d) - or 0.67
3
(e) 2
2.
(a)
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 11 9 7 5 3 1 -1
y
11
10
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
(c) -2
(d) 2.5
(e) 5
3. (a) (-2, 4), (-1, 4), (0, 4), (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4),…
(b) (-1, -2), (-1, -1), (-1, 0), (-1, 1), (-1, 2),…
Graphs x = -1 y
6
5 y=4
0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
-3
Practice Exercise 9
1.
2. (i) 3x + y – 5 = 0
(ii) 2x + y – 4 = 0
(iii) x – 3y – 3 = 0
(iv) x+y=0
(v) 2x – 3y + 15 = 0
3. (a) y = –2x + 1; 2x + y – 1 = 0 (b) y = 6x + 6; 6x – y + 6 = 0

3 1
(c) y= x; 3x – 2y = 0 (d) y=- x – 1; x + 4y + 1 = 0
2 4
4. (a) C (b) D (c) y-axis
(d) A (e) B
END OF TOPIC 2
UNIT 4
TOPIC 3
PROBABILITIES
Lesson 10: Basic Concept

Lesson 11: Theoretical Probability
Lesson 12 Probability of Complementary
Events
Lesson 13: Adding Probabilities
Lesson 14: Multiplying Probabilities
Lesson 15: Union and Intersection of Two
Events
Lesson 16: Mixed Probability Problems
TOPIC 3: PROBABILITY
Introduction
In many ordinary everyday situation, you would hear the

expressions ―50-50‖, certain, and impossible, which are terms
that are associated with the chance of something happening.
At times, through observation, one can predict things. If for

instance in the past you found out that 25 out of 45 students are left-handed, then
you could say that there is a big chance that some left-handed students would enrol
this year.
These are situations in which you are applying the idea of probability.
Probability is the likelihood of something happening.

When one mentions 50-50, that is actually an even
chance associated with 50% of it happening or 50%
of it not happening.
Probability originated in the mid-17th century

inspired by the enquiry of gamblers seeking
information to help them win at cards and dice.
However, today probability has many important

commercial and scientific applications. For example, businessmen carry out surveys
to help predict the probable size at a given market. Life insurance people have tables
of life expectancy to help them calculate their premiums. In graduate studies,
researchers use the principle of probability
as well as statistics to determine the
validity of their studies.
The certainty of something happening

implies the probability of 1, while
impossibility has a probability of 0. Thus,
the probability that the sun will rise
tomorrow is 1 because it is certain that the
sun will rise. The probability of getting a
red 4 club in a deck of card is 0 for this is
impossible
In this topic, you will explore the various basic terms of probability and its principles.
Probability is associated with the union and intersection of sets.
Lesson 10: Basic Concepts of Probability
Welcome to the first lesson of Topic 3.

 define the basic terms of probability
 find the probability of simple events.
Many events can‘t be predicted with total certainty. The best thing we can do is say
how likely they are to happen, using the idea of probability.
What is probability?
 Probability is the study of chance or the likelihood of an

event happening
 Probability is defined as the chance or how likely
something is to happen.
Directly or indirectly, probability plays a role in every human activities.

For example, we may say that it will probably rain today because most of the days we
have observed were rainy days.
The probability of an event can also be described in words and phrases, such as
impossible, highly unlikely, very unlikely, less than even chance, even chance, better
than even chance, very likely, highly likely, certain and so on. However, in
mathematics, we would require a more accurate way of measuring probability.
For example:
1. Tossing a Coin
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes:
 heads (H) or
 tails (T)
1
We say that the probability of the coin landing H is .
2
2. Throwing Dice
When a single dice is thrown, there are six possible outcomes.
1
The probability of anyone of them is .
6
There are some basic words or terms that have special meanings in Probability.
(i) Experiment is the process by which an observation or outcome is obtained.
Examples: tossing a coin, throwing a dice, seeing what colour people
choose from a deck of card.
(ii) Trials refer to the number of times an experiment is performed.
(iii) Sample Space refers to the set (S) of all the possible outcomes of an
experiment.
Example: Choosing a card from a deck. There are 52 cards in a deck (not
including the Joker).
So, the Sample space is all the 52 cards:
The Sample Space is made up of Sample Points.
The Sample Point is just one of the possible outcomes.
Example: Deck of Cards

 The 6 of Diamonds is a sample point
 The Queen of Hearts is a sample point
A ―Queen‖ is not a sample point as there are four (4) Queens that is 4 different
sample points.
Same as ―6‖ is not a sample point as there are four (4) 6 that is 4 different sample
points.
(iv) Event a single result of an experiment.

Example of events: Getting a tail when tossing a coin is an event
Getting a ―6‖ when rolling a dice is an event
An event can include one or more possible outcomes.

 Choosing a ―Jack‖ from a deck of cards (any of the 4 jacks) is an event.
 Rolling an ―even number‖ (2,4 or 6) is also an event
Sample Point Event A (has two Sample Points)
Sample Space A
The Sample Space includes all possible outcomes.

A Sample Point is just one possible outcome.
And an Event can be one or more of the possible outcomes.
Now let us use those words so you get used to them.
Example 1
Jetro wants to see how many times a ―double‖ would come up when throwing two
dice.
Throwing two dice is an experiment.

Each time Jetro throws the two dice is a trial.
The Sample Space is a set of all possible outcomes (36 Sample Points):
{1,1} {1,2} {1,3} {1,4} ... {6,3} {6,4} {6,5} {6,6}
The Event Jetro is looking for is a ―double‘, where both dice have the same number.
It is made up of these 6 sample space.
{1, 1}, {2, 2}, {3, 3}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6},
Example 2
If a fair coin was tossed 20 times,

(i) Experiment = tossing of a fair coin
(ii) Trial = 20 times
(iii) Possible Outcomes = {getting a head, getting a tail}
(iv) An Event = Getting a head in tossing a coin
Now let us have examples of finding the probability of simple events.
In general,
Number of ways it can happen

Probability of an event happening =
Total number of outcomes
n(E)
In symbol, P(A) =
n(S)
Where n(E) = number of ways the event can happen

n(S) = total number of possible outcomes
P(A) = probability of an event
Example 1:
What are the chances of rolling a ―5‖ with a dice?
Number of ways it can happen = 1 (there is only one face with a ―5‖ on it).
Total Number of Outcomes = 6 (there are six faces altogether)
1
So, the probability = .
6
Example 2
There are 5 marbles in a bag. 4 are red, and 1 is green. What is the probability that
red marble will be picked?
Number of ways it can happen = 4 (there are 4 reds)
Total number of outcomes = 5 (there are 5 marbles in all)
4
So the probability is = 0.8
5
You can show probability on a probability line or scale between 0 and 1 inclusive
as shown in the diagram below.
Chances decrease
highly even very

unlikely likely
unlikely likely
very less than chance better than very
impossible even chance even chance certain
likely
unlikely
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Chances increase
The probability of an event always from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain)

which can be expressed as a fraction, decimal or percentage.
For example, the probability in examples 1 and 2 in a probability line or scale can be
shown below.
Impossible Unlikely Even Chance Likely Certain
4-in-5 Chance
5-in-6 Chance
Probability does not tell us exactly what will happen, it is just a guide.
For example, toss a coin 100 times. How many heads will come up?
1
Probability says that heads have a chance, so we would expect 50 heads.
2
But when you actually try it out you might get 48 heads or 55 heads… or anything
really, but most cases it will be a number near 50.
Now look at the other examples.
Example 3
The weather forecast shows a 40% chance of rain. Give the probability of each
outcome shown in the table.
Outcome Rain No Rain
Probability
Solution: The probability of Rain is P(Rain) = 40% or 0.4.
The probabilities must add to 1.
So, the probability of No Rain is P(No Rain) = 1 – 0.4

= 0.6 or 60%.
Example 4
Use the Spinner below and find the probability for each outcome.
Outcome Red Yellow Blue
Probability
Solution: Half the spinner is red, so a reasonable estimate of the probability that
the spinner lands on red is
1
P(Red) =
2
One-fourth of the spinner is yellow, so a reasonable estimate of the
probability that the spinner lands on yellow is
1
P(Yellow) =
4
One-fourth of the spinner is blue, so a reasonable estimate of the
probability that the spinner lands on yellow is
1
P(Blue) =
4
Example 5
A quiz contains 5 multiple-choice questions. Suppose you guess randomly on every

question. The table below gives the probability of each score.
Score 0 1 2 3 4 5
Probability 0.237 0.396 0.264 0.088 0.014 0.001
(a) What is the probability of guessing one or more correct?

(b) What is the probability of guessing fewer than 2 correct?
(c) What is the probability of passing the quiz (getting 4 0r 5 correct) by guessing?
Solution:
(a) The event ―one or more correct‖ consists of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
P(one or more correct) = 0.396 + 0.264 + 0.088 + 0.014 + 0.001
= 0.763 or 76.3%
(b) The event ―fewer than 2 correct‖ consists of the outcomes 0 and 1.
P(fewer than 2 correct) = 0.237 + 0.396
= 0.633 or 63.3%
(c) The event ―passing the quiz‖ consists of the outcomes 4 and 5.
P(passing the quiz) = 0.014 + 0.001
= 0.015 or 76.3%
Example 6
After 1000 times spins of the spinner, the following information was recorded.
Outcome Red Yellow Blue

Spins 267 285 448
Estimate the probability of the spinner landing on red.

Number of ways it can happen
Solution: Probability of an event happening =
Total number of outcomes
267
P(Red) = = 0.267
1000
The probability of landing on red is 0.267 or 26.7%.

Practice Exercise 10
1. A die is tossed. Name the outcomes that make up each of the following events.
(i) an even numbers
(ii) a number less than 3
(iii) a number greater than or equal to 3
(iv) a prime number
(v) a number which is a multiple of 3
2. The weather forecast shows a 55% chance of snow. Give the probability of
each outcome shown in the table.
Outcome Snow No Snow
Probability
3. An experiment consists of drawing 4 marbles from a bag and counting the

number of blue marbles. The table gives the probability of each outcome.
Number of blue marbles 0 1 2 3 4
Probability 0.024 0.238 0.476 0.238 0.024
(a) What is the probability of drawing at least 3 blue marbles?
(b) What is the probability of drawing fewer than three blue marbles?
4. Give the probability for each outcome
Red Blue Yellow Green R R

Outcome
(R) (B) (Y) (G)
Probability Y B
B
G
5. Given a standard die. Determine the probability for the following events when
rolling the die on time.
(a) Probability of getting 5
(b) Probability of getting an even number
(c) Probability of getting 7
6. There are 4 blue marbles, 5 red marbles, 1 green, and 2 black marbles in a bag.
Suppose you select one marble at random. Find each probability below.
(a) P(black)
(b) P(Blue)
(c) P(Blue and Black)
(d) P(not green)
(e) P(not purple)

Lesson 11: Theoretical Probability
You learnt the meaning of probability and how to find the

probability of simple events in the last lesson.

 define theoretical probability
 use the rule of theoretical probability to calculate
probability of an event.
Let us recall the definition of Sample Space.
A sample space, S, is a list of all the possible outcomes obtained from an experiment
and enclosed in a pair of braces { }.
Theoretical probability uses sample space to work out the chances of an event
occurring.
What is Theoretical Probability?
Theoretical Probability is the possibility of an event happening based

on all the possible outcomes or sample space.
The ratio for the probability of an event “P” occurring is

number of favourable outcomes
P(Event) =
total number of possible outcomes
Example 1
From the letters A, E, I, O, U, what is the theoretical probability of selecting the letter
O?
Solution: List of sample space: {A, E, I, O, U} there are 5 possible outcomes
Number of favourable outcomes = 1 (selecting the letter O).

