World History - 2021 Edition

Senior Secondary School Syllabus
HISTORY DEPARTMENT
WORLD HISTORY NOTES

(PAPER TWO - H832)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. WORLD MAPS
2. BASIC WORLD HISTORY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
3. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I
a. Balance of power in Europe before 1870
b. The unification of Germany
c. The Alliance System
d. Dropping the pilot
e. The Anti German Alliances
f. Military Rivalry
g. Colonial Rivalry/ imperialism
h. Balkan Nationalism
i. War plans
4. THE INTER-WAR PERIOD
a. The Paris Peace Conference

b. The Big three
c. The Peace Treaties
5. THE LEAGE OF NATIONS
6. GERMANY 1919-1939
a. The Weimar Republic
b. Adolf Hitler
7. THE USSR 1917 – 1992
8. CAUSES OF WWII
9. UNLTED NATIONS ORGANISATION ( UNO)
10. LATIN AMERICA: A CASE OF CUBA
11. PAN- AFRICANISM
12. BILIOGRAPHY
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WORLD MAP
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MAP OF EUROPE AROUND 1900
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BASIC WORLD HISTORY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

TERM DEFINITION
republic a government in which citizens elect the leaders
aristocracy government by the best individuals or by a small privileged class
constitution a plan of government
moderate one who holds moderate views or one who belongs to a moderate group favoring a
moderate course or program
minority A part of a population differing from others in some characteristics and often subjected to
differential treatment
solon a. a wise and skillful lawgiver. b. A member of a legislative body
reparation compensation for war damage
nation a community of people composed of one or more nationalities and possessing a more or
less defined territory and government
patriarch in the early Christian Church, one of five powerful bishops in major cities
theocracy government headed by religious leaders or a leader regarded as a god
federal a supporter in the Civil War; especially a soldier in the federal armies
guerilla a person who engages in irregular warfare as a member of an independent unit carrying out
harassment and sabotage
nationalism pride in one’s own nation’s desire for independence
martial law temporary military rule limiting rights such as free speech
buffer zone a neutral area separating conflicting forces; an area designed to separate
dynasty a line of rulers who belong to the same family
Democracy form of government in which the citizens hold power
Despot a Byzantine emperor or prince; a bishop or patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church; a
ruler with absolute power or authority
Medieval a person of the middle ages
Agrarian a member of an agrarian party or movement; of or relating to lands or their tenure
Conservative tending or disposed to maintain existing views, conditions, or institutions; traditional
Regent a person who acts as a temporary ruler
Indemnity payment for damages or losses

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Country a political state or nation or it’s territory
Heretic a dissenter from established church dogma; especially a baptized member of the Roman
Catholic Church who disavows a revealed truth
Capitalism an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by

investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production, and by the
distribution of words that are determined mainly by competition free market.
Socialism political theory that society as a whole should control the means of production, such as
factories and land
Coup a brilliant, sudden, and usually highly successful stroke or act
Cede to yield or grant typically by treaty
Ideology the system of beliefs and attitudes that guides the actions of a group or nation
Abdicate to brush off responsibility, to relinquish
Schism the division of the Christian Church in 1054 that separated the Roman Catholic Church and
the Eastern Orthodox Church
Empire a group of territories or nations ruled by a single ruler or government
Absolute Monarchy a ruler has complete control over government
Totalitarianism idea that a dictatorial government should control all aspects of citizen’s lives
Sovereign one that exercises supreme authority within a limited sphere
Liberal one who is open minded in the observance of orthodox, traditional, or established forms or
ways OR an advocate or adherent of liberalism especially in individual rights
Majority the quality or state of being greater
Stoic a member of a school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium about 300 B.C holding
that the wise man should be free from passion, unmoved by joy or grief, and submissive to
natural law OR one apparently or professedly indifferent to pleasure or pain
Propaganda news and information intended to influence people’s feelings about a cause
Imperialism policy of building an empire
Divine Right political theory that a ruler derives his or her power directly from God and is accountable
only to god
Coalition a temporary alliance to differing political factors
Anarchy absence of political authority
Nationalize to bring a private industry under government control

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Isolationism a policy of national isolation by abstention from alliances and other international political
and economic relations
CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I

The M-A-I-N acronym is often used to analyse the the causes of the First World war – Militarism,
Alliance System, Imperialism and Nationalism. One would make it to sound M-A-I-N-A, to
accommodate the Assassination of Franz Ferdinand as the final cause- this was the immediate cause,
or the spark that ignited the war.
However, there are several events that prefaced the war, which one need to look in to. Some are but
not limited to the following:
THE BALANCE OF POWER IN EUROPE around 1870

Name the major powers in Europe around 1870
o France
o Britain
o Russia
o Italy
o Denmark
o Portugal
o Spain
o Prussia
EUROPE BEFORE 1870

Unification of Germany with Prussian aristocracy as the head - The German Confederation
(German: Deutscher Bund) was an association of 39 German states in Central Europe, created by the
Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries and
to replace the former Holy Roman Empire. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria
and Prussia. Britain approved of the confederation because London felt there was need for a stable,
peaceful power in central Europe that could discourage aggressive moves by France or Russia. Most
historians have judged the Confederation as weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the
creation of a German nation-state. It collapsed because of the rivalry between Prussia and Austria
(known as German dualism), warfare, the 1848 revolution, and the inability of members to
compromise. It was replaced by the North German Confederation in 1866.
In 1848, revolutions by liberals and nationalists failed to establish a unified German state. Talks
between the German states failed in 1848, and the Confederation briefly dissolved but was re-
established in 1850. It decidedly fell apart only after the Prussian victory in the Seven Weeks’ War of
1866.
The dispute between the two dominant member states of the Confederation, Austria and Prussia, over
which had the inherent right to rule German lands ended in favour of Prussia after the Seven Weeks’
War of 1866. This led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership
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in 1867. A number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German
Confederation, which was renamed the German Empire.
The Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, was a conflict between France and the
German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia, lasting from 19
July 1870 to 28 January 1871. The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to expand German
unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the
Prussians succeeded.
Some historians argue that the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked the
French into declaring war on Prussia in order to draw the independent southern German states—
Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—into an alliance with the North German
Confederation dominated by Prussia, while others contend that Bismarck did not plan anything and
merely exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. None, however, dispute the fact that Bismarck
must have recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole.
France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with
its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on
Prussia, and the declaration of war was delivered to Prussia three days later. French forces invaded
German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than
the French and invaded north-eastern France on 4 August. The German forces were superior in
numbers, had better training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology,
particularly railways and artillery.
A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the Siege of
Metz and the Battle of Sedan, saw French Emperor Napoleon III captured and the army of the
Second Empire decisively defeated. A Government of National Defence declared the Third French
Republic in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months; the German forces
fought and defeated new French armies in northern France. The capital of Paris was besieged, and fell
on 28 January 1871, after which a revolutionary uprising called the Paris Commune seized power in
the city and held it for two months, until it was bloodily suppressed by the regular French army at the
end of May 1871.
The Unification of Germany

The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian Kaiser Wilhelm
I, finally uniting most of Germany as a nation-state (Austria was excluded). The Treaty of
Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became
the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen). The German conquest of
France and the unification of Germany upset the European balance of power that had existed since
the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for
two decades.
French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with
British apprehension about the balance of power, became factors in the causes of World War I.
Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871

At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, France represented by Adolphe Thiers, and Germany by
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, signed the treaty of Versailles on 26 February 1871. This was a
preliminary treaty used to solidify the initial armistice of 28 January 1871 between the two states. It
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was later ratified by the Treaty of Frankfurt on 10 May of the same year. The 1871 Treaty of
Frankfurt made the decline of France obvious to the rest of the continent, and at the same time
demonstrated the strength of a unified German empire. Treaty of Frankfurt was also signed by
Adolphe Thiers of the French 3rd republic and Otto von Bismarck the Chancellor of the new
Germany.
Provisions/ terms of the treaties
o 5 billion francs to be paid to Germany by France.
o German forces to continue occupation of France until payment is completed.
o Recognition of Kaiser Wilhelm I as Kaiser of the newly united German Empire.
o Cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany – 1,694 French villages and Cities ceded to
Germany.
o Residents of Alsace-Lorraine region given until 1 st October 1872 to decide between
keeping their French nationality and emigrating to other areas in France, or, remaining
in the region and become German citizens.
The isolation of France – After the Franco-Prussian war and the Frankfurt Treaty, Bismarck decided to
protect German interest by making sure that France remains without friends who may assist her to seek
revenge for the 1871 defeat. To achieve this, Bismarck decided to use the ALLIANCE SYSTEM.
THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM
Dreikaiseband/ three Emperors’ league - 1873 – Germany, Austria-

Hungary & Russia. The three Kings agreed to cooperate with each other in order to maintain peace,
and keep the status quo in Europe. None of them would interfere if one was attacked by any other
power.
Dual Alliance - 1879 - Germany & Austria-Hungary. They agreed to Protect each other in
case of an attack from either France or Russia. This Alliance lasted until the outbreak of WWI. In
fact it was the one that gave Germany the authority to support Austria-Hungary during the Balkan
crisis.
Triple Alliance – 1882 – This agreement was between Austria-Hungary, Italy &
Germany. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power.
The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by
France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of
a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. The existence and
membership of the treaty were well known, but its exact provisions were kept secret until 1919.
Reinsurance treaty – 1887- Germany and Russia. Reinsurance Treaty, (June 18, 1887),
was a secret agreement between Germany and Russia after the Dreikaiserbund, or Three Emperors’
League, collapsed because of competition between Austria-Hungary and Russia, for spheres of
influence in the Balkans. The treaty provided that each party would remain neutral if the other
became involved in a war with a third great power, and that this would not apply if Germany
attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary. Germany also agreed to support Russia in her
claims in the Balkans as well as Russian action to keep the Black Sea as its own preserve.
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DROPING THE PILOT – The dismissal of Otto Von Bismarck from office
Kaiser Wilhelm I died in 1887, and succeeded by his ailing son, Kaiser Frederick III, who
unfortunately died in 1888. He was succeeded by Kaiser William II. A power struggle between Otto
von Bismarck and the new Kaiser broke out immediately upon the latter’s ascendance. The events
that followed, leading to the forced retirement or dismissal of Bismarck from office in 1890, which
came to be named "dropping the pilot", led to the setting of a "new course", which signified the
end of an era, and a watershed in modern German & world history.
Many historians looked at Bismarck's dismissal as a tragic mistake, believing that he would have
avoided the foreign policy blunders that plugged the German Empire into the disaster of World War I.
Kaiser Wilhelm II was militaristic, Confrontational, and ambitious to rule as well as reign. He wanted
to be free of Bismarck's overbearing influence. On the other hand, the influential Bismarck clung
desperately to power. The gap in their ages and "styles" in leadership, made for an intense contest of
wills and clash of characters, leading to bad blood and unbearable conflicts between the two.
Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890, aged 75 years, and was succeeded as
Chancellor of Germany and Minister-President of Prussia by Leo von Caprivi. The new chancellor
was less powerful and could not stand up to Kaiser Wilhelm II who now became Germany’s iron
ruler. The new Kaiser introduced a hostile foreign policy, different from Bismarck’s diplomatic
approach of isolating France. Kaiser Wilhelm II was more confrontational in his foreign policy, to an
extent that he alienated himself, and in the process pushed other countries towards friendship with
France, something that Bismarck had tried to avoid through his Alliance System. Wilhelm II’s policy
was Weltpolitik (German: [ˈvɛltpoliˌtiːk], "world politics"). His aim was to transform Germany into
a global power, like Britain. He wanted Germany to have a place in the Sun, or to be a power
recognised and felt by everyone in the world. This provoked other countries, especially the British.
Britain abandoned her policy of splendid isolation and started participating in European politics,
leading to the emergence of new alliances against Germany.
The Anti-German Alliances
Franco-Russian Alliance- 1894 - This was an alliance between France and Russia.
France, feeling isolated and opposed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, sought an alliance with
the newly single Russia. Russia also felt lonely because she didn’t trust Germany and Austria-
Hungary, and needed a partner. The two agreed to assist each other in case either of them was
attacked by any of the members of the Triple Alliance. They Seemed like odd bed-fellows since
France was politically radical (republic) and Russia very reactionary (monarchy). Nonetheless, in
foreign policy they had mutual concerns. They both had rivals in the members of the Triple Alliance.
Also France agreed to assist Russia with loans to finance the construction of her railway line.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance- 1902 - This was Britain's alliance with Japan. Slowly and
cautiously, Britain was ending her policy of splendid isolation, which had seemed bothersome
especially with the coming to power of Kaiser William II. Britain began to be concerned about her
position in the naval race. Germany was challenging British dominance of the seas, as well as her
colonial power. With Germany as a rival, and Russia also as a threat to her position in the Middle
East (Persia) and Far (China) East, Britain saw Japan as a would be good ally. Japan, who was
colonising in Korea and China, was also in competition with Russian expansionism and needed a
partner. This made the two (Britain and Japan) have common interests and formed a military alliance
to assist one another in times of need.
Entente Cordiale – 1904 - Britain and France agreed to forget their past conflicts and
accumulated bad feelings of the last 25 years, and work together, because they now had a common
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enemy in Germany. France recognized British occupation of Egypt, and Britain recognized French
penetration of Morocco. They agreed to support each other against third parties. The French also tried
to reconcile her new friend with Russia.
Anglo-Russian Entente - 1907 - Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in
Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. The new alliance delineated spheres of influence in Persia, stipulated
that neither country would interfere in Tibet's internal affairs and recognized Britain's influence over
Afghanistan.
Triple Entente- 1907 – This was an alliance between France, Britain and Russia. It was
built upon the Franco-Russian Alliance, the Entente Cordiale, and the Anglo-Russian Entente.
Realising that they had multiple alliances across each other, the three nations decided to combine
them and form one big alliance. It was formed to counter the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-
Hungary, and Italy. The members of the triple entente agreed to assist each other in case one of them
was attacked by any member of the triple alliance or any country assisted by members of the triple
alliance.
The emergence of the Triple Entente in 1907 led to the division of Europe in to two major rival
Alliances; THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE and THE TRIPLE ENTENTE. The two Alliances grew
suspicious of one another, and developed serious mistrust between their members, which ended up
drifting Europe to the outbreak of WWI in 1914. Future conflicts between powers would be approached
and settled along alliance lines. Members of a particular alliance would support their ally against the
other. The Competition between the two led to more challenges in Europe, for Example Military
Rivalry/militarism, colonial rivalry, war plans and the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, which led
to the outbreak of WWI in 1914.
MILITARY RIVALRY/MILITARISM
Militarism describes the competition between European nations over acquisition of arms and
ammunition in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It seriously contributed to the causes of the World War
I due to the Arms and Naval race between the major powers in Europe. The main events of Militarism
were the building of large armies in the whole of Europe and the naval rivalry between Germany
and Britain. While the British and Germans competed in building up their navies, the other major
powers in mainland Europe were building up their armies and stockpiling arms and ammunition.
ARMS RACE
An arms race is a competition in which two or more enemy nations try to outdo each other to
produce the largest possible arsenal of weapons. There are essentially four main elements to this
definition;
o the desire and need from all sides to involve in the competition. If one is going to do
this, the other would probably follow.
o An accelerated process involving a focused effort from a nation to increase its armed
forces. Many resources especially financial are dedicated to the process.
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o Competition from all sides - When an enemy stockpiles weapons, the other also does. It
wouldn't make sense to stockpile weapons if no one else does.
o Quantity is essential - A nation will always want to have more than competitors do.
Arms race became a serious cause for WWI because countries ended up having big armies, and
stockpiling arms and ammunition, which made them more aggressive to one another. Conscription
was introduced in Europe. Young man and women were made to join the army after completing high
school. Everyone had to go through 2 years military training before enrolling for tertiary education.
This made most citizens trained soldiers and ready to assist in war when called upon to do so. By
1900, most European countries had big armies, and this made war more likely as each nation was
ready and itching for war.
NAVAL RIVALRY
A Navy is the part of an army that works in the seas or oceans to protect the country and its property.
Britain had always had the largest navy in Europe and the world, because she had a very large
overseas empire stretching across all the continents. This made her to be named MISTRESS OF
THE SEAS. Kaiser William II wanted Germany to achieve her place in the sun, and in order to
achieve this, he needed a large naval force. William wanted a navy which could rival that of Britain.
His intention was to be equal to Britain or be more powerful than Britain.
The leading figure in the German Navy in the 1890s was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz. He believed
that by building the Navy Germany would scare the British and be seen as a power in Europe. His
first act was to pass laws which would stimulate the ship building programme. The First Navy Law
was passed in 1898 - THE ADMIRAL TIRPITZ NAVAL LAWS of 1898. It decreed that seven (7)
battleships would be built, bringing the total naval size to nineteen (19). In 1900, the Second Naval
Law was passed – ADMIRAL TIRPITZ NAVAL LAW OF 1900, which doubled the size of the
navy to 38 battleships. This was a direct challenge to the British Empire.
The new naval laws by Germany created huge friction between Germany and Britain. Britain could
not allow herself to be outdone by the new GERMANY, and the two got involved in a huge naval
competition between 1906 and 1914. This was regarded as one of the causes of World War I. Because
it triggered some reaction from the other nations in Europe. In response to the German challenge, in
1906, Britain launched a new type of ship, called the Dreadnought – a ship that made all others
redundant or obsolete. The new dreadnought was so powerful that it could launch longer distances,
could shoot in all directions, and could navigate the waters faster than any other. (HMS
Dreadnought: 17,900 tons; 526 feet in length; ten 12 inch guns, eighteen 4 inch guns, five torpedo
tubes; maximum belt armour 11 inches; top speed 21.6 knots.). This shows that this ship was more
powerful than any other battleship made before it and it made the others useless. Germany reacted by
inventing her own type of dreadnought, and this led to competition of who would have more
dreadnoughts than the other. Lots of resources were spent in this competition, and it made the two
countries to stockpile the dreadnoughts in preparation for war. Other countries like Austria-Hungary,
Italy, France and Russia also joined the competition, though at a smaller scale. The main rival in the
competition remained the Germans and British.
IMPERIALISM/COLONIAL RIVALRY
Towards the end of the 19th Century, European powers found themselves competing over colonies in
Africa and all over the world. This was due to industrialisation in Europe and the need for more raw
materials and Markets. Around the 1880s, the competition became so strong and dangerous that it nearly
led some of the European countries to war with each other, as they as they had common interest and
clashed over the same territories. To avoid more clashes and possible war, Otto Von Bismarck called a
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meeting of all European powers with interests in Africa, in Berlin in 1885, to resolve their conflicts and
share Africa among themselves - THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1885.
Even though the conference attempted to address the challenges of the scramble for Africa, some clashes
and conflicts remained and continued to bring rivalry between Some European powers. This competition
for the acquisition of colonies continued to set European powers against each other and contributed to the
outbreak of WWI. It was termed imperialism or colonial rivalry as a cause of WWI. The following are
some of the colonial clashes that set European powers against each other:
First Moroccan Crisis 1905/6

Also known as the Tangiers Crisis this was an international crisis between March 1905 and May
1906 over the status of Morocco. France had always had the interest to colonize Morocco, and in
1905, they made their they made their intentions public to other European powers. Germany
challenged France's growing influence and control over Morocco, which aggravated or angered the
French and the British. On March 31, 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited at Morocco and declared that
he had come to support the sovereignty or independence of Morocco — a statement which amounted
to a provocative challenge to French influence in Morocco.
A Conference was called in Algeciras to settle the dispute, lasting from January 16 to April 7, 1906.
Of the 13 nations present, the German representatives found that their only supporter was Austria-
Hungary, and the rest supported France. A German attempt at compromise was rejected by all except
Austria-Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States.
The Germans decided to accept a face-saving compromise agreement that was signed on March 31,
1906. The crisis worsened German relations with both France and Britain and helped enhance the
new Entente Cordiale.
The First Moroccan Crisis demonstrated that the Entente Cordiale was strong, as Britain had
defended France in the crisis. Although the Algeciras Conference temporarily solved the First
Moroccan Crisis, it only worsened the tensions between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente that
ultimately led to the First World War. Kaiser Wilhelm II felt very humiliated and angry and was
determined not to back down again, which led to the German involvement in the Second Moroccan
Crisis.
Second Moroccan Crisis 1911

Also known as the Agadir Crisis, this was a brief international crisis in April 1911 sparked by yet
again French intentions to colonize Morocco. Germany reacted by sending a gunboat ‘THE
PANTHER’ to Agadir, a Port in Morocco. This led to conflict between the two nations. The British
cabinet, was alarmed at Germany's aggressiveness towards France. They felt the Germans were out to
try have influence and control over the Mediterranean, and that would have negative effects on
British trade in North Africa and the Middle East. The British Secretary for Finance David Lloyd
George made a dramatic speech that denounced the German move as an intolerable humiliation.
There was talk of war, and Germany was forced to withdraw her gunboat and backed down. France
was allowed to colonize Morocco. Though this conflict was resolved, relations between Germany
and Britain remained sour. And this increased the tensions in Europe which were a recipe for WWI.
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BALKAN NATIONALISM/ THE EASTERN QUESTION
The Balkans are a group of countries located in South Eastern Europe. Some of the countries were;
Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and
Kosovo. The region was populated by the Slav people, who were related to the Russians. For many
centuries, the region was colonised by Turkey or The Ottoman Empire. When the Ottoman empire
became weak, and was regarded as The Sickman of Europe, the some of the states broke away and
attained their independence. This led to Nationalist spirit among the peoples of the region. Most of the
Balkan states were governed by unstable governments, and were characterised by uprisings. This made
the whole of Europe worried because the Balkan states were of great strategic position to some of them.
Their proximity to the Adriatic sea, Aegean Sea and Black Sea, made them a gateway to Asia and
Africa, as they connected to the Mediterranean Sea. European powers started to compete for the control
of Balkans. This was known as the Eastern Question.
In diplomatic history, the "Eastern Question" refers to the strategic competition and political
considerations of the European Great Powers on the future of the Balkans, as a result of the collapse of
the Ottoman Empire. The weakening of the empire's military strength in the second half of the eighteenth
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century threatened to undermine the balance of power in Europe, hence the major powers competed over
who was to control the Balkans. Russian and Austria- Hungary became the main players in this conflict.
Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire/Turkey, because that would make her
have control of some Balkan States. On the other hand, Austria-Hungary and Britain deemed the
preservation of the Ottoman Empire to protect their best interests. This precipitated or encouraged the
conflicts between Russia and Austria-Hungary. It is this conflict that led to the spark of World War I.
Serbia emerged as the most powerful state in the Balkans and pushed for the agenda of Pan-Slavism. This
was the intention to unite all Slavs and form the state of Yugoslavia. Austria-Hungary was totally
opposed to this, as it would disrupt her ethnic balance. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was made up of
people of different ethnicities, some of them being Slavs. This meant that, if the state of Yugoslavia was
to be allowed, some people were to break away from Austria-Hungary threatening the existence of the
Empire. The Russians supported the idea of pan-Slavism on 2 reasons: one being their interest in the
Balkans and its geographical location, the other being their ethnic relations to the Slavs. This is what set
the Russians and Austro-Hungarians against each other, leading to the polarisation of the two Major
Alliances.
To avert the formation of Yugoslavia, Austria-Hungary decided to try by all means to stop Serbia from
becoming powerful. She carried out actions that tried to lessen the power of Serbia. On the other hand,
Serbia fought by all means to grow her power and assert herself in the Balkans. All these activities came
to be known as the Balkan crisis and moved Europe towards WWI. The following are some of the
activities that describe the Balkan Crisis: 5E
Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina – 1908, also known as

