92 Initiation

92 启动
load against which the initiator is acting. This, we suggest, is the organic-aerodynamic
correlate of what is most commonly called stress.
启动器所作用的负载。我们认为，这就是通常所说的应力的有机-空气动力学相关
性。
Initiator-power quanta : the more or less rhythmical bursts of initiator power, each SIX
rising to a single peak value, in which initiator activity is delivered in speech. This is 六个
what is called the foot or ‘stress-group’ in English and in other languages with ‘stress-
timed rhythm’ ; perhaps always conterminous with the syllable in languages like French,
with ‘syllable-timed rhythm’.
Phonation
发起者能量量子：或多或少有节奏的发起者能量爆发，每次上升到一个峰值，其
中发起者活动以语音形式传递。这就是英语和其他语言中所谓的脚或“压力组”， 发声
具有“压力计时节奏”。也许总是与法语等语言中的音节相连，具有“音节计时节奏”。
Minimal intra-foot smooth stretches of initiator power bounded either by major foot Logically, the next step after a chapter on initiation would be one about the other
boundaries or by minor intra-foot retardations of initiator activity. These are what are basic and obligatory component of all sounds of speech, namely articulation ;
most commonly called syllables. however, we will find it extremely use- ful to have information on phonation to
由主要足部边界或由引发剂活性的较小足部内阻滞限制的引发剂功率的最小足部 refer back to when we come to examine articulation.
内平滑伸展。这些就是通常所说的音节。 从逻辑上讲，在关于启蒙的一章之后，下一步将是关于所有语音的另一个基本和
必要的组成部分，即发音。然而，我们会发现，当我们检查发音时，有关于发声
的信息可以参考是非常有用的。
By phonation we mean any laryngeal activity of speech that has neither
initiatory nor articulatory function. It is clear, for instance, that the glottal closure
and upward thrust of the larynx in a glot- talie pressure stop such as [t‛] is a
‘laryngeal activity’ ; its function, however, is initiatory, not phonatory. Similarly,
the glottal closure of a [?] is a laryngeal activity; its function, however, is
articulatory (forming the articulation of a glottal stop) not phonatory. On the other
hand, the vibration of the vocal folds producing the voice of vowel-sounds, or
voiced fricatives such as [v, z], is a laryngeal activ-ity that has a phonatory function.
我们所说的发声是指任何既没有启动功能也没有发音功能的喉部活动。例如，
很明显，在诸如[t]的声门压力停止中，声门闭合和喉部的向上推进是“喉部活动”；
然而，它的功能是启蒙，而不是发声。类似地，A[？]的声门闭合是喉部活动；然
而，它的功能是发音（形成声门塞音的发音）而不是发声。另一方面，产生元音
或浊擦音（如[V，Z]）的声带振动是一种具有发声功能的喉部活动。
In this chapter we shall have occasion to look a little more closely at some aspects
of laryngeal anatomy and function than we did in Chapter 3.
在本章中，我们将有机会比在第三章中更仔细地研究喉部解剖和功能的某些方
面。
Figures 23a, b, c, and d represent the larynx as seen from the left side, from
the back, from above, and in a transverse section. hb represents the hyoid bone in
the neck from which the larynx is suspended; tc is the thyroid cartilage, which is
suspended from the hyoid bone by thm, the thyro-hyoid muscle; and sht the
superior horns of the thyroid cartilage. The thyroid cartilage articulates by means
of its inferior horns, iht, with the sides of the cricoid carti-lage, cc. Poised on
top of the swollen back part of the cricoid cartilage are the twin arytenoid
cartilages, ac. Running forward from the vocal processes, vp, of the arytenoid
cartilages to the inside of the front wall of the thyroid cartilage are the vocal
folds, vf. Just above and parallel with the vocal folds is an additional pair of folds
running from back to front, the ‘false vocal cords’ or ventri-cular bands,
vb. The thyroid cartilage is attached to the cricoid cartilage at the front by the
crico-thyroid muscle, ctm, which can
图23A、B、C和D表示从左侧、从后面、从上面以及在横截面中看到的喉。Hb代
表颈部的舌骨，喉部悬挂在舌骨上；TC是甲状软骨，它通过THM（甲状舌骨肌）悬
挂在舌骨上；甲状软骨的上角。甲状软骨通过其下角（IHT）与环状软骨（CC）的
侧面相连。双杓状软骨（AC）位于肿胀的环状软骨后部之上。从杓状软骨的声带
突VP向前延伸到甲状软骨前壁内侧的是声带VF。在声带的正上方，与声带平行的
是另外一对从后向前延伸的声带，即“假声带”或腹带，VB。甲状软骨通过环状甲状
肌（CTM）在前部附着于环状软骨， 哪个可以
94 Phonation Phonation 95
94 发声 发声 95
mation of vocal folds) and (b) location (which particular parts of the larynx were involved).
On the basis of these two parameters alone some twenty-three types of phonation were
enumerated, not to men-tion additional parameters of vocal-fold length and thickness, ver-
tical displacement of larynx, and so on. To a small extent, the data on which those
descriptions were based were speculative, and may have been somewhat over-confident with
respect to some locational labels. In particular, the locational opposition ‘arytenoidal/ liga-
mental’ may be too specific, the vaguer ‘posterior’ and ‘anterior’ being, perhaps, more
desirable labels.
声带、）和（B的形成，）位置，（，）涉及喉部的特定部位。仅以这两个参数为基础，
列举了23种发声类型，而不考虑声带的长度和厚度、喉的垂直位移等其他参数。在某种
程度上，这些描述所依据的数据是推测性的，并且可能在某些位置标签方面有些过于自
信。特别是，“杓状软骨/韧带”的位置对立可能过于具体，模糊的“后”和“前”可能是更理
想的标签。
Since 1964 there have been one or two other attempts to char-acterize phonation types,
notably in Lindqvist (1969), Ladefoged (1971), and Halle and Stevens (1971); these are
discussed below. They do not, however, indicate the need for any radical change in
the 1964 classification, which we therefore present here with little modification. We begin in
a practical, experimental way by asking the reader to carry out various operations in his
own vocal tract.
自1964年以来，有一两个其他的尝试来描述发声类型，特别是在Lindqvist（1969），
Ladefoged（1971），以及Halle和Stevens（1971）；这些将在下面讨论。然而，它们
并不表明需要对1964年的分类进行任何彻底的改变，因此，我们在此提出的分类几乎没
有修改。我们以一种实际的、实验性的方式开始，要求读者在自己的声道中进行各种操
作。

