9.8 In-situ CO ana- lyzer (let) samples entire gas stream by shining a beam of in- frared light across stack Filter whee! 9.9 CO2 analyzer (right) pairs NDIR photometer with Luft detector to boost Fier whee! with 4.6 um ana} CO.insensitive optical fiters light oil, and provide an excellent means for differentiating between burners and igniters Since infrared (IR) radiation is easily transmitted through the shroud of hydro- carbon particles that will absorb UV radi- ation, IR or visible-light detectors are more popular for heavy-oil and pulver- ized-coal fuels, as well as other high-car- bon-content fuels like black liquor and process wastes. IR detectors have even been developed to differentiate between adjacent flames, Gas analyzers Analysis of the flue gas and combustion process gives vital information about boil- er performance, not only on combustion efficiency but on pollution levels as well. Boilers today must operate efficiently to save energy and extend their lives, and ‘must also meet tight environmental limits. Flue-gas analyzers measure CO, CO>, SO, NO,, and unburned hydrocarbons (table), and are either extractive or in- situ, which refers to the way the gas sam- ple is delivered into the analyzer. In the extractive technique, the sample is drawn out of the duct or stack, conditioned, then transported to a remotely located site for analysis. Conditioning consists of: (1) fil- tration to remove particulates, (2) refrig- eration to remove water vapor, (3) heating or insulation of lines to maintain proper temperatures, and (4) the introduction of standard composition gases for calibra- tion, so that zeto and span adjustments for scaling and calibration can be made. ‘The in-situ technique features an ana. lyzer mounted on the stack, with its sam- pling apparatus directly in contact with the flue gas. Measurement of pollutants combines a light source shining across the stack with a receiver /analyzer. Itis based ‘on absorption spectroscopy —measuring in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infra- red portions of the optical spectrum. The molecules of each different contaminant oer, ine 1988 sensitivity, selectiv- and response _ vibrate at specific frequencies, which can- cel out equivalent light frequencies in the light beam. Detection of the absorbed fre- ‘quencies in the spectrum from a narrow- band source identifies the pollutants and their concentrations. ‘An extractive gas monitor (Fig 9.6) paired with an in-situ sample-condition- ing probe (Fig 9.7) offers a flue-gas-anal- ysis system that capitalizes on the best Teatures of each. Sample conditioning is performed at the probe by diluting a sam- ple of the filtered flue gas with dry instra- ment air. This lowers the sample's dew- point to a temperature below the extreme ambient temperature at the installation, thereby eliminating condensation in the sample line. Since moisture has not been removed from the sample, measurement can be made on a wet basis—the EPA preferred method. Combustion analysis. In the ideal com- bustion process, no Os, CO, or Hz would appear in the flue gas, Since this situation never occurs, these products of combus- tion do appear, along with smoke and un- burned carbon, As such, they can be con- sidered pollutants and their measurement becomes important as a means of improv- ing combustion efficiency. Key combus- tion analyzers are these: = 0; analyzers. Their design is com- monly based on a difference in O, partial pressures on the two sides of a zirconia wafer or zirconium oxide cell; a palladium wafer or palladium oxide cell is another possibility. In a variation, the analyzer ‘can detect O2 alone or O> and low-range CO by means of sensors mounted directly to a duct or stack. An air-powered aspira- tor draws gas samples past the sensors, which provide independent and continu ‘ous percent-by-volume measurements, = CO analyzers. The CO content of flue gas is a direct measure of the complete- ness of the combustion process. A sharp change in the relationship between CO concentration and combustion efficiency ‘Synchronous motor & sorte Reterence cat Capiery Frontabsorption Daptvagm volume capaciior Radiation Measuring ‘detector amir IV Fear absorption volume b Instrument occurs between 200 and 300 ppm. This, change is a function of burner operation and the burner’s ability to convert all of the energy in the fuel to usable energy. A spectroscopic analyzer that samples the entire gas stream by shining a beam of IR light across the stack is the usual tech- nique for CO analysis (Fig 9.8). The ana- lyzer can average CO concentration across most of the stack and measure it directly. Two optical bandpass filters on a rotating wheel pass alternately across the source and allow alternate measurement and reference IR. pulses to pass through the flue gas to the transducer. The mea- surement filter is CO sensitive, while the reference filter passes IR at a wavelength that is not sensitive to CO. A comparison of the two signals after passing across the fiue determines CO concentration *# CO, analyzers have seen long service in combustion control. Nondispersive-in- frared (NDIR) photometers are frequent- ly selected for continuous monitoring of CO;, A so-called Luft detector coupled with the NDIR analyzer can act to boost sensitivity, selectivity, and response. An improved version (Fig 9.9) positions the diaphragm between the front and rear sections of the detector. The dimensions of these sections have been designed so that ‘equal IR energy is present in both the front and rear absorption volumes when a zero-reference gas flows through the sam- ple cell Various gases in the IR spectrum exhib- it greater intensities of absorption at dif- ferent wavelengths, For CO>, the greatest absorption occurs at around 4.2 jm, but IR absorption also occurs at adjacent peaks. These peaks are integrated and measured in a NDIR analyzer incorporat- ing a Luft detector. Water-quality monitors At the boiler plant, ingredients in water tend to either form deposits that interfere with heat transfer or chemically attack a‘metals in equipment designed to promote heat transfer or otherwise contain water. Thus, the broad aims of water treatment are to prevent deposits and control corro- sion (see previous section on water treat- ‘ment), which requires an ongoing assess- rent of water quality In the plant, boiler feedwater and blow- down are the main areas of interest. Con- ductivity to measure total dissolved solids (TDS) and pH to determine acidity /alka- linity are key measurements in the feed- ‘water loop. AS boiler steam pressure goes ‘up, so must water purity because the pro- pensity for boilers and related equipment to corrode accelerates with rising pres- sures. Fig 9.10 shows sampling points in a typical