the Bosnian Crisis, it erupted in October 1908 when Austria-Hungary announced her
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina territories, which were formerly part of the Ottoman Empire/
Turkey. Austria-Hungary took control of this territories in her attempt to prevent Serbia from forming
the state of Yugoslavia. This action by Austria-Hungary sparked protests from the Great Powers, and
Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro. In April 1909 Russia called a
Conference to address the issue, but Austria-Hungary with the support of Germany refused to attend,
and continued with the annexation. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-
Hungary and the neighbouring states of Italy, Serbia, and Russia, and in the long term contributed in
laying the grounds for World War I. Although the crisis ended with victory by Austria-Hungary,
Russia became determined not to back down again in the future, and hastened her military build-up.
She promised Serbia not to disappoint her next time. The Crisis worsened the Austro–Serbian
relations, which continued to be strained to the point of declaring war on each other in 1914.
The First Balkan War- 1912 – It Lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 when
members of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro)
declared war on the Ottoman Empire. These Balkan states were assisted by Russia to form the Balkan
League and their combined armies attacked Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. They shared
the spoils of war among themselves. And from the London treaty of 1913, Serbia had the largest
share and came out powerful. This made Austria-Hungary very unhappy, and she encouraged
Bulgaria, who was not happy with her share, to turn against the other members of the Balkan League
leading to the 2nd Balkan War.
The Second Balkan War- 1913 - Dissatisfied with her share of the spoils of the First
Balkan War, Bulgaria attacked her former allies, Serbia and Greece, in June 1913. The Ottoman
Empire also joined the war on the side of Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria was defeated and ceded
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portions of her First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania, and also lost Edirne to
Turkey. From this war yet again, Serbia came out more powerful and more determined to attain her
dream of forming the state of Yugoslavia. Austria-Hungary became more concerned with the growth
of the power of Serbia, and also became more determined to stop it. She started looking for
opportunities to destroy Serbia. This availed itself in 1914.
The Sarajevo incident - 1914 – the spark that ignited the bonfire - This incident
refers to the events surrounding the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-
Hungarian throne, and his wife Archduchess Sophie during a state visit to Sarajevo, the capital of
Bosnia, on 28th June 1914, by Serbian students, among them Gavrilo Princip. It is traditionally
regarded as the immediate catalyst for the First World War.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the murder. She believed the assassination was orchestrated from
Serbia, since the young men couldn’t have pulled such a surprise without the assistance of big people
in positions of power.
o Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia after assurance of unlimited
support from Germany. Austria-Hungary was determined to pursue a hard-line policy
towards Serbia. Their plan, developed in coordination with the German foreign office,
with the blessings of Kaiser William II, was to force a military conflict that would end
quickly and decisively with Austrian victory over Serbia, before the rest of Europe had
time to react. The ultimatum or the demands to Serbia were composed in such a way that
it would become very impossible for Serbia to accept them.
o According to the terms of the ultimatum delivered on July 23 rd, the Serbian government
would have to:
i. Accept an Austro-Hungarian inquiry into the assassination, notwithstanding Serbia’s

claim that she was already conducting her own internal investigation.
ii. Suppress all anti-Austrian propaganda groups operating inside Serbia.
iii. Take steps to remove and eliminate terrorist organizations within her borders — one
such organization, the Black Hand, was believed to have aided and sponsored
Gavrilo Princip, and his cohorts, by providing then with weapons and safe passage
from Serbia to Sarajevo.
iv. Eliminate without delay from school books and public documents all "propaganda
against Austria-Hungary".
v. Remove from the Serbian military and civil administration all officers and
functionaries whose names the Austro-Hungarian Government will provide.
vi. Accept in Serbia "representatives of the Austro-Hungarian Government" for the
"suppression of subversive movements".
vii. Suppress all publications which "incite hatred and contempt of the Austro-
Hungarian Monarchy" and are "directed against its territorial integrity".
viii. Bring to trial all people and associates for the Archduke's assassination and allow
"Austro-Hungarian delegates" (law enforcement officers) to take part in every step.
ix. Arrest Major Vojislav Tankosić and civil servant Milan Ciganović who were named
as participants in the assassination plot.
x. Answer to the ultimatum within 48 hours.
o The 48-hours timeline was meant to make it difficult for Serbia to fulfil the demand. That would
give Austria-Hungary an excuse to strike on Serbia, something that they have been waiting for.
o Serbia reported the matter to her friend Russia, who immediately started mobilisation of her
armed forces towards the Austro-Hungarian and German borders. This was to fulfil the 1908
promise that “next time I will not disappoint you.
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o Germany was alarmed and asked Russia to back off or face war with her.
o By 1914, the battle lines in Europe had been drawn, much that: if Germany stood with Austria-
Hungary against Serbia (and by extension, Russia) then Russia’s allies, France and Britain, would
be likely to step into the conflict as well.
The British cabinet, after receiving the news of the Austrian note to Serbia, held a meeting in London and
their feeling was that that it seemed absolutely impossible for any State in the world to accept it, or that
not even the acceptance, could satisfy the aggressor. The whole of Europe got into a war alert.
Meanwhile, on the afternoon of July 25 th, convinced that Austria-Hungary was preparing for a fight,
Serbia ordered her army to mobilize. Serbian Prime minister delivered the answer to the ultimatum to the
Austrian embassy, just before the 6 p.m. deadline.
Serbia’s response effectively accepted all terms of the ultimatum but one: Serbia would not accept
Austria-Hungary’s participation in any internal inquiry, stating that this would be a violation of the
Constitution and of the law of criminal procedure. This response was unacceptable to the Austrian
government, and three days later, on July 28 th, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, beginning
the First World War. Therefore, the Sarajevo incident became the spark that lit the bonfire.
The assassination’s historical importance is generally attributed to it having precipitated the July Crisis.
Nevertheless, even assessed in isolation from its disastrous implications, the Sarajevo incident stands as a
warning on the consequences of social unrest and political alienation. The incident easily sparked the war,
because the situation in Europe was ready for war.
THE WAR PLANS

With war inevitable, the major powers stated to come up with plans on how they would fight and win
the war.
Schlieffen Plan (German)

The Schlieffen-Plan, was the German war plan, by Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen who was the
commander of the German forces in 1905. The plan was about how Germany could avoid a 2 front war
with France and Russia. Germany found herself surrounded by enemies, with Russia in the East and
France in the west. So, Schlieffen who was Chief of the General Staff of the German Army from 1891 to
1906, was asked by Kaiser Wilhelm II to come up with a plan on how Germany could win a war against
the 2. In 1905 and 1906, Schlieffen devised an army deployment plan for a war-winning offensive against
France, and later Russia.
Features of the Schlieffen Plan

 Germany to invade France through Belgium.
 The Plan was to be based on speed and surprise.
 Expected less resistance from Belgium.
 Paris to be surrounded within 39 days
 France to fall within 42 days.
 Russia was expected to mobilise slowly.
 Britain was expected not to join an European war.
 After the defeat of France, the Germans would turn to Russia and defeat her.
Factors that led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan
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 The Russians mobilized faster than expected. This forced Germany to fight a 2
front war, by dividing her army in to 2. This strained their resources and made things not to be as
smooth as expected.
 Belgium put up stiff resistance against the German forces. This slowed down the
mobility of the German forces, and also provided an opportunity for the British to join the war, as
they declaimed to protect the neutrality of Belgium as per the London Treaty of 1839.
 The French railway system was very effective and assisted in French mobilization of the
army. The French people also were very helpful to their army as they assisted it to transport soldiers
to the war front.
 The British Expeditionary Force (BEF)- the invasion of Belgium by Germany
forced the British to join the war under the pretext that they are protecting the neutrality of Belgium
as stipulated in the London Treaty of 1839, where the European countries had agreed to
protect Belgium as a neutral state. The BEF was a very powerful force and when it joined the war it
slowed down German mobility which gave France time to rearrange the mobilization of her forces.
This led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan as Germany was unable to win the war within the 42 days
anticipated by the plan.
 Fatigue of the German soldiers - Because of the unexpected stiff resistance of the
Belgian forces, and the unexpected joining of the British Expeditionary Forces (BEF), the German
forces were forced to fight longer than prepared. This led to general fatigue and loss of morale.
The French Plan/ Plan XVII (17)

Plan XVII was the name of a "scheme of mobilization and concentration" that was designed by Field
Marshal Joseph Joffre, Commander in Chief of French Army, and adopted by the French from 1912–
1914, to be put into effect by the French Army in the event of war between France and Germany. At
precisely the same time the Schlieffen Plan was put into action, its opposite, the French’s Plan XVII, was
enacted.
Features of Plan XVII

The French plan had the following features:
 Called for an all-out attack into Germany to regain the lost territories of Alsace-Lorraine,
 Avenging the humiliating defeat of 1871,
 Redeeming French honour.
Why Plan XVII FAILED

 Plan XVII tended to underestimate German reserves that could be deployed in the defence of these
territories.
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 Played into the expectations of the Schlieffen Plan - The French behaved the same way the Germans
anticipated. They concentrated their forces along the border with Germany, around Alsace-Lorraine.
This gave the Germans chance to implement the Schlieffen plan as they had anticipated.
 An attack of the south would ensure what the German planners hoped for: that their sweeping
movement would capture even more French troops. In practice, however, both plans broke down in
disaster.
 Plan XVII, which was launched on August 14, 1914, broke against German defences in Lorraine and
suffered enormous losses.
 The fate of the Schlieffen Plan proceeded a little more positively at first and seemed to be succeeding,
but then it broke down in what afterward was called the “Miracle of the Marne” by French patriots.
 The failure of both plans to achieve what they had intended led to the trenches warfare and the
prolonged war. World war I lasted from 1914 to 1918, when Germany and her allies, THE
CENTRAL POWERS were defeated by the ALLIED POWERS.
THE INTER-WAR PERIOD
The Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Peace Conference was the formal meeting in 1919 of the victorious Allied powers after the
end of World War I, to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers. Dominated by the leaders of
Britain, France, the United States and Italy, it resulted in five controversial treaties that rearranged the
map of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands and imposed financial penalties. Germany
and the other losing nations had no voice which gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades.
The conference involved diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities, and its major decisions were the
creation of the League of Nations and the five peace treaties with the defeated states; the awarding of
German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates," chiefly to Britain and France, the imposition
of reparations upon Germany, and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes with plebiscites, to
reflect ethnic boundaries more closely.
The Aims of ‘the Big Three’

The three most important men at the Versailles Conference - ‘the Big Three’ - were:
 Georges Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France.
 Woodrow Wilson, the President of America
 David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of Britain
All three men wanted to stop a war ever happening again, but they did not agree about how to do this.
They wanted different things from the peace, and they did not get on well.
Georges Clemenceau
 He was the Prime Minister of France.
 Advocated for Harsh punishment for Germany.
 Wanted revenge, and to punish the Germans for what they had done.
 Wanted Germany to pay Reparations for the damage caused to France -
 Division of Germany into separate states - He also wanted to weaken Germany, so France
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would never be invaded again.

 Weakening of the German army through disarmament.
Woodrow Wilson
 He was President of America.
 Fair punishment for Germany - He was a History professor.
 Wanted to make the world safe. He wanted to end war by making a fair peace.
 In 1918, Wilson had published ‘Fourteen Points’ saying what he wanted.
 He said that he wanted disarmament, and a League of Nations (an international organisation
where countries could talk out their problems, without war).
 He also promised self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe.
“We entered this war because violations of right had occurred which touched us to the quick and made
the life of our own people impossible unless they were corrected and the world secure once for all
against their recurrence. What we demand in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is
that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving
nation which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its own institutions, be assured of
justice and fair dealing by the other peoples of the world as against force and selfish aggression.”
Woodrow Wilson, speaking to Congress on 8 January 1918, introducing his 'Fourteen Points'
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points

1. Open diplomacy without secret treaties
2. Economic free trade on the seas during war and peace
3. Equal trade conditions
4. Decrease armaments among all nations
5. Adjust colonial claims
6. Evacuation of all Central Powers from Russia and allow it to define its own independence
7. Belgium to be evacuated and restored
8. Return of Alsace-Lorraine region and all French territories
9. Readjust Italian borders

10. Austria-Hungary to be provided an opportunity for self-determination
11. Redraw the borders of the Balkan region creating Roumania, Serbia and Montenegro
12. Creation of a Turkish state with guaranteed free trade in the Dardanelles
13. Creation of an independent Polish state
14. Creation of the League of Nations
David Lloyd George

 He was Prime Minister of Great Britain.
 He said he would ‘make Germany pay’ – because he knew that was what the British people
wanted to hear.
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 He wanted ‘justice’, but he did not want revenge. He wanted a moderate punishment. He said
that the peace must not be harsh – that would just cause another war in a few years time. He
tried to get a ‘halfway point’ – a compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau.
 He ALSO wanted to expand the British Empire, maintain British control of the seas, and
increase Britain's trade and A Strong Germany would make a good trading partner in Europe.
 With the rise of communism in Eastern Europe, David Lloyd George felt that a not so weak
Germany would provide a great buffer zone against the spread of Communism.
The Peace Treaties

The Versailles Treaty - Germany
Germany lost World War I. In the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, the victorious powers (the United States,
Great Britain, France, and other allied states) imposed punitive territorial, military, and economic
provisions on defeated Germany. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in June 1919. The
German politicians were not consulted about the terms of the Treaty. They were shown the draft terms in
May 1919. They complained bitterly, but the Allies did not take any notice of their complaints. Germany
had very little choice but to sign the Treaty.
The main terms of the treaty can be summed up in to the word BRAT :
Blame - Germany was forced to accept the blame for starting the war under article 231 of the treaty,
known as the War Guilt Clause.
Reparations - This was the name given to the money Germany had to pay for the damage suffered
by Britain and France during the war. In 1922 the amount to be paid was set at £6.6 billion.
Armed Forces - Germany’s army and navy were significantly reduced in size and its air force
abolished. This meant that a maximum of 100,000 troops were allowed in the army and conscription
(compulsory service) and tanks were banned. Germany’s navy was reduced to 15,000 personnel, allowed
only 6 battleships and no submarines.
Territory - Germany lost land on all sides of its borders as well as its overseas colonies (other
countries under Germany’s control). In Europe:
And they can be divided in to the following categories:
 None territorial terms

 Article 231/ The War Guilt Clause – Germany had to accept all the blames for starting the
war.
 Reparations – having made Germany to accept the War-Guilt Clause or blame for the war, it
then had to pay the Allies for the damage for the war. It was calculated at £6.600 Million, for
a period of 49 years.
 Disarmament of the German army;
German Army to cut down to 100,000 men
No conscription
German navy to be reduced to 36 ships, of which only 6 should battleships.
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Germany not allowed to have any tanks, submarines or aircrafts.

Germany Forbidden Anschluss with Austria – not allowed to have any
relationship with Austria.
 Territorial terms
The main territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty were:
1) The surrender of all German colonies as League of Nations mandates territories.
 German South West Africa (Namibia) to South Africa.
 German East Africa (Tanganyika, Burundi and Rwanda) to Britain.
 The Cameroons (Togo and Cameroon) to France.
 The German Pacific Islands to Japan.
2) The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France - In the west, Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to
France. It had been seized by Germany more than 40 years earlier after the Franco-Prussian
War – 1870-1871.
3) Cession of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium,
4) Memel to Lithuania,
5) The Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia.
6) the industrial Saar region was placed under the administration of the League of Nations for
15 years;
7) Denmark received Northern Schleswig.
8) The Rhineland was demilitarized; that is, no German military forces or fortifications were
permitted there.
9) In the east, Poland received parts of West Prussia and Silesia from Germany.
10) Czechoslovakia received the Hultschin district from Germany;
11) The largely German city of Danzig became a free city under the protection of the League of
Nations;
12) East Prussia was ultimately placed under Lithuanian control.
 Outside Europe, Germany lost all its colonies. In total, Germany forfeited 13 percent of its
European territory (more than 27,000 square miles) and one-tenth of its population (between 6.5 and
7 million people).
 League of Nations - The League of Nations was set up as an international 'police force'. The League
was based on a Covenant (or agreement) for nations of the world to maintain peace and collective
security. The Covenant and the constitution of the League of Nations were part of the terms of the
Treaty. Germany was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it could be a peace-loving
country.
The other treaty

 Treaty of St. Germain- Austria - 1919
i. Two countries were created out of Austria-Hungary; being Austria and Hungary.
ii. Some land was taken to create two new states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
iii. Austria handed over land to Italy.
iv. Austria had to reduce her army, and was forbidden to be friends with Germany
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Austria became a small and second-rate state. She had severe problems re-
adjusting to the new boundaries, because much of her former industrial areas were
now in different countries.
 Treaty of Trianon – Hungary - 1920

i. Hungary also lost territory to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
ii. Hungary lost territory to Rumania.
iii. Hungary had to disarm, and lost land, people, as well as industrial raw materials.
 Treaty of Neuilly – Bulgaria – 1919
i. Bulgaria lost land to Greece, Rumania and Yugoslavia. As a result, she had no access
to the Mediterranean sea.
ii. Bulgaria also had to disarm.
 Treaty of Sevres – Turkey -1920
i. Turkey lost what was left of her Empire in Europe
1. Britain took over Palestine, Iraq and Jordan as mandates.
2. France took over Syria and Lebanon as mandates.
3. Greece took over Smyrna (Izmir)
REACTIONS TO THE TREATIES

British Reactions
When the Treaty terms were announced in June 1919, there was a mixed reaction among the British
people. Some Britain thought the terms were fair and should probably have been more severe. British
newspapers suggested that Germany would no longer threaten world peace. Any complaints by the
Germans were dismissed as trickery and childish. However, there were others who felt that, the treaty was
unfair. When Prime Minister David Lloyd George returned from Paris in June 1919, he received a hero's
welcome. The king of England came out to meet him at the railway station, which was completely
unheard of in British history.
French Reactions
Reactions in France were mixed. There were celebrations that the war was definitely over. People
approved of the reparations that Germany had to pay. They also liked the fact that Germany's borders
with France (the Rhineland) would be demilitarised. This meant Germany could not station any troops in
this area. They appreciated that the coalmines of the Saar would bring prosperity to France instead of
Germany. They also believed that the League of Nations would be a powerful force for peace. It would
protect France if Germany recovered and tried to act aggressively again.
However, there was a strong sense that Germany still threatened France. Many French people looked at
the terrible cost of the war and believed that France had suffered far more than Germany. They felt
Germany should have been divided in to smaller states to avoid any future threats. They felt the
punishment was not harsh enough.
American Reactions
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In the USA reactions to the Treaty were generally negative. Many Americans felt that the Treaty was
unfair on Germany. More importantly, they felt that Britain and France were making themselves rich at
Germany's expense and that the USA should not be helping them to do this. This was not really the case,
but many Americans believed it.
This was partly because American politics were deeply divided at the time. President Wilson led the
Democratic Party. However, his rivals in the Republican Party dominated the US Congress. They used
the Treaty as an opportunity to criticise and decampaign him. Wilson has to take some of the blame for
this as he made little effort to consult the Republicans about the Treaty. Americans were also uneasy
about Wilson's scheme for a League of Nations. They were concerned that belonging to the League would
drag the USA into international disputes that were not their concern. In the end, the Congress rejected the
Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations.
Germany reactions
Reactions of the Germany to the treaty were very negative. There were protests in the German Reichstag
(Parliament) and out on the streets. The Germans were outraged because Germany lost:
 10% of her land,
 All her overseas colonies,
 12.5% of her population,
 16% of her coal
 48% of her iron industry.
 There were also the humiliating terms, which forced Germany to accept blame for the war, the
limit on their armed forces and payment reparations.
 Germany’s allies also felt the same way. They were aggrieved.
What do historians think of the Treaty?

Much criticism has been made of the Treaty because it was too harsh on Germany. On the other hand,
historians have pointed out that Germany could have been treated a lot more harshly for several reasons:
 Germany only accepted the Fourteen Points when it was clear they were losing the war.
 In the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Germans took away 34% of Russia's population
and 50% of its industry and made them pay 300 million gold roubles in reparations.
 Clemenceau wanted the Treaty to be much harsher, with Germany broken up into smaller
states, but Wilson stopped this happening.
 The reparations payments cost Germany only 2% of its annual production.
 Germany's main economic problem was not reparations but war debt, which it had
planned to pay by winning the war and making other countries pay reparations.
 In 1924, Germany received huge loans from the USA to help its economy recover.
 The years 1924-29 were fairly prosperous for Germany. For example, Germany produced
twice as much steel as Britain in 1925.
Some historians believe that the peacemakers did the best job they could, given the difficult
circumstances they were in. Other historians believe the Treaty was a disastrous half measure. It damaged
Germany enough to cause resentment. However, it left Germany strong enough to seek revenge.
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THE LEAGE OF NATIONS

The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, "Société des Nations" abbreviated as SDN in
French) was an inter-governmental organisation founded on 10th January 1920 as a result of the Paris
Peace Conference, that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose
principal mission was to maintain world peace.
Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included;
preventing wars through collective security

disarmament or encouraging countries to disarm
Settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
Other issues that the League had to deal with included;
Labour conditions,
just treatment of native inhabitants,
Prevention of human and drug trafficking,
Control over arms trade, global health, prisoners of war,
Protection of minorities in Europe.
Origins of the League

At the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great
Powers. Countries had realised that, the absence of an international body was the major cause of WWI.
There was no place for countries to resolve their differences. Which resulted in countries to use violence,
hence the outbreak of WWI.
By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the
social, political and economic systems of Europe, and inflicting psychological and physical damage. Anti-
war sentiment rose across the world. To prevent future war there was need for a policeman of the world.
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Woodrow Wilson put forward a draft proposal, calling for the
formation of THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, a draft
was finally produced as the basis for the Covenant. On 25th January 1919 the final draft was approved.
The League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. On 28th June 1919, 44 states signed the
Covenant.
Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, the United States did not join. Opposition in
the Senate, ensured that the United States would not ratify the agreement. The League held its first
council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920. The headquarters of the League were in Geneva,
Switzerland, where the first General Assembly was held on 15th November 1920.
Main or Major Organs of the League

THE ASSEMBLY consisted of representatives of all members of the League. It met in Geneva from
1920. It convened once a year in September. The special functions of the Assembly included the
admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the Council, the
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election of Judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the
body directing the League activities.
THE COUNCIL acted as the executive body directing the Assembly's business. It began with four
permanent members who were: Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) and four non-permanent
members who were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. The first non-permanent members
were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Spain.
The composition of the Council was changed a number of times. The number of non-permanent members
was first increased to six on 22 nd September 1922, and then to nine on 8 th September 1926. Germany
joined the League in 1926, and became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany,
Italy and Japan left the League, the number of non-permanent members was increased from nine to
eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen
members. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. It
addressed social and political issues in between the Assemblies.
THE SECRETARIAT These were employees of the League under the direction of the GENERAL
SECRETARY. They were responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and
publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters. It effectively acted as the League's civil
service. In 1931, the staff numbered 707.
THE PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE, it was made up of judges elected by

the Council and the Assembly from members of the League. The Court was to hear and decide any
international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It could also give an advisory opinion on
any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or the Assembly. The Court was open to all the
nations of the world under certain conditions.
Minor Organs Of The League

The League oversaw, THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (ILO) and several other
agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the
Disarmament Commission, the Health Organisation, the Mandates Commission, the International
Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board,
the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Several of these institutions were transferred
to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organization, the Permanent
Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice), and the Health Organisation
(restructured as the World Health Organisation).
The International Labour Organization was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of
Versailles. The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget
control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General
Conference and its own Secretariat. Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had
been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers' and workers'
organisations. Albert Thomas was its first director.
The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an
eight-hour work day and forty-eight-hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase
the rights of women in the workplace, and make ship owners liable for accidents involving seamen. After
the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946.
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THE HEALTH COMMISSION had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of
the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical
experts; and the Health Committee. The Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the
operation of the League's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the Council. This body
focused on ending leprosy, malaria, and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign
to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organization also worked successfully with the government of the
Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics, including organizing a large education campaign.
The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual co-
operation since its creation. The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take
action aiming at the international organization of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report
presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a Committee on Intellectual
Cooperation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first
chairman of the committee. The work of the committee included: inquiry into the conditions of
intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national
committees for intellectual co-operation, co-operation with international intellectual organizations,
protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work
and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research.
The League established the Permanent Central Opium Board to supervise the statistical control system
introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture,
trade, and retailing of opium and its by-products. The board also established a system of import
certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics.
THE SLAVERY COMMISSION sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and
fought forced prostitution. Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered
mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to
end slavery as a condition of membership in 1926, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and
inter-tribal slavery. It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika
railway from 55 to 4 percent. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of
women and children. Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations, Afghanistan
abolished slavery in 1923, Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929, Bahrain in 1937,
and Ethiopia in 1942.
THE REFUGEES COMMISSION was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of
refugees, including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First
World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed
throughout Russia; within two years of the commission's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return
home. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to
prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for
stateless people.
THE COMMITTEE FOR THE STUDY OF THE LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN sought to inquire
into the status of women all over the world. It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United
Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women.
THE MANDATES COMMISSION - At the end of the First World War, the Allied powers were
confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and
the several non-Turkish provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Peace Conference adopted the principle
that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League – a system
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of national responsibility subject to international supervision. This plan, defined as the mandate system,
was adopted by the "Council of Ten" (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied
powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the
League of Nations.
Membership of the League