Phonatory Stricture-types
发声狭窄类型
First, breathe fairly deeply in and out through the mouth once or twice. Pay particular
attention to the egressive (pulmonic pressure) breathing, and note that it is somewhat
noisy. The glottis is quite wide open, but at the volume-velocities normal in deep
breathing the flow through the glottis is turbulent, and hence generates a kind of hiss-
noise. Controlling the outflow by means of the respiratory muscles one can slow the flow
down to the point where turbulence ceases, and we have merely silent breath. This should
occur, in fact, when the volume-velocity is reduced to somewhere about 200 cm3/s to 300
cm3/s, which is the order of magnitude of the critical velocity for flow through the wide-
open glottis, although of course a good deal of variation is possible according to just
how big, and how wide open, the individual glottis is.
首先，用嘴深呼吸一次或两次。要特别注意呼出（肺压）呼吸，并注意它有些嘈杂。声
门是完全打开的，但在深呼吸时正常的体积速度下，通过声门的气流是湍流的，因此产
生一种嘶嘶声。通过呼吸肌来控制气流的流出，我们可以将气流减慢到湍流停止的程度，
这样我们就只有无声的呼吸了。事实上，当体积速度减小到大约200cm3/s到300cm3/s时，
Figure 23. The larynx viewed from (a) the left-side, (b) behind, (c) above,
图23.从（a）左侧、（B）后方、（C）上方 这应该发生，这是流动通过完全打开的声门的临界速度的数量级，当然，根据单个声门
(d) in transverse section 的大小和打开程度，可能会有很大的变化。
（D）横截面 Breathing through the open glottis like this is the phonation type known as voiceless—the
phonation of sounds like [p, t, k, f, s, ƒ, h], and so on. But we have seen that two varieties
act to tilt the thyroid cartilage forward and thus stretch the vocal folds. of voiceless phona-tion are possible: one with turbulent flow and resultant noise, and
使甲状软骨向前倾斜，从而拉伸声带。 the other with laminar, noiseless, flow. It is convenient to have special names for them :
The above is sufficient preliminary anatomical background for discussion of phonation. breath for noisy voiceless flow at volume-velocities above about 200-300 cm3/s, and «//-
以上是讨论发声的充分的初步解剖学背景。 phonation for silent voiceless flow at volume-velocities below about 200-300 cm3/s. The high-
It is traditional for works on phonetics to describe at the very least the two velocity flow at rates around 1000 cm3/s, common in English initial [h-], or in the ‘aspirated’
phonation types, voiceless and voiced, which we have already referred to. However, it is h-like release of stressed initial voice-less [ph-, th-, kh-], is normally breath phonation, while the
clear that many more varieties of phonatory activity are possible. Catford (1964) surveyed lower velocity flow in voiceless fricatives, such as [f, s, ƒ}, is often nil-
the pos-sibilities in terms of (a) stricture-type (degree and type of approxi- 像这样通过打开的声门呼吸是一种被称为清音的发声类型——像[p，t，K，f，s，f，
传统上，语音学著作至少要描述两种发声类型，即我们已经提到过的清音和浊音。 H]等声音的发声。但是，我们已经看到，有两种类型的清音是可能的：一种是湍流和合
然而，很明显，更多种类的发声活动是可能的。卡特福德（1964年）调查了（、）、严 成噪声，另一种是层流，无噪声。给它们起个特殊的名字是很方便的：体积速度在200-
格类型、（程度和近似类型方面的可能性。 300cm3/s以上的有声清音气流的呼吸，体积速度在200-300cm3/s以下的无声清音气流的
«//-发声。在英语首音[H-]或重读首音[ph-，th-，Kh-]的“送气” h样释放中常见的
1000 cm3/s左右的高速流动通常是呼吸发声，而清擦音中的低速流动，如[f，s，f]，
通常是零-
96 Phonation
96 发声
phonation. The distinction is important chiefly in relation to the discussion of ‘voiceless
vowels’. In order to be audible at all, a voiceless vowel must have turbulent flow through one
of its orifices: the oral orifice for close (approximant) vowels like [i, u], the glottal orifice for
open (resonant) vowels like [s, a].
发声。这一区别的重要性主要体现在对“清元音”的讨论上。为了完全听得见，清元音必
须有湍流通过它的一个孔：像[I，u]这样的封闭（近似）元音的口腔孔，像[s，a]这样
的开放（共振）元音的声门孔。
Continue the experiments now by deliberately switching from breath to whisper.
Switch back and forth, comparing them: thus, breath-whisper-breath-whisper, and so on.
Note how, in whisper you can feel a tenseness in the larynx that is not present in
breath. Try switching over, within the same exhalation, from whisper to breath : breathe
in, start up whisper, then, keeping the pulmonic egressive air-stream going, switch to
breath. You should feel a kind of relaxation in the larynx as you pass from whisper to
breath, and you cannot fail to notice the sudden greatly increased volume-velocity
of the air-flow. Try silently switching between whisper and breath, that is, don’t breathe, or
at least let the air-flow out so slowly that no sound is produced, and imagine yourself
alternately whisper-ing and breathing, introspecting all the time about the kinaesthetic
sensations. From this, and the previous experiments, it will be clear that whisper
involves a narrowing of the glottis. A number of dif-ferent types of whisper can be
produced, but at this stage, all one need note is that whisper is a strong, ‘rich’ hushing
sound, generated by turbulent air-flow through a considerably narrowed glottis. In
whispered speech, normally voiced sounds are whispered, while nor-mally voiceless sounds
remain voiceless. For example, if you whisper such words as fish, or six, you will see that,
in fact, only the vowel in each case is whispered : the voiceless consonants [f-S] or [s-
ks] remain voiceless. On the other hand, whisper the word vision [‛vı3°n] and notice how
whisper is substituted for voice throughout : you can prove this by comparing the word
fission [Tipn], When these two words are whispered one after the other the difference
between voice­ less [f, ƒ] and whispered [v, 3] is quite clear.
现在继续实验，故意从呼吸切换到耳语。来回切换，比较它们：因此，呼吸-耳语-
呼吸-耳语，等等。注意，在耳语中，你可以感觉到喉部的紧张，而这在呼吸中是不存
在的。试着在同一次呼气中，从耳语切换到呼吸：吸气，开始耳语，然后，保持肺向外
气流，切换到呼吸。当你从耳语到呼吸时，你应该感觉到喉部的一种放松，你不可能不
注意到气流的体积速度突然大大增加。试着安静地在耳语和呼吸之间切换，也就是说，
不要呼吸，或者至少让空气慢慢地流出，不发出任何声音，想象自己交替地耳语和呼吸，
一直在内省动觉。从这一点和以前的实验中，可以清楚地看到，耳语涉及声门变窄。
可以产生许多不同类型的耳语，但在这个阶段，需要注意的是，耳语是一种强烈的、
“丰富的”安静的声音，由湍流气流通过相当狭窄的声门产生。在耳语中，通常的浊音
是耳语，而通常的清音是无声的。例如，如果你对fish或six这样的单词进行耳语，你
会发现，事实上，每种情况下只有元音是耳语的：清辅音[f-s]或[s-KS]保持清音。另
一方面，耳语单词vision[`vı3°n]，并注意耳语在整个过程中是如何代替声音的：你可
以通过比较单词fission[tipn]来证明这一点，当这两个单词一个接一个地耳语时，
voice less[f，]和whisper[V，3]之间的区别非常明显。
We saw that with voiceless fricatives like [f, ƒ] phonation is most commonly nil (noiseless),
because the velocity of flow through the glottis is below the critical value of about 200-300
cm3/s. The criti-cal velocity for whisper is naturally very much lower, since the glottal
orifice for whisper is very much smallèrthan that for voice- less phonation. One can
easily feel this by producing noisy breath, and slowing down the air-flow till turbulence
ceases, then saying whisper and slowing down the air-flow till turbulence ceases. It is
easy to feel that the sub-critical flow velocity for whisper is much lower than that for
voicelessness. In fact, the critical volume-velocity for whisper is about 25-30 cm3/s as
opposed to 300 cm3/s or so for voicelessness. In theory, one can have a continuum of
degrees of
我们看到，对于像[f，f]这样的清擦音，发声最常见的是零（无噪声），因为通过
声门的流速低于约200-300cm3/s的临界值。耳语的临界速度自然要低得多，因为耳语的
声门孔比少声发声的声门孔小得多。一个人可以很容易地感觉到这一点，通过产生嘈杂
的呼吸，并放慢气流直到湍流停止，然后说耳语并放慢气流直到湍流停止。很容易感觉
到耳语的亚临界流速比无声的亚临界流速低得多。事实上，耳语的临界体积速度约为
25-30cm3/s，而无声的临界体积速度约为300cm3/s。从理论上讲，一个人可以有一个连
续度
Phonation 97
发声 97
glottal opening going from ‘widest possible’ in breathing, or voice­ less phonation, down to a
very small glottal chink, for strong whis- per. In practice, however, it seems that we make two
quite distinct glottal adjustments for the two phonation types: a wide one, prob-ably of
about 60 to 95 per cent of the maximal glottal area for voiceless, and a distinctly narrow one,
probably of less than 25 per cent of the maximal glottal area, for whisper.
声门开口从呼吸中的“最大可能”，或声音较少的发声，下降到一个非常小的声门裂缝，
用于强烈的耳语。然而，在实践中，我们似乎对两种发声类型进行了两种截然不同的声
门调整：一种是宽的，可能是清音最大声门面积的60%至95%，另一种是明显窄的，可能
是耳语最大声门面积的25%以下。
The next phonation type to be experimented with is voice. First, alternate voiceless
and voiced fricatives, such as [fvfvfv] [szszsz]. Now carry out the same operation with
the mouth fairly wide open, without any narrow fricative-type articulation, that is,
[hh], with an ‘indeterminate’ central vowel, somewhat like that of the (British) English
word bird. Now say a long [a::], then suddenly cease voicing and open up the glottis for [h],
thus, [nzh]. Do this several times aloud, and silently; note the feeling of closed glottis
for voice and I open glottis for voiceless phonation. In the production of voice the vocal
folds are adducted and subjected to a certain degree of ten-sion. The process of vocal
fold vibration may start with the folds in a suitable state of tension, but slightly open. As the
pulmonic egres- sive air-stream goes through the very narrow glottal chink it is
accelerated, and consequently the pressure in the glottis falls (the Bernoulli effect, see
p. 32). As a result, the vocal folds snap together, to be forced open again a
moment later by the sub- glottal pressure, to close again a moment later by their own
elasticity and the Bernoulli effect; and so the cycle repeats itself again and
下一个要试验的发声类型是语音。一是清浊擦音交替，如[fvfvfv][szszsz]。现在
执行相同的操作，嘴张得相当大，没有任何狭窄的摩擦音发音，即[HH]，带有“不确定”的
中央元音，有点像（英国）英语单词bird。现在说一个长[a：:]，然后突然停止发声，
打开声门[H]，因此，[nzh]。这样做几次，大声地，默默地；注意发声时声门闭合的感
觉，发声时声门张开。在发声时，声带内收并受到一定程度的张力。声带振动的过程可
以从声带处于合适的张力状态开始，但稍微打开。当肺呼吸气流通过非常狭窄的声门缝
隙时，它被加速，因此声门中的压力下降，（伯努利效应，见P。32).结果是， 声带
“啪”的一声合在一起，一会儿又被声门下的压力打开，一会儿又被自身的弹性和伯努
利效应关闭。所以这个循环再次重复，
again.
又。
The description of vocal-fold activity that we have just given is often called the
‘myoelastic’ theory of voice production, since it assumes that the vocal folds are set in
vibration solely by the com-bined effects of subglottal pressure, the elastic properties of the
vocal folds, and the Bernoulli effect. In the 1950s a different theory was put forward by
the French scientist Raoul Husson. Husson’s theory is known as the ‘neurochronaxic’
theory, and holds that vocal-fold vibrations are not aerodynamically or 'myoelastically'
produced, but are, rather, the result of periodic neural stimulation and contraction of
muscles in the vocal folds. Up to about 200 Hz (200 muscular contractions per second) nerve
fibres of the recurrent laryngeal nerve operate in phase. Above that frequency, the fibres
go out of phase, so that their combined firing will set the glottis opening and closing
rhythmically at frequencies higher than the maximum frequency of in-phase innervations.
So long as there is some subglottal pressure, these neurally induced rhythmic openings of the
glottis will release periodic air-jets into the pharynx, thus generating the sound of voice (on
this see Husson 1960, 1962). The neurochronaxic theory is of
我们刚刚给出的声带活动的描述通常被称为发声的“肌弹性”理论，因为它假设声带
仅由声门下压力、声带的弹性特性和伯努利效应的综合效应而振动。20世纪50年代，法
国科学家拉乌尔·胡森提出了一种不同的理论。Husson的理论被称为“神经时间轴”理论，
认为声带振动不是空气动力学或“肌弹性”产生的，而是周期性神经刺激和声带肌肉收缩
的结果。高达约200Hz（每秒200次肌肉收缩）的喉返神经的神经纤维同相操作。在该频
率以上，纤维异相，因此它们的联合放电将使声门以高于同相神经支配的最大频率的频
率有节奏地打开和关闭。 只要有一些声门下压力，这些神经诱导的声门节律性开口就
会向咽部释放周期性的空气喷射，从而产生声音（关于这一点，见 Husson 1960，
1962）。神经时间轴理论是
98 Phonation
98 发声
dubious validity and not generally accepted. For criticism of it, see van den Berg (1954 and
1958).
有效性可疑且未被普遍接受。关于对它的批评，见范登伯格（1954和1958）。
In order to generate voice (low-pitched chest voice) a subglottal pressure of at least 2 to 3
cm HO is needed, and the liminal volume-velocity is about 50 cm3/s. In speech, mean
volume-velocities of 100-350 cm3/s are normal. Assuming that the glottis is, on the
average, open for about half of each cycle of glottal vibration (as it normally is at
fairly low pitches) this represents a true mean volume-velocity through the glottis,
during each open phase, of 200-700 cm3/s. For a maximum glottal opening of about
20 mm2, and a mean of about 10 mm2, a mean volume-velocity of 250 cm3/s would indicate a
mean velocity of 2500 cm/s (and mean subglottal pressure of 3-7 cmH2O). At each opening
of the glottis, then, a fairly high velocity air-jet, averaging about 2000 to 5000 cm/s,
shoots up into the pharynx. It is this periodic series of high-velocity jets which set the
resonating chambers of the supraglottal cavities ‘ringing’ in the production of vowels.
为了产生声音（低音调的胸部声音），需要至少2至3cm HO的声门下压力，并且阈值
体积速度约为50cm3/s。在语音中，100-350cm3/s的平均体积速度是正常的。假设声门在
每个声门振动周期的大约一半时间内平均打开（因为它通常处于相当低的音调），这表
示在每个打开阶段期间通过声门的真实平均体积速度为200-700cm3/s。对于约20mm2的最
大声门开口和约10mm2 的平均值，250cm3/s的平均容积速度将表示2500cm/s的平均速度
（ 和 3-7cmH2o 的 平 均 声 门 下 压 力 ） 。 然 后 ， 在 声 门 的 每 个 开 口 处 ， 平 均 约 2000 至
5000cm/s的相当高速的空气射流射入咽部。正是这一系列周期性的高速喷流使声门上空
腔的共振腔在产生元音时“鸣响”。
Voice starts with the vocal folds forming a narrow glottal chink. There is, however,
still one more degree of closure before the com-plete, tight, closure of glottal stop is
reached ; this is the closure for creak. The precise mechanism of creak is unclear, but
one way of producing it is to sing down the scale to the lowest note you can reach,
then go still further down. With a little trial and error, adjust-ing vocal fold tensions,
one can, in this way, achieve a clear, low frequency (about 40 to 60 Hz) rapid series
of taps, rather like the sound of a stick being run along a railing, or of one of those
noise-making devices in which a wooden toothed wheel in turning round repeatedly
engages and ‘tweaks’ a wooden clapper. In creak the vocal folds are in close contact,
but not much tensed, and air escapes in small periodic bursts through a very small
aperture near the forward end of the vocal folds. The subglottal pressure is very low,
and so too is the volume-velocity, being of the order of 12 cm3/s up to a maximum of
about 20 cm3/s. A further stage of contraction will, of course, create glottal stop, but
this, we have seen, never has a phonatory function. A glottal stop is either an
articulation (the final1 shaping of a sound) superimposed on a pulmonically
initiated air-stream, or else if is itself a concomitant of initiation.
声音从声带开始，形成一个狭窄的声门裂缝。然而，在达到声门塞音的完全、紧密闭
合之前，还有一个闭合程度；这是Creak的闭包。吱吱声的确切机制尚不清楚，但产生它
的一种方法是把音阶唱到你能达到的最低音，然后再往下唱。通过一些尝试和错误，调
整声带张力，人们可以通过这种方式获得一系列清晰、低频（约40至60赫兹）的快速敲
击，就像一根棍子沿着栏杆运行的声音，或者是一种制造噪音的装置，其中一个木制齿
轮在转动时反复啮合并“调整”一个木制拍板。在吱吱声中，声带紧密接触，但不太紧张，
空气通过声带前端附近的一个非常小的孔以小的周期性爆发的形式逸出。声门下压力很
低，容积速度也很低。 其量级为12cm3/s直到最大约20cm3/s。当然，收缩的进一步阶段
将产生声门塞音，但我们已经看到，这从来没有发声功能。声门塞音要么是叠加在肺部
启动气流上的发音（声音的最终形状），要么本身就是启动的伴随物。
Combinations of Stricture-types
狭窄类型的组合
We have now demonstrated, experimentally, that it is possible to segment the continuum of
degrees of openness of stricture in a natural, non-arbitrary way. Having thus discovered
voiceless (breath and nil), whisper, voice and creak as phonatory stricture-types we can
proceed to see how these basic types can be combined.
我们现在已经通过实验证明，以一种自然的、非任意的方式分割狭窄开放程度的连续体
是可能的。因此，在发现了清音（呼吸和零）、耳语、声音和吱吱声作为发声限制类型
之后，我们可以继续了解这些基本类型是如何组合的。
Phonation 99
发声 99
We start with the combination of breath and voice. Take in a deep breath, then let it out
rapidly and noisily trying to get the sound of voice mixed in with breath. The effect
is somewhat like that of sighing. This is breathy voice: the glottis is narrowed from its
most open position, but not narrowed enough to generate whisper, that is, it is still at
considerably more than 25 per cent of its maximal open- ing, probably, in fact, around 30
to 40 per cent. The vocal folds are vibrating, but without ever closing or, indeed,
coming anywhere near closing. They simply ‘flap in the breeze’ of the high-velocity air-
flow. The liminal volume-velocity for the production of breathy voice is of the order of
90 to 100 cm3/s: more commonly, however, it is much faster, around 900 to 1000 cm3/s.
Try filling the lungs to capacity and then generating breathy voice for as long as you can.
Owing to the high vol urne-velocity of breathy voice, this probably will not be more than
four or five seconds. Breathy voice often occurs when one tries to blurt out a message when
extremely out of breath. It is also the phonation type of ‘voiced h’.
我们从呼吸和声音的结合开始。深吸一口气，然后快速地、大声地呼出，试图让声
音与呼吸混合在一起。效果有点像叹气。这是呼吸声：声门从其最开放的位置开始变窄，
但还没有窄到足以产生耳语，也就是说，它仍然大大超过其最大开放度的25%，事实上，
可能在30%到40%左右。声带在振动，但从未闭合，或者实际上，接近闭合。它们只是在
高速气流的“微风中飘动”。产生呼吸音的阈值体积速度约为90至100 cm3/s：然而，更常
见的是，它要快得多，约为900至1000 cm3/s。试着把肺填满，然后尽可能长时间地发出
呼吸声。由于呼吸音的高音量速度，这可能不会超过4或5秒。 当一个人上气不接下气
地试图脱口而出一条信息时，经常会出现气喘吁吁的声音。它也是“浊音H ”的发声类
型。
Experiment next with the combination of whisper and voice. Take in a deep breath and
start to produce pulmonic egressive whisper. While producing whisper, and taking care
to keep it going, ‘switch on’ voice, and keep that going as well. You ought now to be
pro-ducing a mixed sound, in which the periodic vibrations of voice are audible at the
same time as the continuous ‘hushing’ sound of whisper. This is whispery voice. A second
approach to whispery voice may be made by starting with normal, relaxed, low frequency
voice, and then, while it is going on, relaxing the vocal folds further till continuous
whisper is heard mixed in with voice. Whispery voice is produced by normal, though
relaxed, production of voice, with a concomitant chink constantly open. In one type of
whispery voice, perhaps the most common kind, the arytenoid cartilages are some-what
separated, so that there is a whisper-generating chink at the posterior end of the glottis,
while the vocal folds, forward from the vocal processes are vibrating normally—that is,
with a normal cycle of closed and open phases. In another type of whispery voice there
is probably no localised arytenoidal chink : the vocal folds are simply somewhat relaxed and
vibrate without ever closing completely, so that there is a constant whisper-generating
escape of air. The air-flow of whispery voice is naturally somewhat lower than in
breathy voice, since in whispery voice there must always be a glottal chink small enough
to generate whisper rather than breath: the liminal volume-velocity is about 60 to 70 cm3/
s and the normal flow is of the order of 300-400 cm3/s, rather than the 900 to 1000 or so of
breathy voice. Consequently, if you fill the lungs to capacity and then gener- ate whispery
voice for as long as you can the duration of the utter-
下一步尝试使用耳语和语音的组合。深吸一口气，开始发出肺音。在产生耳语的同
时，注意让它继续下去，“打开”声音，并保持下去。你现在应该产生一种混合的声音，
在这种声音中，声音的周期性振动与耳语的连续“安静”声同时被听到。这是耳语的声音。
耳语的第二种方法可以通过从正常的、放松的、低频的声音开始，然后，当它继续进行
时，进一步放松声带，直到听到与声音混合的连续耳语。耳语般的声音是由正常但放松
的声音产生的，伴随着不断打开的裂缝。在一种耳语般的声音中，也许是最常见的一种，
杓状软骨是分离的，因此在声门的后端有一个产生耳语的裂缝，而声带， 从发声过程
向前，振动是正常的——也就是说，有一个正常的封闭和开放阶段的循环。在另一种耳
语般的声音中，可能没有局部的杓状软骨裂缝：声带只是稍微放松和振动，而不是完全
闭合，因此有一个持续的耳语产生的空气逸出。耳语声的气流自然比呼吸声的气流略低，
因为在耳语声中，必须始终有一个小到足以产生耳语而不是呼吸的声门裂缝：阈限体积
速度约为60至70厘米3/秒，正常气流约为300至400厘米3/秒，而不是呼吸声的900至1000
左右。因此，如果你把肺填满，然后尽可能长时间地用耳语说话，
3