high-pressure (h-p) utility steam generator, Measurements of dissolved oxygen (DO) and silica, which can cause corro- sion and deposits, are made after the con- densate pump and before the boiler-feed pump. Sodium-ion concentrations should be monitored to detect condenser leaks, boiler carryover, and breakthrough in ion- ‘exchange equipment. In h-p steam plants, monitoring of dissolved hydrogen may also be necessary to provide an indication fof corrosion rates and prevent excessive feedwater dosing. Boiler blowdown controls such impuri- ties as suspended solids, total solids, alka- linity, and sila content—all of which should be monitored. Unless total solids are removed periodically, they'll drop out; also, priming and foaming may occur, leading to carryover. ‘Monitoring cooling water in today’s powerplants is directed mainly toward the losed-cycle cooling-tower circuit. Key measurements are temperature, flow, pH, and conductivity. Where biological foul- ing isa threat, chlorine has long been the predominant biocide. Monitoring the free residual chlorine at the condenser dis- charge is the frst step in controlling chlo- rine additions. Conductivity measurements can be used to. monitor: (1) continuous boiler ‘lowdown, (2) the influent and effluent of, mixed-bed demineralizers to help regu- late regeneration, and (3) boiler-water quality—and to signal exhaustion of the ion-exchange resin bed. The measure- ‘ments can detect condenser-tube leaks at the hotwell and indicate the solids content of condensate polisher and deaerator. They can also assure the operator that boiler water and steam are free of excess dissolved solids. Electrolytic conductivity is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry electric current. Conductivity measurements are functions of both the shape of the measur- ing cell and of temperature. They relate to a cubic cell, one centimeter ona side, or a similar electrode length/area ratio. The « ‘Ammonia=—— hysacnom—y { { Condensate |_[Conaersate|__! ‘Siboor |] potaner ‘Sou ion Bane Conauctay| Dep Pimps Fron Conduett Boaeratng Condensate Conductivity ator ae Sodfum ion [Svoerneatr| en poet | Bilconcuciniy Dissolved oxypon Dissoved oxgon Itasne Boier D pH Ll con Highpressure joni eaters. conauctiy| racine Boller-toadpume 19.10 Boiler sampling points include measurements of pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, silica, hydrazine, and sodium ion in bolerturbi reciprocal of the resistance ofa solution in cubic centimeter (cc) is the specific con- ductance, or conductivity, of the solution in micrombos per centimeter. The conductance of electricity through all forms of matter is associated with the flow of electrons. Applying a voltage to a liquid conductor will cause current to be carried through the solution by dissolved particles having electrical charges, called ions. To calibrate a commercial cell, which will not be I ce in size or shape, the resistance of a standard solution is mea- sured in the cell tobe calibrated, and com- pared to the measurement made in a standard cell at the same temperature. The usual reference temperature is 77F (250). ‘Traditionally, conductance is measured with an alternating-current bridge (Fig 9.11). The conductivity cell forms one arm of the bridge. The resistance of the solution is measured and the reciprocal value computed. Present-day models ‘make the measurement with microproces- sors, providing temperature-compensated readings in real time. pH measurements are extremely im- portant in the powerplant, as Fig 9.10 shows. pH is defined as the measurement of the hydrogen-ion concentration in a loop particular solution, and is widely used to determine the degree of acidity or alkalin- ity, In the plant, pH monitoring is usually tied into pH control The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is established by the relative quantities of hydrogen (H+) and hydrox! (OH?) ions it contains. Equal amounts of these ions will produce a neutral condition, or 7, on a scale of 0 to 14, An increase in hydrogen ‘ons will increase the acidity, or values less than 7; an increase in hydrox! ions will increase the alkalinity, or values greater than 7. ‘The basis of pH measurement is the electromechanical potential at the surface of a pH-sensitive glass electrode mem- brane. To measure this potential, a refer- ence electrode is incorporated in working instruments. The water sample itself pro= vides the continuity to complete the elec- tric circuit between the measuring and reference electrodes (Fig 9.12). ‘The microprocessor is becoming invalu- able in resolving such long-time pH prob- lems as nonlinearity of reagent additions, temperature effects, and instrument cali bration. It helps simplify the standardiza- tion procedure by calculating the milli volt/pH-unit relationship to obtain more accurate pH measurements. Italso allows Powe Jue 686Eiectrodes Transformer 9.11 Conductivity is measured with a-c bridge and is reciprocal of resistance value {determined for solution. Conductivity cel forms one arm of bridge ‘Measuring electrode pH monitor Roteronce electrode Electrolyte solution —_| Glass membrane Electrlye solution 9.12 pH measurement depends on electromectanical potential at surface of glass electrode membrane; a reference electrode is also part of circuit pH simulation for verification of such pH- dependent functions as alarms, final-con- tro-element operation, and recorder or computer inputs. DO measurement in boiler feedwater is made to ensure that dissolved oxygen is at a minimum. Even minute traces of Op in feedwater cause corrosion in boilers and ‘must be detected down to parts-per-billion levels and removed, especially in h-p units. DO is measured at the hotwell to make sure the condensate has not picked up an excessive amount of dissolved oxygen in the condenser or in the first stages of the I P heaters. It also indicates the efficiency of the deaerating process. Measurement methods are based on galvanie principles. One such design al- lows O3 to diffuse through a semiperme- able membrane into a polarographic cell With microprocessor-based electronics, a membrane-isolated galvanic sensor can exhibit rapid recovery from saturation and fast response to O,-level changes. Boiler-life measurement ‘To measure how fast boiler life is used, on-line stress-analysis systems display Poe tr 198 stress imposed on drum, headers, piping, and manifolds by cyclic operation. Armed with this information, operators can act to minimize life expenditure. Major life determinants. Life of boiler pressure parts is determined mainly by the rate of change of temperature, component thickness, and the number and size of tem- perature reversals. Fatigue cracking is caused by a large number of strain rever- sals beyond the