Of the League's 42 founding members, 23 (24 counting Free France) remained members until it was
dissolved in 1946. In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members
throughout the League's existence. An additional 15 countries joined later. The largest number of member
states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) and 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay
withdrew).
The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934, and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for
aggression against Finland. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own rule: only 7 of 15
members of the Council voted for expulsion (Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, South
Africa, and the Dominican Republic), short of the majority required by the Covenant. Three of these
members had been made Council members the day before the vote (South Africa, Bolivia, and Egypt).
This was one of the League's final acts before it practically ceased functioning due to the Second World
War.
On 26 May 1937, Egypt became the last state to join the League. The first member to withdraw
permanently from the League was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920,
this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn. Brazil was the first founding member to
withdraw (14 June 1926), and Haiti the last (April 1942). Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first
member that had previously been a League of Nations mandate.
THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE

The League of Nations aimed to stop wars, improve people’s lives and create jobs, encourage
disarmament and enforce the Treaty of Versailles. Judged against these aims, the League was quite
successful in the 1920s. However, it failed to uphold law and order in the 1930s when majors in Europe
started to challenge it.
It stopped border disputes turning into wars. In Silesia in 1921 it held a plebiscite and suggested a
partition, which stopped a war between Germany and Poland. It arbitrated between Sweden and Finland
over the Aaland Islands in 1921 – its investigation showed that the islands belonged to Finland. When the
League rejected Turkey’s claim to Mosul, a part of Iraq (a British mandate), Turkey agreed. Finally, when
Greece invaded Bulgaria in 1925, the League ordered Greece to withdraw, which it did. The highest point
of the League’s work was the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, an Act of the League’s Assembly, supported
by 65 nations, which outlawed war.
The League also improved people’s lives. It took 400,000 Prisoners of War home. It set up
refugee camps after the 1922 war between Turkey and Greece. The Health Committee worked against
leprosy and malaria. The League closed down four Swiss companies which were selling drugs, and
attacked slave owners in Burma and Sierra Leone, setting free 200,000 slaves. Finally, its economics
experts helped Austria (1922) and Hungary (1923).
These successes, however, are balanced by some failures.
The League sometimes failed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920, the Poles captured
Vilna (the capital of Lithuania) and refused to withdraw when the League ordered it to; the League could
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do nothing. And when, in 1923, Lithuania seized Memel, a German port under League control, the
League told Lithuania to leave, but the Conference of Ambassadors gave Memel to Lithuania.
The League could not stop wars when powerful nations were involved. Turkey drove the Greeks
out of Smyrna in 1922 – all the League could do was agree. France invaded the Ruhr in 1923 when the
Germans did not pay reparations; the League was not even consulted. Again, in 1923, after an Italian
general named Tellini was murdered in Greece, Italy occupied Corfu. Greece asked the League for help,
which ordered Mussolini to leave – but the Conference of Ambassadors overruled the League and forced
Greece to pay compensation to Italy. Other treaties such as the Washington Treaty (1921) and the
Locarno Pact (1925) are a sign that nations did not think the League could stop wars.
There were other failures. The ILO failed to persuade members countries to adopt a 48-hour
week. A disarmament conference in 1923 failed because Britain objected. It took until 1931 to arrange
another conference, which was wrecked when Germany demanded equal armaments with Britain and
France.
So, the League of Nations was successful in small ways in the 1920s, stopping small wars and
improving lives. But it could not defend the Treaty of Versailles, it failed to get disarmament, and it could
not persuade powerful countries to stop fighting.
SUCCESSES
RESOLVING TERRITORIAL DISPUTES

The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of
national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were
handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended
to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the early interwar period,
the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League
considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.
As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of
international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members.
The United States and Russia, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half
of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their
diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this
period. They also used the League's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences.
SWEDEN AND FINLAND OVER ÅLAND ISLANDS
Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands in the Baltic Sea, midway between Sweden and Finland. The
islands are almost exclusively Swedish-speaking, but in 1809, Sweden had lost both Finland and the
Åland Islands to Imperial Russia. In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October
Revolution, Finland declared its independence, but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden.
However, the Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation, as the Russians
had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland, formed in 1809. By 1920, the dispute had escalated to
the point that there was danger of war. The British government referred the problem to the League's
Council, but Finland would not let the League intervene, as they considered it an internal matter. The
League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative
response, a neutral commission was created. In June 1921, the League announced its decision: the islands
were to remain a part of Finland, but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including
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demilitarization. It also ruled that the Swedish culture should be respected. With Sweden's reluctant
agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League.
POLAND AND GERMANY OVER UPPER SILESIA
The Allied powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to
resolve the territorial dispute. After the First World War, Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia, which had
been part of Prussia. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine
whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the
German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). A
plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921, with 59.6 percent (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of
joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the
Third Silesian Uprising in 1921.
On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter; the Council created a commission with
representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation. The committee
recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences
shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two
areas – for example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial
interdependency of the two areas. In November 1921, a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a
convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which
most of the area was given to Germany, but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region's
mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter
resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement
produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War.
THE CORFU INCIDENT
The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico
Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the
newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and
demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days. Whatever the results of the
investigation, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy fifty million lire in reparations. The
Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks.
Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu, and Italian forces occupied the island on 31
August 1923. This contravened the League's covenant, so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the
situation. The Allies, however, agreed (at Mussolini's insistence) that the Conference of Ambassadors
should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General
Tellini. The League Council examined the dispute, but then passed on their findings to the Conference of
Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League's recommendations,
forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy, even though those who committed the crime were never
discovered. Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu.
POLAND AND LITHUANIA OVER VILNIUS
After the First World War, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became
immersed in territorial disputes. During the Polish–Soviet War, Lithuania signed the Moscow Peace
Treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania's frontiers. This agreement gave Lithuanians control
of the city of Vilnius (Lithuanian: Vilnius, Polish: Wilno), the old Lithuanian capital, but a city with a
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majority Polish population. This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that
they would resume the Polish–Lithuanian War, and on 7 October 1920, the League negotiated the
Suwałki Agreement establishing a cease-fire and a demarcation line between the two nations. On 9
October 1920, General Lucjan Żeligowski, commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the
Suwałki Agreement, took the city and established the Republic of Central Lithuania.
After a request for assistance from Lithuania, the League Council called for Poland's withdrawal from the
area. The Polish government indicated they would comply, but instead reinforced the city with more
Polish troops. This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its
residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international
force organised by the League. However, the plan was met with resistance in Poland, Lithuania, and the
Soviet Union, which opposed any international force in Lithuania. In March 1921, the League abandoned
plans for the plebiscite. After unsuccessful proposals by Paul Hymans to create a federation between
Poland and Lithuania, Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922.
After Lithuania took over the Klaipėda Region, the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania
and Poland, leaving Vilnius within Poland, on 14 March 1923. Lithuanian authorities refused to accept
the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927. It was not until the 1938
Polish ultimatum that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the
borders.
GREECE AND BULGARIA
After an incident involving sentries on the Greek-Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began
between the two countries. Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. The
Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten
thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute.
The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to
Bulgaria.
THE FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE

THE JAPANESE INVASION OF MANCHURIA
The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident" or the "Far Eastern Crisis", was one of
the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organisation. Under
the terms of an agreed lease, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around
the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of
Manchuria. In September 1931, a section of the railway was slightly damaged by the Japanese Kwantung
Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had
sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to the civilian government's orders)
occupied the entire region of Manchuria. They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up
a puppet government, with Pu Yi, the former emperor of China, as its executive head. This new entity
was recognized only by the governments of Italy and Nazi Germany; the rest of the world still considered
Manchuria legally part of China. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of
Shanghai, sparking the January 28 Incident.
The League of Nations agreed to a request for help from the Chinese government, but the long voyage by
ship delayed League officials. When they arrived, they were confronted with Chinese assertions that the
Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area.
Despite Japan's high standing in the League, the subsequent LYTTON REPORT declared Japan to be the
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aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. Before the report could be voted on by
the Assembly, Japan announced its intention to push further into China. The report passed 42–1 in the
Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan
withdrew from the League.
According to the Covenant, the League should have responded by enacting economic sanctions or
declaring war; it did neither. The threat of economic sanctions would have been almost useless because
the United States, a non–League member, could continue trade with Japan. The League could have
assembled an army, but major powers like Britain and France were too preoccupied with their own
affairs, such as keeping control of their extensive colonies, especially after the turmoil of the First World
War. Japan was therefore left in control of Manchuria until the Soviet Union's Red Army took over the
area and returned it to China at the end of the Second World War.
ITALIAN INVASION OF ABYSSINIA
In October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical
weapons such as mustard gas, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included
undefended villages and medical facilities. The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed
Abyssinians and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie to flee.
The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November
1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez
Canal (controlled by Britain). As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was
ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. In October 1935,
the US President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, invoked the recently passed Neutrality Acts and placed an
embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further "moral embargo" to the belligerent
Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States
endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime
levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point Italy had already gained control
of the urban areas of Abyssinia.
The Hoare–Laval Pact of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare
and the French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the
country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but
news of the deal leaked out. Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it,
describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French
governments dissociated themselves from the two men. In June 1936, although there was no precedent for
a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the
Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country.
The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members;
one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the
prospect of driving Mussolini and Adolf Hitler into an alliance.
THE CHACO WAR
The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco
region. Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the Paraguay River, which would have
given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean and there was also speculation, later proved
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incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late
1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort
Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did
not take action when the Pan-American Conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for
both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000
dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million. It also brought both countries to the
brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized
control of most of the region, as was later recognised by the 1938 truce.
FAILURE OF DISARMAMENT
Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent
with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations." A significant
amount of the League's time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many member
governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable.
The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the
armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward
worldwide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament
plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to
prepare for the 1932–34 World Disarmament Conference. Members of the League held different views
towards the issue. The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military
help if they were attacked; Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted
the League's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed. Without
this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was
too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially
after Adolf Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933. In particular, Germany's
attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France
increasingly unwilling to disarm.
The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with
representatives from 60 states. A one-year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by
a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament Commission obtained initial
agreement from France, Italy, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies. The Kellogg–Briand
Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the
Commission failed to halt the military build-up by Germany, Italy and Japan during the 1930s. The
League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler's
re-militarization of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had
been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan
simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany the same year
(using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and
Germany as a pretext), and Italy in 1937. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet
Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.
WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE

1. THE ABSENCE OF BIG POWERS LIKE THE USA AND USSR / THE GAP IN THE
BRIDGE
The absence of the USA from the league denied it of a very powerful member like the USA who
could have provided financial and moral support. The USSR also wasn’t a member until very
late, and this made member states to have no one to fear in the league. They could also trade with
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the USA and the USSR even if the league members had sanctioned them. Representation at the
League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never
joined, or their period of membership was short. The most conspicuous absentee was the United
States. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and
strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919.
has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support
to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and
Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the Nazi
Party less likely. Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its
reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have
hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. The structure of the US
federal government might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at
the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the executive branch without having the
prior approval of the legislative branch.
The sign reads "This League of Nations Bridge was designed by the President of the U.S.A." Cartoon
from Punch magazine, 10 December 1920, satirising the gap left by the USA not joining the League.
The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the
prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to
general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the
United States' refusal to join.
The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement
to end the First World War led to it being 9 viewed as a "League of Victors". The League's neutrality
tended to manifest itself as indecision.
2. THE SELFISHNESS OF SOME MEMBER STATES LEADING TO FAILURE TO MAKE

UNANIMOUS DECISIONS - It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council
members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not
impossible.
3. SLOW DECISION MAKING - It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones
required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the
fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility
of their fate being decided by other countries, and by enforcing unanimous voting had effectively
given themselves veto power.
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4. LACK OF AN ARMY AND COLLECTIVE SECURITY - The League of Nations lacked an

armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they
were very unwilling to do. Its two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to
use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. The
league members also were unwilling to provide the league with their forces, and this made the
league to fail in enforcing its decisions as it didn’t have an army.
Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security that
formed the basis of the League and international relations between individual states. The League's
collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and
in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states for which they had no normal
affinity. This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis, when Britain and France had to balance
maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "to defend against the
enemies of internal order", in which Italy's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to
Abyssinia as a member of the League.
On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war against Abyssinia,
the British Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, told the House of Commons that collective security had
failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might
call military sanctions ... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of
weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war ... If collective
action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is
to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential
part of collective security.
Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of
appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler. In this context, The League of
Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on terrorism took place following the
1934 assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, showing its conspiratorial features,
many of which are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states in the following years.
In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as
having been the aggressor in the First World War. Soviet Russia was also initially excluded, as
Communist regimes were not welcomed. The League was further weakened when major powers left in
the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 after the League
voiced opposition to its invasion of Manchuria. Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council,
but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the Council, in
1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power
in 1933.
Summary
The League of Nations could stop small wars and improved some people’s lives. But it could not defend
the Treaty of Versailles, get disarmament, or stop powerful countries.
It stopped some wars – e.g. it arbitrated between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands (1921) and
stopped the invasion of Bulgaria by Greece (1925). In 1928, the League arranged the Kellogg-Briand
Pact, which outlawed war. The League also took 400,000 Prisoners of War home and set up refugee
camps. The Health Committee worked against leprosy. The League closed down four Swiss drugs
companies, and attacked slave owners.
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However, there were also failures. The League sometimes failed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles (e.g.,
the Poles captured Vilna in 1920, and Lithuania seized Memel in 1923). The League could not stop
powerful nations (e.g., in 1923, when France invaded the Ruhr, and Italy occupied Corfu). Also, the ILO
failed to bring in a 48-hour week, and both disarmament conferences failed – in 1923 (because Britain
objected) and in 1931 (because Germany walked out).
GERMANY 1919 -1939
THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1918-1929

The Defeat of Germany in 1918 led to the Kaiser’s abdication, a republic and a new constitution. The new
Germany faced huge problems, some caused by its punishment in the Treaty of Versailles. From 1918 to
1929, the Weimar government tried to restore Germany in to a progressive and democratic republic.
The origins of the Republic, 1918–19
By autumn 1918 it was clear that Germany would lose World War One. From November onwards a series
of events occurred which became known as the German Revolution. After the abdication of Kaizer
William II, a group of politicians met in the town of Weimar as Berlin was deemed too unsafe. The new
government inherited the country at war, with all its problems, and had to make decisions. On 11
November 1918 World War One ended when an armistice was agreed with the Allies (Britain, France
and the USA) and Germany surrendered.
In January 1919 Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD became the first democratically chosen President. He
and his party (which had won a majority of seats in election) started to draw up a new constitution for
Germany, which was eventually approved and signed in August 1919. This government eventually
became known as the ‘Weimar Republic’.
The Weimar constitution
The Weimar Republic was set up as a representative democracy which tried to give genuine power to all
German adults. However, it had major flaws that contributed to its downfall in 1933-34. The Republic
was meant to be a representative democracy that looked after the interests of all Germans. But there was a
problem – many Germans did not like the idea of democracy.
The early challenges to the Weimar Republic, 1919–23

The Weimar Republic was created at a time of confusion and chaos after Germany had lost World War
One. People were starving, the Kaiser had fled and the new Republic got off to a troubled start for two
reasons:
 Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice in November 1918 - they called
them the November criminals. The defeat in the war came as a huge surprise to the German
people, and many ordinary German soldiers, which led to a theory that the brave German army
had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians.
 In early 1919 the victorious Allies met to discuss how to punish Germany and on 28 June 1919
the new German government was forced to sign a peace settlement called the Treaty of
Versailles. The treaty punished Germany militarily, territorially and financially. Many
Germans felt their country had received a very harsh deal in the treaty and resented the
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government for agreeing to its conditions. However, German government had been given an
ultimatum – sign within five days or risk invasion.
Problems of the Weimar Republic

1. Unemployment
2. Shortage of food
3. Reparations
4. Inflation
5. The hyperinflation crisis, 1923
The Weimar government's main crisis occurred in 1923 after the Germans missed a reparations payment
late in 1922. This set off a chain of events that included occupation, hyperinflation and rebellions.
French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr
 In November 1922 Germany defaulted on its reparations payment as scheduled. The first
reparations payment had taken all she could afford to pay. The French believed Germany could
make the repayment but were choosing not to, however the German government argued they
could not afford to pay.
 In response, France and Belgium sent troops into Germany’s main industrial area,
the Ruhr Valley. Their aim was to confiscate industrial goods as reparations payments as they
didn’t believe Germany was unable to pay the second instalment. They occupied coal mines,
railways, steel works and factories – all things that were important to Germany’s economy.
 The German government ordered workers to follow a policy of ‘passive resistance’ – refusing to
work or co-operate with the foreign troops and in return the government continued to pay their
wages.
 The French responded firmly – in the Krupp steel works, workers refusing to take orders were
shot at. Other people were expelled from the Ruhr region altogether. Overall, 132 were killed and
approximately 150,000 expelled from the area.
 The immediate consequences of the occupation were not good for the Weimar government – they
decided to print more money to pay the workers in the region, contributing to hyperinflation. A
general strike (when all the workers in the country stopped work) was called, and political
instability was rife.
 Germany was already suffering from high levels of inflation due to the effects of the war and the
increasing government debt. ‘Passive resistance’ meant that whilst the workers were on strike
fewer industrial goods were being produced, which weakened the economy still further. Prices
ran out of control, for example a loaf of bread, which cost 250 marks in January 1923, had risen
to 200,000 million marks in November 1923.
 Borrowers, such as businessmen, landowners and those with mortgages, found they were able to
pay back their loans easily with worthless money. People on wages were relatively safe, because
they renegotiated their wages every day. However, even their wages eventually failed to keep up
with prices.
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 Farmers coped well, since their products remained in demand and they received more money for
them as prices spiralled.
 People on fixed incomes, like students, pensioners or the sick, found their incomes did not keep
up with prices.
 People with savings and those who had lent money, for example to the government, were the
most badly hit as their money became worthless.
Rebellions
Unsurprisingly, the hardships created during 1923 by hyperinflation led to many uprisings as groups
struggled to take power from the government. The Weimar Republic's unpopularity meant it faced
violent uprisings from both sides of the political spectrum during 1919 and 1920.
The threat from the Left: The Spartacist Uprising
 The group called spartacists organized an uprising from 5 th – 12th January 1919. 50,000 members
of the Communist Party, rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. They
wanted to overthrow the Weimar government and take over.
 The government enlisted the help of was saved by ex-soldiers, known as the Freikorps, who
defeated the Spartacist rebels.
 Others groups of communist workers' councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist
People's Government took power in the district of Bavaria.
 The leaders of the spartacists Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed by the Freikorps after being
arrested on the 15th January 1919.
 By May 1919 the Freikorps had crushed all communist uprisings.
The threat from the Right:
The Kapp Putsch -1920
 In crushing the communists the Freikorps had saved the government, but the terms of the Treaty
of Versailles meant that Germany’s army had to be significantly reduced and the Freikorps had to
be disbanded.
 During 13th – 17th March 1920, as a reaction to what they termed betrayal by the Weimar
government, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led a Freikorps takeover in Berlin.
 The army refused to attack and stop the Freikorps. Kapp was only defeated when the workers of
Berlin went on strike and refused to cooperate with him. Everything came to a standstill, there
was no water running, no transport, no electricity, and no social amenities.
The Munich Putsch - 1923
During the hyperinflation crisis of 1923, Adolf Hitler saw an opportunity to take over power in Munich
through a revolution. Hitler and his supporters went into Munich on what they thought would be an easy
march to take power. However, the police and army had a tip off and reinforcements were called in. There
was a short fight in which the police killed 16 members of the SA. Hitler fled, but was arrested two days
later.
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After trial, Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in prison but served only 9 months. During his time in Prison,
he wrote a book entitled: 'Mein Kampf' – a propaganda book setting out Hitler’s Nazi Party beliefs.
Millions of Germans read it, and Hitler's ideas became very well-known. The fact that the judge had been
so lenient with the sentence and that Hitler had served so little time suggests that some people in authority
had sympathy with Hitler and what he had tried to do. Hitler realised that he would never come to power
by revolution and he would have to use democratic means, so he reorganised the Nazi Party to enable it to
take part in elections.
The recovery of the Republic, 1924–29
Weimar government under Gustav Stresemann
In 1923, the Weimar Republic was on the verge of collapse socially and economically. But surprisingly,
this crisis was followed by a period of relative stability and success. The period 1924-1929 was a time
when the Weimar economy recovered and cultural life in Germany flourished.
This dramatic turnabout happened in large part because of the role played by Gustav Stresemann who
became Chancellor in August 1923 during the hyperinflation crisis. This was a time when prices in
Germany went up quicker than people could spend their money and the German currency lost its value.
Stresemann was Chancellor for only three months but continued to serve as Foreign Minister, rebuilding
and restoring Germany’s international status until his death in October 1929, ironically just weeks before
the Wall Street Crash that would end Weimar’s period of greater prosperity and stability.
The end of hyperinflation
Stresemann’s single greatest achievement as Chancellor was to end hyperinflation. He did this in just
three months by:
 Calling off the ‘passive resistance’ of German workers in the Ruhr. This helped Germany’s
economy because goods were back in production and the Government could stop printing money
to pay striking workers.
 Promising to begin reparations payments again. This persuaded France and Belgium to end the
occupation of the Ruhr by 1925.
 Introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark. This stabilised prices as only a limited
number were printed meaning money rose in value. This helped to restore confidence in the
German economy both internally and internationally.
 Reducing the amount of money the government spent (700,000 government employees lost their
jobs) so that its budget deficit reduced.
Renegotiating reparations
The payment of reparations, which had caused the hyperinflation crisis in the first place, had to resume,
but Stresemann’s decisive actions in the autumn of 1923 gained Germany the sympathy of the Allies.
They agreed to renegotiate payments and this led to two new repayment plans in the next 5 years:
The Dawes Plan The Young Plan
Date Proposed April 1924, agreed September Proposed August 1929, agreed January
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The Dawes Plan The Young Plan
1924 1930
Stayed the same overall (50 billion Marks) Reduced the total amount by 20 per cent.
Amount of
but Germany only had to pay 1 billion Germany was to pay 2 billion Marks per
reparations to
Marks per year for the first 5 years and 2.5 year, two thirds of which could be
be paid
billion per year after that. postponed each year if necessary.
Amount of time
over which they Indefinite 59 years, with payments to end in 1988
would be paid
US banks would continue to loan

Loans made
Germany was loaned 800 million Marks Germany money, coordinated by J P
available to
from the USA Morgan, one of the world’s leading
Germany
bankers.
The years 1924 to 1929 have been referred to as Weimar’s ‘Golden Years’, but historians disagree as to
just how much the German economy recovered from the effects of World War One and hyperinflation.
Signs of recovery Signs of continued weakness
By 1928 industrial production levels were

But… agricultural production did not recover to
higher than those of 1913 (before World War
its pre-war levels
One)
But… it spent more on imports than it earned

Between 1925 and 1929 exports (sending goods
from exports, so Germany was losing money
or services abroad) rose by 40 per cent
every year
Hourly wages rose every year from 1924 to But… unemployment did not fall below 1.3
1929 and by 10 per cent in 1928 alone million and in 1929 increased to 1.9 million
IG Farben, a German chemical manufacturing

But… German industry became dependent upon
company, became the largest industrial
loans from the USA
company in Europe
But…The government ended up spending more