P(letter O) =
total number of possibleoutcomes
1
= as fraction
5
= 0.2 as decimal
= 20% as percent
1
So, the theoretical probability of selecting the letter O is or 0.2 or 20%.
5
Example 2
A coin is tossed on a standard 8 x 8 chessboard. What is the probability that the coin
lands on a black square?
This is how an 8 x 8
chessboard look like.
Note that the diagram is

not drawn to scale.
Solution:

Theoretical Probability =
Number of favourable outcomes = 32 (there are 32 black squares on a chess board)
Number of possible outcomes = 64 (there are 32 black and 32 white squares on an
8 x 8 chessboard)

Hence, P(A) =
32
P(A) =
64
1
P(A) = = 0.5
2
Therefore, the theoretical probability that the coin lands on a black square is
1
0.5 or .
2
Example 3
A bag contains 20 marbles, 15 of them are red and 5 of them are blue in colour. Find
the probability of picking a red marble.
Solution:
Since there are 15 red marbles and just 5 blue marbles, it is obvious that there are
three times as many red marbles than blue marbles.
So, the chances of picking a red marble is more than that of the blue one.

Hence, P(A) =
Total number of possibleoutcomes
15
P(A) =
20
3
P(A) = = 0.75 or 75%
4
3
Therefore the probability of picking a red marble is = 0.75 or 75%.
4
Example 4
A standard die is rolled.
(a) List the sample space for the experiment.

(b) Determine the probability of obtaining
(i) a 4
(ii) an odd number
(iii) 5 or less
Solution:
(a) Sample space are all the possible outcomes.= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(b) (i) The probability of obtaining 4 is 1 (there is only one 4 in the sample space).

Hence, P(A) =
1
P(4) =
6
1
Therefore the probability of obtaining a 4 is .
6
(ii) There are three odd numbers in the sample space = {1, 3, 5}, so the number
of favourable outcome is 3.

Hence, P(A) =
3
P(odd number ) =
6
1
= = 0.5 or 50%
2
1
Therefore the probability of obtaining an odd number is or 0.5 (50%)
2
(iii) The event of obtaining 5 or less consists of {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}

Hence, P(A) =
5
P(5 or less) =
6
5
Therefore the probability of obtaining 5 or less is or 0.83 (83%).
6
Example 5
A card is drawn at random from a standard well-shuffled deck of cards.
(a) What is the probability of drawing a Heart?

(b) What is the probability of drawing a King or an Ace?
(c) What is the probability of drawing a black diamond?
Solution: A standard deck card consists of 52 cards.
(a) Number of possible outcome = 52

Number of favourable outcome of getting a Heart is 13.
So, P(A) =
Total number of possibleoutcomes
13 1
P(a Heart) = = = 0.25 or 25%
52 4
1
Therefore, the probability of drawing a heart is = 0.25 or 25%.
4
(b) The event of drawing a King or an Ace consists of 4 Kings and 4 Aces.
So, Number of favourable outcomes = 4 + 4 = 8
Hence, P(A) =
8 2
P(a King or an Ace) = =
52 13
2
Therefore, the probability of drawing a King or an Ace is .
13
(c) The event of drawing a black Diamond is impossible because all Diamonds on a
deck of card are red.
So, Number of favourable outcomes = 0.

Hence, P(A) =
0
P(a black diamond) = = 0.
52
Therefore, the probability of drawing a King or an Ace is 0.
Note that a probability that is equal to zero means that an event is impossible to
happen. To get a black diamond from a deck of well-shuffled card is impossible.

1. List the sample spaces for these experiments
(a) Selecting a day of the week to go to town
(b) Drawing a marble from a bag containing 3 reds, 2 whites, and1 black
(c) Selecting an even numbers from the first 20 counting numbers
(d) Winning a medal at the PNG Games
(e) Drawing a face card from a standard pack of playing cards.
2. A card is drawn at random from a standard well-shuffled deck of cards.
Find the probability of drawing:
(a) the King of Hearts
(b) a Jack or Queen
(c) a Diamond
(d) a black card
(e) an Ace
(f) a 4 or a Club
3. A bag contains 4 black, 3 red, 1 white and 2 blue marbles. If a marble is drawn
at random, calculate the chance that it is
(a) red
(b) blue
(c) not blue
(d) red or black or white or blue
(e) white
(f) green
4. Find the probability of the following outcomes of experiments in which each of

the outcomes is equally likely.
(a) Selecting the Ace of hearts from a pack of 52 playing cards
(b) Throwing a tail when tossing a fair coin
(c) That the day you were born on was Monday.
(d) That a new born baby is a boy
(e) That a randomly selected person in your maths class will be you
5. Two dice are being rolled. The possible outcomes are as follows:
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)
(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)
(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)
(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)
(a) Find the probability of getting a sum of seven.

Lesson 12: Probability of Complementary Events
You learnt the meaning of theoretical probability in the last

lesson. You also learnt to use the rule of theoretical probability to
find the probability of an event based on all possible outcomes.

 define complementary events
 identify the notation used for complementary events
 identify the rule for calculating probability of
complementary event
 compute the probability of complementary events
If a set was divided into two (A and B) such that A and B are combined you have the
whole set, then A and B are complementary events.
What are complementary events?
Two events are said to be complementary if they are the only two
possible outcomes.
Example 1
Imagine we were testing whether it rains on a particular day.
The two events “it rains” and ―it does not rain‖ are complementary events.
Only one of the two events can occur. No other events can occur.
Therefore, these two events are complementary.
Example 2
Consider the rolling of a die to see whether the result is odd or even.
The events ―odd‖ and ―even‖ are complementary events because the result must be
either ―odd‖ or ―even‖.
The result cannot be anything except ―odd‖ or ―even‖.
Therefore, these two events are complementary.
Example 3
If an event is throwing a 5 on a die, then the complement of that event is not throwing
a 5, that is, throwing a 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.
The complement of an event taking place is the event NOT taking place.
Example 4
Consider a bag only containing 6 red balls and 8 blue balls.

We are interested in whether a ball picked from the bag, is red or blue.
The events ―red‖ and ―blue‖ are complementary.
6 8
The probability of ―red‖ is P(red) = . The probability of ―blue‖ is P(blue) = .
14 14
Notice how P(red) + P(blue) = 1.
The complement of an event A is the collection of all the outcomes in the

sample space that are not in A.
If A is an event, then not getting A is its complementary event. We write ―Not A‖ as A’

(read as A prime) and we call this A complement. So, if A is an event, and A‘ is the
complementary even
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
Because the sum of probabilities always equals 1, and because A and A‘ are
mutually exclusive, it follows that
P(A’) = 1 – P(A)
Mutually exclusive means you can‘t get both events at the same time. It is either
one or the other, but not both.
Therefore, to find the probability an event NOT happening, we need to subtract the
probability of that event from 1.
Example 6
1
If the probability of winning a certain game is . Find the probability of losing the
4
game.
Solution: P(A‘) = 1 – P(A)
1
P(A‘) = 1 -
4
3
= = 0.75 or 75%.
4
3
Therefore the probability of losing the game is or 75%.
4
Example 7
5
The probability that Ross winning her tennis match is . What is the probability of
7
her not winning the match?
P(does not win) = 1 – P(win)

5
=1–
7
2
=
7
Example 8
A spinner only has whole numbers as outcomes. The probability of getting an even
number is 0.27.
What is the probability of getting an odd number?
P(odd number) = 1 – P(even number)

= 1 – 0.27
= 0.73
Example 8
In rolling a die, the set of all possible outcomes is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Find the following
probabilities:
(a) Event A = getting a 5 or 6?

(b) Complement of Event A.
Solution:
(a) Event (A) = {5, 6}

Number of favourable outcomes = 2.
Total number of outcomes = 6

P(A) =
2 1
= =
6 3
1
Therefore, the probability of getting 5 or 6 is .
3
(b) The complement of getting a 5 or 6 is not getting 5 or 6. We also say the

complement of event A is Event A‘.
Hence using the formula for finding the complement of an event
P(A‘) = 1 – P(A)
1
P(A‘) = 1 -
3
2
=
3
2
Therefore, the probability of not getting 5 or 6 is .
3
To check: P(A) + P(A‘) = 1
1 2
+ =1
3 3
1=1
Example 9
A card is drawn from a deck of 52 playing cards.
Find: (a) probability of drawing a Spade.

(b) probability of not drawing a spade.
Solution:
(a) Event A = getting a spade

Number of favourable outcomes = 13 (there13 spade on a deck of 52 cards)
Total number of outcomes = 52

P(A) =
13 1
= = = 0.25
52 4
(b) P(not a Spade) is the complement of P(A) let us denote it P(A‘).
Hence, P(A‘) = 1 – P(A‘)
1
=1-
4
3
= = 0.75
4
Sometimes it is easier to work out the complement first to find the probability of an
event.
See example 10 on the next page.

Example 10
Throw two dice. What is the probability that the two scores are different?
Solution:
Different scores are like getting a 1 and 3, or a 4 and 5. It is quite a long list of
sample space.
Event A = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6) (2, 1), (2, 3), …, etc}
But the complement (which is when two scores are the same) is only 6 outcomes.
Event A‘ = (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)
And the probability is easy to work out: P(A‘) = 1 – P(A)

6
=
36
1
=
6
Knowing that P(A) and P(A‘) together make 1. We can calculate the probability of
event A (drawing two different scores
Hence, P(A) = 1 – P(A‘)

1
=1-
6
5
=
6
So, in this example it is easier to work out P(A‘) first, then P(A).
Remember:
Complementary events have no common elements and together make

up the sample space.

1. A die is thrown. Write the complement of each event described below:
(a) {2, 3, 4}
(b) {3, 6}
(c) a prime number
(d) a score more than 2
(e) a score of 3 or less.
5
2. The probability that Shawn will win his darts match is .
8
What is the probability that he will not win?
1
3. The probability that it will rain on Christmas Day is .
8
What is the probability that it will not rain on Christmas Day?
4. If you take a card at random from a deck of playing cards, the probability of
1
getting a King is .
13
What is the probability that you do not get a King?
5. The probability that Simon gets all his spellings correct in his next test is 0.75.
What is the probability that he does not get them all correct?
6. A number is chosen at random from a set of whole numbers from 1 to 50.