100 Phonation
Phonation 101
100 发声 发声 101
ance will be about three times that of breathy voice. Whispery voice is an
pitched) voice, such as mid-voice and falsetto, minimal volume-velocities and pressures
anthropophonically important phonation type since it is not uncommon in the languages of the
are higher: according to Van den Berg and Tan ( 1962) the minimal volume-velocities and
world. In English, and possibly other languages, it is associated with tenderness or mild sexual
excite-ment. In other languages it is a regularly utilized type of phonation, the range of subglottal pressures are mid-voice (lowest pitch 130 Hz) above 60 cm3/s and
声音大约是呼吸声的三倍。耳语声是一种重要的人声发音类型，因为它在世界语言中并 音调）声音，例如中音和假声，最小体积速度和压力更高：根据Van den Berg和Tan
不罕见。在英语和可能的其他语言中，它与温柔或温和的性兴奋有关。在其他语言中， （1962），最小体积速度和声门下压力的范围是中音（最低音调130Hz）高于60cm3/s和
pressures 10-30 cmH O. falsetto (lowest pitch 200 Hz) above 70
它是一种经常使用的发声类型， 压力10-30 cmH O.假声（最低音调200 Hz）高于70
often referred to in the literature as ‘murmur’ or (incorrectly) as 3
2