Generous pension, health and unemployment
than it received in taxes and so continued to run
insurance schemes were introduced from 1927
deficits from 1925 onwards
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International relations
After losing World War One, being forced to take the blame for the conflict and the subsequent issues
surrounding payment of reparations, Germany was an international outcast. Yet, Germans were still
incredibly bitter about their treatment in the Treaty of Versailles, where they also lost territory on all
sides. However, as Foreign Minister, Stresemann oversaw a dramatic improvement in Germany’s
relationship with the rest of Europe between 1925 and 1928. This is best illustrated by three events:
 Locarno Treaties 1925 - In October 1925 Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect their
post-Versailles borders, whilst Germany agreed with Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle any
border disputes peacefully. Germany had previously complained bitterly about their loss of
territory.
 League of Nations 1926 - When the League of Nations was set up as part of the Versailles
agreement Germany was initially excluded. By signing the Locarno Treaties Germany showed
that it was accepting the Versailles settlement and so a year later was accepted as a permanent
member of the Council of League, making it one of the most powerful countries in the League.
From within the League of Nations Stressemann negotiated to reverse the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles, by negotiating deals with the Allies.
 Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 - Germany was one of 62 countries that signed up to this agreement,
which committed its signatories to settling disputes between them peacefully.
These developments meant that Germany was accepted into the emerging ‘international community’ that
sought to work together during the 1920s to avoid another destructive war. It also helped Germany’s
internal wounds to heal – the government was seen to be taking decisive action to make life better for
people and right some of the wrongs that the Treaty of Versailles had caused. This led to greater political
stability and less extremism. This ethos of collaboration and peaceful cooperation only lasted, however,
until the onset of the Great Depression following the Wall Street Crash of October 1929.
Revision questions
(a) Describe the Dawes Plan signed in 1924 [8]
(a) Describe the political problems faced by the Weimar Republic. [8]
(b) Explain how Stresemann dealt with the problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1924
to 1929 [12]
(a) Describe the problems that were faced by the Weimar Republic after the First World War. [8]
(b) How did the problems of the Weimar Republic from 1919 and 1933 lead to its decline? [12]
(a) Outline the problems of the Weimar Republic. [8]
THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER TO POWER - 1919-1933

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Hitler joined the Nazi Party in 1919 and was influential in defining its beliefs. He also led the Munich
Putsch in 1923. However, from 1924 to 1929 the unpopular party gained little electoral success.
Early development and childhood
Adolf Hitler was born in1889 and raised in Austria. As a child his upbringing was not always happy, but
he later wrote about how close he was to his mother. He wanted to become an artist and tried to enter art
school in Vienna, but was rejected. In Vienna, Hitler spent time as a vagrant (drifting from place to place)
and doing odd jobs like sweeping snow in the streets. He left Vienna and went to Germany in order to
avoid military service. However, when World War One started, Hitler was caught up in the excitement
and joined the army. Many of his early experiences influenced what he wrote in his book, Mein Kampf.
Adolf Hitler fought in the German army during World War One. He was badly wounded twice and won
two Iron Crosses for bravery. Germany’s surrender in November 1918 was a shock to him and had a
profound effect on his political views. Like many other German people at the time, he felt they had been
‘stabbed in the back’ by politicians:
 Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice in November 1918 - and called
them the 'November Criminals'.
 Many people were led to believe that Jews in the army and government had encouraged the
surrender.
 The German government also signed the Treaty of Versailles, which blamed and punished
Germany for starting the war. As many German families had lost their men during the war, this
was especially hard to bear.
The German Workers' Party and the start of the Nazis
With World War One over, Hitler returned to Munich and set on a path that eventually led him to become
the leader of the Nazi party.
 In 1919 Hitler joined the German Worker’s Party (DAP), a right-wing group led by Anton
Drexler.
 1920 – Hitler became the Party’s leading public speaker and propagandist.
 1920 – The group changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) –
or Nazis for short.
 1921 – Hitler was elected Party Chairman and leader of the Nazis.
The early Nazi Party - beliefs and structure
Under Hitler’s leadership the Nazi party quickly developed a 25-Point Programme, a list of the policies it
would introduce if it came to power. Key Nazi beliefs contained in the 25-Point Programme:
 A strong Germany - the Treaty of Versailles should be abolished and all German-speaking people
united in one country.
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 Führer - the idea that there should be a single leader with complete power rather than
a democracy.
 Social Darwinism - the idea that the Aryan race was superior and Jews were 'subhuman'.
 Autarky - the idea that Germany should be economically self-sufficient.
 That Germany was in danger - from communists and Jews, who had to be destroyed.
 Lebensraum - the need for 'living space' for the German nation to expand.
How Hitler Rose To Power

The appeal of the Nazis
In the 1920s, the Nazis tried to appeal to a lot of different members of society. The 25-Point Programme
had policies that were:
Socialist:
 farmers should be given their land

 pensions should improve
 public industries such as electricity and water should be owned by the state
Nationalist:
 all German-speaking people should be united in one country

 the Treaty of Versailles should be abolished
 there should be special laws for foreigners
 Racist:
 Jews should not be German citizens.

 Immigration should be stopped.
 Fascist:
 focused on creating a strong central government

 government control of the newspapers
Membership and growth
When Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party he became its 55th member. By the end of 1920 the
newly named Nazi Party recorded a membership of 2,000 and during the upheaval of the hyperinflation
crisis its membership grew rapidly, to 20,000 by the time of the Munich Putsch in November 1923.
The role and impact of the SA
In 1921 Hitler assembled a large group of unemployed young men and former soldiers, known as the
Storm Troopers (Sturmabteilung) or SA, as the Nazi Party’s private army:
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 They gained the nickname ‘Brownshirts’, after their brown shirted uniforms.
 Their role was to protect party meetings, march in Nazi rallies and intimidate political opponents
by breaking up their meetings.
 Many of the SA men were former soldiers. Some were upset with the way they had been treated
after World War One and saw the government as the ‘November Criminals’.
 After the failure of the Munich Putsch, the SA was reorganised.
 It began to be used to intimidate voters into voting for the Nazi Party.
 However, the Nazi Party was not the only organisation to have a paramilitary group. The
communists also had similar elements.
By 1932 the SA had 400,000 members. This number swelled to an estimated two million by the time
Hitler came to power in 1933, largely due to unemployed men joining up during the Great Depression.
The Munich Putsch and the lean years, 1923-29
In November 1923, Hitler tried to take advantage of the hyperinflation crisis facing the Weimar
government by trying to launch a revolution in Munich – known as the Munich Putsch. It seemed like the
perfect opportunity to take power, but poor planning and misjudgement resulted in failure and the
subsequent imprisonment of Adolf Hitler.
 Causes that led to Hitler attempting the Munich Putsch in 1923
 By 1923, the Nazi party had 55,000 members and was stronger than ever before.
 The Weimar Republic was in crisis due to hyperinflation.
 In September 1923, the Weimar government had called off the general strike, and
German nationalists were furious with the government.
 Hitler thought he would be helped by important nationalist politicians in Bavaria.
 Hitler had a huge army of SA members, but he knew he would lose control of them if he did not
give them something to do.
 Hitler hoped to copy Mussolini - the Italian fascist leader - who had come to power in Italy in
1922 by marching on Rome.
Summary of events
During the hyperinflation crisis of 1923, Hitler saw an opportunity. People across the country had
many different ideas about how Germany was being run. The individual states had different
identities that affected how politics was run in that area. In Bavaria, (capital – Munich) the
majority of the population were Catholic and things were quite traditional. This meant that many
within that state intensely disliked the new Weimar government and saw them as weak. Hitler
thought he would take advantage of this and plotted with two nationalist politicians - Kahr and
Lossow - to take over Munich in a revolution. Hitler collected the SA and told them to be ready
to rebel.
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But then, on 4 October 1923, Kahr and Lossow called off the rebellion. This was an impossible
situation for Hitler, who had 3,000 troops ready to fight. On the night of 8 November 1923, Hitler
and 600 SA members burst into a meeting that Kahr and Lossow were holding at the local Beer
Hall. Waving a gun at them, Hitler forced them to agree to rebel - and then let them go home. The
SA took over the army headquarters and the offices of the local newspaper. The next day, 9
November 1923, Hitler and the SA went into Munich on what they thought would be a triumphal
march to take power. However, Kahr had called in police and army reinforcements. There was a
short scuffle in which the police killed 16 members of the SA. Hitler fled, but was arrested two
days later.
Consequences of the Munich Putsch
The Munich Putsch was a failure in the short term, but it was also an important event in the
Nazis’ rise to power. As a result of the Putsch:
Short term failure:
 The Nazi party was banned, and Hitler was prevented from speaking in public until 1927.
 Hitler was tried for high treason (betraying his country) and sentenced to five years in prison.
Long term success:
 He was sentenced in April and out of prison by December. During his time in the
comfortable Landsberg Prison, he wrote 'Mein Kampf' – a propaganda book setting out
Nazi beliefs. Millions of Germans read it, and Hitler's ideas became very well-known.
 The fact that the judge had been so lenient with the sentence and that Hitler had served so
little time suggests that some people in authority had sympathy with Hitler and what he
had tried to do.
 Hitler realised that he would never come to power by revolution and that he would have
use democratic means, so he reorganised the party to enable it to take part in elections.
The Nazi Party rebuilds, 1924-29
Hitler was released from jail after the Munich Putsch in December 1924. He committed the Nazis to
democratic politics – taking part in elections – and began to reorganise the party, strengthening his
authority as leader and beginning to build a national party structure. However, the period up to 1929 is
known as the Nazi Party’s ‘lean years’ because two apparently contradictory things were happening to it:
 it was growing in size – its membership increased from 27,000 in 1925 to 130,000 in 1929
 but it struggled to win seats in the Reichstag:
 Election  May 1924  Dec 1924  May 1928
Number of seats won by the Nazis 32 14 12
Total number of seats in the 472 493 491
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 Election  May 1924  Dec 1924  May 1928
Reichstag
The growth in support for the Nazis, 1929-32
Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933. His rise to power was the result of many factors: the
impact of the Depression, the weaknesses of Weimar democracy and the strengths of the Nazi party.
The impact of the Depression on Germany
In October 1929 the Wall Street Crash on the US stock exchange brought about a global economic
depression. In Europe, Germany was worst affected because American banks called in all of their foreign
loans at very short notice. These loans, agreed under the Dawes Plan in 1924, had been the basis for
Germany’s economic recovery from the disaster of hyperinflation. The loans funded German industry and
helped to pay reparations. Without these loans German industry collapsed and a depression began:
The most obvious consequence of this collapse was a huge rise in unemployment. Over the winter of
1929-30 the number of unemployed rose from 1.4 million to over 2 million. By the time Hitler became
Chancellor in January 1933 1/3 Germans were unemployed, with the figure hitting 6.1 million. Industrial
production had also more than halved over the same period.
The impact of unemployment
 The rise in unemployment significantly raised government expenditure on unemployment

insurance and other benefits.
 Germans began to lose faith in democracy and looked to extreme parties on the both the Left (the
communists) and the Right (the Nazis) for quick and simple solutions.
Political failure
In March 1930 the German Chancellor, Hermann Müller, resigned when his government could not agree
on how to tackle the rise in government spending caused by the rise in unemployment. He was replaced
by Heinrich Brüning. His policies were ineffective in dealing with the unemployment crisis and further
undermined Germans’ faith in democracy:
 In July 1930 Chancellor Brüning cut government expenditure, wages and unemployment pay.
This added to the spiral of decline and unemployment continued to rise, as well as making
those who had lost their jobs even poorer.
 However, Brüning could not get the Reichstag to agree to his actions, so President Hindenburg
used Article 48 of the Weimar constitution, which gave the President the power to pass laws
by decree, to govern. This undermined democracy and weakened the power of the Reichstag –
arguably opening the way for Hitler’s later dictatorship.
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The rise of extremism
During the economic depression between 1930 and 1933, many people were affected and poverty hit
Germany hard. Extreme political parties offering simple solutions to their problems appeared at both ends
of the political spectrum. Between 1930 and 1933, support for the extreme right-wing Nazis and the
extreme left-wing communists soared.
By 1932 parties committed to the destruction of the Weimar Republic held 319 seats out of a total of 608
in the Reichstag, with many workers turning to communism. The communists had their own version of
the SA, the Communist Red Fighting League, which broke up opposition party meetings. They
confronted the police in street battles, and clashed with the Nazis’ SA as well. However, ultimately, the
party that did better out of all this unrest were the Nazis.
Reasons for the growth in support of the Nazi Party
In 1928, the Nazis had only 12 seats in the Reichstag; by July 1932 they had 230 seats and were the
largest party. Because the Nazis’ 25 Point Programme appealed to people all over the country from all
walks of life, they became popular. Other extremist groups like the communists only really appealed to
the industrial workers in Germany’s cities and couldn’t keep up. The Nazi Party appealed to the following
groups for different reasons;
 Wealthy businessmen: were frightened communists would take their wealth away and did not
want to see any more increase in support for them. To combat this, they began to give money to
Hitler and the Nazis, hoping they would gain more seats – not the communists.
 The middle-class: were generally quite traditional and were not convinced by the
Weimar democracy. Hitler promised them a strong government and won their votes.
 Nationalists: they blamed the legacy of the Treaty of Versailles and reparations for causing the
depression and so lent their support to the Nazis who had promised to make Germany strong
again.
 Rural areas: The Nazis appealed to people in the countryside - especially middle class
shopkeepers and craftsmen, farmers and agricultural labourers.
How Hitler became Chancellor, 1932-33

The chain of events that led to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 is a complicated
one. Chancellors in this period were normally weak because proportional representation made it hard for
political parties to gain a majority of seats meaning the Chancellor found it difficult to control
the Reichstag. By 1932 President Hindenburg had to use Article 48 to pass almost every law. It was
against this backdrop that the events of 1932 and 1933 unfolded.
Major events leading to Hitler becoming Chancellor
1932
April – Presidential election. Hitler came second to Hindenburg, who won 53 per cent of the vote to
Hitler’s 36.8 per cent.
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May – Brüning resigned as Chancellor. Hindenburg appointed Franz Von Papen, a conservative, as his
replacement.
July – Reichstag elections. The Nazis became the largest party with 230 seats. Hitler demanded to be
made Chancellor but Papen remained.
November – Reichstag elections called by Von Papen to try to win a majority in parliament. Nazis lost 34
seats but remained the largest party with 196 seats.
December – Von Papen resigned. Hindenburg appointed Kurt Von Schleicher, an army general, as
Chancellor. Von Schleicher tried to split the Nazis by asking a leading Nazi called Gregor Strasser to be
his Vice Chancellor. Hitler forced Strasser to decline.
1933
January – Von Papen and Hindenburg turned to Hitler, appointing him as Chancellor with Von Papen as
Vice Chancellor. They believed they could control Hitler and get him to do what they wanted.
Nazi control and dictatorship 1933-1939

In 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany and by 1934 he had declared himself Führer - the leader
of Germany. Hitler eliminated all sources of opposition, both within the Nazi Party and in Germany.
The creation of a dictatorship, 1933-34
In January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany but his real aim was to become a dictator. Before
he could realise his ambition, he needed to gain enough seats to be in a position strong enough to allow
him to make the changes that would lead to his goal. He convinced President Hindenburg to call a
new Reichstag election for March 1933. This set off a series of events that ended with Hitler
becoming Führer.
Date Events How this helped Hitler to gain power
Reichstag Fire and Reichstag election:

on 27 February the Reichstag building
Hitler used the fire to persuade Hindenburg to pass an emergency
was set on fire. Hitler blamed the
law restricting personal liberty. This enabled him to imprison many
communist, for the burning of the
27 Feb communist leaders, which stopped them campaigning during the
building. Days later in the election 44
- 5 Mar election. Although the Nazis did not gain the overall majority that
per cent of the population voted for the
1933 Hitler had hoped for in the Reichstag, it gave them enough seats -
Nazis, who won 288 seats in the
after Hitler had arrested all the communist deputies and the other
Reichstag – still not an overall majority.
parties had been intimidated by the SA - to pass the Enabling Act.
Hitler had to join with the nationalists to
form a majority.
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The Enabling Act: with the communist

deputies banned and the SA
Arguably this was the critical event during this period. It gave Hitler
intimidating all the remaining non-Nazi
23 Mar absolute power to make laws, which enabled him to destroy all
deputies, the Reichstag voted by the
1933 opposition to his rule. This removed the Reichstag as a source of
required two-thirds majority to give
opposition.
Hitler the right to make laws without
the Reichstag’s approval for four years.
Nazi officials were put in charge of all

local government. ‘Alien elements’ The Nazis got rid of any potential opposition in positions that could
7 Apr
(people from other countries) in the prove influential, eg judges. They also got rid of people they thought
1933
civil service, courts and education were were ‘undesirables’ – like the Jews.
removed from their positions.
Trade unions were banned. Instead, Trade unions could unite people to protest – therefore the Nazis had
2 May German workers were now expected to got rid of a potential form of opposition. They also destroyed a
1933 join the new German Labour Front possible form of sympathy and support for their arch-enemies, the
(DAF). communists.
Banning political parties made Germany a one-party state and

14 Jul Political parties were banned: only
destroyed democracy in the country. This removed other parties as a
1933 the Nazi party was allowed to exist.
source of opposition.
Hitler could centralise all policy and make sure different states
listened to him and did as he wished. It encouraged even more
Jan All state governments were taken
nationalism in Germany. Possible dissent (disagreement) was
1934 over.
lessened as the state governments couldn’t lead people as they had
once done.
Night of the Long Knives: Many

members of the SA, including its leader
Ernst Röhm, were demanding that the
Nazi party carry out its socialist agenda
and that the SA take over the army. This destroyed all opposition to Hitler within the Nazi Party and
30 Jun Hitler could not afford to annoy gave power to the brutal SS. It also showed the rest of the world
1934 businessmen or the army, so the SS what a tyrant Hitler was. This removed any internal Nazi Party
(Hitler's personal bodyguards) murdered opposition to Hitler.
around 400 members of the SA,
including Röhm, along with a number
of Hitler's other opponents like the
previous Chancellor, von Schleicher.
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Hitler became Führer: when

Hindenburg died, Hitler declared
himself jointly president, chancellor and
19 Aug This formally made Hitler the absolute ruler of Germany. This
head of the army. Members of the
1934 neutralised any sources of opposition to Hitler within the army.
armed forces had to swear a personal
oath of allegiance not to Germany, but
to Hitler.
Hitler also extended his power in other ways:
 Local government was reorganised – with Nazi Party officials put in charge of each area of
Germany.
 Trade unions were abolished and their leaders arrested.
 A Concordat (agreement) was signed with the Pope, which allowed Hitler to increase his power
in Germany without opposition from the Catholic Church, as long as he left the Church alone.
 People's courts: Hitler set up the Nazi people's courts where judges had to swear an oath of
loyalty to the Nazis. By the autumn of 1934 Hitler was in complete control of Germany.
HOW HITLER CONSOLIDATED HIS POWER

The Police State
By August 1934 Hitler was a dictator with absolute power. In order to maintain this power he needed
organisations that could control the population to ensure absolute loyalty to the Führer. After the demise
of the SA on the Night of the Long Knives, there were three main interlinked organisations (in addition to
the regular German police force) involved in controlling the German people through spying, intimidation
and if necessary, imprisonment:
 Schutzstaffel (SS) - led by Heinrich Himmler, the SS was the most important of these
organisations and oversaw the others. Initially set up as Hitler’s personal bodyguard service, the
SS was fanatically loyal to the Führer. It later set up concentration camps where ‘enemies of the
state’ were sent.
 Gestapo - this was the Nazis’ secret police force. Its job was to monitor the German population
for signs of opposition or resistance to Nazi rule. It was greatly helped by ordinary German
people informing on their fellow citizens.
 Sicherheitsdienst (SD) - this was the intelligence gathering agency of the SS. It was responsible
for the security of Hitler and other top Nazis and was led by Himmler’s right hand man, Reinhard
Heydrich.
Nazi control of the legal system
The Nazis quickly swept away many of the freedoms that Germans had enjoyed under the Weimar
constitution. The party’s control of the legal system made opposition to the regime very difficult indeed:
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 Judges had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and were expected to act always in the interests of
the Nazi state.
 All lawyers had to join the Nazi Lawyers' Association, which meant they could be controlled.
 The role of defence lawyers in criminal trials was weakened.
 Standard punishment for crimes were abolished and so local prosecutors could decide what
penalties to impose on those found guilty.
These changes more than halved the number of criminal offences between 1933 and 1939, whilst the
number of crimes that carried the death penalty increased from three to 46. Many convicted criminals
were not released at the end of their sentences but instead were moved to the growing number of
concentration camps being established by the SS.
Nazi policies towards the Catholic and Protestant Churches
There were approximately 45 million Protestants and 22 million Catholic Christians in Germany in 1933.
Hitler saw Christianity as a threat and a potential source of opposition to Nazism because it emphasised
peace. The Nazis tried to control the Churches with policies and bargaining.
Control of the Churches
A state Reich Church under the leadership of the Nazi Bishop Ludwig Müller was established to unify the
different branches of Protestantism. This enabled the Nazis to use a group called the ‘German Christians’
within the Reich Church to promote Nazi ideas.
In 1933 Hitler agreed a Concordat with the Pope, which said that he would not interfere in the running of
the Catholic Church if it stayed out of political matters. Hitler didn’t keep his side of the bargain,
however, as the Nazis attempted to infiltrate the Church and spread their propaganda.
Nazi attempts to supress the Churches
The Reich Church attempted to ban the use of the Old Testament in religious services as it was
considered a ‘Jewish book’. Eight hundred Pastors of the Confessional Church, a non-conforming
Protestant group, were arrested and sent to concentration camps.
The Nazis attempted to stop Catholics using the crucifix in church, though this attempt was not
successful. Catholic schools and youth organisations were supressed, with German children being
educated in state schools and taught a Nazi curriculum, as well as being expected to join the various
branches of the Hitler Youth. Catholic newspapers were banned and four hundred Catholic priests were
sent to Dachau concentration camp.
Impact of the Nazis actions
In 1937 Hitler was forced to return control of the Church to the old Protestant leadership, in return for a
promise that the Church would stay out of politics.
Attendance at Catholic churches increased substantially under the Nazis, especially during World War
Two, showing that Hitler’s attempts to reduce the influence of religion in Germany was ultimately
unsuccessful.
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Both Protestant and Catholic clergy played a large role in opposing Hitler and the Nazis, for which they
often paid a high price.
Controlling and influencing attitudes
Goebbels and the Ministry of Propaganda
Hitler and the Nazi Party were a constant presence in the life of the German people, with:
 the infamous Swastika symbol appearing on every government uniform and public building
 pictures of Hitler displayed everywhere
 Germans having to greet each other with a ‘Heil Hitler’ raised arm salute
The government department responsible for all of this was the Ministry of Enlightenment and
Propaganda, headed by Dr Joseph Goebbels. It aimed to brainwash people into obeying the Nazis and
idolising Hitler. Its methods included:
 Censorship of the press - All newspapers were controlled by the government and could only
print stories favourable to the Nazi regime.
 Control of radio broadcasts - People's radios were sold very cheaply so that most Germans
could afford one. All radio output was controlled by Goebbels’ ministry through the Reich
Broadcasting Corporation.
 Mass rallies - These public displays of support for Nazism involved music, speeches and
demonstrations of German strength. The biggest one was held each year in August at Nuremberg.
 Use of sports events - Berlin hosted the Olympics of 1936, which the Nazis used as an
opportunity to showcase the success of the regime and to demonstrate the superiority of
the Aryan race. The victories of the African-American athlete Jesse Owens for the USA
infuriated the Nazi leadership.
Loudspeakers in public places also blared out Nazi propaganda. Much of the information Germans
received reinforced the message of Aryan racial superiority whilst demonising the Jews and other
‘enemies’ of the regime.
Nazi control of culture and the arts
The Nazis’ interest in and influence on all of these areas demonstrates the extent to which the party
sought to control German life and win over the population to the Nazi cause.
Nazi policy towards women
In Weimar Germany, there had been new opportunities for women. They experimented with their
appearances, some took jobs and women were treated as equal citizens within the constitution, having the
right to vote. However, there is debate about how many women experienced these changes. Life had
altered in some ways, with some greater freedoms acquired but some women had experienced very little
change.
The Nazis had clear ideas of what they wanted from women. They were expected to stay at home, look
after the family and produce children in order to secure the future of the Aryan race – the traditional role
of the woman that had existed before the 1920s.
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Hitler believed women’s lives should revolve round the three 'Ks': Kinder – Children, Kuche –
Kitchen, Kirche – Church.
Goebbels said: The mission of women is to be beautiful and to bring children into the world.
Marriage and family
Hitler wanted a high birth rate so that the Aryan population would grow. He tried to achieve this by:
 introducing the Law for the Encouragement of Marriage which gave newlywed couples a loan of
1,000 marks, and allowed them to keep 250 marks for each child they had.
 giving an award called the Mother’s Cross to women who had large numbers of children.
 allowing women to volunteer to have a baby for an Aryan member of the SS.
Employment
Measures were introduced which strongly discouraged women from working, including:
 the introduction of the Law for the Reduction of Unemployment, which gave women financial
incentives to stay at home.
 not conscripting women to help in the war effort until 1943.
However, female labour was cheap and between 1933 and 1939 the number of women in employment
actually rose by 2.4 million. As the German economy grew, women were needed in the workplace.
Appearance
Women were expected to emulate traditional German peasant fashions - plain peasant costumes, hair in
plaits or buns and flat shoes. They were not expected to wear make-up or trousers, dye their hair or smoke
in public. They were discouraged from staying slim, because it was thought that thin women had trouble
giving birth.
Nazi aims and policies towards the young

Young people were very important to Hitler and the Nazis. Hitler spoke of his Third Reich lasting for a
thousand years and to achieve this he would have to ensure German children were
thoroughly indoctrinated into Nazi ideology.
To this end, from the age of 10 boys and girls were encouraged to join the Nazis’ youth organisation, the
Hitler Youth (the girls’ wing of which was called the League of German Maidens). Membership from age
10 was made compulsory in 1936 and by 1939, 90 per cent of German boys aged 14 and over were
members.
The Hitler Youth The League of German Maidens
Its aim was to prepare German boys to be Its aim was to prepare German girls for future
future soldiers motherhood
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The Hitler Youth The League of German Maidens
Girls wore a uniform of blue skirt, white blouse and and

Boys wore military-style uniforms
heavy marching shoes
Girls undertook physical exercise, but activities mainly

Activities centred on physical exercise and
centred on developing domestic skills such as sewing
rifle practice, as well as political indoctrination
and cooking
Nazi control of the young through education
As well as influencing the beliefs of young Germans through the Hitler Youth, schools indoctrinated
young people into the political and racial ideas of Nazism.
All teachers had to join the Nazi Teachers’ Association, which vetted them for political and racial
suitability.
The curriculum was altered to reflect Nazi ideology and priorities:
 History - lessons included a course on the rise of the Nazi Party.