Calculate the probability that the chosen number is not a perfect square.
2
7. A bag contains red and black balls. The probability of drawing a red ball is .
5
What is the probability of drawing a black ball?
8. A box has slips numbered from 1 to 100. What is the probability of picking a
number which is not divisible by 10?

Lesson 13: Adding Probabilities
You learnt the meaning of complementary events and how to find

the probability of the complement of an event ln the last lesson.

 define mutually exclusive events
 identify the addition law and works out the
probabilities of mutually exclusive events
 use the concept of adding probabilities to calculate
probabilities of events.
We learnt earlier that an event is a set of outcomes. It is a subset of the sample

space for an activity or experiment.
Life is full of random events. We need to get a feel for them to be smart and
successful people.
The tossing of a coin, throwing of a dice, lottery drawings and picking a ball are all
examples of events.
When we say events, we mean one or more outcomes.
Events are of different types.
When an event corresponds to a single outcome of the activity, it is often called a

simple event.
Examples of simple events
1. Drawing the queen of spades from a deck of standard cards.

2. Getting a tail when tossing a coin
3. Rolling a 5 in throwing a dice
An event can include several outcomes.
Examples
1. Choosing a King from a deck of cards (any of the 4 Kings) is also an event.
2. Rolling an even number (2, 4, 6) is an event.
When two events cannot happen at the same time they are called mutually
exclusive events. This means that you cannot get both events at the same time. It is
either one or the other, but not both.
A common example of a mutually exclusive event is a coin flip. Either the coin will
come up heads or tails. Since the coin coming up heads means that it will not come
up tails. That makes the coin flip a mutually exclusive event. It will either one side or
the other, it cannot be both.
Here are other examples of mutually exclusive events.
1. Turning left or right

2. Heads and tails
3. Kings and Aces
Let's look at the probabilities of Mutually Exclusive events.
When two events let say Events A and B, are mutually exclusive it is impossible for
them to happen together:
P(A and B) = 0
"The probability of A and B together equals 0 (impossible)"
But the probability of A or B is the sum of the individual probabilities:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
"The probability of A or B equals the probability of A plus the probability of B"
Example 1: A Deck of Cards
In a Deck of 52 Cards:
1 1
 the probability of a King is , so P(King)=
13 13
1 1
 the probability of an Ace is also , so P(Ace)=
13 13
When we combine those two Events:

 The probability of a card being a King and an Ace is 0 (Impossible).
1 1 2
 The probability of a card being a King or an Ace is ( )+( )=
13 13 13
They can be written like this:
P(King and Ace) = 0
1 1 2
P(King or Ace) = ( )+( )=
13 13 13
A special notation is used to denote the word ―and‖ and ―or‖ in the rule.
Instead of "and" you will often see the symbol ∩ (which is the "Intersection" symbol
used in Venn Diagrams)
So, P(A and B) is written as P(A∩B)
Instead of "or" you will often see the symbol ∪ (the "Union" symbol)
So, P(A or B) is written as P(AUB)

Example 3: Scoring Goals
If the probability of:

 scoring no goals (Event "A") is 20%
 scoring exactly 1 goal (Event "B") is 15%
Then:
 The probability of scoring no goals and 1 goal is 0 (Impossible)
 The probability of scoring no goals or 1 goal is 20% + 15% = 35%
They can be written like this:

P(A∩B) = 0
P(AUB) = 20% + 15% = 35%
So, to find the probability that one or the other of two mutually exclusive events will
occur, add their individual probabilities.
This is called the Addition Rule.
Now let us have other examples.
Example 3
If two dice are tossed, the event A of rolling a total of 6 and the event B of rolling a
total of 9 are mutually exclusive.
Find the probability of A or B occurring.
Solution: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

5 4
= +
36 36
9
=
36
1
= = 0.25 or 25%
4
Example 4
Which of the following represents a pair of mutually exclusive events when a die is
rolled?
(a) obtaining an even number or obtaining a 4
(b) obtaining an odd number or obtaining a 3
(c) obtaining a number less than 3 or obtaining a number more than 5
(d) obtaining a multiple of 2 or obtaining a multiple of 3
(e) obtaining a factor of 6 or obtaining a multiple of 6
Solution:
(a) No. A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {4}. There is a common element
(b) No. A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3}. There is a common element
(c) Yes. A = {1, 2}, B = {6}. No common element
(d) No. A = {2, 4, 6}, {3, 6}. There is a common element
(e) No. A = {1, 2, 3, 6}, B = {6}. There is a common element
Example 5
In a certain parking lot, there are 4 Toyota, 3 Isuzu and 1 Hyundai.

What are the chances of either a Toyota or an Isuzu car will leave the parking lot?
Solution:
A Toyota cannot be included with Isuzu. A given vehicle cannot be a Toyota and an
Isuzu at the same time. Thus the two vehicles are mutually exclusive.
Thus,
P(Toyota or Isuzu) = P(Toyota) + P(Isuzu)
4 3
= 
8 8
7
=
8
Now let's see what happens when events are not Mutually Exclusive.
Hearts
Example: Hearts and Kings Kings
Hearts and Kings together is only the King of Hearts:
But Hearts or Kings is:

 all the Hearts (13 of them)
 all the Kings (4 of them)
But that counts the King of Hearts twice!

So we correct our answer, by subtracting the extra "and" part:
Hearts Hearts Kings of
Kings Kings Hearts
16 Cards = 13 Hearts + 4 Kings - the 1 extra King of Hearts

You can count them to make sure this works.
As a formula this is:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
"The probability of A or B equals the probability of A plus the probability of B

minus the probability of A and B"
Here is the same formula, by using the symbol U and ∩.
P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
Now look at Example 6.
16 people study French, 21 study Spanish and there are 30 altogether. Work out the
probabilities!
Solution:
This is definitely a case of not Mutually Exclusive (you can study French and
Spanish).
Let's say b is how many study both languages:

 people studying French Only must be 16-b
 people studying Spanish Only must be 21-b
And we get: French Spanish

only only
And we know there are 30 people, so: (16-b) + b + (21-b) = 30

37 - b = 30
b=7
And we can put in the correct numbers:
French Spanish
only only
So we know all this now:

 P(French) = 16/30
 P(Spanish) = 21/30
 P(French Only) = 9/30
 P(Spanish Only) = 14/30
 P(French or Spanish) = 30/30 = 1
 P(French and Spanish) = 7/30
Lastly, let's check with our formula:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
Put the values in:
30 16 21 7
= + –
30 30 30 30
30 37 7
= –
30 30 30
30 30
=
30 30
Yes, it works!
Remember:
Mutually Exclusive
 A and B together is impossible: P(A and B) = 0
 A or B is the sum of A and B: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Non- Mutually Exclusive
 A or B is the sum of A and B minus A and B: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A
and B)

1. For the rolling of a die, decide whether the following pairs of events are
mutually exclusive or not:
(a) A = {3, 5} ; B = {2, 4}

(b) A = factor of 3 ; B = factor of 4
(c) A = less than 3 ; B = more than 3
(d) A = even number ; B = factors of 6
2. For a standard pack of cards, do the following pairs of events overlap?
(a) A = king ; B = jack

(b) A=a6;B=a3
(c) A = heart ; B=: queen
(d) A = black ; B = a 5
3. A die is rolled. Find the probability of the scores being:
(a) either a 3 or a 5
(b) an odd or even
(c) a multiple of 3 or a multiple of 4
(d) divisible by 4 or 6
(e) multiple of 5 or factor of 6
(f) multiples of 2 or multiples of 4
(g) at least 3.
4. From a standard pack of cards, find the probability of drawing:
(a) a club or a spade

(b) a red or a black
(c) a card which is not black
(d) a 2 or a club
(e) a 4 or a card less than 7 (excluding ace)

Lesson 14: Multiplying Probabilities
You learnt about mutually exclusive events and how to work out
their probabilities using the addition rule.

 define independent events
 multiply probabilities of independent events
 find the probability of independent events using the
multiplication rule.
Let us start this lesson by considering the following situation.
It is critical that the engine of a single-engine plane does

not fail during a flight. These planes often have two
independent electrical systems. In the event that one fails,
for example, due to a faulty spark plug, the second system
will still be able to keep the plane in flight.
Now let us consider another situation which involves an experiment where a jar
contains one red, one black and one white marble. One marble is withdrawn and
then replaced. A second withdrawal is made. What is the probability of drawing a
white, then a red?
There are a couple of things to take note about this experiment. Withdrawal of one
marble from the jar, replacing it, then, withdrawing again from the same jar is a
compound event. Since the first marble was replaced, withdrawing a red marble on
the first try has no effect on the probability of withdrawing a red pair on the second
try. No matter what colour was taken in the first draw the second draw could be of
any colours, because the first marble was replaced. The occurrence of one event
does not affect the occurrence of the other. Thus the two draws are independent of
each other.
Two events A and B are independent events if the fact that the
occurrence of one event A does not affect the probability of the other B.
Here are some other examples of independent events.

(a) The events that a coin landing heads on one toss AND tails on another toss.
The result of one toss does not affect the result of the other, so the events are
independent.
(b) Landing on heads after tossing a coin AND rolling a 5 on a single 6-sided die.
(c) Choosing a marble from a jar AND landing on heads after tossing a coin.
(d) Choosing a 3 from a deck of cards, replacing it, AND then choosing an ace as
the second card.
(e) Rolling a 4 on a single 6-sided die, AND then rolling a 1 on a second roll of the
die.
Finding the Probability of independent Events
To find the probability of two independent events that occur in sequence, find
the probability of each event occurring separately, and then multiply the
probabilities. This multiplication rule is defined symbolically below. Note that
multiplication is represented by AND.
Multiplication Rule: When two events, A and B, are independent, the Probability of
both events occurring is:
P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B)
Example 1
A coin is tossed and a single sided die is rolled. Find the probability of landing on the
head side of the coin and rolling a 4 on the die.
Solution: First, find the Probability of each individual event.
1
P(Head) =
2
1
P(4) =
6
P(Head and 4) = P(Head) • P(4)
1 1
= •
2 6
1
=
12
Example 2
A card is chosen at random from a deck of 52 cards. It is then replaced and a second
card is chosen. What is the probability of choosing a Queen and then a nine?
4
P(Queen) =
52
4
P(9) =
52
P(Queen and 9) = P(Queen) • P(9)
4 4
= •
52 52
16
=
2704
1
=
169
Example 3
A jar contains 3 green, 5 red, 2 yellow and 6 blue marbles. A marble is chosen at
random from the jar. After replacing it, a second marble is chosen. What is the
probability of choosing a red and then a blue marble?
5
P(Red) =
16
6
P(Blue) =
16
P(Red and Blue) = P(Red) • P(Blue)
5 6
= •
16 16
30
=
256
15
=
128
Example 4
An experiment consists of spinning the spinner

below three times. For a spin, all outcomes are
equally likely.
(a) What is the probability of spinning an odd number three times?