elastic limit, Creep caused by sustained stress under high temperatures A surprisingly small number of temper ature measurements, together with an on- line computer program, can be used to.cal- culate the damage imposed on boiler components. If this information can be transmitted to the boiler operator in a ‘meaningful form, it should help him modi- fy his actions to minimize damage and thus extend boiler life. [Lis also possible to calculate the accumulated damage to in- dividual components and determine the remaining fatigue life. This should help in the scheduled inspection and/or replace- ment of these components and avoid un- scheduled shutdowns. ‘To measure stress in a section of header (Fig 9.13), the only parametersit is neces- sary to know are the inside metal tempera~ ture, the outside metal temperatures at topand bottom, the rate of change of these temperatures, and the fluid pressure. In a typical on-line stress-analysis system in a large utility plant, temperatures at 15 points within the boiler are measured and {transmitted to an on-line computer, which develops displays showing damaging op- crating conditions. Data are also printed ut to help in scheduling outages and making policy decisions. Stress is monitored on boiler compo- nents having the greatest vulnerability to fatigue and creep. Commonly, they are: Drum. 1 Radiant-reheater outlet header. * Division-panel outlet header. Superheater-pendant-platen outlet header. = Reheater outlet header. 1 Superheater outlet header. = Horizontal-superheater outlet head- ‘= Economizer inlet header. Of many display possibilities, the one that plant operators find the most useful is, a schematic of the boiler showing the steam temperature in cach component and the differential between inside and ‘outside metal temperatures. Another pop- ular display shows temperature targets for the operator while warming the boiler. In this display, colored bar graphs depict the ‘operating temperature of respective com- ponents; a window within each bar shows the maximum allowable metal tempera- ture difference from inside to outside, A triangle within the window shows the cur- rent steam temperature and the direction in which itis moving; a dot, the tempera- ture five minutes ago. Remaining lite. The fatigue analysis is based on experimental design fatigue curves for Cr-Mo steel and on ASME Code Case N47 design curves for stainless steels. Using these curves, the fatigue life consumed can be calculated from the ‘number and size of temperature cycles to which the component has been exposed. If ‘steam proseue ‘suriace ‘Steam Tereerature top) temperature Surface tenperature (baton) 9.13 Steam temperature is measured with ‘thermocouple in conventional thermowell ‘nearby. Thermocouple pads are welded 10 ‘outside of header to measure outside metal temperaturesthe stress-analysis system were installed ‘on a new boiler, it could calculate both the life of components consumed and the re- ‘maining life. One of the displays provided to the operator shows the component life- exhaustion rate as a percentage of the de- sign rate Metallurgical examination of boiler components that can be used to predict remaining life include residual stress mea- surements, plastic field replication, quali- tative metallography, and miniature spe imen testing, To measure residual stresses, X-ray diffraction and hole-drill ing techniques are the choice. From the size and magnitude of these stresses, it is possible to create transient conditions an- alytically that produced the residual stresses originally Plastic replication is a method of exam= ining weld metal and heat-affected zones by etching the surface of the component in place and then taking a plastic cast of the grain structure. Qualitative metallogra- phy includes measurements such as car- bide size and spacing and molybdenum solid-solution content. Miniature-sample testing involves taking plug and boat sam- ples of header base metal and applying service stress at high temperatures to d termine creep damage. Damage mechanisms. Low-tempera- ture boiler components, such as economiz~ cr inlet headers and steam drums, are lia- ble only to the fatigue damage caused by temperature changes. Cyclic stress es on these components take the metal be- yond its elastic limit into the region of plasticity, When the stresses relax, local residual stresses remain in the metal. Al- though these stresses are relieved by sub- sequent high-temperature operation, re- peated cycling consumes all plastic leading to embrittlement and cracking ‘The type and severity of stress experi- enced by different boiler components ob- viously depend on the type of boiler opera- tion; for example, hot-turbine startup has been found to impose severe stresses on the boiler. One manufacturer reports that the superheater outlet header is subject to the highest temperatures as well as severe thermal transients, and has the lowest ex- pected fatigue life. However, intermedi- ateand reheat headers can also experience severe thermal transients during startup and shutdown. ‘Maximum stresses occur at discontin- uities in boiler components such as inside and outside corners at nozzles, ligament areas formed by tube penetrations, and tube-to-header attachments. For this rea son, metal temperatures may be measured at these points. One manufacturer, how- ever, measures header temperatures at the header quarter points and uses these val- ues to calculate thermal stress at the dis- continuities. » Pumps, valves, and piping ssental to every boiler are the EE ve ies fires water conimeand carr Mid Streams and contol thew and chara: testes the water and steam, Although pumps and valves are highly deren typen duns and series, and. piping dha is adjnete ae also a wideranging technology. base principles si in under Standing and relating even the most com- ploncenrastaton systems Pump basics Begin with the boiler-feed (b-f) pump, fan indispensable element of the steam- ‘generation system. Modern b-f pumps are always centrifugal type, with a pressure- retaining casing holding one or more im- pellers, which are dises with spiral blades ‘of spiral passages from hub to periphery. (Power special report, Pumps. June 1972.) In brief, water enters the blading or passages at the hub of the spinning impel- ler, is flung from the impeller periphery at high speed, and then is slowed in the skill- fully shaped casing, with an accompany- ing increase in head or pressure. Exit from the casing completes a single stage. ‘A centrifugal-pump stage adds head to that of incoming flow, so that several stages on a single shaft will develop a high enough head to force water into any boil- er. Each stage must have its own casing, separated from those of adjacent stages. In large b-f pumps, an outside