在文献中通常称为“杂音”或（不正确地）称为 3 2
cm /s and pressure less than 15 cm H2O. Moreover, the full closure and opening of the
‘breathy voice’. glottis described above may be characteristic only of chest voice; in other ‘registers’,
“气声”。 as they are often called, there may be no absolute closure of the glottis. This is
Whisper may be combined with creak, to produce whispery creak. Once you can produce particularly true of falsetto, where the vocal folds are tensed and their edges vibrate in the
creak, it is not very difficult to keep creak going and then open a chink (between the passing air-stream.
arytenoid cartilages), and let a whisper-generating air-stream escape simultaneously with cm/s且压力小于15cm H2O。此外，上述声门的完全闭合和打开可能仅是胸音的特征；在
creak. It is doubtful if whispery creak is ever used in any language, but its production 通常所说的其他“音域”中，声门可能没有绝对闭合。假声尤其如此，声带绷紧，边缘
is a means of ‘getting the feel’ of a posterior (ary- tenoidal) glottal opening, since we know that 在通过的气流中振动。
creak demands com- plete closure of the front part of the glottis, with a periodic very Creak : glottis closed, very low subglottal pressure, very low mean volume-velocity
small opening there. (about 12 to 20 cm3/s), and low-frequency (about 40 to 50 Hz) periodic bursts of air
耳语可能与吱吱声结合，产生耳语般的吱吱声。一旦你能产生吱吱声，保持吱吱声 through a very small chink near the front end of the vocal folds. This generates a
不是很难，然后打开裂缝（杓状软骨之间），让产生耳语的气流与吱吱声同时逸出。如 ‘tapping’ sound. Breathy Voice: glottis considerably less open than for voiceless
果在任何语言中使用耳语吱吱声，这是值得怀疑的，但它的产生是一种“获得”后（杓状） phonation, but not narrowed enough to produce whisper. Vocal folds ‘flapping in the
声门开口的“感觉”的手段，因为我们知道吱吱声要求声门前部完全闭合，在那里有一个 breeze’ to produce a sigh-like mixture of breath and voice which, because of its high volume-
velocity (around 900 to 1000 cm3/s) cannot be long maintained.
周期性的非常小的开口。
Finally, voice may be combined with creak, to produce voiced creak, or, as it is 吱吱声：声门关闭，声门下压力非常低，平均容积速度非常低（约12至20 cm3/s），低
more commonly called, creaky voice. The precise mechanism of this is unknown, but it 频（约40至50 Hz）周期性气流通过声带前端附近的一个非常小的缝隙。这会产生“敲
is an empirical fact that a combination of voice and creak can occur, with very relaxed 击”声。呼吸音：与无声发声相比，声门的张开程度要小得多，但也没有缩小到足以产
vocal folds. Both creak and creaky voice seem to be quite common in final very low- 生耳语的程度。声带“在微风中飘动”，产生呼吸和声音的混合，由于其高音量速度
pitched stretches of utterances in British English, par-ticularly in varieties of RP (Received （约900至1000 cm3/s），无法长时间保持。
Pronunciation), which are regarded by non-RP speakers as particularly ‘drawling’ Whispery Voice: somewhat relaxed vocal cords vibrating to generate voice, with continuous,
and ‘affected’. simultaneous, richly turbulent escape of air through a chink, generating whisper. Two
最后，声音可以与吱吱声结合，以产生浊音吱吱声，或者更常见的叫法，吱吱声。其 types are possible: (a) normal (fully closing) voice-vibrations ‘up front’ with a space
确切机制尚不清楚，但这是一个经验性的事实，即在声带非常松弛的情况下，可以出现 for escape of whisper-air between the arytenoid cartilages, and (b) re-laxed vocal folds
声音和吱吱声的组合。吱吱声和吱吱声似乎在英国英语中最后一段非常低沉的话语中很 never closing completely so that there is always a chink for escape of whisper-air
常见，尤其是在各种RP（标准发音）中，非RP说话者认为这是特别“拖长”和“矫揉造作”。 somewhere along their length. Air-flow much slower than for breathy voice—about
We may now briefly summarize the various types of phonatory stricture-types 60 to 300/400 cm3/s. Often wrongly called ‘breathy voice’. Sometimes known (for
studied so far. example, in Gray 1939, Pandit 1957, Ladefoged 1971) by the un-informative label
‘murmur’. The term ‘murmur’ was perhaps first used by Bell (1867, p. 46) for a sound
我们现在可以简要地总结一下到目前为止所研究的各种发声狭窄类型。
which he describes as ‘whisper and voice heard simultaneously’. Bell’s further elucidation
Voiceless: glottis wide open (about 60 to 95 per cent of maximal opening); at volume- of this sound suggests, however, that he believed the whisper component to be produced in
velocities below about 200 to 350 cm3/s flow is non-turbulent (‘nil-phonation’); above this rate the pharynx. For general phonetic purposes it is best designated by the unambiguous analytic
flow is turbulent, generating the sound of audible breathing (‘breath phonation’).
term ‘whispery voice’.
清音：声门大开（约为最大开口的60%至95%）；在低于约200至350cm3/s的体积速度下， 耳语般的声音：稍微放松的声带振动产生声音，通过缝隙连续、同时、丰富的湍流空
流动是非湍流的（“无发声”）；高于这个速率的气流是湍流，产生可听见的呼吸声
气逸出，产生耳语。有两种类型是可能的：（a）正常的（完全闭合的）声音振动“在前
（“呼吸声”）。
面”，在杓状软骨之间有一个空间供耳语空气逸出；（B）松弛的声带永远不会完全闭合，
Whisper: glottis considerably narrowed (less than 25 per cent of maximal opening); volume-
velocity, from about 25 cm3/s upwards, strongly turbulent, generating the relatively, ‘rich’, 因此在其长度上的某个地方总有一个缝隙供耳语空气逸出。气流比呼吸音慢得多——大
‘hushing’ sound of whisper, clearly modulated to produce ‘vowel-like’ sounds, by the oral 约60到300/400厘米3/秒。经常被错误地称为“呼吸声”。有时（例如，在Gray 1939，
resonator. no, comaçukty Pandit 1957，Ladefoged 1971）被称为联合国信息标签“杂音”。“杂音”一词可能
耳语：声门明显变窄（小于最大开口的25%）；体积速度，从大约25cm3/s向上，强烈的 是贝尔（1867年首次使用的，）一种声音，他将其描述为“同时听到的耳语和声音”。
湍流，产生相对“丰富”、“安静”的耳语声音，通过口腔共鸣器清晰地调制以产生 然而，贝尔对这种声音的进一步解释表明，他认为耳语成分是在咽部产生的。 对于一
“元音状”声音。不，科马苏克蒂 般的语音目的，它最好用明确的分析术语“耳语”来表示。
Voice: glottis closed, and vocal folds subjected to varying degrees of tension, such that Whispery Creak: continuous whisper-generating air-escape com- bined with creak.
they vibrate (at volume-velocities from about 50 cm3/s upwards and from about 2 to 3 cm 耳语般的吱吱声：连续产生耳语的空气逃逸与吱吱声相结合。
HO up to about 30 cmH2O subglottal pressure), emitting periodic high-velocity puffs of Creaky Voice: creak combined with voice. Both creak and creaky voice occur with low
air, generating the periodic sound known as ‘voice’. Strictly speak­ ing, this description refers pitch in certain types of British English.
only to that rather basic form of voice known as ‘chest voice’, characteristically occurring 吱吱声：与声音结合的吱吱声。在某些类型英国英语中，咯吱声和咯吱声都以低音调出现。
with low fre-quencies from about 60 to 150 or so Hz. In other types of (higher- The eight types of phonation listed here do not exhaust the pos-sibilities. They represent
声音：声门关闭，声带受到不同程度的张力，因此它们振动（体积速度从约50cm3/s向 simply four ‘stricture-types’ (four degrees of narrowing of the glottis) and four
上，从约2至3cm到约30cmH2O的声门下压力），发出周期性的高速气流，产生称为“声 combinations of these. We must now consider differences in the location of these strictures.
音”的周期性声音。严格地说，该描述仅指被称为“胸音”相当基本的声音形式，其特 这里列出的八种发声类型并没有穷尽所有的可能性。它们简单地代表了四种“狭窄类
征在于以从大约60到150Hz左右的低频率出现。在其他类型的（中，较高- 型”（声门的四种狭窄程度）和它们的四种组合。我们现在必须考虑这些狭窄的位置差
异。
102 Phonation Phonation 103
102 发声 发声 103
Location the (upper) larynx. Voice produced at the anterior location has a somewhat ‘tight’,
‘hard’ quality and appears to be what Chiba and Kajiyama ( 1958) call ‘sharp’, and
位置
Lindqvist ( 1969) calls ‘tense’ voice. The best way to learn anterior voice is to contrive to
One can probably distinguish four different locations for phonation within the larynx: get a general feeling of tenseness into the larynx, and it may help to follow the
they are represented in figure 24 as follows: a. full glottal, b. anterior, c. posterior, d. directions for ‘sharp’ voice given by Chiba and Kajiyama (p. 19), who say, ‘We can
ventricular. easily produce this voice with our head drawn back while keeping it bent forward’.
Anterior, hard, voice is char-acteristic of many North German speakers. In Britain
人们可能可以区分喉内发声的四个不同位置：它们在图24中表示如下：A。全声门湾安
some degree of ‘anteriorness’ is very common in the dialects of North East Scot­ land,
特赖尔角后，d。心室。 especially Aberdeenshire and Banff, as opposed to the very lax, full-glottal, voice
Full Glottal may be regarded as 'normal' articulation, and therefore does not usually have to be commonly heard in Central Scotland.
specified. In this type of phonation the entire length of the glottis—both the anterior （上）喉。在前面位置产生的声音具有某种“紧”、“硬”的性质，似乎是Chiba和Kajiyama
(ligamental) and the posterior (arytenoidal) parts—can be regarded as (potentially) func-
tioning as a single unit. There is no active restriction of activity to one particular part. （1958）所说的“尖锐”，以及Lindqvist（1969）所说的“紧张”声音。学习前声的最好方
It is true that both creak and falsetto (voice and whisper) appear to involve only the front 法是设法让喉部获得一种总体的紧张感，遵循千叶和ka山（P给出的“尖锐”声音的指示可
part of the glottis. Nevertheless, when the active compression of the rear end of the glottis 能会有所帮助。19）人说：“我们可以很容易地发出这种声音，即使我们把头向后仰，同
characteristic of anterior phonation is absent they may be regarded as ‘normal’ or ‘full glottal’. 时保持它向前弯曲。”前，硬，声音是许多讲北德语的人的特点。在英国，苏格兰东北部
全声门可视为“正常”发音，因此通常不必指定。在这种类型的发声中，声门的整个长度 的方言中，尤其是阿伯丁郡和班夫郡的方言中，某种程度的“前音”是非常常见的，而在
——前部（韧带）和后部（杓状软骨）——可以被视为（潜在的）作为一个单一单位的 苏格兰中部通常听到的是非常松弛的、全声门的声音。
功能。对某一特定部件的活动没有主动限制。的确，吱吱声和假声（声音和耳语）似乎 Having acquired anterior voice it is not difficult to acquire anterior creak and anterior
都只涉及声门的前部。然而，当声门后端不存在前发声特征的主动压迫时，它们可被视 whisper. The technique is to produce anterior voice: stop the air-flow but hold the
为“正常”或“完全声门”。 phonatory posture, then, while being careful to hold that position, start up creak or
Anterior. In anterior phonation the arytenoid cartilages are appar- ently clamped tightly whisper. If you can produce falsetto it is worth experimenting with ‘anterior falsetto’.
together and only the front, ligamental part of the glottis actively participates in As we have already pointed out, both creak and falsetto (that is, ‘normal’ or ‘full
phonation. At the same time, the whole upper part of the larynx may be constricted to glottal’ varieties) are in fact produced towards the front end of the glottis.