(b) What is the probability of spinning a 5 at least once?
Solution:
3
(a) For each spin, the probability is: P(odd) =
5
So, the probability of spinning an odd number three times is:

P(odd, odd, odd) = P(odd) • P(odd) • P(odd)
3 3 3
= • •
5 5 5
27
=
125
(b) Think of this: P(at least one 5) + P(not 5, not 5, not 5) = 1
4
For each spin, P(not 5) =
5
4 4 4 64
P(not 5, not 5, not 5) = • • = = 0.512
5 5 5 125
Subtract from 1 to find the probability of spinning at least one 5.
So, P(at least one 5) = 1 – 0.512
= 0.488
Example 5
Charles drawer contains one pair of socks with each of the following colours: red,
blue, green, black yellow and blue. Each pair is folded together in a matching set.
Charles goes into the sock drawer and picked a pair of socks without looking. He
replaced this pair and then picked another pair of socks. What is the probability that
Charles will pick the red pair of socks both times?
1
P(Red) =
5
P(Red and Red) = P(Red) • P(Red)
1 1
= •
5 5
1
=
25
Example 6
A nationwide survey found that 72% of people in Port Moresby like pizza. If 3 people
are selected at random, what is the probability that all three like pizza? Round off
your answer to the nearest per cent.
Solution: Let x represent the event of randomly choosing a person who likes
pizza from Port Moresby.
P(x) • P(x) •P(x) = (0.72)(0.72)(0.72) = 0.37 = 37%
Therefore, the probability that all three like pizza is 0.37 or 37%.
Sometimes some events can be ―dependent‖.
Two events A and B are dependent events if the fact that the occurrence
of one event A does affect the occurrence of the other event B so that the
probability is changed.
To calculate the probability of dependent events occurring, do the following:

1. Calculate the probability of the first event.
2. Calculate the probability that the second event would occur if the first event had
already occurred.
3. Multiply the probabilities.
If A and B are dependent events, then P(A and B)= P(A) • P(B after A)
Suppose you draw 2 marbles without replacement from a bag that contains 3 purple
and 3 orange marbles. On the first draw,
3 1
P(purple) = =
6 2
The sample space for the second draw depends on the first draw.
Before first draw
If the first draw was purple, then the probability of the second
draw being purple is
2
P(purple) =
5
So the probability of drawing two purple is

After first draw
1 2 2 1
P(purple, purple) = • = or
2 5 10 5
Now let us solve problems on the probability of dependent events.
Example 7
A bag contains one blue, two white and three red marbles. Find the probability of
drawing a blue and then a red, if the first marble drawn is not replaced.
Solution:
1
The first draw P(blue) =
6
The marbles available for the second draw depend on what was selected in the first.
Draw. With the blue not available in the bag, the number of possible outcomes
3
reduces to 5. Hence, in draw 2, P(Red) = .
5
Thus,
P(B and then R) = P(B) • (P(R)
1 3
= •
6 5
1
=
10

1. Four cards are chosen from a standard deck of 52 playing cards with
replacement.
What is the probability of choosing 4 hearts in a row?
2. A jar contains 6 red balls, 3 green balls, 5 white balls and 7 yellow balls. Two
balls are chosen from the jar, with replacement.
(a) What is the probability that both balls chosen are green?
(b) What is the probability of choosing a red and a yellow ball?
3. Spin a spinner numbered 1 to 7, and toss a coin.
What is the probability of getting an odd number on the spinner and a tail on the
coin?
4. A survey showed that 65% of all the students dislikes eating vegetables. If 4
children are chosen at random, what is the probability that all 4 children dislike
eating vegetables? Round off your answer to the nearest per cent.
5. Two cards are chosen from a deck of 52 cards without replacement.
What is the probability of choosing two kings?

Lesson 15: Union and Intersection of Two Events
You learnt to identify independent and dependent events in

lesson 14. You also learnt to find the probability of independent
and dependent events using the multiplication rule.

 review the concepts of union and intersection of
two events
 find the probability of the intersection and union of
two events.
Let us start by understanding the concepts of union and intersection.
Suppose the experiment is throwing a die, then the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
From the sample space, we can have events such as:
Event A = {1, 3}
Event B = {4, 5, 6}
To find the union of A and B, in symbol AUB (read as A union B), we need to find a
set whose elements are elements that is in A or element that is in B .
Thus AUB = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
In another case, if suppose Event C = {1, 2, 3, 6} and Event D = {2, 4, 6}
Then CUD = {1. 2. 3. 4. 6}
Another concept that you need to learn is intersection.
To find the intersection of A and B, in symbol A∩B (read as A intersects B), C∩D
you need to find the element that is in A and that is in B too.
Thus A∩B = ϕ
Φ is symbol for null Set. It indicates that the two sets have no common
Element.
If you are asked to find C∩D, then C∩D = {2, 6}.
Since the elements 2 and 6 are both in C and D.

Let us have another example by considering the pack of cards below:
Let us have the following events:
A=
B=
C=
Thus,
AUB =
AUC =
A∩B = Ø
A∩C =
Let us use the idea of union and intersection in probability.
Union of Events
The union of events includes not only the probability of A and B, but also the
probability of only A and the probability of only B.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B)
The last term is important since it removed items that appear in both A and B,
thereby avoiding double counting.
Consider the following example, meant to clarify the importance of the - P(A∩B) term
in the formula for P(AUB).
Example 1
When rolling a die, what is the probability of rolling a number greater than 1 or a
number that is even?
Solution: The presence of the word "or" is a clue that the question is asking
about the union of events.
Let Event A = rolling a number greater than 1

Let Event B = rolling a number that is even
Since there are five possibilities and six total numbers that could be rolled,
The Probability of rolling a number greater than 1 is

5
P(A) =
6
Since there are three possibilities (i.e., 2, 4, 6) and six total numbers that could be
rolled (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
The Probability of rolling a number that is even is
3
P(B) =
6
5 3
P(AUB) ≠ +
6 6
Since:
(i) this number is greater than one, which is impossible for a probability
(ii) this number double counts the even numbers greater than 1 (i.e., 2, 4, 6)
Since there are three possibilities (i.e., 2, 4, 6) and six total numbers that could be
rolled (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
P(A∩B) = rolling a number greater than 1 and even

3
=
6
Hence using the formula P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B)
5 3 3
P(AUB) = + -
6 6 6
5
=
6
Therefore the probability of rolling a number greater than 1 or a number that is

5
even is .
6
Example 2
When drawing a card from a standard 52-card deck, what is the probability of
drawing a red card or an ace?
Solution: The presence of the word "or" is a clue that the question is asking about
the union of events.
Let Event A = drawing an ace

Let Event B = drawing a red card
Since there are four aces in each deck of 52 cards
4
P(A) =
52
Since there are four suits and two of them are red (or 26 red cards in a deck of 52)
26 1
P(B) = =
52 2
Since there are 2 red aces in a deck of 52 cards)

2
P(A∩B) = the probability of drawing a red ace =
52
It is important to subtract P(A∩B), otherwise you would double count the red aces.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B)

4 26 2
P(AUB) = + -
52 52 52
28 7
= or
52 13
28 7
Therefore, the probability of drawing a red card or an ace is or
52 13
Intersection of events
The intersection of events includes only the probability that both events A and B
occur simultaneously. If event A occurs alone or if event B occurs alone, this does
not fall within the intersection of events A and B.
Formula: P(A∩B) = probability of the intersection of events A and B
P(A∩B) = P(A) • P(B|A)
or
P(A∩B) = P(A) • P(A|B)

If events A and B are mutually exclusive (i.e., if one event occurs then the other
cannot occur), the formula can be simplified:
P(A∩B) = probability of the intersection of events A and B
P(A∩B) = P(A) • P(B)
Example 3
What is the probability of drawing a red card from a standard 52 card deck and rolling
an even number on a fair die?
Solution: Since drawing a red card and rolling an even number are entirely
unrelated and have no bearing on each other, the two events are
independent and you can use the simplified formula for the intersection
of events.
Let Event A = drawing a red card

Let Event B = rolling an even number
1
The probability of drawing a red card is: P(A) =
2
1
The probability of rolling an even number is: P(B) =
2
The probability of drawing a red card and rolling an even number is:
P(A∩B) = P(A) • P(B)
1 1 1
P(A∩B) = ( )( ) =
2 2 4
To conclude this discussion, remember the following:
The union of two events combines the outcomes in both, written A or

B (either can happen). The union happens if either A or B or both
occur. The word or, either… or, at least is associated with UNION. It
also implies Addition Rule.
The intersection of two events is the outcomes that are in both at the
same time, written A and B (both must happen). The intersection of
two events is the event that occur in both. The words and, both…
and, and then is associated with INTERSECTION. It also implies
Multiplication Rule.

1. The table below shows the sample space of an experiment of rolling a pair of
dice.
List down the elements of each of the following events: Complete the given set, one
is already given.
(i) A = the sum of the two upper faces is 4

= {(3, 1), _____, _____,……}
(ii) B = the sum is 11

B = {(6, 5),_____, _____,……}
(iii) C = double (the same number on both die)

C = {(1, 1), _____, _____,……}
(iv) D = sum is greater than or equal to 10

D = {(6, 4), _____, _____,……}
(v) E = sum is at least 10

E = {(6, 4),_____, _____,……}
(vi) F = sum is at most 5

F = {(1, 1), _____, _____,……}
2. Using the events given in number 1, find each of the following.
(i) AUB
(ii) CUD
(iii) AUF
(iv) A∩B
(v) A∩C
(vi) D∩E
3. Find each of the following from question 1.
(i) P(AUB)
(ii) P(CUD)
(iii) P(AUF)
(iv) P(A∩B)
(v) P(A∩C)
(vi) P(D∩E)
4. Ten cards are numbered 1 to 10. One is drawn at random. Find the probability
that the number is…
(i) greater than 7 or less than 3
(ii) greater than 6 or odd

5. A bag contains 2 black and 1 blue balls. A ball is drawn, its color noted and then
replaced. A second ball is then drawn. Find the probability of drawing:
(i) a black ball and another black ball.
(ii) a black and then a blue
6. Rework number 5, if the first ball drawn is not replaced.

Lesson 16: Mixed Probability Problems
You learnt to identify the union and intersection of events as well

as finding the probability of the union and intersection of events
in the last lesson.

 solve mixed problems on probability in practical
situations.
You learnt the different concepts of probability from Lesson 10 to 15. We can now
apply those concepts in solving problems in practical situations.
Example 1
In a supermarket car park, there are spaces for 7 buses, 130 cars and 13 motorbike.
If all vehicles have an equal chance of leaving at any time, find the probability that
the next vehicle to leave will be:
(i) a bus
(ii) a car
(iii) a motorbike or a bus
(iv) not a car
Solution:
7
(i) P(a bus) =
150
130 13
(ii) P(a car) = =
150 15
(iii) P(a motorbike or a bus) = P(a motorbike) + P(a bus)
13 7
= +
150 150
20 2
= or
150 15
(iv) P(not a car) = 1– P(a car)
130
=1–
150
20 2
= or
150 15
Example 2
Consider a roulette wheel which is circular and is divided into 37 equal sectors
numbered 0 to 36. The sector number 0 is coloured green. Half of the numbers 1 to
36 are coloured black and the other half are coloured red. A small ball is dropped
onto the spinning roulette wheel and eventually lands on one of the numbers when
the wheel stops spinning.
A gambler can bet on:
(i) any one of the numbers 0 to 36

(ii) even or odds
(iii) reds or blacks
(iv) groups of 2, 3, 4, … 18 numbers.
What is the probability that the ball will land on:
(a) red numbers?