casing sur- rounds all the individual stage casings, for strength, rigidity, and pressure resistance. Desirable in a b-f pump are: Reliability. The b-t pump, drive, and controls are expensive, so that stations i stall as few pumps as possible. Long runs are necessary, frequently under off-design conditions of pressure and flow. Efficiency. Because elevating large flows of feedwater to boiler pressure calls for high power, the b-f pump must be eff- cient—through design and accurate selec- tion to match operating conditions Maintainability. Long runs between ‘maintenance and repair downtimes and short time for inspection and repair are desired. Design, service conditions, instru- mentation, installation, and operation are factors in this. Wide flow range. Ability to operate briefly at overload or for long periods at fractional loads (turndown and cycling) is desirable in a b-f pump. Part load of 25% is a reasonable goal, although some large bef pumps are in distress at 50 or 60%. Erosion, corrosion resistance. High water velocities, chemicals in feedwater, and a general corrosive atmosphere must be taken into account in b-f pump selee- tion if life and repair cost are to be satis- factory, The b-f pump combines several inter- acting hydraulic and mechanical systems, ‘each of which must be understood by ev- ‘eryone concerned. Main hydraulic system is the impeller, casing, inlet, and outlet The major mechanical system is the pump shaft and the bearings that position the shaft both radially and axially. ‘Other hydraulic systems include piping and valves to assure that required mini- mum flow can always pass through the pump, injection water to seal shaft casing clearances, and leakage flows through im- peller casing clearances. ‘Mechanical means to prevent excessive leakage around the shaft and between stages are part of every centrifugal, too. Packing, seals, gaskets, and arrays of rings are common. (See Power special re- ports, Packing and seals for valves and pumps, August 1984, and Gaskers, Janu- ary 1985.) Pump specifics A guided tour through progressively higher-technology b-f pumps (Figs 10.1 to 10.5) helps in understanding the field. Be gin with small single-stage unit (Fig 10.1), which is similar in configuration to the general-purpose pump. ‘Water flow isalong a tapered inlet piece and into the eye ofa rotating impeller with ‘enclosed spiral water passages, separated by the cast blades. Hub end of blades cuts into the water and begins forcing the wa- ter centrifugally outward to the periphery. ‘The blades cannot “pull” more water into the pump but instead must rely on upstream pressure to keep water flowing owe ine 198810.1. Single-stage feed pump with overhungimpeler is an upgraded version ofthe low-head general-purpose centrifugal 10.2. Double-suction impeller of low-head booster pump helps prevent lashing of hot condensate in b-f pump fist stage to the pump. If the pressure upstream is toolow or the water temperature too high, then vapor bubbles form in the incoming water —a form of boiling —and impair the pumps operation, The vapor bubbles can collapse against pump metal and erode it rapidly. This is cavitation, ‘Once in the casing, the water at elevat- ced head tries to escape back into the inlet and out of the casing rear, where the shaft enters. A close clearance at the impeller hub is bounded by replaceable hardened ‘wear rings of a material pair that can ac- cept occasional rubs without galling. The Fig 10.1 pump also has wear rings at the back of the impeller, impeding wa- ter flow toward the shaft entry. Major block there, however, is the packing in the gland, tightened just enough to allow a trickle of cooling flow outward. A shaft sleeve of metal more resistant to corrosion ‘and wear than the shat itself protects the shaft inside the pump. Hydraulic forces on the impeller and shaft are crucial. Radial force results from non-symmetrical flow in the casing, especially at very low or very high flows, A common remedy is addition of one or more stationary spiral vanes in the casing to control water flow. Nearly all b-f pumps are directly cou- pled to motor, turbine, or gearbox, so that the drive places no radial load on the shaft. If the impeller front area exposed 10 imparted head differs from the back area, then an axial thrust results. To prevent damage, the pump must have means of absorbing the thrust. Tapered roller bear- ings in the Fig 10.1 pump do this. The larger but lower-head pump of Fig 10.2 can serve to supply low-pressure feedwater to the inlet of a b-F pump. This booster-pump operation helps prevent tation in the main b-f pump but also increases capital and operating costs and complicates instrumentation and control. The Fig 10.2 pump, although single- omer 1988 stage, has a double-inlet impeller. Axial thrust is negligible because of symmetry, but one bearing can absorb any thrust that might occur. Radial force can be high at off-design flows, but an added spiral vane (volute) in the casing helps. ‘Wear rings in the casing preserve the original closeness of clearances between casing and impeller hub. Leakage through the clearances flows into the low-head in- let zone and does not build pressure ‘against the shaft packing, unlike the Fig 10.1 pump. ‘Contrast the Fig 10.1 and 10.2 impeller shapes. One obvious difference isthe pro- portionately much larger Fig 10.2 eye or impeller entry. In some b-f pumps with Jargeimpellereyes, operation at alow per- centage of design flow triggers recircula- tion in and out ofthe impeller entry, caus- ing heavy vibration and damage. High boiler pressures demand multi stage b-f pumps. The Fig 10.3 bt pump is one example, Each stage has a separate ring-shaped casing which contains an im- peller and stationary guidance for the out- letflow. The guidance consists ofa diffus- er, which is a plate having spiral blades to direct and recombine the flows leaving the impeller, and a passage back inward tothe entry ofthe next stage’s impeller. This de- sign has no wear rings at the clearances between impeller hub and casing Ineach stage, there is obviously a large difference between impeller front and back areas exposed to stage-outlet pres- sure, This means heavy cumulative axial thrust, because all impellers face the same way. To reduce theust load on the bear- ings, this pump therefore has an internal hydraulic means called a balancing drum. The drum is a close-clearance shaft- mounted drum with diameter calculated to develop enough area exposed to last stage pressure to balance total thrust. Leakage axially along the drum escapes into a low-pressure space and then through a return line to the pump inlet. Both packing glands are at inlet pressure. The heavy east-steel casing of the Fig 10.4 b-f pump withstands high pressure