some extent: it appears as if the arytenoidal constriction essential for anterior phonation Nevertheless, deliberate pro-duction of anterior creak and falsetto shows that, even in these
is part of a general sphincteric construction of cases, active restriction to anterior phonation produces a different effect: the anterior
前面的。在前发声时，杓状软骨明显地夹紧在一起，只有声门的前韧带部分积极地参与 creak is ‘sharper’ more ‘staccato’, and the anterior fal­ setto is ‘thinner’ more ‘reedy’.
发声。同时，喉的整个上半部可能在一定程度上收缩：它似乎是前发声所必需的杓状软 习得前声后，习得前咯吱声和前耳语并不困难。技术是产生前发声：停止气流，但保
骨收缩是整个括约肌结构的一部分。 持发声姿势，然后，在小心保持该姿势的同时，开始发出吱吱声或耳语。如果你能发出
假声，那就值得尝试“前假声”。正如我们已经指出的，吱吱声和假声（即“正常”或“完整
的声门”变体）实际上都是在声门的前端产生的。然而，故意产生的前吱吱声和假声表
明，即使在这些情况下，对前发声的主动限制也会产生不同的效果：前吱吱声“更尖锐”，
更“断奏”，而前假声“更细”，更“尖利”。
Posterior phonation implies complete static closure of the forward, ligamental, part of the
glottis, phonation occurring only at the ary-tenoidal end. It is known with certainty that one
type of whisper can be produced here : a strong ‘goose-hiss’ type.
后发声意味着声门的前韧带部分完全静态闭合，发声仅发生在杓状腱端。可以肯定的是，
这里可以产生一种耳语：强烈的“鹅嘶声”类型。
Ventricular phonation is produced between the ventricular bands or ‘false vocal cords’. These
can be approximated to generate turbulent ventricular whisper; they can be set in vibration to
produce ventri-cular voice; and they can be completely closed to produce ventricular stop.
Ventricular phonation can be learned by exaggerating the upper larynx constriction
occurring with anterior phonation. When ventricular voice is combined, as it can be, with
glottal voice, the combination is sometimes called ‘double voice’. People can learn to control
both types of voice so as to sing two notes at once. Paget (1930, p.34) describes such a
case: Tn September 1928, Sir James Dundas-Grant and I examined Mr Strath Mackay,
who has the peculiar accomplishment of being able to sing two notes at once. The higher
notes (tenor register) are produced by the vocal cords ; the lower notes, which normally
vary with the upper notes so as to maintain a constant musical interval of 17 semitones (an
octave and a fifth), appeared, from Sir James Dundas-Grant’s observations, to
室性发声是在室带或“假声带”之间产生的。这些可以被近似为产生湍流心室耳语；它们可以
被设置在振动中以产生腹音；且它们可以完全闭合以产生心室停止。心室发声可以通过放大
前发声时出现的上喉部收缩来学习。当心室发声与声门发声结合时，这种结合有时被称为
“双重发声”。人们可以学会控制两种类型的声音，以便同时唱出两个音符。佩吉特（1930年，
第34页）描述了这样一个案例:1928年9月，我和詹姆斯·邓达斯-格兰特爵士（Sir James
Dundas-Grant）考察了斯特拉斯·麦凯先生（Mr Strath Mackay），他有一项特殊的成就，
能够同时唱出两个音符。高音（次中音区）由声带发出；较低的音符， 根据詹姆斯·邓达
Figure 24. Phonatory locations within the larynx 斯-格兰特爵士（Sir James Dundas-Grant）的观察，它通常随高音变化，以保持17个半音
图24.喉内发声部位 （一个八度音和一个五度音）的恒定音程。
 门塞音[？H？H？H]。请注意，这些有一个稍微尖锐，稍微更高音调释放声音。当然，声
104 Phonation 门停顿可以被释放为无声、耳语或声音。轻微的声门塞音释放到声音中是歌手的“硬发作”
104 发声 或“硬发作”或“溃烂发作”：在这种情况下，声门下方有正压力的积累，声带振动开始于
be made by the bringing together of the false vocal cords, so that they vibrated like
true vocal cords.
通过将假声带聚集在一起，使它们像真声带一样振动。
The observations were confirmed by a similar examination of my own throat while
imitating (so far as possible) Mr Mackay’s double notes. Sir James was able to see the
ventricular bands definitely in vibration while a very low note was being produced. It seems
clear that in certain types of shouting—so as to produce a raucous sound —the false
vocal cords are brought together so as to vibrate on their own account.’
在模仿麦凯先生（尽可能）的双音符时，我对自己的喉咙进行了类似的检查，证实
了我的观察结果。詹姆斯爵士能够清楚地看到心室带在振动，同时产生一个非常低的音
符。“很明显，在某些类型的叫喊中——为了产生沙哑的声音——假声带会聚集在一起，
以便自己振动。”
Double voice (ventricular plus glottal voice) appears to be used by certain Tibetan
monks who, with long training, learn to intone melodiously and impressively on two notes
simultaneously. Much less melodious was the harsh ventricular plus glottal vibration often
used in the 1930s in a type of jazz singing known as ‘scat singing’ and particularly
associated with the name of Cab Calloway. Else­ where, ‘ventricular voice’ and 'diplophonia'
are referred to as ‘speech defects'(van Riperand Irwin 1958,pp.220,221, Kaplan 1960, p.
168). Turbulent flow through the ventricular bands, with occasional ven-tricular vibration
(ventricular fricative and trill), occurs as a regular sound in several Caucasian languages, as
also does complete closure, or ‘ventricular stop’. These activities are more properly to be re-
garded as articulatory rather than phonatory, since they generate single sounds patterning
with consonants in the structure of these languages rather than as phonatory modifications of
sounds articu- lated elsewhere.
双重声音（心室加上声门的声音）似乎是某些西藏僧侣使用的，他们经过长期训练，
学会了同时在两个音符上悦耳而令人印象深刻地吟唱。20世纪30年代，在一种被称为
“ Scat Singing ”的爵士乐演唱中，经常使用的刺耳的心室加声门振动就不那么悦耳了，
尤其是与Cab Calloway的名字联系在一起。在其他地方，“心室语音”和“复音”被称为“语
音缺陷”（van Riperand Irwin 1958，pp.220，221，Kaplan 1960，p。168).在几种高
加索语言中，通过心室带的湍流，偶尔伴有心室振动（心室摩擦音和颤音），作为一种
有规律的声音出现，完全关闭或“心室停止”也是如此。这些活动更恰当地被认为是发音
的而不是发声的。 因为它们在这些语言的结构中产生了带有辅音的单一声音模式，而
不是作为其他地方发出的声音的发音修改。
Glottal Stops. As we mentioned earlier, complete closure of the glottis has either
an initiatory or an articulatory function: the for- mer in phonationless
glottalic initiation and the latter in glottal stop as an articulatory type
functionally parallel in languages to other kinds of stop articulation.
Nevertheless, it will be well to say some-thing about glottal stops here while
we are discussing laryngeal functions in speech.
声门停顿。正如我们前面所提到的，声门的完全闭合要么具有启动功能，
要么具有发音功能：前者在无发音的声门启动中，后者在声门塞音中，
作为一种发音类型，在语言中与其他类型的塞音发音在功能上平行。然
而，当我们讨论喉部在言语中的功能时，最好在这里说一些关于声门停
顿的事情。
Stops can be produced at full, anterior, and ventricular locations in the larynx.
Experiment with full glottal stops: make a series of gentle, minimal, glottal stops, that is,
with very little subglottal pres-sure and no exaggerated constriction of the larynx. Let them
explode mildly into a very brief h-like sound: [?h?h?h]. Now, constrict the larynx as
for anterior voice and make a series of anterior glottal stops [?h?h?h]. Note that these
have a slightly sharper, slightly more high-pitched release sound. Glottal stops can, of
course, be released into voicelessness, into whisper, or into voice. A mild glottal stop
released into voice is the ‘hard onset" or ‘hard attack’ or ‘fester Einsatz’ of singers: in
this case there is a build-up of positive pres-sure below the glottis and the vocal fold
vibration starts with the
可以在喉的全喉、前喉和喉室位置产生停顿。尝试完整的声门塞音：做一系列轻柔
的、最小的声门塞音，也就是说，声门下压力很小，喉部没有过度收缩。让它们温和地
爆发出一种非常短暂的类似H的声音：[？H？H？H]。现在，收缩喉头，发出一系列前声
 Phonation 105
发声 105
folds bursting open, then swinging shut again, as opposed to the open starting position
and closure by Bernoulli suction characteristic of the ‘soft’ or ‘smooth’ attack.
折叠突然打开，然后再次摆动关闭，这与“软”或“平滑”攻击的伯努利吸力特征的打开
起始位置和关闭相反。
An intense constriction of the upper larynx will bring together the ventricular
bands. Whether they can be closed without simul-taneous closure of the glottis
proper is doubtful : ‘ventricular stop’ is probably always ‘ventricular plus glottal’ stop.
In any case, it is easy to feel and hear the difference between simple glottal stop, and
ventricular (plus glottal) stop. The latter involves a considerable feeling of upper-
larynx constriction, which is quite absent from the former. Moreover, simple glottal stop
has no influence on the quality of neighbouring vowels: thus, apart from the abrupt
cessation and recommencement, [ara] or [EPS] sounds no different from prolonged [ai] or
[E:]. On the other hand, ventricular stop imparts a noticeable ‘strangulated’ nuance of
pharyngealization to preceding and fol- lowing vowels. Thus, using [P] to represent
ventricular stop, com-pare [a:] [a?a] [af?a], [EI] [E?E] [ES?E]. Glottal stop [?] is a common
sound in the languages of the world, either as a syllable separator, or as a
consonantal articulation in a series of stop consonants, as in Arabic, the Adyghe
languages, and elsewhere. Ventricular plus glottal stop [S?] occurs as a regular sound
in several north Cau-casian languages, particularly the Nakh languages Chechen,
Ingush and Batsbiy, where it contrasts with ordinary glottal stop, as in Chechen [da?a]
to eat [dafra] to castrate. A similar distinction occurs in the Tigrinya language of north
Ethiopia.
上喉部的强烈收缩将使心室带聚集在一起。如果不同时关闭声门本身，它们是否可
以关闭是值得怀疑的：“心室停止”可能总是“心室加声门”停止。在任何情况下，都很
容易感觉和听到单纯声门停止和心室（加上声门）停止之间的区别。后者包括相当大
的上喉收缩的感觉，而前者则完全没有。此外，简单的喉塞音对相邻元音的质量没有
影响：因此，除了突然的停止和重新开始，[ara]或[EPS]的发音与延长的[人工智能]
或[e：]没有区别。另一方面，心室停止使前后元音的咽化有明显的“绞窄化”的细微差
别。因此，使用[P]表示心室停搏，比较[A：][A？A][AF？A]，[EI][E？E][ES？E]。
声门塞音[？]是世界语言中的一个常用音， 要么作为音节分隔符，要么作为一系列塞
音辅音的辅音发音，如在阿拉伯语、阿迪格语和其他语言中。心室加声门塞音[s？]在
几个北卡乌卡西亚语中作为一个规则的声音出现，特别是在纳赫语车臣语、印古什语
和巴茨比语中，它与普通的声门塞音形成对比，如在车臣语中[da？a]吃[dafra]阉割。
埃塞俄比亚北部的提格里尼亚语也有类似的区别。
Lindqvist (1969) describes and exemplifies as ‘glottal stop’ what appears in reality to be
ventricular plus glottal stop, or at least glottal stop with strong upper larynx constriction.
This is a quite unusual type of glottal stop. Normal glottal stop does not involve the intense
upper larynx constriction seen in Lindqvist’s laryngoscopic photo­ graphs. Note the
phonological opposition of this ‘intense’, ventri­ cular plus glottal stop to normal glottal stop
referred to in the pre-ceding paragraph.
Lindqvist（1969）描述并举例说明了“声门停止”，实际上是心室加声门停止，或者
至少是声门停止伴有强烈的上喉收缩。这是一种很不寻常的声门塞音。在Lindqvist的
喉镜照片中，正常的声门塞音并不涉及上喉部的强烈收缩。注意在前面的段落中提到
的这个“强烈的”，腹侧加声门塞音与正常的声门塞音在语音上的对立。