(b) an even number?
(c) the green zero?
(d) an even or an odd number?
Solution:
18
(a) P(red number) =
37
19
(b) P(even number) =
37
1
(c) P(zero) =
37
37
(d) P(even or odd) = =1
37
Example 3
A mal-functioning machine produces good articles and defective articles in the ratio
4:1. Three articles are selected at random from the production line.
Find the probability of selecting…
(a) 3 good ones
(b) 3 defective ones
(c) 1 good , then 2 defectives

Solution:
(a) P(G and G and G) = P(G) P(G) P(G) 

 
4 4 4
   x x
5 5 5

64

125
(b) P(D and D and D) = P(D) xP(D) xP(D)
1 1 1
= x x
5 5 5
1
=
125
(c) P(G and D and D) = P(G) xP(D) xP(D)
4 1 1
= x x
5 5 5
4
=
125

1. A carton of 12 eggs contains five brown eggs, three speckled eggs and four
white eggs. If an egg is chosen at random, what is the probability that the egg
is:
(i) speckled?
(ii) white?
(iii) not speckled?
(iv) brown or speckled?
2. A group of students is made up of 4 girls and 6 boys. Two students are to be

selected to represent the group on the student representative council. They
decide to write all names on identical pieces of paper, put them in a hat and
choose two names randomly. Find the probability of
(i) two boys being selected.
(ii) two girls being selected
(iii) one girl and 1 boy.

3. If A and B are independent events and P(A) = 0.6 and P(B) = 0.4, find
(i) P(A∩B)
(ii) P(A‘∩B) where A‘ is the complement of A
(iii) P(A∩B‘) where B‘ is the complement of B
(iv) P(A‘∩B‘)
4. Anton is an archer. The experimental probability that Anton will hit the target is
3
.
5
(i) What is the probability that Anton will hit the target on two successive
attempts?
(ii) What is the probability that Anton will hit the target on three successive
attempts?
(iii) What is the probability that Anton will not hit the target on two successive
attempts?
5. Ana has 3 pairs of Nike and 2 pairs of Adidas running shoes. She has two pairs
of Nike, 3 pairs of Rio and a pair of Red Robin socks. Preparing for an early
morning run, she grabs at random for a pair of socks and a pair of shoes.
What is the probability that she chooses:
(i) Nike shoes and Nike socks?
(ii) Rio socks and Adidas shoes?
(iii) Adidas shoes and socks that are not Rio?

TOPIC 3: SUMMARY
 An experiment is an activity in which results are observed. Each observation

is called a trial, and each result is an outcome.
 The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
 An event is any set of one or more outcomes.
 The probability of an event, written P(event) is a number from 0(or 0%) to 1
(or 100%) that tells you how likely the event is to happen.
 A probability of 0 means the event is impossible, or can never happen.
 A probability of 1 means the event is certain, or has to happen.
 The probabilities of all the outcomes in the sample space add up to 1.
 Theoretical probability is the probability of an event when all outcomes are
equally likely. It is given by the formula:
number of favourable outcomes n(E)
Probability (Events) = or P(A) =
number of possibleoutcomes n(S)
 The complement of an event A is the collection of all outcomes in the sample

space that are not in A. It is denoted by A’. If A and A’ are complementary
events then P(A) + P(A’) = 1.
 When two events cannot happen at the same time they are called mutually
exclusive events.
 To find the probability of mutually exclusive events we add the individual
probabilities. The formula is: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B). This is called the
Addition Rule.
 Independent events are two events in which the occurrence of one has no
effect on the occurrence of the other.
 To find the probability of two independent events, multiply their individual
probabilities. The formula is: P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B). This is called the
Multiplication Rule.
 Dependent events are two events in which the occurrence of one affects the
occurrence of the other so that the probability is changed. The multiplication
rule still holds.
 The union of two events combines the outcomes in both, written A or B
(either can happen). The union happens if either A or B or both occur. The
word or, either… or, at least is associated with UNION. It also implies
Addition Rule.
 The intersection of two events is the outcomes that are only in both at the
same time, written A and B (both must happen). The intersection of two
events is the event that both occur. The word and, both… and, and then is
associated with INTERSECTION. It also implies Multiplication Rule.
REVISE LESSONS 10-16. THEN DO TOPIC TEST 3 IN ASSIGNMENT 4

1. (i) {2, 4, 6} (iii) {3, 4, 5, 6} (v) {3, 6}

(ii) {1, 2} (iv) {2, 3, 5}
2.
Outcome Snow No Snow
Probability 0.55 0.45
3. (a) 0.262 (b) 0.738

1 1 1 1
4 Red = ; Blue = ; Yellow = ; Green =
3 3 6 6
1 1
5 (a) (b) (c) 0
6 2
1 1 1 11
6. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1
6 3 2 12
1. a) {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}

b) {Red, Red, Red, White, White, Blue}
c) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
d) {Gold, Silver, Bronze}
e) {Jacks, Queens, Kings}
1 8 2 1
2. (a) (b) or (c)
52 52 13 4
1 1 4
(d) (e) (f)
2 13 13
3 1 4
3. (a) (b) (c)
10 5 5
1
(d) 1 (e) (f) 0
10
1 1 1 1
4. (a) (b) (c) (d)
52 2 7 2
1
(e) , where n is the number of students in your class
n
6 1
5. or
36 6
1. (a) {1, 5, 6}
(b) {1, 2, 4, 5}
(c) {1, 4, 6}
(d) {1, 2}
(e) {4, 5, 6}
3 7 12
2. 3. 4. 5. 0.25
8 8 13
43 3 9
6. 7. 8.
50 5 10
1. (a) Mutually Exclusive (b) Non-mutually Exclusive

(c) Mutually Exclusive (d) Non-mutually Exclusive
2. (a) No (b) No (c) Yes (d) Yes
1 1 1 5 1
3. (a) (b) 1 (c) (d) (e) (f)
3 2 3 6 3
2
(g)
3
2 1 4 5
4. (a) (b) 1 (c) (d) (e)
13 2 13 13
1
1.
256
1 2
2. (a) (b)
49 21
2 1
3. 4. 18% 5.
7 221
1. (i) A = {(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3)}

(ii) B = {(6, 5), (5, 6)}
(iii) C = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
(iv) D = {(6, 4), (5, 5), (4, 6), (6, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6)}
(v) E = {(6, 4), (5, 5), (4, 6), (6, 5), (5,6), (6, 6)}
(vi) F = {(1,1), (2, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1, (3,2), (2, 3), (1, 4), (4, 1)}
2. (i) {(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3), (6, 5), (5, 6)}
(ii) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (6, 4), (4, 6), (6, 5), (5, 6)}
(iii) {(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3), (1,1), (2, 1), (1, 2), (3,2), (2, 3), (1, 4), (4, 1)}
(iv) ϕ
(v) {(2, 2)}
(vi) {(4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 5), (5,6), (6, 6)}
5 10 5 10 5
3. (i) (ii) or (iii) ) or
36 36 18 36 18
1 3 1
(iv) 0 (v) (vi) or
36 36 12
1 7
4. (i) (ii)
2 10
4 2
5. (i) (ii)
9 9
1 1
6. (i) (ii)
3 3
1 1 3 2
1. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
4 3 4 3
1 2 4
2. (i) (ii) (iii)
3 15 15
3. (i) 0.24 (ii) 0.16 (iii) 0.36 (iv) 0.24
9 27 4
4. (i) (ii) (iii)
25 125 25
1 1 1
5. (i) (ii) (iii)
5 5 5
END OF TOPIC 3
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 128 VACANT PAGE
TOPIC 4
STATISTICAL ESTIMATION
Lesson 17: Population and Sample
Lesson 18: Sampling Methods
Lesson 19: Survey

TOPIC 4: STATISTICAL ESTIMATION
Introduction
Statistic is a quantity that is calculated from a sample of data. It
is used to give information about unknown values in the
corresponding population. For example, the average of the data
in a sample is used to give information about the overall average
in the population from which that sample was drawn.
An estimate is an indication of the value of an unknown quantity based on observed

data.
Suppose the manager of a shop wanted to know the mean expenditure of customers
in her shop in the last year. She could calculate the average expenditure of the
hundreds or thousands of customers who bought goods in her shop, that is, the
population mean. Instead she could use an estimate of this population mean in
calculating the mean of a representative sample of customers. If this value was found
to be K25 then K25 would be her estimate.
In the lessons that follow, you will learn terms associated with statistical estimate,
sampling techniques and survey.
Lesson 17: Population and Sample
Welcome to the first lesson of Topic 4.

 define the terms population, sample and parameter
 calculate mean of the population
     use the sample of a population to make an estimate
The study of statistics revolves around the study of data sets. This lesson describes
two important types of data sets - populations and samples.
First let us define what population means.in stayistics.
When we think of the term ―population,‖ we usually think of people in our town,
region, state or country and their respective characteristics such as gender, age,
marital status, ethnic membership, religion and so forth.
In statistics the term ―population‖ takes on a slightly different meaning.
The “population” in statistics includes all members of a defined group

that we are studying or collecting information on for data driven
decisions.
A population includes each element from the set of observations that
can be made.
The term often refers to a group of people, as in the following examples.
 All registered voters in Kokopo Town

 All members of the Secondary Mathematics Club Teachers
 All Papua New Guineans who played Soccer at least once in the
past years
But a population can refer to things as well as people:
 All Physics books sold last Monday by Oxford Book Supply