and maintains the internals in rigid align- ment. Although not obvious from the cut- away section, the casing is split horizon- tally, with the feedwater connections on the lower half. Unbolting of the top half gives easy access to the internals and ro- tor, which is the assembly of impellers on the shaft. Feedwater piping connections are undisturbed, Each impeller entry has wear rings in casing and on impeller hub. AC the impel- Jer back a hardened bushing retards the Tow interstage leakage along the shaft In this horizontally split-casing pump, the axial thrust i slashed by opposing the Girection of impeller groups. After four stages of impellers with inlet at left, the flow goes through a crossover passage in the casing to the other end and then back toward the left for four stages. This large- ly balances the impeller thrust produced by front/back area difference, so that the shaft bearings can take residual thrust The bushing between the fourth and ciighth stages must break down more pres- sure and is therefore longer. The shaft seal at the fifth-stage entry, a mechanical face seal rather than packing, sees higher pres- sure than either seal in Fig 10.3. A long bushing ahead of it helps protect it. Many small b-f pumps now have mechanical seals, although shaft packing i still com- mon, being easier to replace without open- ing a casing or dismantling the drive. ‘The Fig 10.4 pump is relatively flexible in arrangement, offering varied number of stages, a choice of impellers facing one way of opposed, and the alternative of a double-suction irs stage that gives better resistance to cavitation when inlet head is low or inlet water is hot. Multistage pumps with horizontally split casings are well-known, time-tested, aHRatum tine 10.2. Multistas pump for cogen and low-pressure boilers relies on tie bolts to Keep stage ‘sings together under pressure. Stages face inone direction, building thrust 40.4, Axially split case in purrp for high-pressure industrial and small utility bolle's allows Impeller-thrust balancing, Many alternatives are possible in his design and highly reliable when design, work- ‘manship, application, and operation are satisfactory. The type serves industrial ‘and utility boilers operating at up to about 1800 psig. Individual pump capacity can be as high as I-million Ib/br, so that a multiple-pump installation can handle ‘medium-size utility units and large indus- trial boilers. For the highest boiler pressures and the utmost in pump capacity, necessary when aa single b-I pump is to feed a single unit, the barrel-type pump of Fig 10.5 is com- ‘mon. The outer casing is a substantial steel forging able to withstand delivery presstre but not requiring blading or elab- ‘rate shaping to convert water velocity to pressure, Instead, the conversion occurs in an in- ner unitized assembly with stage casings, impellers, diffusers, wear rings, and inter- stage bushings, all centered on a heavy shaft. The inner assembly, which is readi- yremovable by sliding it axially out of the outer casing, gets alignment and support from bored steps in the outer casing. A thick head, fastened to the outer-casing end by large-diameter bolts, not only seals the outer casing but also supports one bearing and a shaft seal. The water paths to and from the pump are welded nozzles. The barrel-type feed pump is individ- ually designed to meet cycle, boiler, and operating needs, along with owner prefer- ences. Fig 10.5 illustrates some of the ‘more striking possible variations. 2 It is a four-stage pump, now common for drum-type boilers and even considered for supercritical service. Older designs usually had more stages. Some drum-boil- cer pumps have had as few as three stages. ‘Trace the water low through the pump. ‘A double-suction first stage halves the feedwater inlet velocity and reduces cavi- tation-damage danger. The penalty is @ longer and more costly pump. First-stage casing is simple, without diffuser. Wear rings are grooved, a feature found in many multistage pumps, both those with flexi- ble shafts like Figs 10.3 and 10.4 and with heavy shafts like Fig 10.5. Grooving can help prevent rubs. ‘The second to fourth stages are single- suction, with diffusers. In these large b-f ‘pumps, not all the inlet water passes com- pletely through the pump. Part of the sec- ond-stage discharge leaves the pump through the intermediate-pressure nozzle to attemperate or desuperheat the hot-re- hheat steam when necessary. Feedwater is also necessary for main- steam attemperation, To assure enough overpressure for good control, an extra small booster stage follows the main group. Booster-stage inlet taps part of the fourth-stage discharge. The attemper- ator-water flow exits by a separate nozzle, ‘A balancing drum absorbs most of the unbalanced axial thrust. The residual passes to a sliding-contact thrust bearing. In large b-f pumps, the radial load of ‘weight and hydraulic forces goes into slid- ing-contact bearings. Ordinary journal bearings, babbitted, position the rotor in some of the smaller lower-pressure units, but severe service calls for three-lobe or pivoted-pad bearings. Shaft seals in the Fig 10.5 pump are the floating-ring type, in which a series of close-clearance rings, restrained from ro- tating but able to float on a shaft sleeve, restrict leakage. The flow is not an out- ward leakage of water but a flow in both directions of clean and cool pressurized water injected near the seal center ‘Thermal expansion and temperature differentials during transients are a key factor in design and operation of large b-f pumps, especially for cycling and load change. The Fig 10.5 pump's internal as- sembly, for example, can expand axially in the barrel casing. The barrel casing it- self must be able to expand axially without bowing or overloading nozzles. Erosion of internal surfaces by high-ve- locity feedwater may indicate need for stainless steel inlay in the barrel and dis- ‘charge nozzles. Impellers are of chrome steel of 17-4 PH alloy for this reason. ‘Metering pumps, feeding chemicals at closely set and controlled rates which are ‘often based on proportioning of feed to water flow, are also necessary in boiler systems. These pumps are usually very sinall and of positive-displacement type. Pistons with adjustable stroke deliver the fluid, (See Power special report, Meter~ ing pumps, August 1982.) Boiler-related piping Principal piping systems directly in- volved with steam boilers are: feedwater, main steam, cold reheat, and hot reheat (Fig 10.6), Small-diameter drain, gas- and oil-fuel, blowdown, and instrumenta- tion piping i "The design of these systems (Power special report, Piping systems, June 1985) bases on ‘= Fluid type (water, ar, ol, gas) Flow rate 1 Pressure = Allowable pressure