Summary of Phonation Types

发声类型概述
We summarize the main phonation types (including, for the moment, the stops which are
more properly articulations) in table 11. Lade-foged (1971) lists phonation types in the form
of a single continuum. This listing leaves out ventricular phonation (or ventricular articu-
lation), but otherwise may be quite a useful listing for phonological purposes. It fails,
however, to take explicit account of locational differences, and this makes it less useful for
anthropophonic pur- poses—for the unambiguous categorization of the phonatory pos-
sibilities of man. A distinction is made between ‘murmur’ and ‘lax
我们在表11中总结了主要的发声类型（目前包括更适合发音的塞音）。Lade Foged
（1971）以单一连续体的形式列出了发声类型。这个列表不包括心室发声（或心室发
音），但除此之外，对于语音目的来说，这可能是一个非常有用的列表。然而，它没
有明确地考虑到位置的差异，这使得它对人类发音的目的——对人类发声能力的明确
分类——用处不大。“杂音”和“松弛”是有区别的
106 Phonation 之上。林奎斯特认为“正常”
106 发声
Table 11
表11
stricture type location

狭窄类型 位置
glottal anterior ventricular + glottal
声门 前面的 心室+声门

1. wide open voiceless narrowed

whisper anterior ventricular whisper
2. 敞开的，无声的，狭窄的低语 前面的 心室低语
whisper
耳语
3. vibrating voice ventricular voice double voice
3.振动 声音 anterior voice "tense’,
freely "sharp' 室音双音
自由地 前面的声音“紧张”，“尖
锐”
4. low frequency creak taps voice anterior creak ventricular creak
4.低频 吱吱响的水龙头 "tense’ creak 心室咯吱声
声音前面吱吱作响
+ 3 open, breathy voice vibrating “ ”紧张'吱吱作响
1 +3打开，呼吸声振动
+ 3 narrowewdhispery voice. anterior
+3狭窄的声音。 前面的
2 vibrating murmur whispery voice
振动 杂音 耳语般的声音

voice'. Now the former is clearly one form of whispery voice: that which occurs with and
following ‘voiced aspirated stops’, [bh, dh, etc.] in a number of Indian languages. The
latter is said to occur in Indonesian. If this is similar to the ‘lax voice’ occurring in Java­
nese, then it is also somewhat ‘whispery’. In Javanese the so-called voiced stops, usually
transliterated [b, d, d, j, g], are, in fact, totally voiceless (except when a nasal precedes), as are
[p, t, t, c, k]. How-ever, the phonation type of vowels following [p, t, t, etc.] is anterior or
‘tense’; that of vowels following [b, d, 4, etc.] has the larynx lowered and a distinctly lax,
slightly whispery quality. The larynx-lowering of [b, d, 4, etc.] is easily observed, and
air-flow records show very clearly that the volume-velocity of air in vowels after [b, d. g]
is very much faster than after [p, t, k]. This implies some form of leakage of air in Javanese lax
voice. It seems possible that Ladefoged's ‘murmur’ (the ‘whispery voice’ of Indian languages)
is anterior voice plus posterior (arytenoidal) whisper, while ‘lax voice’ is simply pure, full
glottal, whispery voice.
声音。现在，前者显然是耳语声的一种形式：在一些印度语言中，它出现在“浊送气塞
音”[BH，DH等]之后。后者据说发生在印度尼西亚。如果这类似于爪哇语中出现的“松散
的声音”，那么它也有点“耳语”。在爪哇语中，所谓的浊塞音，通常音译为[B，d，d，J，
G]，实际上是完全清音的（除非鼻音在前），如[p，t，t，C，K]。c.然而，在[p，t，
t，et]之后的元音的发声类型是前或'紧张的'；元音在[B，d，4，等]之后，喉头降低，
明显松弛，略带耳语性质。很容易观察到[B，d，4等]的喉头下降，气流记录非常清楚
地显示了[B，d之后元音中空气的体积速度。G]比[p，t，K]之后快得多。这暗示了爪哇
语中某种形式的漏气。 Ladefoged的'杂音'（印度语言中的'耳语'）似乎可能是前音加
后音（杓状）耳语，而'松弛的声音'只是纯粹的、完整的声门，耳语的声音。
Lindqvist (1969) has a two-dimensional approach to phonation.
Lindqvist（1969）提出了发声的二维方法。
Taking voice as the basic phonation type, he describes two kinds of departure from that basis:
these are the ‘glottal abduction gesture’, and the ‘glottal stop gesture’, which produces what
he calls ‘laryn- gealization’.
以声音为基本发声类型，他描述了两种偏离该基础的情况：“声门外展手势”和“声门停
止手势”，后者产生了他所谓的“拉林”。
This simple two-dimensional array takes us quite a long way: by larynx abduction we
proceed from ‘voice’ through ‘lax voice’ and ‘breathy voice’ to ‘unvoiced’ ; by
laryngealization we proceed from voice through ‘tense voice’ and ‘creak’ to ‘glottal stop’.
这个简单的二维数组带我们走了很长一段路：通过喉部外展，我们从“声音”开始，经
过“松弛的声音”和“呼吸的声音”到“清音”；通过喉化，我们从声音开始，经过“紧张的声
音”和“吱吱作响”到“声门停顿”。
Unfortunately, however, the whole system is invalidated by the fact that it is founded
upon what appears to be a misconception concerning the nature of glottal stop. Lindqvist
takes as ‘normal’
然而，不幸的是，整个系统是无效的，因为它似乎是建立在对声门塞音性质的误解
 Stevens随后对此进行了列举和讨论。
Phonation 107
发声 107
the ventricular plus glottal stop discussed above. Since this already involves ventricular
approximation it makes it impossible, in Lind­ qvist’s system, to deal separately with
phonatory activities at glottal and ventricular locations. It is interesting to note that
Lindqvist takes the ‘voicing position’ as basic, describing all other phonatory states as
departures from that norm. A somewhat similar view is adopted by Chomsky and Halle
( 1968), who regard the voicing posi-tion of the glottis as part of the ‘neutral’ state of
the vocal tract. There may be some reason for adopting voice as the ‘norm’ since in
many languages, perhaps in most, voicing occurs more of the time during speech, than
voicelessness. This at least is true of the better-known Western European languages,
though it is not neces-sarily the case in other languages. In table 12 the percentages
are based on a count of the numbers of voiced and voiceless phonemes in short texts in
various languages; if we simply counted the number of voiced and voiceless sounds in
the phoneme inventories of lan-guages we should find a great many languages in
which voiceless phonemes far outnumber voiced ones.
上面讨论的心室加声门停止。由于这已经涉及到心室近似，因此在林德·奎斯特的系统
中，不可能分别处理声门和心室位置的发声活动。有趣的是，林奎斯特将“发声位置”作
为基础，将所有其他发声状态描述为偏离该规范。乔姆斯基（Chomsky）和哈雷
（Halle）（1968）也采用了类似的观点，他们认为声门的发声位置是声道“中性”状态
的一部分。采用声音作为“规范”可能有一些原因，因为在许多语言中，也许在大多数语
言中，发声比无声出现的时间更长。这至少在比较著名的西欧语言中是正确的，尽管
在其他语言中并不一定如此。在表12中，百分比基于各种语言的短文本中的有声和无
声音素的数量的计数； 如果我们简单地计算语言音素目录中浊音和清音的数量，我们
会发现在许多语言中，清音音素的数量远远超过浊音音素。

Table 12
表12
voiced voiceless
有声的 无声的
French
法国人
78% 2
0
0
-
/

Swedish 75 25
瑞典语
Italian 71 29
意大利人
English 72 28
英语
Finnish 63 37
芬兰语
Russian 61 39
俄语
Chinese (Pekin) 57 43
中文（北京）
Abkhaz (Caucasus) 56 44
阿布哈兹（高加索）
Chinese (Canton) 41 59
中文（广州）