 All daily maximum temperatures in July for the Islands
 All basal ganglia cells from a particular rhesus monkey
Often when one wants to know things about a population; it is impractical for one to
interview or collect data of all the members of the population. Instead, one might
select a part or portion of the population.
A part of the population is called a sample. It is a proportion of the population, a slice

of it, a part of it and all its characteristics. A sample is a scientifically drawn group that
actually possesses the same characteristics as the population – if it is drawn
randomly
A sample is a smaller group of members of a population selected to

represent the population.
Example
A researcher, for instance, may want to determine the reading deficiencies of the
grade school children in his school. However, he may not probably be able to test all
the school children on account of their big numbers. He satisfies himself, therefore, in
selecting representative sample from each of the grade levels through the random
sampling method. He, then, administers the diagnostic test in reading and he makes
use of the test results to report the reading deficiencies of the entire group of children
in his school.
Imagine, for instance, that the population of the school was 8000 distributed among
six grade levels. It would be very laborious for the researcher to involve all the
children. He can make his work easier by drawing representative samples from each
level, say 100 subjects per level. This means that he is going to test 600 children
only. And yet he can report about the results as reflective of the reading deficiencies
of the whole school population.
Parameter and Statistics
If the researcher, in the above example, had tested all the 8000 school children and
computed measures of central tendency and variability he would have obtained what
are referred to as parameters. These are measures of the population. Parameters
exist whether we compute or not. The population parameters, Mean and Standard
Deviation are symbolised byread as mu) and  (Greek sigma).
A statistic is a characteristic of a sample. Statistics enables you to make an

educated guess about a population parameter based on a statistic computed from a
sample random drawn from a population.
The diagram below illustrates the relationships between samples and populations.
We want to know about these We have these to work with
Random
Selection
Sample
Population
Statistics
Parameter
x
(Population Mean) (Sample Mean)
Estimating the Population Mean
The population mean is the average of all the items in the population. Because
a population is usually very large or unknown, the population mean is usually an
unknown constant. An estimate of the population mean is the sample mean.
To calculate the population mean, we use the formula:
x 1  x 2  x 3  ...  x n
  i 
x
N N
Where: Population Mean

 X i = sum of all the numbers in the grouping
N = number of population
The sample mean is represented by x . It is given by the formula:

x 1  x 2  x 3  ...  x n
x   x i

N N
Where: x the sample mean

 X i = sum of all the terms in the sample
N = is the number of terms in the sample.
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spreads out numbers are. Its symbol is
σ (the Greek letter sigma) or sometimes denoted by the capital letter S. It is
calculated as the squared differences from the mean called variance.
In finding the standard deviation (S) of a population the formula used is:
S=
 X  X 2 =
 X2
N N
Where: S = standard deviation
X 2
= sum of the squared differences from the mean
N = total number of terms or scores
But when you use the sample as an estimate of the population, the standard
deviation‘s formula changes to
S=
 X  X 2
N 1
When you used this formula, you are actually correcting the sample standard
deviation for bias. The sample standard deviation tends to be smaller than the
population standard deviation.
Here are the steps for the calculation of the population standard deviation.
1. Calculate the mean.

2. For each number, subtract the mean. Square the result.
3. Add up all the squared results.
4. Divide the sum by the number of data points (N). This gives you the sample
variance.
5. Take the square root of this value to obtain the sample standard deviation.
Example 1
Michelle has 20 potted roses. The number of flowers on each pot is as follows:
4 9 6 9 10 4 5 12 4 7
9 2 5 4 12 7 8 11 9 3
Work out the standard deviation.
Solution: The formula for the standard deviation of a population is
S=
 X  X  2
N
Hence, to find the standard deviation, follow the following steps:
 X  
xi
Step 1: Find the mean;
N
4  9  6  9  10  4  5  12  4  7  9  2  5  4  12  7  8  11  9  3
X 
20
140
=
20
= 7
Step 2: Find (x - X  Subtract the mean from each data points and square the
results.
(4 – 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9 (9 – 7)2 = (2)2 = 4

(9 – 7)2 = (2)2 = 2 (2 – 7)2 = (-5)2 = 25
(6 – 7)2 = (-1)2 = 1 (5 – 7)2 = (-2)2 = 4
(9 – 7)2 = (2)2 = 4 (4 – 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9
(10 – 7)2 = (3)2 = 9 (12 – 7)2 = (5)2 = 25
(4 – 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9 (7 – 7)2 = (0)2 = 0
(5 – 7)2 = (-2)2 = 4 (8 – 7)2 = (1)2 = 1
(12– 7)2 = (5)2 = 25 (11 – 7)2 = (4)2 = 16
(4 – 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9 (9 – 7)2 = (2)2 = 4
(7 – 7)2 = (0)2 = 0 (3 – 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9
Step 3: Add up all the results.
 (x - X = (9 + 2 + 1 + 4 + 9 + 9 + 4 + 25 + 9 + 0 + 4 + 25 +… + 9)
=169
Step 4: Calculate the mean of the squared differences or variance.
169
Variance = = 8.45 = 8.5
20
Step 4: Take the square root of the variance to find the standard deviation.
S= 8.5 = 2.907 = 2.9
Therefore, the standard deviation of the number of flowers Michelle has in all
her 20 potted roses is 2.907 or 2.9.
Supposed Michelle only counted the flowers on 6 out of the 20 potted roses. The
―population‖ is the 20 rose pots and the ―sample‖ is the 6 she counted.
Let say, they were 5, 2, 12, 7, 9, 4
We can estimate the standard deviation. But when we use the sample as an estimate
of the population, the standard deviation‘s formula changes to the one below
S=
 X  X2
N1
Solution:
Work out the mean.  X  
xi
Step 1:
N
5  2  12  7  9  4
X =
6
39
= = 6.5
6
Step 2: Calculate  (x - X 
 (x - X = (5 – 6.5)2 + (2 – 6.5)2 + (12 – 6.5)2 + (7 – 6.5)2 + (9 – 6.5)2 +(4 – 6.5)2
= (-1.5)2 + (-4.5)2 + (5.5)2 + (0.5)2 + (2.5)2 +(-2.5)2

= 2.25 + 20.25 + 30.25 + 0.25 + 6.25 + 6.25
= 65.5
Step 3: Work out the mean of those squared differences or variance
 X  X
2
65.5
Variance = = = 13.1
N1 5
Step 4: Take the square root of the variance, to find the standard deviation.
S=
 X  X 2
= 13.1 = 3.619 = 3.6

N1
Therefore, the standard deviation for the number of flowers Michelle have is
3.6.
Comparing the two estimation of the standard deviation:
When we use the whole population, we get:
Population Mean = 7, standard deviation = 2.9
When we use the sample, we got:
Sample mean = 6.5; Standard Deviation = 3.6
Conclusion: The sample mean was wrong by 7%, and the sample standard
deviation was wrong by 24%.
In calculating the mean of a population we need to consider the standard error of

the mean.
Standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of those

sample means over all possible samples (of a given size) drawn
from the population.
The standard error of the mean can be viewed as the standard deviation of the error
in the sample mean relative to the true mean, since the sample mean is an unbiased
estimator.
It is usually estimated by the sample estimate of the population. Hence, the standard
error of the mean is equals to sample standard deviation divided by the square root
of the sample size. It is given by the formula:
S
SE X 
N
Where: SE X = is the standard error of the mean
S = sample standard deviation

N = the size of the sample (number of observations)
It may be compared with the formula for a true standard deviation of the sample
mean.

SDX 
N
Where: SD X = is the true standard error of the mean

 = standard deviation of the population
N = the size of the sample (number of observations)
In the case above, the standard error of the mean is
3 .6 3.6
SE X = = = 1.47
6 2.45
Comparing it to the true standard deviation of the sample mean, we have
2 .9 2.9
SD X = = = 0.65
20 4.47
Based on the above comparisons, we can deduce that if the standard deviation is
increased, the standard error of the mean is also increased. Conversely, increasing
the sample size would decrease the standard error of the mean.
The normal curve rule states that the sampling distribution of the population mean
will have almost all values between
 
- 3 x and + 3 x
N N
Therefore, the smallest and largest values of the population mean () of the data
Example 1 are:
7 – 3 x 0.65 and 7 + 3 x 0.65
The estimated population mean is from 5.05 to 8.95.
Example 2
A test was given to a class of 50 students, and the test results are 10, 20, 30, 40 and
50.
(a) Calculate the mean.

(b) Calculate the sample standard deviation
(c) Find the standard error of the mean.
(d) Estimate the population mean.
Solution:
(a) Calculating the Mean:

 X = 
xi
N
10  20  30  40  50
X =
5
150
=
5
= 30
(b) Calculate the Sample Standard deviation.
S=
 X  X 2
N1
S=
10  302  20  302  30  302  40  302  50  302
4
S=
 202   102  02  102  202
4
400  100  0  100  400
S=
4
1000
S=
4
S= 250
S = 15.81
S
(c) Standard Error of the mean: SE X 
N
15.81
=
5
15.81
=
2.24
= 7.07
(d) Estimated population mean:
Smallest value of the population mean is 30 – 3 x 7.07 =8.79

Largest value of the population mean is 30 + 3 x 7.07 = 51.21
Therefore, the estimated population mean is from 8.79 to 51.21.
Example 3
The Accountant wishes to obtain some information about all the invoices sent out to a
supermarket's account customers. In order to estimate this information, a sample of
twenty invoices is randomly selected from the whole population.
Value of Invoices (in Kina)

32.53 22.27 33.38 41.47 38.05
31.47 38.00 43.16 29.05 22.20
25.27 26.78 30.97 38.07 38.06
25. 11 24.11 43.48 32.93 42.04
(i) Find the sample mean.

(ii) Find the sample standard deviation.
(iii) Estimate the population mean.
Solutions:
 X = 
xi
(i) Sample Mean:
N
=
32.53  31.47  25.27  ...  42.04
20
658.4
=
20
= K32.92
(ii) Sample Standard Deviation: S=

 X  X 2
N1
962.1344
S=
19
S= 50.64
S = K7.12
(iii) To find the estimated population mean, first compute the value of error of the
mean
S 7.12
Error of the Mean = =
N 20
= 1.59
The smallest and largest values of the population mean (are

K32.92 – 3 x1.59 and K32.92 + 3 x 1.59
Therefore, the estimated population mean is from K 28.15 to K37.49.

1. A chemist grows 20 crystals from a solution and measured the length of each
crystal in millimetres.
Here are the results.
10 3 6 5 13
8 12 10 4 9
8 5 13 6 5
11 10 7 10 5
(a) Calculate the mean.
(b) Calculate the standard deviation of the population size.
(c) If this was the sample population, find the sample standard deviation of the
data.
2. At the end of every school year, a province administers a reading test to a

simple sample drawn without replacement, from a population of 20, 000 third
graders. This, test was administered to 36 students selected via simple random
sampling. The test score from each sampled students is shown below:
50 55 60 62 62 65 67 67 70
70 70 71 72 72 73 73 75 75
75 78 78 78 78 80 80 80 82
82 85 85 85 88 88 90 90 90
(i) Find the percentage of the population who got 75 and above.
(ii) Find the modal reading score of the population.
(iii) Estimate the mean reading score of the population.
3. A large hospital wants to estimate the average length of time that surgical
patients remain in the hospital. To accomplish this, a random sample of 100
patient records is obtained from the records of all patients who have had
surgery in recent years. For these 100 patients, the sample mean is found to be
7.8 days. The standard deviation of hospital stay for all surgical patients is 9.4
days.
Estimate the population mean length of stay, by forming an interval that almost
certainly contains the value of the mean, 
4. Suppose that the amount of time teenagers spend weekly at part-time jobs is
normally distributed with a standard deviation of 20 minutes. A random sample
of 100 observations is drawn, and the sample mean is computed as 125
minutes.
Estimate the population mean by forming an interval that certainly contains the
value of the mean.