loss. = Temperature = Corrosive and erosive properties of the fuid (Power special report, Corro- sion-resistant piping, August 1981). * Joining method for the line; anchor- ing, hanging, and support ‘ Expansion and flexibility ofthe lines. * Insulation Knowing the general route of line and theallowable pressure loss allows caleula- tion of trial internal diameter. With pres- sure and temperature known, the min mum ‘wall thickness of suitable alloys is faleulated and commercially available pipe size and wall thickness are selected. High-temperature steam piping calls for review of susceptibility 10 damage Powe 886from graphitization, creep, corrosion, fa- tigue, and occasionally erosion. Graphit zation, a carbon precipitation that weak- tens pipe, is dangerous in low alloys above certain temperatures, The remedy isin the specification of the alloy. Creep is akin to plastic flow. A remedy isa stress limit based on expected life be- fore the pipe distorts badly. Frequent monitoring of physical measurements is necessary when the pipe ages. Design stress must be low. Monitoring is often at welds, elbows, and bends, but can be done for all the piping. Fatigue is important in older piping which has gone through many heating/ cooling and stress cycles. Inspection by methods that detect surface and subsur- face eracks and other defects is necessary (Power special report, Nondestructive ‘examination, June 1983). The inspection searches for cracks near welds, both cir- ccumferential and longitudinal. Dye-pene- trant tests and ultrasonic examination are the most common, but more advanced ‘methods, such as acoustic emission, are offered. The potential liability is so high that many utilities consider themselves forced to try newer techniques along with the proven ones. Internal corrosion and erosion can in- jure piping (Power special report, Up- ‘grading fluid-handling systems, August 1985). With corrosion, improper water treatment, resulting in corrosive agents in the feedwater, deposits in the pipe, or re- ‘moval of protective coating, is usually re- sponsible. Erosion in water lines can come from excessively high velocities or high solids content. In steam lines, erosion may be a consequence of wet steam, with the high-velocity droplets most likely to wear away elbows and valves. Joining method for high-pressure large-diameter piping around the boiler is predominantly butt welding. A few con- Faw contol vane ‘Suporheater —= Impotier <> g biftuser~ Se casing <> aancing dain Floating-rng seaf ‘Attemperator nozzle trol valves may be flanged, especially in smaller boilers, but even valvesare welded in and repaired while in-line, Fittings on these lines are also welded in. Elbows, tees, and wyes predominate, although bending is common, too, with new machines able to produce optimum- radius bends at ends or along straight lengths, saving welds. In small-diameter lines, up to about 2 in., connection can be by screwed joints, socket welding, butt welding, flanges, or special mechanical joints. These lines are the bypass, drain, vent, sampling, and in- strumentation routes at and near the boil- cr and its auxiliaries. Nearly always of carbon oF low-alloy steel, the pipe is spec fied by Schedule number, a rough indica- tion of wall thickness. Schedule 40, 80, and 160 are common. Choice depends on pressure and also on service experience. Thin-wall steel tubing is common in in- strumentation and in some of the other auxiliary lines, as well. Connection of lengths and fittings is by special mechani- cal joints. 10.5. Barrel-type pump, specific design for large high- pressure bolls, can have ‘double-suction first stage Automatic draining of water from steam lines, crucial during startup and necessary during operation, is the func- tion of the steam trap, a device which al- lows condensate to flow out but retains live steam. Many designs and principles of operation exist, and there isan entire tech- nology in the subject (PoweR special re- port, Steam traps, May 1984), ‘Anchoring and support of piping is im- portant not only because of the intrinsic Piping weight but also because of need to prevent excessive loads on nozzles of con nected equipment. Computer programs arenow able tosolve complex equations in analysis of expansion and flexibility of piping Expansion of large lines around the boiler is generally taken care of in design by bends and loops. Special expansion joints may be installed, too (PowER spe- ial report, Expansion joints for ductwork and piping, August 1986). "Anchoring must accept especially large 10.6. Pumps, valves, and piping for utity generating units include far more than basic essentials in simple water and steam flow diagram Foner dine 1968“Garren ting 10.7. Gate valve with parallel seats and double dsc aims at no-seize shutoft loads from fluid reaction and waterham- ‘mer. Once anchor points are selected, the hhanget and undersupport system is: de- signed. Hangers can be rigid, variable- spring, or constant-support. The last- mentioned develop nearly constant spring load over movement of the piping, so that unwanted load is not shifted to piping, supports, or connected equipment, Insulation is necessary forall steam and hot-water lines. Most cold-water lines, on the other hand, need antisweating insula- tion. High-temperature insulation can be mineral wool or the harder calcium sili- cate. Jacketing to protect the insulating layers from blows or dripping wateris now ‘often metal sheet. Replaceable blankets, are a common choice for valve bonnets and line locations requiring inspection, (See Power special report, Thermal insu- lation, August 1974.) Valve basics Valves are by far the commonest flow- control devices in boiler piping (Power special report, Valves, February 1983). Only orifices and a handful of variable- speed pump drives are in service as alter- natives. Principal purposes of steam-boil- er valves: * Shutoff or blocking, ' Throttling or modulation of flow. * Draining and venting. 