Be that as it may, from the general phonetic point of view, voice is only one
condition on a quasi-continuum which has fully open glottis at one end and completely
closed glottis at the other.
尽管如此，从一般语音学的观点来看，声音只是准连续体上的一个条件，准连续体
的一端是完全开放的声门，另一端是完全封闭的声门。
The paper by Halle and Stevens (1971) makes an interesting con-tribution to the study
of phonation. On the basis of a theoretical model of larynx operation, they postulate two
independently con-trolled parameters : vocal cord stiffness and degree of glottal open- ing.
Since two anthropophonically utilized values are assumed for each parameter, they have
four features, as follows : ( 1 ) spread glottis, (2) constricted glottis, (3) stiff vocal cords, (4)
slack vocal cords. Since the glottis cannot be simultaneously spread and con-stricted and the
vocal cords cannot be simultaneously stiff and slack, the four features yield nine distinct
phonetic categories, which Halle and Stevens then enumerate and discuss.
Halle和Stevens（1971）的论文对发声的研究做出了有趣的贡献。在喉操作理论模
型的基础上，他们假定了两个独立控制的参数：声带硬度和声门开放程度。由于为每
个参数假设了两个人声利用的值，因此它们具有如下四个特征：（1）扩展的声门，
（2）收缩的声门，（3）僵硬的声带，（4）松弛的声带。由于声门不能同时伸展和收
缩，声带不能同时僵硬和松弛，这四个特征产生了九个不同的语音类别，Halle和
108 Phonation
108 发声
In spite of its ingenuity, this system has shortcomings. In the first place it suffers from what
is almost an inevitable defect of all purely theoretical and highly restricted systems of features,
namely, a ten-dency to the procrustean forcing of items into particular categories, whether this
categorization corresponds to reality or not. Secondly, it fails to take account of the
different functions—initiatory, phona- tory, and articulatory—of the larynx; true, no such
distinctions are implied by the very general title of the paper, ‘A note on laryngeal features’,
but it should be clear by now that it is essential for any truly systematic phonetic
taxonomy to distinguish between the basic componential functions.
尽管这一制度别出心裁，但也有缺点。首先，所有纯理论的、高度受限的特征系统
都有一个几乎不可避免的缺陷，那就是，无论这种分类是否符合现实，都有一种削足适
履的倾向，强迫项目进入特定的类别。其次，它没有考虑到喉头的不同功能——启动、
发声和发音；诚然，这篇论文非常笼统的标题“关于喉部特征的注释”并没有暗示这样的
区别，但现在应该清楚的是，对于任何真正系统的语音分类学来说，区分基本成分功能
是至关重要的。
Both shortcomings are exemplified in the feature assignments for the sounds
represented by [b] and [6], which are distinguished as respectively [+ slack vocal
cords] and [+constricted glottis], all other features having minus values in each case.
It seems, however, that the only reason for assigning the features [+ constricted glottis]
and [— slack vocal cords] to [6] is the procrustean one that this particular feature-
combination is otherwise unused: there is no em-pirical justification for thinking that
[6] necessarily has either less slack vocal cords or a more constricted glottis than
[b], in spite of the authors’ statement that ‘the true implosive [6] apparently does not
cause a lowering of the tone of an adjacent vowel, as would normally be expected
from a voiced ([+slack]) consonant like [b]. .. since the vocal cords are not slack’.
The truly relevant distinction between [b] and [6] is that [b] has pulmonic pressure
initiation while [6] has glottalic suction initiation. The ‘lowering of the tone of an
adjacent vowel’ next to voiced obstruent, especially stop, consonants, is a well-known
phenomenon, which will be referred to again later. It results from reduction of the
transglottal pressure difference due to the impedance imposed by a close oral stricture;
it has nothing to do with vocal cord tension per se. In a voiced glottalic
suction stop, such as [6], the sudden downward larynx movement may enlarge
the supraglottal cavity so much that the transglottal pressure difference is actually
in-creased, leading to a higher frequency (a ‘raised tone') in the adjacent vowel.
在由[B]和[6]表示的声音的特征分配中举例说明了这两个缺点，它们分别被区分为[+
松弛的声带]和[+收缩的声门]，所有其他特征在每种情况下都具有负值。然而，将特征
[+收缩声门]和[-松弛声带]分配给[6]的唯一原因似乎是削足适履的，即这种特定的特
征组合在其他方面未被使用：没有经验证明认为[6]必然具有比[B]更少松弛的声带或更
多收缩的声门。尽管作者声明“真正的内爆音[6]显然不会导致相邻元音的音调降低，而
这通常是像[B]这样的浊（[+slack]）辅音所预期的。”因为声带没有松弛。[B]和[6]之
间真正相关的区别是[B]是肺动脉压力启动，而[6]是声门吸引启动。 在浊塞音，尤其
是塞音，辅音旁边的“相邻元音的音调降低”是一种众所周知的现象，稍后将再次提及。
它是由于紧密的口腔狭窄所施加的阻抗而引起的跨声门压差的减小而产生的；这与声带
张力本身无关。在浊音的声门吸音停顿中，如[6]，突然向下的喉头运动可能会使声门
上腔扩大，以至于跨声门压差实际上增加，导致相邻元音的频率更高（“升调”）。
Another failure to differentiate between initiatory and articulatory functions occurs in the
category characterized by [ + constricted glottis] and [+ stiff vocal cords] which includes what
they transcribe as [p?], [?, ?w] and [Py ( = IPA Pj)] and ‘globalized vowels’. The
classification fails to make clear the difference between glottalic pres­ sure [p’] and pulmonic
pressure [p?] (that is, co-articulated glottal + labial stop). It is clear from the discussion
that the transcription [pp] refers to the glottalic pressure stop, but [?, ?w] and [Py], which
另一个未能区分起始和发音功能的情况发生在以[+狭窄的声门]和[+僵硬的声带]为特
征的范畴中，包括它们转录为[p？]，[？，？w]和[py（=国际音标PJ）]以及“全球化元
音”。该分类未能明确声门压力[P]和肺动脉压力[P？]（即声门+唇塞音）之间的区别。
从讨论中可以清楚地看出，转录[PP]指的是声门压力停止，但[？，？W]和[PY]，
Phonation 109
发声 109
are put in the same feature category, are, of course, pulmonic pres-sure sounds.
被放在相同的特征类别中，当然，是肺压音。
We find another problematic sound listed for the feature-com-bination ([-(-
constricted glottis] [+slack vocal cords]): this is de-scribed as ‘voiced glottal stop’
and represented by [?]. Whatever it actually is, this sound, said to occur in Jingpho, a
language of northern Burma, cannot possibly be a voiced glottal stop. Glottal stop
requires total, tight, closure of the glottis, maintained for an appreciable time. Voicing
requires periodic opening and closing (vibration) of the glottis, maintained for an
appreciable time. A voiced glottal stop would require these mutually incompatible events
to occur simultaneously. We cannot even evade this impossibility by postulating that
Jingpho [A] is in reality a ventricular stop (formed at the ‘false vocal cords’) with
simultaneous voicing. A moment’s calculation shows that this, too, is quite impossible.
With the ven-tricular bands tightly closed for a ventricular stop the only place for the
air flowing up through the glottis to go would be the space between the ‘true’ and
‘false’ vocal cords—the ventricles of Mor-gagni. The volume of this space, however,
is very small—perhaps only 1 cm3—and certainly not more than 2 cm3. A further
calcula-tion shows that for plausible subglottal pressure (say 8 cmH2O), and a mean
volume-velocity even as low as 100 cm3/s, flow would cease after only -00012 seconds;
in other words, for practical pur-poses there would be no flow, and certainly no voice.
我们发现特征组合（[-（-狭窄的声门][+松弛的声带]）列出了另一个有问题的声音：
这被描述为“浊声门塞音”，并用[？]表示。不管它实际上是什么，这个声音，据说出现
在缅甸北部的一种语言——景颇语中，不可能是一个发音的声门塞音。声门塞音需要声
门完全、紧密、闭合，并维持相当长的时间。发声需要周期性地打开和关闭（振动）声
门，并保持相当长的时间。浊声门塞音需要这些互不相容的事件同时发生。我们甚至不
能通过假设Jingpho[A]实际上是同时发声的心室停止（在“假声带”处形成）来回避这种
不可能性。片刻的计算表明，这也是完全不可能的。 由于Ven室带因心室停止而紧密闭
合，空气通过声门向上流动的唯一地方将是“真”声带和“假”声带之间的空间——
Mor Gagni的心室。然而，这个空间的体积非常小——可能只有1厘米3——当然也不会超
过2厘米3。进一步的计算表明，对于可能的声门下压力（例如8cmH2o）和甚至低至
100cm3/s的平均体积速度，流动将在仅-00012秒后停止；换句话说，对于实际的目的，
不会有流动，当然也不会有声音。
Apart from the points mentioned here, Halle and Stevens’ con­ tribution is an interesting
one, which directs attention to several important laryngeal features, even though it must
be read with caution.
除了这里提到的几点之外，Halle和Stevens的贡献是一个有趣的贡献，它将注意力
引向几个重要的喉部特征，尽管必须谨慎阅读。
Vocal-fold Modifications
声带折叠修饰
We have enumerated the major phonation types in terms of phona- tory stricture and location.
Now we must consider some modifica- tions. These are principally variations in the thickness,
length, and tension of the vocal folds. Variations in the thickness of the vocal folds
correlate with variations in their length, and also with the frequency of glottal vibration in
voice. On this see Hollien (1960), Hollien and Moore (1960) and Hollien and Curtis (1960). In
general, the vocal folds are thicker and shorter in ‘chest register’ than in ‘mid-register’.
In falsetto, the vocal folds are tautened and their edges are narrowed. These effects can be
heard, and felt, if one produces glottal stops with the vocal folds arranged as for chest
voice and as for falsetto. In falsetto glottal stop (released into voicelessness— [?h]) one
can hear the sharp, delicate contact and release of the very narrow edges of the folds. In
chest voice glottal stop, the release
我们已经根据发声结构和位置列举了主要的发声类型。现在我们必须考虑一些修改。这
些主要是声带的厚度、长度和张力的变化。声带厚度的变化与其长度的变化相关，也与
声 音 中 声 门 振 动 的 频 率 相 关 。 关 于 这 一 点 ， 见 Hollien （ 1960 ） ， Hollien 和 Moore
（1960）以及Hollien和Curtis（1960）。一般来说，“胸部音域”的声带比“中音域”的声
带更厚更短。在假声中，声带绷紧，边缘变窄。这些效果可以被听到和感觉到，如果一
个人发出声门塞音，声带排列为胸音和假声。在假声的声门塞音（释放成清音——[？
H]）中，人们可以听到褶皱的非常狭窄的边缘的尖锐、微妙的接触和释放。在胸部发声，
声门停止，释放。
110 Phonation Phonation 111
110 发声 发声 111
sound is ‘heavier" and ‘sloppier’ : one can hear and feel that the con­ tacting edges of the glottal expansion may occur to obviate this danger. It is, of course, true also of any sounds
vocal folds are deeper, and the movement is less delicate than in falsetto glottal stop. involving oral constriction, for example, fricatives, that this will tend to cause a rise in
Analogous differences can be heard and felt between whisper in falsetto and chest voice. intra-oral pressure to a greater or lesser degree. Consequently not only in stops, but in
声音“更重”和“更散漫”：人们可以听到和感觉到声带的接触边缘更深，动作不像假声的 fricatives, the transglottal pressure-difference is lowered, and hence there is a tendency for the
声门塞音那么细腻。在假声耳语和胸音之间可以听到和感觉到类似的差异。 frequency of voice to drop during these sounds. This phenomenon of lowered frequency
When the vocal folds are in vibration in voice, breathy voice, whispery voice or creaky during voiced con-sonants has often been observed, and is a well-known factor in the genesis
voice (but probably not in creak), the frequency of their vibrations can be varied quite of tones in the history of various languages.
considerably, the actual frequency ranges for singers of different types being (on the average) 为了避免这种危险，可能会出现声门扩张。当然，任何涉及口腔收缩的声音，例如摩擦
as in table 13. In speech, of course, variation is consider- ably smaller and confined to the 音，都会或多或少地导致口腔内压力的升高。因此，不仅在塞音中，而且在摩擦音中，
lower end of the range. 跨声门压差降低，因此在这些声音期间，声音的频率有下降的趋势。这种在浊音期间频
当声带在声音、呼吸声、耳语声或吱吱声（但可能不是吱吱声）中振动时，其振动 率降低的现象经常被观察到，并且是各种语言历史中声调起源的一个众所周知的因素。
频率可能会有相当大的变化，不同类型歌手的实际频率范围（平均）如表13所示。当然， Variations of frequency of voice occur during speech in all lan-guages. Nobody speaks
在演讲中，变化被认为是相当小的，并被限制在范围的低端。 all the time in a monotone. Languages differ, however, in the way in which frequency
variations are utilized linguistically. On the one hand, frequency variations may be sys-
Table 13 tematically related to long stretches of utterance, which may be many syllables in length, and
表13
which correspond to relatively ‘large’ gram­ matical units such as clause or sentence.
bass 76 to 256 Hz
Frequency patterns (pitch patterns) utilized in this way are called intonations, and languages
贝斯 76至256赫兹
utilizing pitch in this way are ‘intonation languages’. Many of the best known languages
baritone 96 to 384
男中音 第96至384段 of the world are intonation languages, for example, English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic,
tenor 140 to 512 Hindi, and Indonesian.
男高音 140至512 语音频率的变化发生在所有语言的讲话过程中。没有人总是用单调的语调说话。然
contralto 217 to 665 而，语言的不同之处在于在语言学上使用频率变化的方式。一方面，频率变化可能在系
女低音 第217至665段
统上与话语的长片段相关，其长度可以是许多音节，并且其对应于相对“大”的语法单位，
mezzo 256 to 768
中音 256至768 例如从句或句子。以这种方式使用的频率模式（音高模式）称为语调，以这种方式使用
soprano 384 to 1024 (or, exceptionally. 2048 Hz) (Curry 1940) 音高的语言称为“语调语言”。世界上许多最著名的语言都是语调语言，例如英语、法语、
女高音 384至1024（，或在特殊情况下。2048赫兹）（柯里1940） 西班牙语、俄语、阿拉伯语、印地语和印度尼西亚语。
The precise mechanism of frequency variation in voice is still a matter for discussion, but On the other hand, systematic pitch variations and pitch patterns may be related to short
one thing is certain, namely, that fre-quency changes may be brought about (a) by changes stretches of utterance of about syllable length, and to ‘short’ grammatical units such as
in muscle activity, resulting in tensing and thinning, or relaxing and fattening the vocal word or morpheme. Pitch patterns used in this way are called tones and languages utiliz- ing
folds, and (b) by changes in the pressure-differences above and below the vocal folds. We pitch in this way are ‘tone languages’. Typical tone languages are Chinese, Vietnamese,
pointed out earlier that with an egres- sive air-stream passing up through the glottis, a Thai, many African languages, such as Igbo and Zulu, and many Amerindian languages.
pressure-difference of 2 to 3 cmfi2O is necessary for the production of voice. If the pressure- 另一方面，系统的音高变化和音高模式可能与大约音节长度的话语的短延伸有关，
difference drops below this, voicing will cease. At pressures somewhat above this liminal 并且与诸如单词或语素的“短”语法单位有关。以这种方式使用的音高模式称为音调，以
value any sudden change of pressure will change the frequency of vibration of the vocal 这种方式使用音高的语言称为“音调语言”。典型的声调语言有汉语、越南语、泰语、许
folds, irrespective of the muscular tension. In an experiment in which a subject had his 多非洲语言，如伊博语和祖鲁语，以及许多美洲印第安语言。
chest unexpectedly pressed, a subglottal pressure change of about 7.5 cmH2O produced a
pitch change of about half an octave (Ladefoged 1963). On this see also Ohala (1970).
Voicing and Aspiration
声音中频率变化的精确机制仍然是一个需要讨论的问题，但有一点是肯定的，即频
发声和渴望
率变化可能是由（a）肌肉活动的变化，导致声带紧张和变薄，或放松和变胖，以及（B）
We have already referred to differences between ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’ sounds. Here we
声带上下压差的变化引起的。我们在前面指出，当一股向外的气流向上通过声门时，产 must look at this distinction more closely, with special reference to English. Although the
生声音需要2到3cmfi2o的压差。如果压差低于此值，发声将停止。在略高于该阈值的压 English con-sonants [b] as in be, [d] as in do, [g] as in go, [v] vie, [ö] thy, [z] ^oo, [3]
力下，压力的任何突然变化都将改变声带的振动频率，而与肌肉张力无关。在一项实验 leisure are traditionally described as voiced, in contradistinc-tion to [p] as in pie, [s] as in sigh,
中，受试者的胸部受到意外按压，声门下压力变化约为7.5cmh2o，产生的音调变化约为 and so on, some misgivings have been felt by many writers in using this description, since in
半个八度（Ladefoged 1963）。关于这一点，另见Ohala（1970）。 certain circumstances the former group seems to involve little or no vibra- tion of the vocal
folds. In particular the initial and final ‘voiced’ stops, as in babe or dead, and the initial
There has been some recent controversy as to whether laryngeal muscle action directly on
and final ‘voiced’ fricatives, as in verve and zoos sometimes seem to be almost completely
the vocal folds or subglottal pressure changes are responsible for certain linguistically
voice-less. For this reason, some scholars have preferred to describe the two series as
relevant pitch changes in English (Lieberman 1967, Ohala and Ladefoged 1969, Vanderslice
lax or lenis [b, d, g, v, z, õ, 3] and tense or fortis [p, t, k, f, 0, s, ƒ]—on which see Chapter 10.
1967). It seems to have been established that laryngeal muscle action is normally responsible.
Nevertheless, frequency changes in response to pressure-difference across the glottis are im- 我们已经提到了“浊音”和“清音”之间的区别。在这里，我们必须更仔细地看待这一区别，
portant in another context. We have already discussed in Chapter 5 the fact that in 特别是英语。尽管英语中如be，do，go，vie，thy，o，o等的辅音[B]传统上被描述为
voiced stop consonants the air cannot escape from the mouth, which raises the intra- 浊音，与pie中的[p]，sigh中的[s]形成对比，许多作者在使用这一描述时感到有些疑
oral pressure and so tends to abolish the transglottal pressure difference, and we saw 虑，因为在某些情况下，前一组似乎很少或没有涉及声带的振动。特别是在“ baby or
that supra- dead ”中的声母和韵母“浊音”塞音，以及在“ verve ”和“ zoos ”中的声母和韵母“浊音”
关于喉部肌肉直接作用于声带或声门下压力变化是否是英语中某些语言相关的音调
擦音，有时似乎几乎完全没有声音。由于这个原因，一些学者倾向于将这两个系列描述
变 化 的 原 因 ， 最 近 存 在 一 些 争 议 （ Lieberman 1967 ， Ohala and Ladefoged 1969 ，
为Lax或Lenis[B，D，G，V，Z，õ，3]和Tense或Fortis[P，T，K，F，0，S，ƒ]——见
Vanderslice 1967）。似乎已经确定喉部肌肉活动是正常的原因。然而，在另一种情况
第10章。
下，响应于声门压差的频率变化是重要的。我们在第五章中已经讨论了这样一个事实，
即在浊塞辅音中，空气不能从口腔中逸出，这提高了口腔内的压力，因此倾向于消除跨
声门的压力差，并且我们看到
 112 Phonation Phonation 113
112 发声 发声 113
The relative voicelessness of initial [b, d, g] in English, and of initial and final [v, z], (Dutch, Spanish, Hungarian, Tamil), (2) a language which possesses aspirated voiceless stops
and so on, was pointed out by Henry Sweet nearly a century ago (Sweet 1877, pp. 75 (English) and (3) several languages in which there is a phonological opposition between
80). Moreover, Sweet anticipated recent instrumental findings that show that even unaspirated and aspir-ated voiceless stops (Cantonese, east Armenian, Thai, Hindi).
though the so called ‘voiced’ stops and fricatives of English may, on occa- sion, （荷兰语、西班牙语、匈牙利语、泰米尔语），（2）一种具有送气清塞音的语言（英
completely lack vocal fold vibrations, nevertheless they do have a narrowed glottal opening. 语）和（3）几种在不送气和送气清塞音之间存在语音对立的语言（粤语、东亚美尼亚
In Sweet’s words ‘Final [z] may ... be ... fully vocalized throughout, or else, gradually 语、泰语、印地语）。
devocalized, pass- ing from voice to whisper while the consonant position is still being The mean voicing lag times in ms for all stops of the [p, t, k] and [ph, th, kh] types in these
maintained. Both may be heard (but generally the latter) in the E[nglish] "is”, etc. In final languages are shown in table 14. The voicing lag in all cases was longest for [k] or [kh].
buzzes after other voice consonants the gradual devocalization is very clearly marked in E. The actual mean figures in ms are shown in table 15.
Thus in the final buzz in "bills”, "thieves”, “adze”, etc., the vocality is of so short a duration
that the final [z] is almost a purely whispered consonant. In this last case the glottis is not 表14显示了这些语言中[P，T，K]和[Ph，Th，K26）]类型的所有停顿的平均发音延迟
fully opened till the consonant is finished, which therefore consists of voice passing into 时间（以毫秒为单位）。所有情况下的发音延迟最长的是[K]或[K26）]。以ms为单位的
whisper, fol-lowed by a breath-glide. If the transition from voice to breath is completed during 实际平均值如表15所示。
the beginning of the consonant itself, we have the Icelandic final [s] “is”, “las”, etc., which
Table 14
sounds like (zs)’. 表14
英语中声母[B，d，G]以及声母和韵母[V，Z]等的相对清音，是由亨利·斯威特（Henry
unaspirated aspirated
Sweet）在近一个世纪前（Sweet 1877，pp。75 80).此外，斯威特预计最近的仪器研究 不送气 送气的
结果表明，尽管英语中所谓的“浊音”塞音和擦音有时可能完全没有声带振动，但它们确 1P-1. k] h h
[p , t , k ] h