Lesson 18: Sampling Methods
You learnt the meaning of population, sample and parameter in

the last lesson. You also learnt how to estimate the mean of a
population.

 define and identify the different sampling methods
 estimate the population mean from random sampling
and use it to make conclusions.
Let us begin by covering a brief introduction to sampling. Usually researchers cannot

make direct observations of every individual in the population they are studying.
Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals (a sample) and use those
observations to make inferences about the entire population.
Sampling is a process of selecting units (e.g. people, organizations) from

a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may generalize
our results back to the population from which they were chosen.
The way that observations are selected from a population to be in the sample for a
sample survey refers to sampling method.
The sampling process comprises several stages:
(i) Defining the population of concern

(ii) Specifying a sampling frame and a set of items or events that are possible to
measure
(iii) Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
(iv) Finding the sample size
(v) Implementing the sampling plan
(vi) Sampling and data collecting
As a group, sampling methods fall into two categories. These are:
1. Probability Sampling Methods

2. Non – Probability Sampling Methods
 Probability Sampling is a method wherein all elements of the

population have a known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the
sample.
 Non-Probability Sampling is a method wherein we do not know the
probability that each element of the population will be chosen, and/or
we cannot be sure that each element has a non-zero chance of being
chosen.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The main types of Probability Sampling Methods are: Simple Random Sampling,
Stratified Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Multistage Sampling and Systematic Random
Sampling.
1. Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that has the following
properties:
 The population consists of N objects.
 The sample consists of n objects.
 If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the
sampling method is simple random sampling.
There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the
lottery method. Each of the unit (N) of the target population is assigned a
unique number. The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then
a blind folded researcher selects the numbers (n). Population members having
the selected numbers are included in the sample.
For example, let‘s say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to
choose a simple random sample of 50 people.
First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50
random numbers (typically with a computer program) and those individuals
assigned those numbers are the ones you include in the sample.
2. Stratified Sampling
With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups, based on some
characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a simple
random sample) is selected.
When the population is composed of several subgroups, it may be wiser to

employ the stratified technique to ensure representation of each subgroup in the
sample. In stratified sampling, the groups are called strata.
Example: Suppose you conduct a national survey. We might divide the

population into groups or strata, based on geography—North, East, West and
South. Then, within each stratum, we might randomly select sample survey
respondents.
There are two ways of employing this technique.
2.1 Simple Stratified Random Sampling
This is done by separating the lists of subgroups in the population and

simply drawing randomly the desired sample size from each subgroup. In
drawing the subject, any of the simple random sampling techniques may
be used.
Look at the example on the next page.

Population Sample
N = 800 n = 200
Grade 10 185 50 Ss
Grade 9 200 50 Ss
Grade 8 215 50 Ss
Grade 7 200 50 Ss
Total 800 200 Ss
2.2 Stratified Proportional Random Sampling
In some cases, the characteristic of the population is such that the

proportions of the subgroups are grossly unequal. The researcher may
wish to maintain this characteristic in the sample. Therefore, the
stratified Proportional technique may be used.
Study the example below.
Population Sample
N = 800 Proportion n = 200
Grade 10 120 0.15 30 Ss
Grade 9 200 0.25 50 Ss
Grade 220 0.275 55 Ss
Grade 7 260 0.325 65 Ss
Total 800 1.000 200Ss
The proportion of each stratum or subgroup is computed by dividing the

number of members in each stratum or subgroup by the total population.
120
The result is multiplied by the number of sample desired, thus x 200
800
for the first stratum or subgroup is equal to 30.
3. Cluster Sampling
With Cluster Sampling, every member of the population is assigned to one, and
only one group. Each group is called cluster. A sample of cluster is chosen,
using a probability method (often simple random sampling). Only individuals
within sampled clusters are included in the survey.
Cluster sampling may be used when it is either impossible or impractical to

compile a complete list of the elements that make up the target population.
Usually, however, the population elements are already grouped into
subpopulations and lists of those subpopulations already exist or can be
created.
For example, let‘s say the target population in a study was church members in
Papua New Guinea. There is no list of all church members in the country. The
researcher could, however, create a list of churches in Papua New Guinea,
choose a sample of churches, and then obtain lists of members from those
churches.
4. Multistage Sampling
With multistage sampling, we select sample bu using combinations of the

different sampling methods.
For example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters from
a population. Then, in stage 2, we might use a simple random sampling to
select a subset of elements from each cluster for the final stage.
5. Systematic Random Sampling
With systematic random sampling, we create a list of every member of the

population. From the list, we randomly select the first sample element from the
first kth elements on the population list. Thereafter, we select systematically
every kth element on the list for inclusion in the sample.
For example, if the population of study contains 2000 students at a high school
and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put
into a list form and then every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the
sample. To ensure against any human bias in this method, the researcher
should select the first individual at random. This is technically called a
systematic sampling with a random start.
This method is different from simple random sampling method since every
possible sample of (n) elements is not equally likely.
NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-Probability Sampling Method offers two potential advantages: convenience and

cost. The main disadvantage is that non-probability sampling methods do not allow
you to estimate the extent to which sample statistics are likely to differ from
population parameters. Only probability sampling methods permit that kind of
analysis. There are two main types of non-probability sampling methods.
1. Voluntary Sample
2. Convenience Sample
Voluntary Sample is made up of people who self-elect into the survey.

Often folks have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey.
Example, a TV Talent show asks viewers to participate in an on-line poll. This would
be a volunteer sample. The sample is chosen by the viewers, not only by the survey
administrator.
Convenience Sample is made up of people who are easy to reach.
Example, a researcher interviews shoppers at a local supermarket. If the

supermarket was chosen because it was a convenient site from which to solicit
survey participants and/or because it was close to the researcher‘s home or
business, this would be a convenience sample.
An important benefit of simple random sampling is that it allows researchers to use

statistical methods to analyze sample results. For example, we can estimate the
extent to which a sample statistic is likely to differ from a population parameter.
Let examine the example below:
At the end of every school year, the province administers a numerical test to a
sample drawn without replacement, from a population of 1000 grade 9s. The test was
administered to 20 students selected. The test score from each sampled students is
shown below:
No. Score No. Score No. Score No. Score No. Score
73 48 49 50 06 58 45 62 57 62
56 69 78 72 50 72 47 72 41 72
75 73 77 76 79 62 66 78 80 78
40 84 65 82 87 78 27 85 26 88
(i) What do you think is the kind of sampling technique used? Explain.
(ii) Find the sample mean
(iii) Determine the sample standard deviation.
(iv) Estimate the population mean.
Solution:
(i) Since the scores were randomly selected as given by the number, we can
conclude that the sample was selected by random sampling.
 X = 
xi
(ii) Mean: 
N
(48  69  73  84  50  72  76  82  ...  88)
 = 
20
1421
=
20
= 71.05
(iii) Standard Deviation: S =  X  X2

N1
=
48  71.052  69  71.052  ...  88  71.052
19
2410.9725
=
19
= 126.90
= 11.26
11.26
(iv) Error of the Mean = = 2.52
20
The smallest and largest values of the population mean are:
71.05 – 3  2.52 and 71.05 + 3  2.52
71.05 – 7.56 and 71.05 + 7.56
63.49 and 78.61
Therefore, the estimated population mean is from 63.49 to 78.61
Example 2
At the end of the year, a state administers a summative test to 36 Grade 9 students
taken as simple random sample drawn without replacement from a population of
20,000 students. The test score from each sampled student is shown below.
50 55 60 62 62 65 67 67 70
70 70 70 72 72 73 73 75 75
75 78 78 78 78 80 80 80 82
82 85 85 85 88 88 90 90 90
(a) Find the sample mean

(b) Determine the sample standard deviation.
(c) Estimate the population mean.
Solution:
 X = 
xi
(a) Mean: 
N
(50  55  60  ...  90  90)
 = 
36
= 75
(b) Standard Deviation: S =  X  X2

N1
=
50  752  55  752  ...  90  752
35
3528
=
35
= 100.8
= 10.03
S 10.03
(d) Error of the mean: =
N 36
10.03
=
6
= 1.67
(e) The smallest and largest values of the population mean are:
75 – 3  1.67 and 75 + 3  1.67
75 – 5.01 and 75 + 5.01
69.9 and 80.01
Therefore, the estimated population mean is from 69.9 to 80.01

1. Examine each of the following methods used in obtaining sample. Identify the
type of sampling technique used in each case.
(a) Taking every tenth name for every fifth name.
(b) The relevant characteristics to be used are identified on the basis of the
questions to be asked
e.g. membership or non-membership of an organisation, female or
male members.
A random list is then drawn up for each subgroup and respondents chosen
randomly within each
(c) The interviewer follows specific random instructions e.g. take the first road
right, interview at the second house on your left, continue down the road,
interview tenth household on your right etc. and interviews individuals as
they are encountered.
(d) Take the list or map and give each unit a number, write the numbers on
individual slips of paper, put them in a bag and mix the slips up
thoroughly, and then draw out the number of slips required. Alternatively a
random number table can be used. If no suitable list or map exists, it may
be possible to use participatory methods to solve this problem.
(e) Group maybe geographical, for example villages or markets. They may
also be for example microfinance groups or particular social categories
within geographical locations e.g. all upper caste households.
2. Shown below is the table of 20 samples of the number of minutes it took the
Grade 9 to study Mathematics in a day.
5 45 25 123 45 34 65 33 85 44
10 50 30 100 50 56 70 30 90 77
15 34 35 80 55 78 75 56 95 38
20 67 40 56 60 45 80 112 100 45
(i) What is the probable sample technique used?

(ii) Estimate the population mean.
(iii) From the population mean, is the number of minutes to study enough in
studying Mathematics?
3. The 30 samples is taken from 1000 students in a school showing the scores in
Mathematics 10 out of 30 marks
Takubar Kokopo Town Bitapaka Palnakaur Bitagalip

29 23 34 24 07 23 23 23 12 19
45 21 112 28 78 17 45 12 51 23
134 19 47 22 44 15 78 23 97 12
56 14 90 20 23 10 122 14 45 11
78 10 56 18 17 09 24 15 23 14
12 17 12 29 04 12 21 16 18 22
(i) What is the type of sampling technique that was used?
(ii) Find the sample mean.
(iii) Find the sample population.
(iv) Estimate the population mean.
(v) Which place has the mean in the range of population mean? Which places
did better?