1 Relief of excess pressure (safety) ‘Most valves can block flow, but to do so without destructive leakage on high pres- sure and to open wide with no obstruction to full flow, a valve must meet stringent design requirements. Before considering block valves, review the basics of the valve. The valve body, often a casting but sometimes a forging or a machined shape, needs strength to resist internal pressure and loads from piping and actuator, vol- * 10.8. Stopicheck valve isolates boiler. Header overpressure closes open disc ume to accommodate flow and house valve mechanism, and shape suitable for connection to piping and attachment of the actuating or operating mechanism, ‘A movable internal closing clement (dise, plug, ball) must be able to close tightly against a seat which is usually an orifice in a rigid wall or diaphragm across the valve cavity Motion contol of the closing element is generally from outside through the valve wall, in the form of either a sliding stem or rotating stem attached to the closing ele- ment. This means a penetration of the valve wall and therefore a means of pre- venting leakage to the outside (inside, in vacuum service), The leakage-prevention meansis nearly always packing, but it can be a bellows seal, 100, as isthe case in some safety and smal instrumentation valves. Packing al- lows the stem to rotate and slide, The bel- lows seal allows only sliding. To ease assembly and repair, most valves have a large removable wall open- ing which is tightly screwed, bolted, or clamped to the valve body and contains the actuating-rod penetration and dynam- ic seal that allows leakproof actuation. The cover for the opening is called the bonnet. A bonnet is not always necessary. Considerable force, expressed as either torque or thrust, is necessary to open and close large valves. This actuation work re- {quires support structure mounted outside the valve, often on the bonnet. Separate bolted-on yokes of cast iron or steel are ‘common for this, although many valves support the actuation means by bonnet ex- tensions alone. Valve applications Several of the most demanding valve applications in the powerplant are in the boiler loops, and Figs 10.7 to 10.15 are 10.9. Blowdown valve releases hot, dity water through fixed stages before seat examples of solutions to problems with the services. Only a small fraction of types and general designs can be covered here. ‘A study of each example, however, illus- trates how valve designers meet’ plant needs. The tightly closing but fully open- ing block valve is first. ‘Agate valve, with a disc sliding lateral- ly actoss the straight-through opening in the body and seating against two Full-bore seats, can handle all fluids. In the gate valve, the diaphragm is practically non- ‘existent because the seat bores are so large. ‘The method of achieving tight, leakproof seating varies. A one-piece disc, of wedge section and forced between two facing slanting seats, is simplest. Jam- ming or wedging damage to the seats and even the body is a danger. Mismatch of seat and disc angle is another peril, but a deeply machined cut into the disc makes the two halves more flexible and better able to seat tightly. A two-piece disc is a similar solution. The Fig 10.7 gate valve has parallel seats, and the two-piece dise slides down between them, leaving the downstream half to seat by upstream pressure. A spring between halves keeps the valve closed when pressure is low or off. A carri- er for the disc halves transmits stem mo- tion tothe dise without so much rigidity as to prevent tight seating. In other gate valves, the stem end attaches loosely near the dise-half center or dise top. The Fig 10.7 bonnet closure is by a high-pressure seal that becomes tighter the higher the internal pressure. Actuator support is by simple round bars screwed into the bonnet. The globe valve (Fig 10.8) closes by forcing a disc or plug down into a seat which isa hole in the diaphragm. Leakage can be made very low by suitable design of, disc and seat and selection of materials. Power June 1968Cage Seat ring 10.10. Control valve throttles feedwater to control ow reliably overlong periods Obstruction to flow in the open valve is higher than for the gate valves, obviously. Because the valve disc can slide freely for some distance on the stem end, the Fig 10.8 valve can act as a check valve, 10 prevent backflow from a common header into an idle boiler or boiler at reduced pressure, The ordinary globe then be- comes a stop/check vaive. Globe valves, unlike gate valves, can readily throttle or modulate flow for long periods without serious damage. There- fore the basic type lends itself to many designs for many throttling purposes. Fig 10,9 is a small throttling valve to release hot boiler blowdown water without exces- sive flashing and cavitation damage. The pluglike disc is well-supported and closes ‘on flow which has been reduced in pres- sure by inlet orifice plates which break down pressure in stages, one way in which flashing and damage can be prevented. Rotary motion of the closure element is also possible, in butterfly, ball, and plug valves, Most ofthese have soft seats, mak- ing them far less able to withstand steam and hot water than metal-seated valves, even though they have the advantage of tight shutoff, Some metal-seated ball valves meet operating needs for boiler ser- vices, however, Blowdown, heater drain, ‘and heater isolation are examples. Control valves are vital in boiler ser- vice. A control valve, of any main type, isa valve especially designed for long-term and rapidly changing but accurate throt- tling of flow in response to system needs. (See Power special report, Control valves, March 1976.) ‘One factor in judging thesuitability of a control valve for a service is the manner in which percent of maximum flow varies with settings ofthe disc or plug. Thisis the valve characteristic. Another factor is rangeability, roughly speaking the ability Power ne 556 10.11. Diaphragm actuator, for general contr, is simple low-fiction design of a control valve to control low accurate- ly and unchangingly at low flow, when the dise nears the seat. The cage valve of Fig 10.10 isa control valve of globe type, but with the seat sur- rounded by a perforated cylindrical cage in which the disc or plug slides. Flow en- tering cage holes then passes the plug and exits through the seat, Flow can also be ‘upward through the seat and out the cage holes, Cage globe valves are versatile, with both seat/plug passage and cage-hole size and form usable as factors in setting the valve characteristic. With change in cage, plug, and seat possible, a single valve body can cover a wide range of flows and con trol needs. The actuator that moves the internal closure elements for blocking or throt- tling-control service can be a simple lever or handwheel, a highly engineered elec- trohydraulic system, or anything between (Power special report, Valve actuators, April 1979,) For remote control or for Iarge valves, however, simple levers and hhandwheels are not enough. ‘A gearbox is the first step upward, al- owing manual actuation of large valves at expense of speed. Powered actuators rely chiefly on electricity and compressed air, swith some oil hydraulic systems as well Diaphragm-and-spring unit of Fig 10.11 adapts well to small-to-medium control valves. The spring detracts in part from the maximum available thrust but gives 2 fail-safe seating or opening force and also helps in relating a given valve opening per- centage to a given air pressure, Suitable linkage and