 Biology - lessons were used to teach Nazi racial theories of evolution in eugenics.
 Race study and ideology - this became a new subject, dealing with the Aryan ideas and anti-
Semitism.
 Physical Education - German schoolchildren had five one-hour sports lessons every week.
 Chemistry and Mathematics - were downgraded in importance.
Again, the aim was to brainwash children so that they would grow up accepting Nazi ideas without
question.
Employment and living standards
The Nazis promised to stop the suffering many Germans had felt since the end of World War One and
make the economy strong again. Unemployment would disappear and Germany would become
an autarky – though neither of these things truly happened.
How Hitler increased employment
 He began a huge programme of public works, which included building hospitals, schools, and
public buildings such as the 1936 Olympic Stadium. The construction of the autobahns created
work for 80,000 men.
 Rearmament was responsible for the bulk of economic growth between 1933 and 1938.
Rearmament started almost as soon as Hitler came to power but was announced publicly in
1935. This created millions of jobs for German workers.
 The introduction of the National Labour Service (NLS) meant all young men spent six months in
the NLS and were then conscripted into the army. They were no longer counted in the
unemployment figures.
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Invisible employment
Although Germany claimed to have full employment by 1939, many groups of people were not included
in the statistics, including:
 The 1.4 million men in the army at this time. There were also a number of men working on public
works schemes.
 Jews who were sacked and their jobs given to non-Jews.
 Women who were encouraged to give up their jobs to men.
Autarky
Hitler wanted Germany to become an autarky – (a country, state, or society which is economically
independent.) - to produce everything that it needed. Certain materials like rubber were needed more as
Germany geared up for war, and it was hoped that inventions would mean that this product could be
produced synthetically (man-made) instead of needing to try and get it by trading. In 1937, Hermann
Göring was made Economics Minister with the job of making Germany self-sufficient in four years.
However, the measures he introduced, such as tighter controls on imports and subsidies for farmers to
produce more food, were not successful. By the outbreak of World War Two Germany was still importing
20 per cent of its food and 33 per cent of its raw materials.
Changes in the standard of living
Despite the loss of freedom, life improved in Germany for many ordinary people who were prepared to
conform and look the other way. However, Nazi economic policies had different effects on different
groups in society:
Big businesses - When trying to get into power, the Nazis had promised to tackle monopolies – the
tendency of one company to hold all the interests in one area of business and dominate the market. By
1937 monopolies controlled over 70 per cent of production and the Nazis had links to major companies
such as Krupp steel and IG Farben (which produced chemicals). Both of these areas would be important
for rearmament, and from 1935 onwards major industrial companies definitely benefited. Profits rose by
50 per cent between 1933 and 1939.
Small business - Rules on opening and running small businesses were tightened, which resulted in 20 per
cent of them closing.
Farmers - Having been one of the main sources of their electoral support during their rise to power,
farmers benefitted under the Nazis. The Hereditary Farm Law of 1933 prevented farms from being
repossessed from their owners, which gave farming families greater security. By 1937, agricultural prices
had increased by 20 per cent and agricultural wages rose more quickly than those in industry. However,
historians do disagree somewhat about the levels to which life in rural regions improved under the Nazis
– not all of their promises were met.
Industrial workers
Pre-1933 the Nazis had lacked support amongst the workers, who tended to vote for the communists or
the Social Democratic Party. However, given the needs of rearmament it was important that the workers
were controlled and productive. To this end, the Nazis set up three organisations for workers:
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 The Labour Front. This was a Nazi organisation that replaced Trades Unions, which were
banned. It set wages and nearly always followed the wishes of employers, rather than
employees.
 Strength Through Joy. This scheme gave workers rewards for their work - evening classes,
theatre trips, picnics, and even very cheap or free holidays.
 Beauty of Labour. The job of this organisation was to help Germans see that work was good,
and that everyone who could work should. It also encouraged factory owners to improve
conditions for workers.
Those working in the rearmament industries aside, living standards did not really improve for German
workers under the Nazis. From 1933 to 1939 wages fell, the number of hours worked rose by 15 per cent,
serious accidents in factories increased and workers could be blacklisted by employers if they attempted
to question their working conditions.
The persecution of minorities
Hitler and the Nazis had firm views on race. They believed that certain groups were inferior and were a
threat to the purity of the Aryan race. There were many groups who were targeted for persecution,
including Slavs (Eastern Europeans), Blacks, gypsies, homosexuals and the disabled - but none more so
than the Jews.
Nazi racial beliefs

The Nazis’ racial philosophy taught that Aryans were the master race and that some races were
‘untermensch’ (sub-human). Many Nazi scientists at this time believed in eugenics, the idea that people
with disabilities or social problems were degenerates whose genes needed to be eliminated from the
human bloodline. The Nazis pursued eugenics policies vigorously.
Policy of persecution
 Sterilisation - In order to keep the Aryan race pure, many groups were prevented from
reproducing. The mentally and physically disabled, including the deaf, were sterilised, as were
people with hereditary diseases.
 Euthanasia - Between 1939 and 1941 over 100,000 physically and mentally disabled Germans
were killed in secret, without the consent of their families. Victims were often gassed - a
technique that was later used in the death camps of the Holocaust.
 Concentration camps - Homosexuals, prostitutes, Jehovah's Witnesses, gypsies,
alcoholics, pacifists, beggars, hooligans and criminals were often rounded up and sent away to
camps. During World War Two 85 per cent of Germany's gypsies died in these camps.
The Nazis’ persecution of the Jews
The group most heavily targeted for persecution by the Nazis were the Jews of Germany. The outbreak of
World War Two brought the horror of mass killings and the Final Solution, but the period 1933 saw a
gradual increase in persecution, reaching a turning point during Kristallnacht (the wave of violent anti-
Jewish pogroms) in November 1938:
1933
 Nazis organised a boycott of Jewish businesses.
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 Books by Jewish authors were publicly burnt.

 Jewish civil servants, lawyers and teachers were sacked.
 Race science lessons were introduced, teaching that Jews were sub-human.
1935
The Nuremberg Laws formalised anti-Semitism into the Nazi state by:
 Stripping Jews of German citizenship.

 Outlawing marriage and sexual relations between Jews and Germans.
 Taking away from Jews all civil and political rights.
1938
 Jews could not be doctors.

 Jews had to add the name Israel (men) or Sarah (women) to their name.
 Jewish children were forbidden to go to school.
 Kristallnacht - 9 November. The SS organised attacks on Jewish homes, businesses and
synagogues in retaliation for the assassination of the German ambassador to France by a Jew.
Many Jews saw the events of Kristallnacht as a turning point. Up until then there had been a progressive
erosion of their rights but Jews had not been physically threatened or attacked. When their businesses
and homes were destroyed and their synagogues were burnt down, many concluded that their time in
Germany was up. Those who were able to fled and a scheme to evacuate Jewish children to Britain,
called the Kindertransport, began.
1939
 Jews were forbidden to own a business, or even a radio

By the outbreak of World War Two in September 1939, the Jews were stateless, their employment
options in Germany were severely restricted and they feared for their safety
Hitler’s Foreign policy aims
Hitler had three main aims in his foreign policy:
 revise the Treaty of Versailles

 unite all German-speaking people into one Reich (One big Germany)
 expand eastwards to achieve Lebensraum (Living Space)
Historians have disagreed about Hitler’s aims. A J P Taylor argued that Hitler did not deliberately set out
for a destructive war. Instead, Hitler was an opportunist and made gains in his foreign policy by direct
action and audacity.
Hugh Trevor-Roper has argued that Hitler had a long term plan - a programme of colonisation of Eastern
Europe and a war of conquest in the West. This Stufenplan, step-by-step policy, led to war.
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Probably the most convincing argument is that Hitler had consistency of aims, but was also an opportunist
that was flexible in his strategy.
There were three stages to his foreign policy.
1. A moderate policy up to 1935.

2. Increased activity between 1935 and 1937.
3. A more confident foreign policy after 1937, certain that there would be little opposition to his
plans.
Rearmament and conscription
Rearmament created jobs in the armaments industry pushing the idea of 'guns before butter'. Rearmament
started almost as soon as Hitler came to power but was announced publicly in 1935.
The introduction of national service meant all young men spent six months in the RAD and then they
were conscripted into the army. By 1939, 1.4 million men were in the army, so they were not counted as
unemployed.
In January 1935, the population of the Saar coalfield, separated from Germany by the post-war treaties,
were allowed a plebiscite and showed that over 90 per cent of the population wanted to reunite with
Germany. Hitler regarded this as a great triumph because it was the first of the injustices of the Treaty of
Versailles to be reversed.
Rhineland Invasion, March 1936
For many years the Rhineland area had been a key industrial region of Germany, producing coal, steel
and iron resources.
The Rhineland also formed a natural barrier to its neighbour and rival, France. In the event of a war, the
River Rhine, if properly defended, would be a difficult obstacle for an invading force to cross.
One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was that the Germans would not be able to keep military
forces in a 50 km stretch of the Rhineland. Hitler resented this term as it made Germany vulnerable to
invasion. He was determined to enlarge his military capability and strengthen his borders.
In 1935, Hitler revealed that he had built up an air force and signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement
that allowed him to enlarge his naval forces.
In 1936, Hitler boldly marched 22,000 German troops into the Rhineland, in a direct contravention of the
Treaty of Versailles. Hitler offered France and Britain a 25 year non-aggression pact
and claimed 'Germany had no territorial demands to make in Europe'.
Austrian Anschluss, March 1938
Hitler wanted all German-speaking nations in Europe to be a part of Germany. To this end, he had
designs on re-uniting Germany with his native homeland, Austria. Under the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles, however, Germany and Austria were forbidden to be unified. Hitler also wanted control of the
largely German-speaking area within Czechoslovakia, called the Sudetenland. This area was part of the
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Austro-Hungarian Empire before world war I. Importantly, Austria shared a border with this area. In an
attempt to realise his goals, Hitler was determined to destabilise Austria and undermine its independence.
His ultimate goal was Anschluss (union) with Austria.
The failed coup
The Austrian Chancellor, Dollfuss, tried to crack down on the Socialists and Nazis - political factions that
he thought were tearing the country apart. Dollfuss banned the Nazi party. In 1934, Hitler ordered the
Austrian Nazis to create havoc in Austria. This turned into an attempt to overthrow the government.
Chancellor Dollfuss was murdered but the attempted coup failed because the Austrian military intervened
to back up the government. In 1934, Italy had an agreement with Austria that it would protect Austria
from outside aggression. The Italian dictator, Mussolini, honoured the agreement and moved Italian
troops to the Austrian border to deter Hitler from invading.
Events in Austria
The new Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg tried to preserve the country from German invasion by trying
not to give Hitler an excuse for aggression. He tried to co-operate with Hitler as much as possible.
Schuschnigg signed the German-Austrian Agreement of 1936. This pact recognised the independence of
Austria but the price was that Austria's foreign policy had to be consistent with Germany's. The
agreement also allowed Nazis to hold official posts in Austria. Schuschnigg hoped this would appease
Hitler. He was wrong. Schuschnigg's position was undermined in 1936 when Hitler and Mussolini
formalised the Rome-Berlin Axis during their joint involvement in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39).
With Germany and Italy now firm allies, Austria had lost the protection of Italy and was vulnerable to
German attack.
In 1938, Schuschnigg visited Hitler at his summer retreat at Berchtesgaden, near the Austrian border.
Hitler demanded that Nazis be given key government posts in Austria. Schuschnigg compromised and the
Nazi member, Seyss-Inquart, was made Minister of the Interior. Hitler ordered Austrian Nazis to create as
much trouble and destruction as possible in order to put pressure on Schuschnigg. If Hitler could claim
that Austrian law and order had broken down he could justify marching German troops into Vienna to
restore peace - despite the fact that he was responsible for the chaos in the first place.
Four days in March
Wednesday 9 March 1938 - In a desperate act, Schuschnigg announced a referendum whereby the
Austrian people would decide for themselves if they wanted to be a part of Hitler's Germany. Hitler was
furious. If the Austrians voted against joining Germany his excuse for invasion would be ruined.
Thursday 10th March 1938 - Hitler told his generals to prepare for the invasion of Austria. He ordered
Schuschnigg to call off the referendum. Knowing he would receive no help from Italy, and that France
and Britain would not interfere in Hitler's plans, Schuschnigg conceded. He called off the referendum and
resigned. The Nazi Austrian Interior Minister, Seyss-Inquart, was ordered by Hitler to ask for German
help in restoring order in Austria.
Friday 11th March 1938 - Hitler reassured Czechoslovakia that they had nothing to fear.
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Saturday 12th March 1938 - German troops marched into Austria unopposed. Hitler now had control of
Austria. A month later, Hitler held a rigged referendum. The results showed that the Austrian people
approved of German control of their country.
Foreign reaction
France
French politics were in turmoil in March 1938. In fact, two days before Germany invaded Austria, the
entire French government had resigned. France was not in a position to oppose the invasion.
Britain
In March 1938, Britain was having its own political problems. Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary, had
resigned over Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's decision to open negotiations with the fascist dictator
of Italy, Mussolini. As such, with Chamberlain determined to appease Hitler, there was no political will to
oppose Germany.
Furthermore, the British population were against the idea of another European war. The Anschluss was
not seen as a threat to Britain and, as both nations were German-speaking, there was a sense that there
was no good reason why Austria and Germany shouldn't unify.
Anti-appeasers, such as Winston Churchill, were alarmed by Germany's annexation of Austria. They
believed that if Hitler had a true claim to Austria, he should have used negotiation and diplomacy rather
than force.
Results
 Germany added seven million people and an army of 100,000 to its Reich.
 Germany gained useful resources such as steel, iron ore and Austria's foreign exchange reserves.
 The balance of power in south-eastern Europe shifted in favour of Germany, increasing their
influence in the Balkans.
 Czechoslovakia was now surrounded on three fronts by Germany.
The Sudentenland 1938
After gaining Austria, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia after his Anschluss triumph. He
wanted to dismember this democratic country by whatever means necessary. Czechoslovakia was a
member of the League of Nations and allied to France and the Soviet Union. There were however large
minorities within Czechoslovakia. This included 3 million Germans in the area known as the
Sudetenland.
Key events
 Early in 1938 - the German leader in the Sudetenland Konrad Henlein complains that Sudeten
Germans are being mistreated by Czechs.
 30 May 1938 – Hitler orders plans to destroy Czechoslovakia by 1 October.

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 12 September 1938 – Hitler makes a speech attacking Czechoslovakia.
 15 September 1938 – Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, flies to see Hitler at the
Berghof and agrees that Czechoslovakia should give all areas with 50 per cent German Sudetens
to Germany. The British and French persuade the Czechs to agree.
 22 September 1938 – Chamberlain is successful in persuading Edvard Beneš, President of

Czechoslovakia, to accept Germany’s demands. Chamberlain meets Hitler at Bad Godesberg
confident that the crisis was over. Hitler however had changed his mind and wanted the
Sudetenland by 1 October. The talks break down and there is real fear now of a war in Europe.
Chamberlain persuades Mussolini, the Italian dictator, to arrange a conference at Munich to
discuss the issue of the Sudetenland.
 29-30 September 1938 – Britain, France, Germany and Italy met in Munich. Crucially
Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were not present. The four countries agreed to the German
occupation of the Sudetenland between 1 and 10 October. German troops occupy the
Sudetenland. Britain and France were following a policy of appeasement. Neville Chamberlain
returned to Britain claiming he had established peace in our time. However following the
agreement both Britain and France speeded up their own rearmament plans. Chamberlain's claim
turned out to be a false hope as within a year of the agreement World War Two had started.
The final destruction of Czechoslovakia - 1939
 The Munich agreement dealt only with the Germans in the Sudetenland. It said nothing of the
nearly 2 million Germans living in Bohemia and Moravia. Hitler now moved to bring them under
German control.
 Using the same tactics as in other events, he claimed that Germans were being treated unfairly.
He claimed that the Czech government had lost control and that the German army should be sent
in to restore order.
 Hitler invited President Hacha to Berlin on 14 March 1939 and kept him waiting until 01:15
while Hitler finished watching a film. Hitler demanded that Hacha agreed to split Czechoslovakia
within a few hours. At 04:00, President Hacha caved in to Hitler’s demands and German troops
marched into Prague on 15 March 1939. This was conquest pure and simple.
 Germany expanded and gained valuable resources as Czechoslovakia was rich in coal and
possessed the huge Skoda armaments factory.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939
Hitler wanted the restoration of Danzig to Germany and also the return of the Polish Corridor. Britain and
France had realised by now that it was not possible to appease Hitler and made a commitment to defend
Poland.
In August, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact. This was a promise not to
fight each other. Joachim von Ribbentrop, the German Foreign minister, went to Moscow with full
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authority to negotiate an agreement. The agreement publicly stated that there would be non-aggression for
ten years and made economic agreements.
There were however secret elements to the agreement. Both countries agree to help each other if there is a
war against Poland. Crucially this gave Hitler the freedom to invade Poland without having to worry
about the Soviet Union.
The Pact was an amazing U-turn. Hitler had always stressed that the Soviet Union was his main enemy,
ruled by Jewish Communists and subhuman Slavs. It was the main focus of Lebensraum.
It was a masterstroke because:
 it left Poland isolated
 it destroyed attempts by the West to bring the Soviet Union into an alliance against Germany
 Germany avoided being dragged into a war on two fronts
 Germany gained vital raw materials from the Soviet Union that helped rearmament.
REVISION QUESTIONS
2017
(a) Describe the Dawes Plan signed in 1924 [8]
(b) Explain how the Enabling Act of March 1933 helped Hitler gain total control of Germany
[12]
2016
(a) Describe the events of the Munich Putsch of 1923 [8]
(b) Explain how Stresemann dealt with the problems faced by the Weimar Republic from
1924 to 1929 [12]
2015
(b) Explain the steps taken by Adolf Hitler in achieving his foreign policy aims [12]
2014
(a) Outline the main features of the Nazi totalitarian state. [8]
(b) Explain the steps that were taken by Hitler to consolidate his power in Germany
between 1933 and 1934. [12]
2013
(a) Outline the aims of Hitler’s foreign policy. [8]
(b) Explain how the problems of the Weimar Republic helped Hitler to rise to power. [12]
2012
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(a) Describe the problems that were faced by the Weimar Republic after the First World
War. [8]
(b) Explain how Hitler’s foreign policy led to the outbreak of the Second World War. [12]
2011
(a) Outline the reasons for Nazi popularity in Germany after 1933. [8]
(b) Why did Hitler follow an aggressive foreign policy after 1933? [12]
2009
a) Outline the main features of Nazism. [8]
b) How did the problems of the Weimar Republic from 1919 and 1933 lead to its decline?
[12]
2008
a) Outline ways in which Hitler organized the German economy. [8]
b) Explain how Hitler reversed the Versailles Treaty. [12]
2007
a) Describe the political problems faced by the Weimar Republic. [8]
b) How was Adolf Hitler able to control Germany between 1933 and 1939?
[12]
2006
a) Describe the steps taken by Hitler to rise to power in Germany by 1933.
[8]
b) How did Hitler’s domestic policy enable him to stay in power in Germany by 1933?
[12]
2005
a) Outline the main features of the Nazi totalitarian state. [8]
b) Why did Germany embark on an expansionist policy from 1933-1941?
[12]
2004
a) Outline the aims of Hitler’s foreign policy. [8]
b) How far did the problems of the Weimar Republic help Hitler rise to power?
[12]
2002
a) Describe the factors which led to the rise to power of Hitler in Germany.
[8]
b) How was Hitler able to consolidate his power in Germany up to 1934?
[12]
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2001
a) Describe the events that led to the fall of the Weimar Republic. [8]
b) Explain why Hitler rose to power by 1933. [12]
2000
a) Outline the problems of the Weimar Republic. [8]
b) Why did Hitler follow an aggressive foreign policy after 1933? [12]
THE SOVIET UNION 1917-1989
The Russian Revolution

In 1917, two revolutions swept through Russia, ending centuries of imperial rule and setting into motion
political and social changes that would lead to the formation of the Soviet Union. While the two
revolutionary events took place within a few short months, social unrest in Russia had been simmering for
decades. In the early 1900s, Russia was one of the most impoverished countries in Europe with an
enormous peasantry and a growing minority of poor industrial workers.
Much of Western Europe viewed Russia as an undeveloped, backwards society. The Russian Empire
practiced serfdom - a form of feudalism in which landless peasants were forced to serve the land-owning
nobility - well into the nineteenth century. In contrast, the practice had disappeared in most of Western
Europe by the 1900s.
In 1861, the Russian Empire finally abolished serfdom. The emancipation of serfs would influence the
events leading up to the Russian Revolution by giving peasants more freedom to organize.
Russian Revolution of 1905

Russia industrialized much later than Western Europe and the United States. When it finally did, around
the turn of the 20th century, it brought with it immense social and political changes. Between 1890 and
1910, for example, the population of major Russian cities such as St. Petersburg and Moscow nearly
doubled, resulting in overcrowding and destitute living conditions for a new class of Russian industrial
workers.
A population boom at the end of the 19th century, a harsh growing season due to Russia’s northern
climate, and a series of costly wars—starting with the Crimean War (1854-1856)—meant frequent food
shortages across the vast empire. Large protests by Russian workers against the monarchy led to
the Bloody Sunday massacre of 1905. Hundreds of unarmed protesters were killed or wounded by the
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czar’s troops. The massacre sparked the Russian revolution of 1905, during which angry workers
responded with a series of crippling strikes throughout the country.
Nicholas II
After the bloodshed of 1905, Czar Nicholas II promised the formation of a series of representative
assemblies, or Dumas, to work toward reform. Russia entered into World War I in August 1914 in
support of the Serbs and their French and British allies. Their involvement in the war would soon prove
disastrous for the Russian Empire.
Militarily, imperial Russia was no match for industrialized Germany, and Russian casualties were greater
than those sustained by any nation in any previous war. Food and fuel shortages plagued Russia as
inflation mounted. The economy was hopelessly disrupted by the costly war effort.
Czar Nicholas left the Russian capital of Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in 1915 to take command of the
Russian Army front. (The Russians had renamed the imperial city in 1914, because the name “St.
Petersburg” had sounded too German.)
Rasputin and the Czarina