Lesson 19: Survey
You learnt the different methods of sampling in the last lesson

and how to estimate the population mean from the random
sampling and used it to make conclusions.

 define survey
 identify methods of survey
 carry out a simple survey
 present a report on the survey
To derive conclusions from data, we need to know how the data were collected; that
is, we need to know the method(s) of data collection. Aside from experiments, we
can use survey to collect data.
A survey is a method of collecting information about a human

population. Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) defined a survey as a
―means for gathering information about the characteristics, actions, or
opinions of a large group of people‖
There are various types of surveys that you can choose from. Basically, the types of
surveys are broadly categorized into two: according to instrumentation and
according to the span of time involved.
According to Instrumentation
In a survey, direct (or indirect) contact is made with the units of the study (e.g.,
individuals, organizations, communities) by using systematic methods of
measurement such as questionnaires and interviews.
Questionnaire is a series of written questions a researcher supplies to

subjects, requesting for response.
Usually the questionnaire is self-administered in that it is posted to the subjects,

asking them to complete it and post it back.
The usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which

are followed by response options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-
ended questions to explore the answers of the respondents.
Today, questionnaires are utilized in various survey methods, according to how they
are given. These methods include the self-administered, the group-administered,
and the household drop-off.
Among the three, the self-administered survey method is often used by researchers
nowadays. The self-administered questionnaires are widely known as the mail
survey method.
However, since the response rates related to mail surveys had gone low,
questionnaires are now commonly administered online, as in the form of web
surveys.
Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or

consumer research
Disadvantages: Limit the researcher‘s understanding of the respondent‘s answers;
requires budget for reproduction of survey questionnaires
Interview is a series of questions a researcher addresses personally to

respondents.
An interview includes two persons - the researcher as the interviewer, and the
respondent as the interviewee.
An interview may be structured (where you ask clearly defined questions) or

unstructured (where you allow some of your questioning to be led by the responses
of the interviewee.
There are several survey methods that utilize interviews. These are the personal or
face-to-face interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.
Especially when using unstructured interviews, using tape recorder can be a good
idea, if it does not affect the relationship with the person being interviewed.
Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the

answers of the respondents
Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed
phone numbers or no telephones at all studies, panel studies and trend
studies.
Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing.
Questionnaires do not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the
answers of the respondents, but interviews do.
According to the Span of Time Involved
The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types
of surveys: cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys.
Cross-Sectional Survey is a survey where in data or information are

collected at a single period of time. It usually utilise questionnaires to ask
a particular topic at one point in time.
For instance, a researcher conducted a cross-sectional survey asking teenagers‘

views on cigarette smoking as of May 2010.
Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the relationship between two
variables, as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a cross-
sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking
among teenagers as of May 2010.
Longitudinal Surveys
Longitudinal survey is a survey wherein the researcher attempts to collect

or gather data or information over a period of time or from one point in
time up to another.
The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and examine the changes in the
data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies, panel studies and
trend studies.
The sample questionnaire that follows is for illustrative purposes only.
Thank you for taking the time to complete the following Unit Evaluation. The
information you provide will be used to help us improve the content of the Unit and
monitor the quality of our program.
1. Which of the following best describes your reason for taking the module?
(Please put a tick beside your choice)
_____ Upgrade my marks
_____ As a refresher‘s course
_____ Force to take up the subject
______Reinforcement purpose
1. Was the difficulty of the module in line with your expectations?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Maybe
3. Would you recommend this unit to other students?

_____Yes
_____No
4. If not, why?
5. What is your gender?

_____ Male
_____ Female
6. What area of the module you would recommend for improvement ?

_____ Lesson Outcome
_____ Definitions and Main Concepts
_____ Examples
_____ Exercises
Thank You
Suppose after conducting the survey, you collate the data, the table below is just an
example of data collected.
Question No. First Second Third Fourth
1 14 3 2 1
2 12 2 6
3 18 2
4 Needs for financial assistance ; difficult
5 17 3
6 1 2 6 11
A report can be made in that simple survey:
From the 20 students surveyed, 85% are male and 15% are female. The main
reason for taking the course or doing the module is upgrading the marks, that is, 70%
of the respondents. For them, the module, pass their expectations and would
recommend to others. However, there is a need to improve on the exercises.

1. Make use of the illustrative example questionnaire and conduct a survey. Make
a report on the outcome of the survey including the presentation of the result. If
there is a need to include some more questions, please do so.
2. Make a questionnaire on the effect of shortage or inadequacy of each of the

following in your school:
(a) instructional materials (e.g. textbooks)

(b) budget for supplies (e.g. paper, pencils)
(c) school buildings and grounds
(d) lighting system
(e) classrooms
(f) computers
Choices would be none, a little, some, a lot.
TO CORRECT YOUR WORK. PLEASE SEE YOUR DISTANCE TEACHER.

TOPIC 3: SUMMARY
 A population is a collection of data whose properties are analysed. The

population is the complete collection to be studied. It contains all subjects of
interest.
 A sample is a part of the population of interest, a sub-collection selected from
a population.
 A parameter is a numerical measurement that describes a characteristic of a
population, while a sample is a numerical measurement that describes a
characteristic of a sample. In general, we will use a statistic to infer something
about a parameter.
 The population mean is the average of all the items in the population.
 The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spreads out numbers are. Its
symbol is σ (the Greek letter sigma) or sometimes denoted by the capital
letter S. It is calculated as the squared differences from the mean called
variance.
 Standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of those sample
means over all possible samples (of a given size) drawn from the
population.
 A survey is a method of collecting information about a human population.
 Probability Sampling is a method wherein all elements of the population
have a known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.
 Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that has the following
properties:
1. The population consists of N objects.
2. The sample consists of n objects.
3. If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling
method is simple random sampling.
 Non-Probability Sampling is a method wherein we do not know the
probability that each element of the population will be chosen, and/or we
cannot be sure that each element has a non-zero chance of being chosen.
 Questionnaire is a series of written questions a researcher supplies to
subjects, requesting for response.
 Interview is a series of questions a researcher addresses personally to
respondents.
 Cross-Sectional Survey is a survey where in data or information are
collected at a single period of time. It usually utilise questionnaires to ask a
particular topic at one point in time.
 Longitudinal Survey is a survey wherein the researcher attempts to collect or
gather data or information over a period of time or from one point in time up to
another.
REVISE LESSONS 17-19. THEN DO TOPIC TEST 4 IN ASSIGNMENT 4

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 17- 19
160
(1) (i) Mean = =8
20
 X  X
2
178
(ii) SD of the population = = = 8.9 = 2.9
N 20
 X  X
2
178
(iii) Sample Standard deviation = = = 9.3 = 3.06
N 1 19
5
(2) (i) 55 % or 55.56%
9
(ii) 78
(iii) Sample Mean = 75.03
(3) Sample Mean = 7.8 days

Standard Deviation = 9.4 days
Population Mean = 4.98 days to 10.62 days
(4) Sample Mean = 125 minutes

Standard Deviation = 20 minutes
Population Mean = 119 days to 131 days
1) (a) Systematic Sampling

(b) Stratified Sampling
(c) Reliance On Available Subjects
(d) Random Sampling
(e) Cluster Sampling
2. (i) Systematic Sampling

(ii) Sample Mean = 60.15
Sample Standard Deviation = 27.03
Population Mean = 42.03 to 78.27
(iii) Not Enough
3. (i) Stratified Sampling

(ii) Sample Mean = 17.83
Sample Standard Deviation = 5.47
Population Mean = 15.1 to 20.56
(iii) All except Takubar and Bitagalip ; Kokopo did better
See you distance teacher or tutor.
END OF TOPIC 4
GR 9 MATHEMATICS U4 160 TOPIC 4 REFERENCES
REFERENCES
 Oxford, The resource for the new AQA specification: Statistics GCSE for
AQA by: Jayne Kranat, Brian Housden and James Nicholson
 Oxford Mathematics; Higher GCSE for AQA, Linear Specification,
Editors:Peter McGuire and Ken Smith
 Oxford Mathematics Intermediate GCSE by Sue Briggs, peter McGuire,Susan
Shilton and Ken Smith
 en. wikipedia.org/wiki/sampling-frame
 http:/ninemsn.com.au/ stattrek.com/sampling/populations-and-
samples.aspx
 http:/ninemsn.com.au/ stattrek.com/statistics/datacollections-
methods..aspx
 infinity.cos.edu/faculty/woodbury/Stats/Tutorial/Data_Pop_Samp.htm
 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)
 www.dissertation-statistics.com/population-sample.html
 www.dissertation-statistics.com/population-sample.html
 www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol6/intro_probability.html
 www.mathsisfun.com/data/probability.html
 encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/probability

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Topic

STATISTICS GRAPHS AND PROBABILITIES

FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

TOPIC 1: READING & INTERPRETING

TOPIC 2: STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS

TOPIC 4: STATISTICAL ESTIMATION

We acknowledge the contribution of all Secondary teachers who in one

Special thanks are given to the staff of the Mathematics Department-

We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided

MR. DEMAS TONGOGO

Flexible Open and Distance Education

@ Copyright 2016, Department of Education

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

National Library Services of Papua New Guinea

Written by: Mr. Renato Ortega

Finalised and compiled by: Mrs. Luzviminda B. Fernandez

Printed by the Flexible, Open and Distance Education

Achieving a better future by individuals students, their families, communities or the

This is a provision of Flexible, Open and Distance Education as a alternative pathway

Flexible, Open and Distance Education is guided by the Department of Education‘s

 to facilitate and promote integral development of every individual

This is the Fourth Unit of the Grade 9 Mathematics

This Unit consists of four topics:

Topic 1: Reading and Interpreting Graphs

In Topic 4- Statistical Estimation- You will learn to use Statistics to estimate

We hope you enjoy using this unit.

Step 1: Start with Topic 1 Lesson 1 and work through it.

√ Lesson 1: Reading and Interpreting graphs

Assignment: (Four Topic Tests and a Unit Test)

READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS

Lesson 1: Reading Bar Graphs

Lesson 2: Reading Histogram

Lesson 3: Interpolation & Extrapolation

Lesson 4: Population Pyramid

Lesson 5: Travel Graphs

TOPIC 1: READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS

For example, a teacher asked a class to write their favourite

The data collected were presented below:

Mathematics Science Science Social Science Mathematics

If the data would be organised in a frequency table:

The data above can be displayed in the following forms:

FAVOURITE SUBJECTS Soc. Science

Lesson 1: Reading Bar Graphs

You learnt something about bar graphs in your Upper Primary

In this lesson, you will:

12, 13.5, 10, 5, 6.5, 7, …

Discrete data is information that is collected by counting.

Discrete data is illustrated with a bar graph.

40 In the example given, notice

(ii) C = 9. Therefore there are 9 who were awarded Credit.

Different skills can be combined such as mathematical skills, problem

NOW DO PRACTICE EXERCISE 1

1. On a day the Airlines PNG computer at Tokua received bookings to different

(a) Draw a column graph to illustrate the data.

Use the grid below.

Remember the properties of a bar graph

(iii) What percentage of the expenditure is the difference between Administration

Dog Cat Bird Lizard Mouse

(i) How many students preferred a dog as a pet?

(ii) How many students in the class had a favourite pet?

(iii Which was the least favoured pet?

CORRECT YOUR WORK, ANSWER ARE AT THE END OF TOPIC 1

Lesson 2: Reading Histograms