crank arms adapt ‘this and other straight-thrust actuators to rotary valves—ball, plug, and butterfly. ‘The cylinder actuator, with higher frie- tion but capable of more force, is equally applicable. High-pressure compressed air and even higher-pressure oil are common media for cylinders. Electric-motor actu- ators operate many small valves in re- motely controlled blocking service and in full-fledged throttling control systems. In nearly every instance, gearing isa must, t0 reduce the motor speed to valve-actuation rate, The smallest units are mechanically simple, meeting moderate demands for speed and output torque. Large electtic-motor actuators can de- velop such high torque that elaborate pro- tection systems, mechanical and electric, are necessary. Electric-motor actuators, although inherently slow, nevertheless ‘meet needs of many boiler systems. Check valves and safety valves by de- sign are self-contained and operate auto- matically. The lift-type and swing-type valves of Fig 10.12 represent two main types of check vaive, Sticking open is one the worst defects of a check valve. Late closing is another drawback, causing wa- terhammer and system damage. Flutter and vibration in service can resut in pre- mature failure. “Testing of swingetype check valves is possible ifthe pivot shaft, keyed to the swinging arm, extends out through the body. An indicator or exercising actuator on the shaft end permits operating defects to be detected Check valves are an entire separate area of valve technology and require spe- cial care in specification and installation. (See Power special report, Check valves, August 1976.) More complex but also bet- ter defined by codes and standards isthe safety valve. The pop safety valve (Fig 10.13) is a highly developed valveengineered for spe- cific safety functions. Its mission is to re- 410.12. Small lift-chck valve has guided piston. Swing design has pivot acton10.13, Pop satety valve must remain closed to setpoint and then suddenly open wide ‘main tightly closed at steam pressures be- low a selected preset value and, at precise- ly that pressure, to open wide instantly and pass a rated flow of steam until the pressure in the connected boiler or line has. fallen below a selected reduced pressure that is a few percent below the set pres- Skillfully designed adjustable shroud- ing around the valve seat exploits the ini- tial leakage of steam, concentrating its force sufficiently to lift the main dise against the seating force of the calibrated spring in the topworks. Other adjustable ‘mechanism in the valve utilizes the steam force to keep the valve open for the needed pressure drop below set pressure. In actual service, pop safety valves of- ten fall short of the ideal. Simmering near the setpoint, when little net spring force is available to hold the valve closed, can ‘wiredraw and ruin the seat or disc. Chat- tering of thedise against the eat is anoth- ‘er harmful action. Change in settings be- tween initial calibration and service, oF during service, is also frequent. Setting valves on full-pressure steam is sometimes. impractical, so that nitrogen may be a substitute, Calibration of action on room- temperature nitrogen against high-tem- perature steam is a possible problem, too. For these and other reasons, power-ac- tuated valves have come into service for boiler safety needs, but only as adjunet to thesstillenecessary spring-type valve of Fig 10.13. The power-actuated valve has boil- cer pressure on top of the dise, closing the valve tightly, To open the valve at selected pressure, a pressure-triggered mechanism relieves the seating pressure on disc top and supplies boiler pressure to a cylinder which forcefully opens the main valve. ‘The power-actuated valve setting issuf- ficiently below the setting of the pop safe- ty valve to prevent the latter from simmer- ing or from ever opening in normal circumstances. If the power-actuated valve should fail, however, the pop safety valve (or valves) has enough capacity to relieve boiler overpressure safely Hot-water service, with flashing water in the valve, is very difficult for safety valves. Low-temperature water is easy to relieve safely, and the comparatively sim- ple relief valves for that service need mere- ly let small amounts of water out of a ine ‘oF boiler to produce a satisfactory drop in pressure. Valves for attemperation or desuper- heating of boiler main steam and reheat steam are often combinations of valves to blend water with steam flow (Fig 10.14). ‘The simplest desuperheating units are control valves supplying water to spray 10,14 Desuperheating is cifcut service, requiting blending of water and h-p steam nozzles mounted in the steam line. More complicated units, such as Fig 10.14, con- trol steam flow and blend water into the flow in the valve itself, These attempera- tion units are either pressure-reduction or steam-dumping stations. Instrumentation services must have valves and fittings suitable for low flow at high pressure (PoweR special report, In- strument valves and accessories, Febru- 10.15. Instrumentation must have smal, tightly closing high-pressure valves ary 1982), Some ofthe valves, such as that of Fig 10.15 with its mounting nut, are placed in control-room panels and there- fore must be entirely reliable and leak- proof. Stainless steel is often the material, since it resists corrosion and is not overly ‘expensive for the small weights of instru- ment valves. End connections for instrument valves are commonly compression fittings, mak- ing simple and leaktight connection to stainless steel tubing. Tightly closing iglobe valves, check valves, accurate low- flow metering valves, relief valves, and air-actuated valves for remote-control re- quirements are all readily available. Maintenance and repair concerns for powerplant valves center on leakage, mostly through the dise/seat interface but also outward through the stem packing. Even apparently trifling leakage of high- pressure steam or hot water between the seat and disc can cause rapid destruction from chattering, wiredrawing, flashing, and cavitation ‘Complete tightness is obtained only by ‘@ metal/elastomer combination, which unfortunately has strict temperature lim- its. Damage from particles of metal, slag, and scale also occurs. For high-pressure steam, a metal disc on a metal seat is still ‘most common, with special designs and ‘materials continually under trial toextend service life (Power special report, Power- plant valves, April 1987). ‘Welded into the line, as many power- plant valves are, the damaged valve is ‘most conveniently repaired in-line, avoid ing cutting and rewelding. Advanced spe- cial tools are available to regrind lightly damaged seats and, to machine the seat and other finished surfaces.