In her husband’s absence, Czarina Alexandra—an unpopular woman of German ancestry—began firing
elected officials. During this time, her controversial advisor, Grigory Rasputin, increased his influence
over Russian politics and the royal Romanov family. Russian nobles eager to end Rasputin’s influence
murdered him on December 30, 1916. By then, most Russians had lost faith in the failed leadership of the
czar. Government corruption was rampant, the Russian economy remained backward and Nicholas
repeatedly dissolved the Duma, the toothless Russian parliament established after the 1905 revolution,
when it opposed his will. Moderates soon joined Russian radical elements in calling for an overthrow of
the hapless czar.
February Revolution
The February Revolution started with Demonstrators crying out for shortage of bread took to the streets
of Petrograd. Apart from bread the demonstrators were complaining about other things like the continuing
WWI which continud to waste lots of resources and killing many Russians. They also had qurries about
land and demanded land reforms. Supported by huge crowds of striking industrial workers, the
protesters clashed with police but refused to leave the streets. On March 11, the troops of the Petrograd
army garrison were called out to quell the uprising. In some encounters, the regiments opened fire, killing
demonstrators, but the protesters kept to the streets and the troops began to waver.
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The Duma formed a provisional government on March 12. A few days later, Czar Nicholas abdicated the
throne, ending centuries of Russian Romanov rule. The leaders of the provisional government, including
young Russian lawyer Alexander Kerensky, established a liberal program of rights such as freedom of
speech, equality before the law, and the right of unions to organize and strike. They opposed violent
social revolution. As minister of war, Kerensky continued the Russian war effort, even though Russian
involvement in World War I was enormously unpopular. This further exacerbated Russia’s food supply
problems. Unrest continued to grow as peasants looted farms and food riots erupted in the cities.
Bolshevik Revolution
The Russian Revolution of 1917 also known as the Bolshevik Revolution was one of the most explosive
political events of the twentieth century. The violent revolution marked the end of the Romanov dynasty
and centuries of Russian Imperial rule. During the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks, led by leftist
revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, seized power and destroyed the tradition of Czarist rule. The Bolsheviks
would later become the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
On October 24 and 25 leftist revolutionaries led by Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin launched a
nearly bloodless coup d’état against the Duma’s provisional government. When Lenin returned home
to Russia in April 1917, the Russian Revolution was already beginning. Strikes over food
shortages in March had forced the abdication of the inept Czar Nicholas II, ending centuries
of imperial rule. By fall of 1917, Russians had become even more war weary. Peasants,
workers and soldiers demanded immediate change in what became known as the October
Revolution.
Russia had come under the command of a Provisional Government, which opposed violent
social reform and continued Russian involvement in World War I. The provisional government
had been assembled by a group of leaders from Russia’s bourgeois capitalist class. He called this
“dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.” He instead called for a Soviet government that would be ruled
directly by councils of soldiers, peasants and workers. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied
government buildings and other strategic locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government with
Lenin as its head. The new Soviet government ended Russian involvement in World War I with
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Russian Civil War

Civil War broke out in Russia in late 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution. The warring factions included
the Red and White Armies. The Red Army fought for the Lenin’s Bolshevik government. The White
Army represented a large group of loosely allied forces, including monarchists, capitalists and supporters
of democratic socialism. On July 16, 1918, the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks. They killed
all members of the royal family. The Russian Civil War ended in 1923 with Lenin’s Red Army claiming
victory and establishing the Soviet Union.
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Impact of The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism as an influential political belief system
around the world. It set the stage for the rise of the Soviet Union as a world power that would go head-to-
head with the United States during the Cold War.
War Communism
The Bolshevik Revolution plunged Russia into a three-year civil war. The Red Army—
backed by Lenin’s newly formed Russian Communist Party—fought the White Army, a loose
coalition of monarchists, capitalists and supporters of democratic socialism. During this time,
Lenin enacted a series of economic policies dubbed “War Communism.” These were
temporary measures to help Lenin consolidate power and defeat the White Army. Under war
communism, Lenin quickly nationalized all manufacturing and industry throughout Soviet
Russia. He requisitioned surplus grain from peasant farmers to feed his Red Army.
These measures proved disastrous. Under the new state-owned economy, both industrial and
agricultural output plummeted. An estimated five million Russians died of famine in 1921
and living standards across Russia plunged into abject poverty.
Mass unrest threatened the Soviet government. As a result, Lenin instituted his New
Economic Policy, a temporary retreat from the complete nationalization of War Communism.
The New Economic Policy created a more market-oriented economic system, “a free market
and capitalism, both subject to state control.”
Cheka
Soon after the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin established the Cheka, Russia’s first secret
police. As the economy deteriorated during the Russian Civil War, Lenin used the Cheka to
silence political opposition, both from his opponents and challengers within his own political
party. But these measures did not go unchallenged: Fanya Kaplan, a member of a rival
socialist party, shot Lenin in the shoulder and neck as he was leaving a Moscow factory in
August 1918, badly injuring him.
Red Terror
After the assassination attempt, the Cheka instituted a period known as the Red Terror, a
campaign of mass executions against supporters of the czarist regime, Russia’s upper classes
and any socialists who weren’t loyal to Lenin’s Communist Party. By some estimates, the
Cheka may have executed as many as 100,000 so-called “class enemies” during the Red
Terror between September and October 1918.
Lenin Creates the USSR

Lenin’s Red Army eventually won Russia’s civil war. In 1922, a treaty between Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasus (now Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) formed
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Lenin became the first head of the USSR,
but by that time, his health was declining. Between 1922 and his death in 1924, Lenin
suffered a series of strokes which compromised his ability to speak, let alone govern.
His absence paved the way for Joseph Stalin, the Communist Party’s new General Secretary,
to begin consolidating power. Lenin resented Stalin’s growing political power and saw his
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ascendency as a threat to the USSR. Lenin dictated a number of predictive essays about
corruption of power in the Communist Party while he was recovering from a stroke in late
1922 and early 1923. The documents, sometimes referred to as Lenin’s ‘Testament,’ proposed
changes to the Soviet political system and recommended that Stalin be removed from his
position. Upon his death he was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, afer a succession dispute with
Leon Trotsky.
Joseph Stalin
Georgian-born revolutionary Joseph Stalin rose to power upon Lenin’s death in 1924. The
dictator ruled by terror with a series of brutal policies, which left millions of his own citizens
dead. During his reign—which lasted until his death in 1953—Stalin transformed the Soviet
Union from an agrarian society to an industrial and military superpower.
The Five-Year Plans

Stalin implemented a series of Five-Year Plans to spur economic growth and transformation
in the Soviet Union. The first Five-Year Plan focused on collectivizing agriculture and rapid
industrialization. Subsequent Five-Year Plans focused on the production of armaments and
military build-up.
Collectivization
Between 1928 and 1940, Stalin enforced the collectivization of the agricultural sector. Rural
peasants were forced to join collective farms. Those that owned land or livestock were
stripped of their holdings. Hundreds of thousands of higher-income farmers, called Kulaks,
who opposed Stalin’s policies were rounded up and executed, their property confiscated. The
Communists believed that consolidating individually owned farms into a series of large state-
run collective farms would increase agricultural productivity.
The Great Purge

Amid confusion and resistance to collectivization in the countryside, agricultural
productivity dropped. This led to devastating food shortages. Millions died during the Great
Famine of 1932-1933. The famine was estimated to have claimed the lives of 3.9 million
people, about 13 percent of the population.
Stalin eliminated all likely opposition to his leadership by terrorizing Communist Party
officials and the public through his secret police. During the height of Stalin’s terror
campaign, a period between 1936 and 1938 known as the Great Purge, an estimated 600,000
Soviet citizens were executed. Millions more were deported, or imprisoned in forced labor
camps known as Gulags.
Joseph Stalin and World War II

In 1939, on the eve of World War II, Joseph Stalin and German dictator Adolf Hitler signed
the German-Soviet Pact. They agreed no to be aggressive against each other, but also agreed
to share Poland among themselves. Stalin did not trust Adolf Hitler, after the signing of the
pact, he immediately told his commander of the armed forces to prepare for an attack from
Germany. He then proceeded to annex parts of Poland and Romania, as well as the Baltic
states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. He also launched an invasion of Finland. Then, in
June 1941, Germany broke the Nazi-Soviet pact and invaded the USSR, making significant
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early inroads in what came to be known as Operation Barbarossa. As German troops

approached the Soviet capital of Moscow, Stalin remained there and directed a scorched earth
defensive policy, destroying any supplies or infrastructure that might benefit the enemy.
With the help of the Russian winter, the tide turned for the Soviets with the Battle of
Stalingrad from August 1942 to February 1943, during which the Red Army defeated the
Germans and eventually drove them from Russia.
As the war progressed, Stalin participated in the major Allied conferences, including those in
Tehran (1943) and Yalta (1945). His iron will and deft political skills enabled him to play the
loyal ally while never abandoning his vision of an expanded post-war Soviet empire.
Joseph Stalin’s Later Years

Joseph Stalin did not mellow with age: He prosecuted a reign of terror, purges, executions,
exiles to labor camps and persecution in the postwar USSR, suppressing all dissent and
anything that smacked of foreign–especially Western–influence. He established communist
governments throughout Eastern Europe, and in 1949 led the Soviets into the nuclear age by
exploding an atomic bomb. In 1950, he gave North Korea’s communist leader Kim Il Sung
(1912-1994) permission to invade United States-supported South Korea, an event that
triggered the Korean War.
The death of Joseph Stalin

Stalin, who grew increasingly paranoid in his later years, died on March 5, 1953, at age 74,
after suffering a stroke. His body was embalmed and preserved in Lenin’s mausoleum in
Moscow’s Red Square until 1961, when it was removed and buried near the Kremlin walls as
part of the de-Stalinization process initiated by Stalin’s successor Nikita Khrushchev (1894-
1971).
The Cold War

Following the surrender of Nazi Germany at the end of World War II, the uncomfortable
wartime alliance between the Soviet Union and the United States and Great Britain began to
crumble. The Soviet Union by 1948 had installed communist-leaning governments in Eastern
European countries that the USSR had liberated from Nazi control during the war. The
Americans and British feared the spread of communism into Western Europe and worldwide.
In 1949, the U.S., Canada and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). The alliance between countries of the Western bloc was a political
show of force against the USSR and its allies. In response to NATO, the Soviet Union in
1955 consolidated power among Eastern bloc countries under a rival alliance called the
Warsaw Pact, setting off a rivalry that came to be known as the Cold War. The Cold War
lasted for decades and resulted in anti-communist suspicions and international incidents that
led the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear disaster. This power struggle—waged on
political, economic and propaganda fronts between the Eastern and Western blocs—would
persist in various forms until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Khrushchev And De-Stalinization

Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) led the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War,
serving as premier from 1958 to 1964. Though he largely pursued a policy of peaceful
coexistence with the West, the Cuban Missile Crisis began after he positioned nuclear
weapons 90 miles from Florida. At home, he initiated a process of “de-Stalinization” that
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made Soviet society less repressive. Yet Khrushchev could be authoritarian in his own right,
crushing a revolt in Hungary and approving the construction of the Berlin Wall. Known for
his colorful speeches, he once took off and brandished his shoe at the United Nations.
Nikita Khrushchev: The Early Years

Khrushchev was born on April 15, 1894, in Kalinovka, a small Russian village near the
Ukrainian border. At age 14 he moved with his family to the Ukrainian mining town of
Yuzovka, where he apprenticed as a metalworker and performed other odd jobs. Despite his
religious upbringing, Khrushchev joined the communist Bolsheviks in 1918, more than a year
after they had seized power in the Russian Revolution. During the subsequent Russian Civil
War, Khrushchev’s first wife, with whom he had two children, died of typhus. He later
remarried and had four more children.
In 1929 Khrushchev moved to Moscow, where he steadily rose through the Communist Party
ranks. Eventually he entered the inner circle of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, who by that
time had consolidated control over the country and instituted a bloody purge of perceived
enemies. Millions of people were killed or imprisoned in Gulag labor camps, and millions
more died in famines brought on by the forced collectivization of agriculture.
Khrushchev Takes Over for Stalin

During World War II , Khrushchev mobilized troops to fight Nazi Germany in the Ukraine
and at Stalingrad. After the war, he helped to rebuild the devastated countryside while
simultaneously stifling Ukrainian nationalist dissent. By the time Stalin died in March 1953,
Khrushchev had positioned himself as a possible successor. Six months later, he became head
of the Communist Party and one of the most powerful people in the USSR.
At first, Khrushchev and other high-ranking officials ruled through a form of collective
leadership. But in 1955 he organized the ouster of Premier Georgi Malenkov and replaced
him with an ally, Nikolai Bulganin. Khrushchev foiled a Malenkov-led coup attempt in June
1957 and took over the premiership the following March.
Khrushchev’s De-Stalinization Process

Once a loyal Stalinist, Khrushchev gave a long speech in February 1956 that criticized Stalin
for arresting and deporting opponents, for elevating himself above the party and for
incompetent wartime leadership, among other things. This withering, albeit incomplete,
indictment of Stalin was supposed to remain secret. By that June, however, the U.S. State
Department had published the complete text. Starting in 1957, Khrushchev made some minor
attempts to rehabilitate Stalin’s image. But he switched course once again in 1961, when the
city of Stalingrad was renamed and Stalin’s remains were removed from Lenin’s mausoleum
in Moscow’s Red Square.
Emboldened by Khrushchev’s so-called “secret speech,” protestors took to the streets in the
Soviet satellites of Poland and Hungary. The Polish revolt was resolved fairly peacefully, but
the Hungarian revolt was violently suppressed with troops and tanks. In all, at least 2,500
Hungarians were killed in late 1956, and about 13,000 were wounded. Many more fled to the
West, and others were arrested or deported.
On the domestic front, Khrushchev worked—not always successfully—to increase
agricultural production and raise living standards. He also reduced the power of the Soviet
Union’s feared secret police, released many political prisoners, relaxed artistic censorship,
opened up more of the country to foreign visitors and inaugurated the space age in 1957 with
the launch of the satellite Sputnik. Two years later, a Soviet rocket hit the moon, and in 1961
Soviet astronaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first man in space.
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Khrushchev’s Foreign Policy

Khrushchev had a complicated relationship with the West. A fervent believer in communism,
he nonetheless preferred peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries. Unlike Stalin, he
even visited the United States. Relations between the two superpowers deteriorated somewhat
in 1960 when the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane deep inside their territory.
The following year, Khrushchev approved the construction of the Berlin Wall in order to stop
East Germans from fleeing to capitalist West Germany.
Cold War tensions reached a high point in October 1962 when the United States discovered
Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba. The world appeared to be on the brink of nuclear
conflict, but, after a 13-day standoff, Khrushchev agreed to remove the weapons. In return,
U.S. President John F. Kennedy, who one year earlier had authorized the failed Bay of Pigs
invasion, publicly consented not to attack Cuba. Kennedy also privately agreed to take
American nuclear weapons out of Turkey. In July 1963, the United States, the United
Kingdom and the Soviet Union negotiated a partial nuclear test ban.
One of the sharpest thorns in Khrushchev’s side was fellow communist Mao Zedong, the
leader of China. Starting around 1960, the two sides engaged in an increasingly vindictive
war of words, with Khrushchev calling Mao a “left revisionist” who failed to comprehend
modern warfare. The Chinese, meanwhile, criticized Khrushchev as a “psalm-singing
buffoon” who underestimated the nature of Western imperialism.
Khrushchev’s Fall From Power

The break with China and food shortages in the USSR eroded Khrushchev’s legitimacy in the
eyes of other high-ranking Soviet officials, who were already bothered by what they saw as
his erratic tendency to undercut their authority. In October 1964 Khrushchev was called back
from a vacation in Pitsunda, Georgia , and forced to resign as both premier and head of the
Communist Party. Khrushchev wrote his memoirs and quietly lived out the remainder of his
days before dying of a heart attack in September 1971. The fact that Nikita Khrushchev
managed to be recalled from office and lived there after shows the extent of his
democratisation of the USSR.
Leonid Brezhnev becomes president of the USSR

Leonid Brezhnev, one of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s most trusted proteges, is selected as
Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet—the Soviet equivalent to the presidency. This was
another important step in Brezhnev’s rise to power in Russia, a rise that he later capped by taking control
of the Soviet Union in 1964.
Brezhnev had been a trusted associate of Khrushchev since the 1940s. As Khrushchev rose through the
ranks, so did his protege. After Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev rapidly consolidated his power and
succeeded in becoming First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. This position had
always been the real seat of power in the Soviet Union—the first secretary was able to control the vast
Communist Party apparatus throughout the Soviet Union. The position of president (or, more formally,
the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet) was largely symbolic. The president often greeted
foreign visitors and handled more mundane government matters, but policymaking always rested with the
first secretary.
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In May 1960, Khrushchev named Brezhnev to the position of president. While the post meant little in the
way of real power, it did allow Brezhnev to come into contact with numerous foreign dignitaries and
visitors and to travel the world as a representative of the Soviet government. He made the most of these
opportunities and was soon viewed as an efficient and effective official in his own right, not simply a
puppet of Khrushchev.
In 1964, Khrushchev was removed from power and Brezhnev was named new first secretary. Brezhnev
held that post for 18 years until his death in 1982. His era was marked by a certain blandness of rule, a
much-needed stability in Soviet ruling circles, a sometimes harsh repression of the Soviet people, and a
hard-line attitude toward relations with the United States.
Mikhail Gorbachev
A longtime Communist Party politician, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985. He
inherited a stagnant economy and a crumbling political system. He introduced two sets of
policies he hoped would reform the political system and help the USSR become a more
prosperous, productive nation. These policies were called glasnost and perestroika.
Gorbachev’s glasnost plan called for political openness. It addressed personal restrictions of
the Soviet people. Glasnost eliminated remaining traces of Stalinist repression, such as the
banning of books (like Boris Pasternak’s Nobel Prize-winning “ Dr. Zhivago”) and the much-
loathed secret police (though the KGB wouldn’t fully dissolve until the Soviet Union’s
collapse in 1991). Newspapers could criticize the government, and parties other than the
Communist Party could participate in elections.
Perestroika was Gorbachev’s plan for economic restructuring. Under perestroika, the Soviet
Union began to move toward a hybrid communist-capitalist system, much like modern China.
The policy-making committee of the Communist Party, called the Politburo, would still
control the direction of the economy. Yet the government would allow market forces to
dictate some production and development decisions.
Collapse of the Soviet Union

During the 1960s and 1970s, the Communist Party elite rapidly gained wealth and power
while millions of average Soviet citizens faced starvation. The Soviet Union’s push to
industrialize at any cost resulted in frequent shortages of food and consumer goods. Bread
lines were common throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Soviet citizens often did not have access
to basic needs, such as clothing or shoes.
The divide between the extreme wealth of the Politburo and the poverty of Soviet citizens
created a backlash from younger people who refused to adopt Communist Party ideology as
their parents had.
The USSR also faced foreign attacks on the Soviet economy. In the 1980s, the United States
under President Ronald Reagan isolated the Soviet economy from the rest of the world and
helped drive oil prices to their lowest levels in decades. When the Soviet Union’s oil and gas
revenue dropped dramatically, the USSR began to lose its hold on Eastern Europe.
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Meanwhile, Gorbachev’s reforms were slow to bear fruit and did more to hasten the collapse
of the Soviet Union than to help it. A loosening of controls over the Soviet people
emboldened independence movements in the Soviet satellites of Eastern Europe.
Political revolution in Poland in 1989 sparked other, mostly peaceful revolutions across
Eastern European states and led to the toppling of the Berlin Wall. By the end of 1989, the
USSR had come apart at the seams.
An unsuccessful coup by Communist Party hard-liners in August 1991 sealed the Soviet
Union’s fate by diminishing Gorbachev’s power and propelling democratic forces, led
by Boris Yeltsin, to the forefront of Russian politics. On December 25, Gorbachev resigned
as leader of the USSR. The Soviet Union ceased to exist on December 31, 1991 .
CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 2

Introduction
Twenty years after the end of WWI, another war erupted in Europe. The world had thought WWI was the
most devastating war in but WWII became more devastating and disruptive. Just like WWI, the causes of
WWII were many, some and of many facets. They can be traced to the settlements of previous War, the
peace treaties, the failure if the League of Nations and mostly, the acts of aggressions and Expansionist
policies of nations in the 1930s. Some historians argue that World War 2 was a direct result of acts of
aggression and expansionists policies by countries which wanted to expand their territory and power. A
lot of countries in Europe between 1931 and 1941 embarked on expansionist policies even though there
was little justification for such policies. Their expansionist policies later brought them into conflict with
other countries and hence causing the Second World War.
Causes of World War 2
[Objective: Discuss/ evaluate causes of World War 2]
I. The unfairness and harshness of the Treaty of Versailles was one of the causes of World
War 2. This was because the treaty filled Germans with bitterness and a spirit of revenge. The
treaty caused bitterness in Germany because Germany was not allowed to be part of the
discussions at Versailles, the treaty made Germany to lose territories in Europe, Africa and the
Pacific region, she was forced to disarm, she was forced to accept all responsibility of causing
World War 1 and she was also forced to pay high reparations to the allied powers. This heavy
punishment angered Germans and hence their desire to revenge. Germans in other words were
desperate to reverse the terms of the Versailles Treaty. As a way of revenging for the injustices of
the treaty, Germans began to support the Nazi Party in large numbers for the leadership of that
party promised to overturn the treaty once they were voted into office.
II. Failures of the League of Nations - This was the case because it denied membership to the
defeated nations and as a result came to be viewed as a club of the victorious powers. Its covenant
was also included in each of the peace treaties. This caused the League of Nations to be
associated with the hated peace treaties. In fact, Germany and her allies extended the hatred they
had for the peace treaties to the League of Nations. Furthermore, the League of Nations failed to
punish aggressor states such as Japan when she invaded Manchuria in 1931, or Italy when she
invaded Abyssinia in 1935. This caused other countries, to see the League as a toothless bulldog,
and started defying it. For example Germany remilitarised the Rhineland, and later invade
countries such as Czechoslovakia in 1938 and Poland in 1939 in the belief that they like Japan
and Italy would not be punished. However, this instead resulted in to war.
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III. The World Economic Crisis between 1928 and 1932 - The World Economic Crisis made
countries such as Japan and Germany to follow expansionist and aggressive foreign policies. This
ultimately brought them into conflict with others. This period of economic hardship also caused
some countries to lose faith in democracy and international cooperation. This led to the rise of
aggressive fascists governments.
IV. Hitler’s foreign policy - In the 1930s Germany embarked on a militaristic and expansionist
foreign policy. This was characterized by the taking over of the Saar, the remilitarization of the
Rhineland in 1936, union with Austria in 1938, taking over of the Sudetenland and
Czechoslovakia in 1939 and invasion of Poland among others. Germany’s unending acts of
aggression, and reversal of the terms of the Versailles Treaty, ultimately forced Britain and
France to act against her in September 1939 and this marked the beginning of World War 2.
V. The policy of appeasement - Britain and France pursued the policy of appeasement in trying to
satisfy Adolf Hitler, thinking he will stop aggression. This failed to contain the aggressive
demands and actions of Germany in particular when she took over Czechoslovakia in 1938 and
later Poland in 1939. Failure to act on the part of Britain and France was viewed as a sign of
weakness by the aggressors. The policy of appeasement bought countries such as Germany time
to rearm and once they had done this became reckless and overly ambitious.
Results of World War 2
[Objective: Discuss/ evaluate immediate results of World War 2]
Social Results
 LOSS OF LIFE - At the end of the war about 40 million people had lost their lives. The vast
majority of these were Russians (over 20 million), 6 million Poles, 4 million Germans and 2
million Chinese among others.
 DISPLACEMENT OF PEOPLES - The war also resulted in the displacement of 21 million
people. Some of these people were taken to Germany to work as slaves and others were put in
concentration camps especially those set up in Germany and Poland by the Nazis. After the war,
the victorious nations were overburdened with the responsibility of repatriating them. Millions of
people were left homeless after the war. In Russia alone 25 million people were left homeless.
This problem was also common in France and Italy.
 HOLOCAST - The holocaust was one of the worst atrocities of the war. Jews were murdered in
extermination camps set up by the Nazis in Poland and Russia. Upwards of 5 million Jews were
killed in the process.
 SOCIAL WELFARE POLICIES - On a positive note, the war gave birth to important social
changes. One such was the development of the welfare state in most countries where
governments provided free medical care and money to the unemployed, the old and the disabled.
Economic Results
 DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY - The war resulted in the destruction of property,
infrastructure and industries. Germany’s industrial areas were completely ruined, almost 50% of
France’s total wealth was lost and Italy had also lost a significant proportion of her wealth. In the
Far East mines and plantations were totally destroyed and this not only affected the livelihoods of
the people in those areas but also the economies of the European countries which controlled those
territories before the war.
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 UNRRA - The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was set up to
reorganize agriculture, industry and transport. Many countries the world over were given aid as a
result.
 IMF - The International Monetary Fund was set up to help member states balance their books.
 THE MARSHAL PLAN - The Marshall Plan was introduced in 1947 to help European
countries which were on the verge of economic collapse. The USA feared that if such countries
were not assisted, they will turn to communism and hence make it impossible for the USA to
trade with them. The plan made large sums of money available to European countries as grants.
 THE WORLD BANK - The World Bank was also set up to aid the transition from war to peace.
It however later came to supply capital for projects where formal financial assistance would
otherwise not be available.
Political Results
 END OF EUROPEAN DOMINATION - The Second World War brought Europe’s domination
of the world to an end. After the war France, Germany and Italy were weak politically, militarily
and economically. They were bankrupt because they had spent a lot of money in the war.
Germany in particular was weakened by her division into East and West Germany. Britain’s
economy was devastated by the war and had to borrow money from the USA. The world was now
dominated by the USA and to some extent the USSR.
 EMERGENCE OF TWO SUPERPOWERS - Two superpowers emerged after World War 2
and these were the USA and the USSR. They now were no longer isolated from international
affairs. The USA suffered little from the war. Instead she prospered from supplying her allies
with food and materials. The USSR on the other hand quickly recovered from the ravages of the
war. These two superpowers started to compete for influence the world over and this ultimately
led to the Cold War.
In accordance with the decisions taken at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 the major war criminals
were tried at Nuremberg after the war. These were the Nuremberg Trials. 19 leading Nazis were found
guilty of war crimes and 12 were sentenced to death.
The horrors of World War 2 and revulsion (strong feeling of shock and dislike) against the war led to the
formation of the United Nations Organization. The UNO was to be part of the post war settlement. The
organization was formally set up in October 1945 with its headquarters in New York. Its principal aim
was to maintain world peace.
REVISION QUESTIONS
2018
a) Outline any four causes of the Second World War. [8]
b) Explain the factors that led Hitler to rise to power in Germany by 1933. [12]
2015
(a) Describe the appeasement policy adopted by Britain and France before World War II [8]
2007
a) Outline any four of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points [8]
b) Explain how the weaknesses of the League of Nations contributed to the outbreak of the Second World
War. [12]
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2003
a) Outline any four causes of the Second World War [8]
b) How did Hitler’s foreign policy contribute to the outbreak of the Second World War? [12]
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