实有一个狭窄的声门开口。用斯威特的话说，最后的[Z]可能..是..在整个过程中完全 [pH，TH，KH]
Group 1
发声，或者逐渐去局部化，从声音到耳语，而辅音位置仍然保持不变。两者都可以在英 第一组
15

语“ is ”中听到（但通常是后者），等等。在其他声部辅音之后的韵尾嗡嗡声中，逐渐 Group 2 (English) 70

去局部化在E中非常明显。因此，在“ bill ”、“ thieves ”、“ adze ”等的韵尾嗡嗡声 第2组（英语）
Group 3 16 78
中，发声持续时间非常短，以至于韵尾[Z]几乎是一个纯粹的耳语辅音。 在最后一种情 第三组
况下，直到辅音结束，声门才完全打开，因此由声音变成耳语，然后是呼吸滑音。如果
从声音到呼吸的过渡是在辅音本身开始的时候完成的，我们有冰岛语的韵母 Table 15
表15
[s]“ is ”，“ las ”等，听起来像（zs）。
unaspirated aspirated
Recent glottographic and laryngoscopic studies show that the English ‘voiced’ 不送气 送气的
stops and fricatives, even when not actually voiced, exhibit considerable whisper-like
[p] Ir] (Ki KJ [KJ
narrowing of the glottis. As we point out in Chapter 10, it is thus unnecessary to [p] IR] （ 千焦[千焦
postulate a lenis/ fortis distinction. Even when the vocal cords are not actually vibrat- ing, Group 1 7 12 27
English [b, d, v, z] are distinguished phonationally from [p, t, f, s] by the fact that the 第一组
former are accompanied by a narrowing of the glottis. They are thus potentially, if not Group 2 (English) 58 70 80
actually, voiced, and there is no need to invoke a dubious and ill-defined concept of 第2组（英语）
‘tenseness’. Group 3 7-7 13-2 27 72 67 94
最近的声门图和喉镜研究表明，英语的“浊音”塞音和擦音，即使实际上不是浊音， 第三组
也会表现出相当大的耳语式声门变窄。正如我们在第10章中所指出的，因此没有必要假
定Lenis/Fortis的区别。即使声带实际上没有振动，英语[B，d，V，Z]与[p，t，f，s] Not only stops can be aspirated, but several other types of sound as well, notably
affricates (see Chapter 11 ) and fricatives. Moreover, something analogous to the ‘voicing-lag’
在发音上的区别在于前者伴随着声门变窄。因此，它们可能（如果不是实际上）被表达 of voiceless aspirated stops can be observed with the so-called ‘voiced aspirated stops’ of
出来，没有必要援引一个可疑的、定义不清的“紧张”概念。 Hindi and other north Indian languages, usually represented in phonetic transcription by
A further distinction with regard to phonation types has to do, in its most [bh, dh, gh], and so on. The use of the term ‘voiced aspirated stop’ for these sounds has
immediately observable aspect, with time-relations be- tween voicing and oral strictures been criticized by Ladefoged (1971) on the grounds that in this usage ‘one is using
referred to by the terms ‘unaspir­ ated’ and ‘aspirated’. If the reader is a native speaker of neither the term voiced nor the term aspirated in the same way’ as in the
English the chances are that he will be able to hear a good example of an aspir- ated stop in a description of voiceless aspirated stops such as [ph, th, kh]. Lade- foged’s objection,
fairly forcible pronunciation of the word car. He will observe that the voicing for the vowel [a:] however, loses much of its validity when one thinks of both voiceless and voiced
does not begin until a noticeable time (about 50 to 80 milliseconds) after the release of the aspirated sounds as involving delayed onset of normal voicing : the fact is that in such
dorso-velar closure of [k]. The word may thus be transcribed pho-netically as [kha:], in which sounds as [bh] there is whispery voice rather than voice during the stop and for a certain
[h] represents the period of voicelessness that precedes the voicing of the vowel. This period after its release.1 Just as with voiceless aspirated stops, there is thus a delay in
retardation in the onset of voicing, or 'voicing-lag' as it is called is characteristic of aspirated the onset of normal voice. Moreover, instrumental recordings of intra-oral air-pressure in
consonants. Lisker and Abramson (1964) studied this phenomenon in a number of voiced aspirated stops show that the pattern of air-pressure in these stops differs from that of
languages. These included (1) a group of languages which are generally said to possess the corresponding voiced unaspirated stops in precisely the same way as does the intra-
unaspirated voiceless stops oral pressure in aspirated and unaspir-ated voiceless stops. It is characteristic of (initial)
关于发声类型的进一步区别，在其最直接可观察的方面，与术语“不发音的”和“送气 aspirated stops, both voiceless and voiced, that the intra-oral pressure goes on rising
的”所指的发声和口腔狭窄之间的时间关系有关。如果读者是以英语为母语的人，他很 不仅塞音可以送气，其他几种类型的音也可以送气，特别是塞擦音（见第11章）和
可能会听到一个很好的例子，即单词car的发音相当有力。他将观察到元音[a：]的发音 摩擦音。此外，在印地语和其他北印度语言的所谓“浊送气塞音”中，可以观察到类似于
直到[K]的背软腭闭合释放后的明显时间（约50至80毫秒）才开始。因此，该单词可以 清送气塞音的“浊音滞后”，通常以[BH，DH，GH]等音标表示。Ladefoged（1971）批评了
在语音上被转录为[Kha：]，其中[h]表示元音发音之前的清音期。这种发音开始时的延 对这些声音使用术语“浊送气塞音”，理由是在这种用法中，“人们既没有以相同的方式使
迟，或所谓的“发音滞后”，是送气辅音的特征。Lisker和Abramson（1964）研究了多 用术语浊送气塞音，也没有以相同的方式使用术语送气塞音”，就像在描述清送气塞音
种语言中的这种现象。 这些语言包括：（1）一组通常被认为具有不送气清塞音的语言 （如[Ph)，Th)，Kh然而，当一个人认为清音和浊音的送气音都涉及正常发声的延迟开始
时，拉德的反对意见就失去了很多有效性：事实是，在[BH]这样的声音中，在塞音期间
和塞音释放后的一段时间内，有耳语的声音而不是声音。 1正如清送气塞音一样，正常
语音的开始也会延迟。此外，对浊送气塞音中口腔内气压的仪器记录表明，这些塞音中
的气压模式与相应的浊不送气塞音的气压模式完全不同，这与送气塞音和不送气塞音
中的口腔内气压完全相同。（初始）送气塞音（清音和浊音）的特征是口腔内压力继
续上升
114 Phonation Phonation 115
114 发声 发声 115
right to the end of the period of closure. At the moment of release the pressure is still
rising, often at an increasing rate. In unaspirated stops, both voiceless and voiced, the pressure
increase tends to flatten off, and may even be falling slightly by the time the release occurs.
This difference in pressure pattern is undoubtedly related to the glottal-stricture difference
mentioned below.
直至封闭期结束。在释放的时刻，压力仍在上升，通常以增加的速度上升。在不送气塞
音中，无论是清音还是浊音，压力增加趋于平缓，甚至可能在释放时略有下降。这种压
力模式的差异无疑与下面提到的声门狭窄差异有关。
Just as there may be a time-lag between the release of a stop or fricative stricture
and the onset of voicing (aspiration), so there may equally well be a time-lag between the
offset, or cessation, of voicing and the formation of the stop (or fricative) stricture. In this latter
case we havepre-aspiration. Pre-aspiration, represented by, for example, [hp, ht, hk], is a well-
known phenomenon in Icelandic, Scots Gaelic, and the English spoken by Scots Gaelic
speakers. It also occurs in the north Caucasian languages, Chechen and Ingush.
正如在塞音或摩擦音狭窄的释放和发声（吸气）的开始之间可能存在时滞一样，在发
声的偏移或停止和塞音（或摩擦音）狭窄的形成之间同样可能存在时滞。在后一种情况
下，我们有预吸气。在冰岛语、苏格兰盖尔语和苏格兰盖尔语使用者所说的英语中，由
例如[h)P，h)T，hK]表示的预送气是一种众所周知的现象。它也出现在北高加索语言，车
臣语和印古什语中。
Aspirated consonants can, no doubt, be most easily detected by means of the voicing-
lag which we have been discussing. Neverthe-less, this is only a symptom of what we may
regard as a more funda-mental characteristic of these sounds, namely, the state of the glottis.
It was already suggested by Sweet (1877) that in aspirated [kha] ‘the glottis is left open while
the stop is being formed and the chords are not brought into the voice position till the
moment of loosening the stop, so that before the glottis has time to form voice there is
a slight escape of breath between the stop and the vowel—the glide from the stop to
the vowel is breathed’. On the other hand, in un­ aspirated [ka] ‘the glottis is in the
position for voice during the stop, but without any air being forced through it, and Figure 25. Relation of voicing-lag to glottal area
图25.发声滞后与声门区的关系
consequently the stop is as inaudible as in the case of [kh], but voice begins the moment the
stop is loosened, and the glide is therefore voiced’. Later writers, tended to exaggerate the
glottal closure of unaspirated stops. Gram- mont (1933) for instance, appeared to claim may be summed up in figure 25 (where the maximum glottal areas have been estimated from
that the unaspirated [p, t, k] of French and some other languages involved complete Kim’s actual figures for maximum width of the glottal opening).
glottal closure. But this was clearly wrong, as it would mean that normal French, 可以总结在图25中（其中最大声门面积是根据Kim的声门开口最大宽度的实际数字估算
Italian and other [p, t, k] were either glottalic pres-sure stops [p, t, k,] or pulmonic 的）。
glottal and oral stops, like the [?p, Pt, ?k] sounds of many (British) English dialects, a point These figures, of course, are precisely valid only for the specific Korean stops investigated
which was made in Catford (1947). Recent investigations, however, have shown that Sweet by Kim. Nevertheless, they undoubtedly express a relationship which is generally true.
was essentially right, and Grammont was wrong only in attributing complete glottal Aspirated, or pre-aspirated, sounds are produced with a relatively large glottal opening during
closure to [p, t, k]. Modern techniques of glottography and laryngoscopy show that the stricture ; unaspirated sounds with the glottis restricted as to cross-sectional area. This
unaspirated voiceless sounds have a narrowed (though not completely closed) distinction applies also to voiced sounds. Voiced unaspirated sounds involve relatively tight
glottis, while aspirated sounds have a more or less widely open glottis. Indeed, a study glottal closure alternating periodically with the relatively minimal openings through which
of Korean stops (Kim 1970) shows an almost linear relation between the area of glottal high velocity jets burst upwards into the pharynx. Aspirated voiced sounds involve a wider
opening during the stops and the duration of the voicing-lag following release of the stop. glottal opening, in the sense that the vocal cord vibrations are accompanied by a
Kim’s data continuing escape of air through a moderately large chink.
毫无疑问，通过我们一直在讨论的发音滞后，可以最容易地检测到送气辅音。尽管 当然，这些数字只适用于金所调查的特定韩国站点。然而，它们无疑表达了一种普
如此，这只是一种症状，我们可以把它看作是这些声音的一种更基本的心理特征，即声 遍真实的关系。在狭窄过程中，相对较大的声门开口产生送气音或前送气音；不送气音，
门的状态。Sweet（1877）已经提出，在送气[KhA]中，“在形成塞音时，声门是打开的， 声门横截面积有限。这一区别也适用于浊音。浊音不送气音包括相对紧密的声门闭合，
直到松开塞音的那一刻，和弦才进入声音位置，因此在声门有时间形成声音之前，在塞 周期性地与相对最小的开口交替，高速射流通过该开口向上射入咽部。送气浊音包括一
音和元音之间有轻微的呼吸逃逸——从塞音到元音的滑动是呼吸”。另一方面，在不送 个较宽的声门开口，从某种意义上说，声带振动伴随着空气通过一个中等大小的缝隙持
气的[ka]中，'在塞音期间，声门处于发声位置，但没有任何空气被迫通过它，因此塞 续逸出。
音与[Kh]的情况一样听不见，但塞音松开的那一刻开始发声，因此滑音是发声的'。后来 The relation between area of glottal opening and duration of voicing-lag also helps to
的作家， 倾向于夸大不送气塞音的声门闭合。例如，Grammont（1933）似乎声称法语 explain why stressed initial voiceless stops in English, as in par, tar, car, are strongly
和其他一些语言的不送气[p，t，K]涉及完全的声门闭合。但这显然是错误的，因为这 aspirated, while stops preceded by /s/, as in spar, star, scar, are virtually unaspirated. If
we assume that the change from wide-open glottis to the voicing position occurs normally at a
将意味着正常的法语、意大利语和其他[p，t，K]要么是声门和口部塞音[p，t，K]，要
rate of about 1000 mm2 per second,
么是肺音和口部塞音，就像许多（英国）英语方言的[？p，pt，？K]发音一样，这一点
声门开口面积和发音滞后持续时间之间的关系也有助于解释为什么英语中重读的首
在Catford（1947）中提出。然而，最近的研究表明，Sweet在本质上是正确的，而
个清塞音（如par，tar，car）是强送气的，而前面有/s/的塞音（如spar，star，scar）
Grammont仅在将声门完全闭合归因于[P，T，K]方面是错误的。现代声门造影和喉镜检
实际上是不送气的。如果我们假设从全开声门到发声位置的变化通常以大约每秒1000mm2
查技术表明，不送气的清音声门变窄（虽然不是完全闭合），而送气的声门则或多或少
的速率发生，
地张开。确实， 一项关于韩语塞音的研究（Kim 1970）表明，塞音过程中声门打开的
面积与塞音释放后发声滞后的持续时间之间几乎呈线性关系。金的数据
 116 Phonation
116 发声

SEVEN
七个

Articulation 1 : Stricture Types

关节1:狭窄类型
Articulation is one of the two basic components of vocal sound pro-duction. After initiation
has set in train a flow of air, articulation acts upon the air-stream to ‘shape’ it, as it were,
into a sound of specific type and quality.
发音是声乐发声的两个基本组成部分之一。在开始训练气流后，发音作用于气流，将其
“塑造”成特定类型和质量的声音。
For instance, pulmonic pressure-initiation generates an undiffer-entiated egressive flow of
air up and out of the vocal tract. A close approximation of the articulating organs forms a
narrow channel through which the air-stream forces its way, becoming turbulent in the
process: articulation has thus ‘shaped’ the undifferentiated air­ stream into a sound of
specific type, a fricative. Moreover, the specific kind of fricative depends on the location of
the articulatory channel : compare, for instance, [f, s, ƒ]. In the corresponding voiced fricatives
[v, z, 3], phonatory activity in the larynx generates the sound of ‘voice’, but it is the
articulatory process that once again takes the pulsating voiced air-stream and shapes it into
the specific fricatives [v, z, 3]. Again, in vowel sounds like [i, a, u] (roughly as in tea, tar,
too), phonation imposes the pulsations of voice upon the air-stream, but it is articulation that
finally shapes the voiced air- stream into the specific sounds of [i, a, u]: the oral resonance fre-
Figure 26. Initial [p"] and [sp] in English quencies are manipulated by placing the articulatory organs into different positions.
图26.英文首字母[P “ ”]和[SP] 例如，肺动脉压力启动产生无差异的向上和向外流出声道的气流。发音器官非常接
近，形成了一个狭窄的通道，气流通过该通道强行前进，在此过程中变得湍急：发音因
or 1 mm2 in every millisecond, then we can picture the relation between area of glottal
opening, and oral articulation, as in figure 26. 此将未分化的气流“塑造”成一种特定类型的声音，即摩擦音。此外，摩擦音的具体种类
或每毫秒1mm2，那么我们可以描绘声门开口面积和口腔发音之间的关系，如图26所示。 取决于发音通道的位置：例如，比较[f，s，f]。在相应的浊摩擦音[V，Z，3]中，喉部
The quite plausible inference behind this is that, in English, initial voiceless consonants, or 的发声活动产生了“ voice ”的声音，但正是发音过程再次将脉动的浊气流塑造成特定
voiceless consonant-clusters, always begin with the glottis widely open. The time-lag between 的摩擦音[V，Z，3]。再一次，在元音[I，a，u]中（大致与tea，tar相同），发声将声
this wide open state of the glottis, and fully vibrating vocal cords for the following vowel is 音的脉动施加在气流上。 但最终将浊音气流塑造成[I，a，u]的特定声音的是发音：通
always roughly the same; alternatively, approximately the same quantity of air is always 过将发音器官置于不同的位置来操纵口腔共鸣频率。
driven through the glottis in any English voiceless syllable onset. This would account not
Glottal closure (glottal stop) has sometimes been regarded as a type of phonation. It is,
only for the facts referred to above, but also for the fact that in English, initial [p, t, k]
however, the ‘final shaping’ function of arti­ culation that explains why we regard glottal stop
plus [1, r, w] or [j] involves a fully or partially voiceless second term in the initial cluster, that
[?] as a form of articulation, not of phonation. This is particularly clear in languages in
is, [pl, tw, kj], and so on. which [?] takes its place alongside other stops, such as [p, t, k]. Here the glottal closure
这背后似乎很合理的推论是，在英语中，开头的清辅音，或清辅音群，总是以声门 of [?] is the final shaping activity, which converts the undifferentiated pulmonic egressive air-
大开开始。声门完全打开的状态和下一个元音完全振动的声带之间的时间差总是大致相 stream into a specific sound, just as do the other articulators for [p, t], and so on.1
同的。或者，在任何英语清音节开始时，总是有大约相同数量的空气通过声门。这不仅 声门闭合（声门塞音）有时被认为是发声的一种类型。然而，艺术的“最终塑造”功能
可以解释上面提到的事实，还可以解释在英语中，首字母[p，t，K]加上[1，R，w]或[J] 解释了为什么我们认为声门塞音[？]是一种发音形式，而不是发声形式。这一点在[？]
涉及首字母集群中完全或部分清音的第二项，即[pl，TW，KJ]等。 与其他塞音（如[p，t，K]）一起出现的语言中尤为明显。在这里，[？]的声门闭合是
最后的成形活动，它将未分化的肺输出气流转化为特定的声音，就像[P，T]的其他发音
器官一样。1
Articulations, like phonations, can be described in terms of their stricture-types and their
locations. The vocal tract from the glottis upwards may be imagined as a horizontally
straightened-out, bifur-cated (nose/mouth), four-dimensional tube, the parameters of arti-
发音，像发声一样，可以根据它们的狭窄类型和位置来描述。从声门向上的声道可
以想象成一个水平伸直的、双耳（鼻/口）的四维管道，