Origins
The United Nations Organization was formed in 1945 to replace the League of Nations which had failed
to preserve world peace.
The signing of the Atlantic Charter between Great Britain and the United States of America in 1941
paved the way towards the formation of the UNO. The leaders of both countries agreed that a new world
peace organization had to be set up after the end of the Second World War.
The UNO also came into existence as a result of a conference that was held in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks.
It was at this conference where representatives of Great Britain, the USSR, China and the USA set up the
structure of the UNO. The structure of this new organ consisted of a General Assembly and a Security
Council.
The Yalta Conference of 1945 further contributed to the formation of the UNO. It was agreed at this
conference that China, Great Britain, the USSR and the USA would have the veto power in the
Security Council. The 1945 San Francisco Conference also contributed to the birth of the UNO. This
conference culminated in the signing of the Charter of the United Nations by 51 countries.
Membership of the UNO is open to all peace-loving independent states. The Headquarters of the UN are
situated at New York in USA.
PURPOSES/ AIMS OF THE UNO
Article 1
The Purposes of the United Nations are:

1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures
for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the
principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or
situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social,

cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights
and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.
The principal aim of the UNO is to maintain world/ international peace and security. This aim is to be
achieved through “collective action” which entails imposing either economic or military sanctions or both
on aggressors.
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The UNO also aims at encouraging international co-operation to solve social and economic problems
facing especially the poor and underdeveloped nations. It was also set up to develop friendly relations
among nations.
The UNO was finally established to act/ become a centre where actions of nations in the attainment of the
aims of the UNO could be harmonized.
STRUCTURE OF THE UNO

Main Organs
The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social
Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. All were
established in 1945 when the UN was founded.
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
It is composed of representatives of all the member states of the UN.
 Each member has one vote.
 It meets annually in September, but special sessions can be called by the Security Council in
times for emergency.
The General Assembly performs the following functions:

 It debates and makes proposals about International problems concerning peace and co-operation.
 It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council.
 It considers the budget and what amount each member state should pay.
 It supervises the work of many other UN bodies.
*Decision do not require unanimous vote as they did in the League Assembly, two-thirds majority is
usually needed on important issues.
THE SECURITY COUNCIL

The Security Council seems to be the most important organ of the UN. It is composed of five permanent
members who are the USA, USSR, Britain, France, and China. There are also ten non permanent
members who are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term. It sits in permanent session. Each
of the five permanent members has a veto power. However, a member may decide not to use it by not
voting, thus abstaining.
Its primary function is to maintain international peace and security. It is the Security Council that
recommends and sees to it that economic and military sanctions are imposed on an aggressor.
Member states of the UNO undertake to make available to the council their armed forces to assist in
maintaining international peace and security.
THE SECRETARIAT
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The secretariat is the permanent administrative staff elected by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The staff of the secretariat is selected from various member
states. The secretariat performs the following functions:
 It is responsible for running the day-to day affairs of the UN.
 It looks after the administrative work, preparing minutes, translations and pieces of information.
 Has the power to bring to the Security Council any matters of importance it wishes to be
discussed.
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

The International Court of Justice is at The Hague. It has 15 judges elected from various nations by the
General Assembly and the Security Council. Members serve for 3 years.
Its functions are as follows:
 It judges cases submitted to it. Such cases involve settlement of disputes over frontiers for
example, it has settled frontier disputes between Holland and Belgium and the disagreement
between Britain and Norway over fishing limits.
The ICJ also advices the UNO on international law and also on matters such as the interpretation of
treaties.
Nations appealing to it have to agree to accept its decisions as binding. Failure to do so can mean that the
decision will be enforced by the Security Council.
THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

This organ replaced the League’s Mandates Commission. Its membership comprises of 5 permanent
members of the Security Council and states with Trust Territories and others.
Its main function is to see to it that all states looking after trust territories prepares them as soon as
possible for independence.
 In 1994 its job was completed, with the independence of South West Africa from white minority
rule.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
This council originally had 18 members who serve for 3 years. The number has increased to 54.
Its function is to co-ordinate the economic and social work of the United Nations and the specialized
agencies.
 The council initiates activities relating to development of world trade, industrialization, natural
resources, human rights, social welfare, prevention of crime and other social and economic
problems.
Some of the specialized agencies are:
 THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATIONS (ILO)
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o ILO investigates the working conditions, wages, trade union rights and social security of
workers in all parts of the world.
o It ensures that governments give fair deals to workers whose grievances can lead to
disorder.
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION (FAO)
o It collects and disseminates information concerning nutrition, food and agriculture.
o Besides, it sends experts to help countries needing technical advice on food production,
how to fight pests and animal diseases and soil conservation.
o During times of fire, resulting from drought and other natural crises the FAO sends food
relief to the victims of these natural disasters.
 THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)
o The WHO is the agency which advices countries on public health problems and the
control of diseases.
o It fights against pandemics like Malaria, TB, Typhus, Polio, HIV/AIDS and COVID-19.
o WHO’s greatest achievement has been the eradication of smallpox from the world.
 THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO)
o It encourages not simply the spread of education but also international co-operation
between artists, scientists and scholars in all fields.
o It works on the assumption that the best way of avoiding war is to educate people’s minds
in pursuit of peace.
o Besides, it encourages the study of science in educational institutions in the developing
countries by supplying equipment and books.
o UNESCO promotes universal respect for justice, rules, laws and human rights.
 THE UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND
(UNICEF)
o It’s concerned with the care of children in under-developed countries. It specializes in the
supply of medicines, food and equipment for child welfare societies.
THE UNO AND PEACE-KEEPING
Although the UN has had mixed success, it is probably fair to say that the UNO has been rather more
successful than the League of Nations in its peace keeping efforts especially in crises which did not
directly involve the interests of great powers.
1. The UNO is keeping peace forces in Lebanon where a protracted civil war has been going on. Though
the UNO has not been able to end the civil war, the presence of the peace keeping forces stationed there
has reduced tension between the warring factions.
2. On the other hand the UN has scored complete successes on two occasions:
 The 1950-1953 Korean War - This was the only occasion on which the UNO was able to take a
decisive action in crises involving the interests of the great powers during the Cold War.
 South Korea was invaded by communist-North Korea in June 1950.
 The Security Council immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea.
 It called on member states to send help to South Korea. Accordingly, troops were sent and
were able to repel the invasion and preserve the frontier between the 2 Koreas.
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 Though the success was achieved with a heavy American support in the absence of Russia,
the initiative and the operation were taken in the name of the UN hence the UN is credited
with success.
3. THE SUEZ CRISIS 1956 - This crisis showed the UN at its best.
 President Nasser of Egypt suddenly nationalized the Suez Canal in which Britain and France had
heavy shares.
 In reply Britain and France protested and sent troops to protect their interests.
 At the same time the Israelites invaded Egypt from the east. It became obvious that Nasser was to
be destroyed.
 The Security Council condemned the invasion though it was vetoed by France and Britain.
 The matter was passed to the General Assembly and a resounding majority condemned Britain
and France.
 As a result, French and British troops withdrew on the condition that the UN ensured a reasonable
settlement over the Canal and stopped the Arabs and Israelites from killing each other.
 A UN force was moved in while British, French and Israeli forces pulled out.
 The UN by this quick and useful decision stopped the war.
SOME PROBLEMS FACING THE UN

I. Disarmament - One of the most common problems facing the UN is disarmament. This is
because it is the arms race which creates tension and suspicion preceding world wars. The arms
race which preceded the world wars persists and America and Russia have greater quantities of
arms. Besides, a similar situation of the balance of power between the 2-armed camps of Triple
Entente and Triple Alliance exists today. NATO and WARSAW PACT countries belong to 2
opposing armed camps of the west and east respectively. Arms control talks between Russia and
USA have not yielded any concrete results as mutual suspicion and mistrust continue to grow.
The Security Council which is specifically responsible for disarmament has not yet been able to
do much in disarmament.
II. Power Bloc Politics - Power Bloc Politics involving the interest of the big power threatens the
efforts of the UN. On the other hand, the Africa-Asian Bloc tends to co-operate against the big
powers instead of considering issues critically on their merit.
III. Financial Problems - Peace keeping operations and the work of the UN specialized agencies
cost a lot of money. Failure of some member states to pay their contributions has increased
international tension, e.g., at the start of 1965 almost twenty nations including Russia and France
were behind in payments. The UN Charter provides that any nation which is 2 years behind its
payment is to be denied a vote in the General Assembly. However, the enforcement of this rule
would increase rather than decrease world tension.
SOME ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UN
 In spite of all the unsolved problems that face the UN, considerable amount has been achieved in
the years since 1945.
 Local wars which could easily spread have been isolated.
 In 1950-1953 the UN, heavily supported by the USA was able to repel communist North Korea
trying to invade South Korea.
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 The Greek and Turkish Cypriots confrontations have been kept under control by the presence of a
UN peace making force in Cyprus.
 In Human affairs the success has been remarkable and international co-operation has resulted in
important progress against hunger, disease and illiteracy through the activities of UN specialized
agencies. The eradication of smallpox, e.g., is a great victory the WHO has won.
 The UN has survived in a world still divided by fear, suspicion and jealousy.
 It has become a much more international body than the League of Nations.
 Above all it provides a great international forum for discussing issues which can result in a war
without the existence of UN.
RECENT UN PEACE-KEEPING ACTIVITIES

a) UN’s involvement in Namibia’s achievement of independence - When South Africa refused to
grant Namibia independence the South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) resorted to
arms struggle to take power. South Africa resisted and the result was a prolonged bitter war
which claimed lives on both sides. However, as a result of UN sanctions against South Africa and
the relentless loss of life and destruction of property South Africa eventually opted for a
diplomatic solution of the Namibian crisis. It then became necessary for the UN Security Council
through Resolution 435 to send into Namibia troops - United Nations Transition Assistance
Group (UNTAG) and the requisite personnel to supervise the ending of the war and the conduct
of fair elections in order to grant Namibia independence. Apart from a few shortcomings the UN
personnel and the peace-keeping force performed well. As a result, Namibia won her
independence 1990 under a SWAPO government led by Sam Nujoma.
b) UN’s involvement in the 1990 Gulf crisis - Iraq and Kuwait are rich oil producing neighbouring
Arab countries in the Middle East. Frontier disputes and oil production conflicts had narrowed the
relations between Iraq and Kuwait for some time. Instead of Iraq taking the conflict to the UN for
a peaceful solution Iraq rather invaded and annexed Kuwait. This was a threat to peace. As a
result, the permanent member states of the UN unanimously agreed to impose economic
sanctions on Iraq, the aggressor.
This measure was adopted to compel Iraq to pull out of Kuwait and thereby prevent any war
between the 2 countries. Accordingly, troops from member states of the UN were amassed into
Saudi Arabia and in the Gulf to ensure the imposition of effective economic sanctions on Iraq.
This crisis and the response of the UN clearly illustrates UN’s collective action to impose
economic sanctions in order to maintain peace and prevent the outbreak of war.
REVISION QUESTIONS
2013
(a) Describe the origins of the United Nations Organization. [8]
(b) Explain any three problems faced by the United Nations since its formation. [12]
2012
(a) Name any four minor agencies of the United Nations Organisation and describe their functions. [8]
(b) Explain the weaknesses of the United Nations Organisation in its peace keeping efforts. [12]
2007
a) Describe the origins of the United Nations Organisation
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[8]
b) Explain the role played by the United Nations Organisation in the Korean War of 1950-1953 and the
Suez Crisis of 1956. [12]
2004
a) Outline the achievements of the United Nations Organization from 1960 to 1995. [8]
b) Explain the problems faced by the United Nations Organization since its formation. [12]
2002
a) Describe the functions of the main organs of the United Nations Organizations. [8]
b) Explain the role played by the United Nations in any three peace-keeping operations. [12]
2001
a) Describe the functions of four of the United Nations’ specialized agencies. [8]
b) How successful has the United Nations been in keeping peace? [12]
2000
a) Describe the aims of the United Nations Organisation [8]
b) Explain why the United Nations Organisation had some successes in its peace-keeping activities from
1945 to 1966 [12]
LATIN AMERICA - CASE STUDY OF CUBA

You should be able to:
 Explain the establishment of communism rule in Cuba
 Explain internal developments under Fidel Castro
 Discuss the relationship between Cuba, United States of America and the Soviet Union
 Evaluate the contribution of Castro’s Cuba to the Americans and Africans.
4. CUBA BEFORE FIDEL CASTRO

For many year, Cuba was a Spanish colony. The USA played an important role during Cuban struggle
for independence against the Spanish. The USA helped Cuba to defeat the Spanish. After
independence, the USA got involved in Cuban internal affairs.
i) The USA kept a large naval base on Cuba at Guantanamo bay
ii) The American companies controlled Cuban economy because they owned:
a. Mines
b. Sugar plantations
c. Cattle ranches
d. Hotels in Cuba.
iii) Cuban economy was heavily dependent on the USA because the USA was the main
importer of Cuba’s main crop, ie. Sugar.
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iv) Havana, the capital of Cuba, became a tourist destination for rich Americans. It
was a holiday resort for rich Americans.
v) A few Cubans were wealthy while many of them were poor
vi) There were shortages of schools and teachers
vii) About 40% of the people were illiterate.
viii) There was shortage of doctors and hardly hospitals for the people in the
countryside (rural areas).
ix) In 1952, an army general called Batista took over control of Cuban government and
he:
a. Became a dictator
b. Closed parliament and ignored the constitution.
c. Imprisoned and killed his political opponents.
x) The USA government supported Batista’s government because he was anti-
communist.
xi) Many Cubans were dissatisfied with their living conditions and wanted a change of
government.
NB: The above points can be used to answer the question: WHY WAS THERE A COMMUNIST
REVOLUTION IN CUBA?
5. FIDEL CASTRO COMES TO POWER
 Fidel Castro was a young lawyer who wanted to do something about Cuba’s domestic
problems.
 He organized a group of activists to fight Batista’s rule. The group comprised only 160
activists. This group planned to attack the Moncada Barracks. They wanted to seize
weapons and start a general uprising against the government.
 Castro and his group attacked in July 1953 but failed; Seventy of Castro’s supporters were
killed while others were captured and tortured by Batista’s troops. Castro and others were put
in trial and given prison sentences of up to 15 years.
 In 1955, Castro was released from prison and went to Mexico where he met an Argentinean
revolutionary doctor, Ernesto ‘Che'Guevara, who then became Castro’s useful ally. It was
while in Mexico that Castro decided once more to overthrow Batista’s government.
 In 1956, Castro and about 80 of his revolutionaries returned to Cuba with weapons and
supplies. However, Batista’s troops were waiting for them and most of them were killed and
captured. Only 12 survived, among them Castro and his brother Raul and Che Guevara who
then retreated to Sierra Maestra Mountains.
 At Sierra Maestra Mountains, Castro built up support from the local people by:
o Building Schools and Clinics.
o And Organized land Reforms
o News about Castro spread and many more people began to support him. Opposition
groups around the country began to think of Castro as the person who could free
Cuba from Batista’s tyranny.
 Batista sent troops to try to crush Castro and his rebels but were not successful because some
of Batista’s soldiers even joined Castro. Slowly Castro captured the Towns and large parts of
Cuba. By the end of 1958, Castro’s rebels were on the outskirt of Havana. This made Batista
to realize that he was defeated and he fled to exile.
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 Castro and his supporters were welcomed in mass demonstrations when they entered Havana
in January 1959, and and Castro became the Leader of Cuba.
REASONS WHY FIDEL CASTRO CAME TO POWER/ FACTORS LEADING TO THE
RISE OF COMMUNISM IN CUBA
1. Amount of American influence in Cuba- Many Cubans resented American influence in
Cuba. They hated the idea that American companies controlled all aspects of Cuban
economy, with American companies having interest in sugar, tobacco, textile iron, nickel,
copper, manganese, paper and rum industries. US companies also owned ½ of the land, ⅗
of the railway lines, and all electricity production and the entire telephone systems. The USA
was the main market for Cuban exports. All these things sparked resentment and anger
among many Cubans who then supported Castro against Batista.
2. Cuba’s wealth was in the hands of a few people while the majority were poor. This
unequal distribution of wealth angered many people in Cuba hence they decided to support
Castro whom they believed would do much better then Batista’s government.
3. Unemployment was a serious problem - yet there was no unemployment benefit and this
caused a lot of resentment among Cubans who then turned to Castro whom they believed
would provide employment for them.
4. Batista’s government officials were very corrupt and they lived lavish lifestyles in Havana
while the majority of Cubans were very poor and lived horrible lives. This angered many in
Cuba and they supported Castro, something which contributed to the support Castro received
from the ordinary people, the workers and youth.
5. Batista’s government was very weak – since the seized power in 1952, Batista introduced
no reforms. He spent a lot of time attending his private affairs and his foreign fortunes,
leaving himself too little time for affairs of the state. Batista was also very brutal because he
tortured and murdered his opponents. His brutality even made many of the middle class to
support Castro as the most likely way of getting rid of a brutal dictator. Morale in Batista’s
poorly paid army began to crumble in the summer of 1958 after they failed to destroy
Castro’s forces. The USA began to feel embarrassment at Batista’s behavior and cut off arms
supplies to him. This was a serious blow to Batista who on 1 st January 1959 fled from Cuba.
A liberal government was set up with Fidel Castro as its head.
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS UNDER FIDEL CASTRO/ CHANGES MADE BY FIDEL
CASTRO IN CUBA
ECONOMIC REFORMS
1. Land Reforms- the first of Castro’s government tackled was land. Castro nationalized all farms
larger than about 400 hectares. This included much of the land owned by big American
agricultural farms. The farms were made in to collective farms (State owned farms).
2. Modernization of Sugar Plantations- Castro’s government introduced changes to modernize
sugar production to increase output. Sugar factories and businesses were nationalized.
3. The government controlled all aspects of the economy through the policy of Nationalization
4. Attempts were made to introduce new industries and crops to reduce Cuba’s heavy dependence
on the export of sugar
SOCIAL REFORMS
Fidel Castro’s government introduced much needed social Reforms and these included:
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1. Improvement of Education- as a result many Cuban children received some education. Before
Castro rose to power, fewer than half the children had attended school. Before 1959, about 40%
of the Cuban population was semi-literate. By 1984, literacy rate in Cuba stood at 96% and was
one of the highest in the world. This was due to the introduction of free education. Young people
from the university were sent to rural areas to teach farmers how to read and write. This improved
the literary rate.
2. Improvement of health and medical facilities- All graduates of health schools had to do two
years health care service in rural areas. There was free health care for all Cubans by 1984. Many
diseases were wiped out, e.g. Polio and Malaria. Sanitation and hygiene were improved. Infant
mortality rate dropped from 70 deaths per 1000 live births to 2 deaths per 1000 live births.
3. Equality before the law – Castro gave black Cubans equality unlike before when they were
looked down upon.
4. Women and children rights – there were more rights of women and children than before.
5. Arts and culture – Touring cinemas, theatres, concerts and art exhibitions travelled around the
country, giving entertainment to the people.
NB: The above points(economic Reforms and Social Reforms) show Castro’s success in Cuba.
SHORTCOMINGS OF CASTRO’S GOVERNMENT
Not all Cubans supported Castro’s government because;
1. Castro’s government used harsh methods to crash opposition. 500 people who had worked for
Batista were put to death.
2. More than a million people left Cuba in the years after the Revolution. Many of these people
were middle class Cubans who were opposed to Castro’s economic policies. Many of them chose
to live in exile in the USA.
3. Some Cubans were unhappy about lack of political freedom in Cuba during Castro’s rule
because Cuba, under Castro, became a one-party state. Under this system no one was allowed to
criticize the government and whoever dis was put to death.
4. There was no freedom of the Media because media was strictly censored and controlled.
5. There was no religious freedom in Castro’s rule. Before Castro rose to power, the Roman
Catholic was the main church in Cuba. Under Castro’s government, religion was not encouraged
and the activities of the church were restricted. As part of discouraging religion, Castro’s
government outlawed religious holidays.
NB: The above points can also be used to address the question on the failures of Castro’s
government or the negatives of Castro’s domestic policy.
CUBA’S FOREIGN POLICY

A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CUBA AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Initially relations between the USA and Cuba were not bad. However, relations became bad/sour
because:
1. Castro started to nationalize American owned estates, factories and oil refineries. The USA
suspected that Castro was setting up a communist state in Cuba.
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2. The USA began to cut down the amount of sugar that is imported from Cuba to show that she
disapproved of Cuba becoming a communist state. This badly affected the Cuban economy since
Cuba relied heavily on the export of sugar to the USA for most of its income.
3. Castro started to negotiate trade with the Soviet Union which promised to buy Cuban sugar. This
made the USA alarmed because she did not want Soviet ally close to her coast at that time of the
cold war.
4. Cuba nationalized the remaining American-owned sugar estates and this led to the USA cutting
all trade links with Cuba and breaking off diplomatic relations with Cuba.
5. The USA decided to support the Cuban exiles (wealthy Cubans who had fled from Cuba when
Castro came to power). With help of the CIA (American Secret Service), an invasion force landed
in Cuba in April 1961 at a place called the Bay of Pigs. However, the whole invasion was badly
planned and carried out. Castro’s forces easily defeated the invaders with many killed or
captured. After this incident, relations between Cuba and the USA got worse. Castro now
declared himself to be a Communist and turned more to the Soviet Union for aid and support.
6. In 1962 there was Cuba missile crisis because the US spy plane had detected Soviet missiles
bases in Cuba. The USA was horrified by the thought of Soviet missiles so near to their country
and this further deteriorated relations between the two countries.
B. RELATIONS BETWEEN CUBA AND THE SOVIET UNION

As relations between the USA and Cuba deteriorated, relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union
improved because:
1. Castro started trade negotiations with the Soviet Union were when the USA cut down the amount
of sugar she bought from Cuba. The soviet Union promised to buy Cuban sugar and the two
countries grew closer to each other.
2. The Soviet Union had started to supply economic aid to Cuba and this made the two countries
friends.
3. The Soviet Union promised to provide Cuba with weapons so that she could defend herself
against the US invasion. This was after Bay of pigs incident. This shows that Cuba and the Soviet
Union were friends.
4. Fidel Castro and the Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev decided in secret to turn Cuba into a
Soviet nuclear base and this resulted in the Cuban missile crisis after which relations between
Cuba and the USA remained cold while relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union became
even more closer.
5. By 1991 the USA split up and ceased to be communist. This meant that Cuba had lost its most
powerful supporter. This then left Cuba dangerously isolated.
C. CUBA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE AMERICANS
1. Other Latin American states which had right-wing governments were suspicious of Castro’s
government in Cuba. They accused it of trying to stir up Revolutions in Venezuela, Guatemala,
Bolivia, Nicaragua El Salvador, Honduras and Granada. In 1962, they expelled Cuba from
Organization of American States (OAS). Some of them even imposed economic sanctions on
Cuba.
2. Castro successes in Cuba inspired some revolutionaries in Latin America. Such revolutionaries
had hoped to overthrow undemocratic governments in their own countries. In attempt to help
them, Castro sent Cubans to fight with guerrilla groups all over Latin America.
3. Castro sent 5,000 troops, medical technicians, teachers and agricultural experts to Nicaragua.
These helped the Sandinistas Liberation Front which managed to overthrow a harsh dictatorship.
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4. Castro also sent military help to assist a rebel group in El Salvador.

5. Cuba also inspired the Montoneros in Argentina who fought a guerrilla campaign against the
government.
6. Apart from Nicaragua, the guerrillas failed to spread Revolutions in Latin America because
government in many of the countries were helped by the USA to crash any revolutionary
movement
7. By the mid-1970s, relations between Cuba and most other Latin American countries improved
and the OAS lifted sanctions against Cuba.
D. CASTRO’S CUBA’S CONTRIBUTION TO AFRICA

Cuba sent soldiers to Africa to help left-wing groups. Some of the countries cuba assisted in
Africa were the following:
1. In 1962, Castro assisted the struggle of Algeria against the French until the attained
independence.
2. Cuba was involved in Angola for a number of years. During the civil war which followed the
independence of Angola in 1975, Cuba sent about 300,000 Cubans, among them Troops, teachers
and agricultural professionals, to support the Communist government of President Agostino Neto
of the Movement for the People’s Liberation of Angola (MPLA), who were fighting UNITA
rebels which was supported by the South African apartheid regime. Out of the 300,000 Cubans
who fought in Angola and managed to help MPLA to retain power, about 2,000 lost their lives.
3. Cuba also was instrumental in the training of African liberation movements cadres e.g. DRC,
Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Namibia.
4. Between 1970 and 1980, Cuba sent troops to Ethiopia to help the Communist Mengistu
government to stay in power.
5. Cuba supported members of the ANC armed wing (Umkhonto we Sizwe) by training them in
exile at the time When they were fighting South African apartheid regime.
6. Cuba has assisted many African countries in health care and education. Castro’s government sent
doctors to many African countries including Botswana. This assisted a lot in fighting diseases like
Malaria and HIV/AIDS. In Education Cuba sent teachers and financed scholarships for African
students.
PAN – AFRICANISM
Aims
1. Explain the concept of Pan Africanism and its origins.
2. Describe the contribution of leading figures of Pan Africanism such as Marcus Garvey,
W.E.B. Dubois, Kwame Nkrumah and Sol Plaatje.
3. Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in Africa and the Diaspora.
4. Explain
It is a spirit that aims making all Africans conscious of their oneness. It aims at uniting all African states
to bring about a United States of Africa.
Describe the concept of Pan – Africanism (12)

It is an African movement that seeks to unite all blacks or Africans in Africa and the Diaspora. This will
help the blacks to have one strong voice on world issues faced by the blacks in Africa and the Diaspora. It
also stresses the need for collective self-reliance. This will enable the blacks to use their resources to
provide for their people.
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The concept of Pan – Africanism seeks to establish nationhood for Blacks and reaffirm their dignity in the
face of white aggression and oppression. It seeks to achieve this through negotiations where possible and
when this fails force will be used to confront white oppression. The concept of PAN- Africanism aims at
defending human equality and human rights against racial discrimination and organizing a process of
liberation of Black from subordination worldwide.
It also aims at uniting all the African states to bring about a United States of Africa and to uplift
commercial endeavors by Africans. This will help the blacks to resist imperialism and colonialism. The
concept states that a United States of Africa will help Africa to compete effectively on the world stage as
do other continents such as Europe and USA.
Pan – Africanism is an ideology and movement that encourages the solidarity of Africans worldwide. It is
based on the belief that unity is vital for economic, social and political progress and aims to unify and
uplift people of African descent. The ideology asserts that the fates of all African peoples and countries
are intertwined. At its core Pan – Africanism is a belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in
the Diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny.
OUTLINE THE ORIGINS OF PAN AFRICANISM (8)

Pan – Africanism can be traced as far back as the beginning of the period of the Trans- Atlantic Slave
Trade when Africans especially those in east and west Africa resisted the trade in slaves. In the slave
ships Africans were fed to sharks to prevent ships from sinking. Upon arrival in the Americas, slaves
were sold like beasts. Those sold into slavery were separated from their families. Slaves were harshly
treated in the plantations they worked in. Rebellious slaves were usually lynched. Thus, the slave trade
and the harsh manner in which they were treated laid the basis for the origins of Pan Africanism.
The independence of Haiti in 1804 also led to the development of Pan – Africanism. It taught other blacks
in different parts of the world that they too can fight a successful war of liberation against whites’
oppression. After the rebellion, Haiti became an independent state run by ex-slaves in Central America. It
inspired other oppressed blacks in Asia, Africa, Europe and America to fight for their independence.
The Pan- African Congress held in Manchester in 1945 also contributed to the birth of Pan Africanism.
This congress demanded an immediate end to colonial rule. By 1980, most African countries had gained
independence.
The Pan – African congress which was held in Paris also sowed the seeds of Pan Africanism. The
congress was held at the same time when “The Big Three were discussing the Paris Peace settlement
terms. Since they did not say anything about the appalling conditions of Africans (Blacks), the congress
served as a polite reminder to the leaders of the Great Nations to pay more attention to lack of basic
freedoms by blacks throughout the world.
In Africa, draconian colonial laws, oppression and exploitation as well as loss of land created the basis for
the origins of Pan Africanism. This filled Africans with the desire to reclaim their lost independence and
resources. Furthermore, the negative image associated with Africa by the whites later came to be
challenged by the emerging educated blacks. Africa was described as primitive and technologically a
backward dark continent. Black Americans were angered by this and cited Africa as the cradle of
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mankind and even cited the civilizations of Mesopotamia (Iran) and Egypt as evidence of Africans’
intelligence. This laid the basis for the origins of Pan- Africanism.
Black Africans in the Diaspora were angered by the fact that in most American churches, there was only
the promotion of myths of the whites by American religious leaders. Afro- Americans as a result formed
their own churches which reflected African culture such as the beating of drums and dancing. These
churches also sent out missionaries to different parts of Africa to help in lifting up the spiritual lives of
Africans. This also laid the basis for the development of Pan- Africanism.
I conclusion, all these factors combined helped Africans to develop a common consciousness, aspirations
and hopes which crystallized into the Pan Africanist movement. Africans formed nationalist movements
which confronted whites’ oppression and subordination. They also formed religious movements which
preached equality of all people regardless of their origin and color. Eventually force was as exerted on the
whites and they began to strive for racial equality and independence of countries in the Caribbean such as
Haiti and in Africa such as in Ghana which motivated other countries to believe that they too could fight a
successful war of liberation against white domination.
Explain how Pan – Africanism was applied in the Diaspora [12]

It was applied through the use of force and protests which forced the white masters to listen to the blacks’
demands. This was accompanied by the training of military personnel in an effort to fight the white
masters.
It was applied through the formation of movements such as the Universal Negro Improvement
Association and the African Communities League which made Africans in the Diaspora to be conscious
of their African origins. UNIA ran a shipping line known as “The Black Star Line” which returned
African slaves to Liberia and Serra Leone. It also took care of the commercial interests of Africans.
It was applied through the publication of books such as “Black Folk, Then and Now”. This book was
published in 1939 by William E. Dubois. It is an elaboration of the history of black people in Africa and
the New World. His other book entitled “Colour and Democracy: Colonies and Peace”, published in
1945, is a brief call for the granting of independence to Africans.
It was also applied through the formation of movements such as the Black Panther Movement which
was a progressive revolutionary movement which called for social change in America since the
Revolution of 1776. The Movement became an inspiration to generations around the world to join the
struggle against oppression. The movement called for equality and integration, not segregation. The
movement militantly agitated for ethic minority and working-class emancipation.
It was also applied through the formation of religious movements such as the Confederation of Christian
Trade Union, Catholic Workers Movement, Christian Socialist Movement and The United Order which
called for equality of all people regardless of color or sex.
In conclusion it has to be noted that through the above discussed factors, a lot of pressure was exerted on
the different leaders of the USA. Credit also goes to leading Pan- Africanists such as William E. Dubois
and Marcus Garvey for laying the foundation of future Pan Africanists such as Martin Luther King Junior,
Malcolm X (Little) and others who were fruitful in bringing about political, economic and social freedom
of the blacks. Despite the fact that they were assassinated by the anti-civil rights dissidents such as the Ku
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Klux Klan, their deaths motivated the remaining generations that they can still succeed in fighting a
successful war of liberation. Today, the USA is a non–racial country. Even blacks can become presidents
as evidenced by the rise to the presidency by a black person, Barack Hussein Obama.
How far was Pan-Africanism applied in the Caribbean? [12]

It was applied through holding a number of conferences such as the one held in Manchester in 1945. This
conference demanded an immediate end to colonial rule. By 1980, most African countries had gained
independence.
It was also applied through the use of force and protest which forced the white masters to listen to the
blacks’ demands. This was accompanied by the training of military personnel in an effort to use military
force to fight the white masters.
It was further applied through the formation of the Negritude Cultural Renaissance which was
influenced by the Harlem Renaissance. This organization rejected European colonization and its role in
the African Diaspora was to promote pride in African “blackness “ and traditional African values and
culture, mixed with Marxist ideals.
It was also influenced by leading Pan-Africanists such as W.E.B. Dubois who came up with the “Double
Consciousness Philosophy” which encouraged African – Americans to adapt positive aspects of both the
African-American cultures for them to compete effectively with white Americans. The “Double
Conscious Theory” placed African- Americans in a dilemma. An African was to choose the best aspects
of the American culture while maintaining his or her “Africaness”. The philosophy instilled a sense of
pride in Africans in the Caribbean.
In conclusion, it has to be noted that through the above discussed factors, a lot of pressure was exerted on
whites to grant Africans some liberties. Blacks in the Caribbean were able to come together and struggle
for justice and equality. This was primarily made possible by Pan Africanists such as W. E. B. Dubois
and Marcus Garvey.
Explain how Pan Africans was applied in Africa. [12]

Pan Africanism is a spirit that aims at making all Africans conscious of their oneness. It was applied
through holding of conferences in Africa and outside Africa such as the one that was held in Manchester
in 1945. This conference demanded an immediate end to colonial rule. By 1980, most African countries
had gained independence.
It was also applied through the publication of books such as “Towards Colonial Freedom” by Kwame
Nkurumah. Nkurumah argued in his book that the African continent was beset with poverty and misery
despite the fact that it had abundant natural, climatic, strategic and human wealth. This motivated many
African countries to fight for economic, social and political independence. He also published the book
“Neo – Colonialism” in which he extrapolated how foreign companies and governments were enriching
themselves at the expense of the African people.
It was further applied through the formation of the Negritude Cultural Renaissance which was
influenced by the Harlem Renaissance movement. The Negritude Cultural Renaissance was founded by
Leopold Sanghor and Len Damas. This movement helped in the development of racial dignity especially
in the French colonies. It rejected European colonization and its role in the African Diaspora and
promoted pride in African “blackness” and traditional values and culture mixed with Marxist ideals.
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It was also applied through the formation of the National Congress for the British Colonies (NCWBA)
which comprised of the four British West African colonies of the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast
and Nigeria. The NCWBA encouraged commercial unity between Africa and UNIA. It also promoted
unity of purpose and action among these states. It successfully established Universities, colleges and
academies to teach about racial education and culture of the Africans. It aimed at improving the standard
of living especially for people in West Africa.
In conclusion, Pan Africanism was applied in Africa because of contact with African-Americans such as
William Dubois and Marcus Garvey. The educational background of some Africans in West Africa and
Southern Africa also played an important role in ensuring that Pan Africanism was successfully applied.
Furthermore, the “African Personality” concept encouraged communism especially in British colonies
and in West Africa. It avoided reliance on capitalism as this meant total allegiance to the west.
Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in the Diaspora. [12]

Pan Africanism is a spirit that aims at making all Africans conscious of their oneness. Some exploited
black Americans understood Pan Africanism as meaning the need to return to Africa. They understood it
as meaning “the physical return to Africa” hence they formed the “Back to Africa Movement”. They felt
that the return will lead to the development of Africa as a result of technological experience and
knowledge of ex-slaves from America. Sierra Leone and Liberia’s independence under the ex-slaves is a
shining example of the achievements of the proponents of the Back to Africa Movement.
Others understood it as meaning the liberation and improvement of Black Americans as more important
than the physical return to Africa. They therefore understood it as meaning the spiritual return which will
encourage the blacks to stay in America rather than leave America and Demand equal rights for blacks
just like their white counterparts.
Others understood it as a culture movement aimed at cultivating pride in “Africaness.” Such people came
up with revolutionary songs which were influenced by Pan Africanism. They sang and wrote about
African traditions. Such singers included among others the likes of Bob Marley.
Some Africans in the Diaspora understood Pan Africanism as meaning “Double Consciousness”. The
Double Consciousness philosophy encouraged Africans to promote and adapt positive aspects of the
African and American cultures. This concept was conceived by William Dubois.
On the whole, it can be summed up that Pan Africanism was a means by which blacks both in the
Diaspora and Africa could come together and struggle for justice and equality hence Pan Africanists like
W.E.B. Dubois and Marcus Aurelius Garvey stood up and fought for the rights of blacks in the Diaspora
and the Caribbean.
Explain how Pan – Africanism was understood in Africa.

Africans understood Pan Africanism to mean the total independence of all African states that were under
colonial rule. They understood it as a collective effort by independent African states to help fellow
Africans still under colonial rule to gain independence. They therefore formed the Organization of
African Unity, (now African Union) to liberate Africa from colonial rule and bring independence to all
African countries.
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Other Africans understood it as a way of uniting blacks to fight against racism and discrimination. This
will help to restore African pride, dignity and identity which were regarded as inferior by their colonial
masters. In South Africa, they used the ANC and PAC as liberation movements to fight apartheid. It was
a way of securing civil and political rights for blacks in a country dominated by racism.
Other understood it as a culture movement aimed at learning about the African heritage and creating pride
in African achievements and history.
It was understood as a way of restoring unity among Africans and facilitating friendly intercourse among
African. This will promote and protect the interests of all subjects of African descent.
It was also understood as a way of encouraging Africans in education, industry and business sectors to
collaborate and work together. It was also a way of promoting commercial ties among Africans with the
aim of using Africa’s abundant resources to compete effectively with other continents and also to be
economically independent.
Leading Pan – Africanists in the Diaspora
Marcus Messiah Aurelius Garvey

He was an African who was born in the British colony of Jamaica in the Caribbean islands. He was thus
an Afro- Jamaican. Marcus Garvey preached the doctrine of “Africa for the Africans”. This slogan has
since been embraced by Africans all over the World. He described Africa as “The Black Empire” which
should be occupied by Africans only.
Garvey formed the Back to Africa Movement which advocated for the physical return of Africans back
to Africa. He canvassed for the transportation of all the black Americans from Africa back to Africa. He
was successful because many slaves were transported back to Africa and were deposited in Liberia –“the
land of the liberated ones”.
He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and the African Communities League
which made Africans in the Diaspora to be conscious of their origins.
Marcus Garvey also issued uncompromising orations on race relations and inspiration such as the one that
said “Up you mighty people. You can accomplish what you will!” He even held pageants and parades
through “Harlems” with red, black and green liberation flags flying. The colors symbolized the skin,
blood and the hopes and growth potential of black people, respectively. His methodology was inspiring
and refreshing.
Inclusion, it is clear that Garvey made a remarkable contribution in uplifting the social and political status
of Africans all over the world. His life and work were an inseparable mixture of scholarship, protest
activity and polemics. His work was geared towards gaining equal treatment for black people in a world
dominated by whites. He presented evidence to refute the many myths of white racial superiority. He was
by spirited devotion and scholarly dedication an attacker of injustice and a defender of freedom. There is
no doubt that he influenced other leading Pan-Africanists such as Kwame Nkurumah and Azikwe who
played an important role in liberating the African continent.
William Edward Burghardt DuBois (W.E.B. DUBOIS)

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He came up with the “Double Consciousness philosophy” which claimed that Afro Americans had to
adopt positive aspects of both the African-American cultures for them to compete effectively with white
Americans. The “Double Consciousness Theory” was the soul tearing dilemma of the African – American
experience. An African was to choose the best aspects of the American culture while maintaining his or
her Africaness.
In 1909 he helped to form the National Association for the Advancement of the Colored People
(NAACP) in America. The association condemned all forms of discrimination against blacks in and
outside America. Within NAACP he initiated the establishment of “The Crisis” which called for the
alleviation of the oppression of Africans in the Diaspora and abroad. In 1915 the NAACP successfully
challenged the law that excluded blacks from voting in the American Supreme Court.
In 1919 he also convened a Pan – African Congress in Paris. It was held at the same time when “The Big
Three” were attending the Paris Peace settlement. Since they did not say anything about the appalling
conditions of Africans, the PAC served as a polite reminder to the leaders of the Great Nations to pay
more attention to the lack of basic freedoms by blacks throughout the world.
He led racial protests during the decade following WW1 which focused on securing anti-lynching
legislation. Rebellious black slaves were lynched mainly because of their African race. This led to
permanent disability on the part of the slaves.
Dubois’ final African gesture was to take up citizenship in Ghana in 1961 at the request of President
Kwame Nkurumah. While there he began work as director of the “Encyclopedia Africa”. This
encyclopedia provided a “cure” for color prejudice. It repudiated the widely held view of Africa as a vast
cultural cipher by presenting a historical version of complex cultural development throughout Africa.
Most of his works centers on the role of African- American society during the reconstruction period. His
book “Black Folk, Then and Now” published in 1939, is an elaboration of the history of black people in
Africa and the New World. His other book “Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace” published in
1945 is a brief call for the granting of independence to Africans.
In conclusion, it is clear that Dubois made a remarkable contribution in uplifting the social and political
status of Africans all over the world. He died in Ghana in August 27, 1963 on the eve of the civil rights
march in Washington DC. He was given a state funeral at which Kwame Nkurumah remarked that he was
“phenomenon.”
Leading Pan- Africanists in Africa

Kwame Nkrumah
He was born in Ghana which was then a British colony. He was influenced by the ideas of Marcus
Garvey. He became the Secretary General of the Pan- Africa Movement while studying in London.
He returned to Ghana in 1947 to lead the struggle for independence. In 1957 Ghana became the first
democratic country to gain independence in Africa. It was led by Nkurumah. Ghana’s independence
influenced other African countries to demand their independence too and by the end of the 1960’s a good
number of them had succeeded.
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In 1958 he invited 28 leaders of African countries struggling to gain independence to the first All- African
People Congress which was held in Accra, Ghana. This was the first of its kind to be held on the African
soil. He wanted all African countries to unite and gain independence. He felt that the independence of
Ghana alone was meaningless and therefore struggled for the independence of all African countries.
Kwame Nkurumah was also one of the founding fathers of the Organization of African Unity. This was
an organization whose main aim was to bring about unity, freedom and prosperity of the people of Africa.
He even constructed the Africa House in Accra to function as the head quarters of the all African
organization whose aim was to bring about African unity and independence. At that time, most countries
in Africa were not independent.
He also founded the West African National Secretariat to work for the decolonization of Africa. In
1961, he laid the first stones in the foundation of the Kwame Nkurumah Ideological Institute which
aimed at promoting Pan- Africanism. He also offered the president of Guinea a loan of 10million pounds
and the two countries formed a union of their own. The president of Guinea had refused to join the French
Union. France then withdrew all economic aid to Guinea. He also gave military support to anti British
Empire backed government guerillas in Southern Rhodesia, modern day Zimbabwe. This helped
Zimbabwe to gain independence in 1980.
He also published his first book “Towards Colonial Freedom”. In the book he stated that the African
continent was beset with poverty and misery despite the fact that it had abundant natural, climatic,
strategic and human wealth. This motivated many African countries to fight for economic, social and
political independence. He also published the book “Neo-Colonialism” in which he extrapolated how
foreign companies and government were enriching themselves at the expense of the African people.
In conclusion, it is not surprising that he was very influential on some Pan – Africanists such as George
Padmore, Patrice Lumumba and Jomo Kenyatta- reputed leader of the Mau Mau Uprising and the first
president of independent Kenya.
Sol/Solomon Tshekiso Plaatje

He was a journalist and writer who published a number of books and novels and even wrote in
newspapers to make the world aware of the evils and injustices of the racist policies of the whites in
South Africa. In 1912 he joined active politics and became the first secretary of the ANC.
He was very active in contributing to Pan – Africanism because he dedicated his life to changing the lives
of fellow South Africans even though he did not have huge financial resources.
Furthermore, it has to be noted that African History has always been written by whites who wrote it in a
manner that favored them. Sol Plaatje wrote his first novel “Mhudi” in which he talked about the
experiences of Bantu groups during the Mfecane wars.
He also wrote a book called “Native Life in South Africa in which he drew the attention of the world to
the injustices of the Land Act and racism in general in South Africa.
He wrote a pamphlet against the prohibition of mixed marriages in South Africa.
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Senior Secondary School Syllabus

WORLD HISTORY NOTES

4. THE INTER-WAR PERIOD

a. The Paris Peace Conference

MAP OF EUROPE AROUND 1900

BASIC WORLD HISTORY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

republic a government in which citizens elect the leaders

aristocracy government by the best individuals or by a small privileged class

constitution a plan of government

solon a. a wise and skillful lawgiver. b. A member of a legislative body

reparation compensation for war damage

theocracy government headed by religious leaders or a leader regarded as a god

nationalism pride in one’s own nation’s desire for independence

dynasty a line of rulers who belong to the same family

Democracy form of government in which the citizens hold power

Medieval a person of the middle ages

Agrarian a member of an agrarian party or movement; of or relating to lands or their tenure

Conservative tending or disposed to maintain existing views, conditions, or institutions; traditional

Regent a person who acts as a temporary ruler

Indemnity payment for damages or losses

Country a political state or nation or it’s territory

Capitalism an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by

Coup a brilliant, sudden, and usually highly successful stroke or act

Cede to yield or grant typically by treaty

Abdicate to brush off responsibility, to relinquish

Empire a group of territories or nations ruled by a single ruler or government

Absolute Monarchy a ruler has complete control over government

Sovereign one that exercises supreme authority within a limited sphere

Majority the quality or state of being greater

Imperialism policy of building an empire

Coalition a temporary alliance to differing political factors

Anarchy absence of political authority

Nationalize to bring a private industry under government control

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I

THE BALANCE OF POWER IN EUROPE around 1870

EUROPE BEFORE 1870

The Franco-Prussian War

The Unification of Germany

Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871

THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM

Dreikaiseband/ three Emperors’ league - 1873 – Germany, Austria-

The Anti-German Alliances

First Moroccan Crisis 1905/6

Second Moroccan Crisis 1911

BALKAN NATIONALISM/ THE EASTERN QUESTION

Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina – 1908, also known as

i. Accept an Austro-Hungarian inquiry into the assassination, notwithstanding Serbia’s

THE WAR PLANS

Schlieffen Plan (German)

Features of the Schlieffen Plan

Factors that led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan

The French Plan/ Plan XVII (17)

Features of Plan XVII

 Avenging the humiliating defeat of 1871,

 Redeeming French honour.

Why Plan XVII FAILED

THE INTER-WAR PERIOD

The Paris Peace Conference

The Aims of ‘the Big Three’

would never be invaded again.

Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points

9. Readjust Italian borders