Aci sp-227-2005

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Shrinkage and Creep
of Concrete
Editors
N.J. Gardner
Jason Weiss American Concrete Institute®
Advancing concrete knowledge
SP-227
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Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=UNI OF NEW SOUTH WALES/9996758001
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First printing, April 2005
DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium may be submitted in accordance

with general requirements of the ACI Publication Policy to ACI headquarters at the address
given below. Closing date for submission of discussion is October 2005. All discussion
approved by the Technical Activities Committee along with closing remarks by the authors
will be published in the January/February 2005 issue of either ACI Structural Journal or ACI
Materials Journal depending on the subject emphasis of the individual paper.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in its publications.
Institute publications are not able to, nor intended to, supplant individual training,
responsibility, or judgment of the user, or the supplier, of the information presented.
The papers in this volume have been reviewed under Institute publication procedures by
individuals expert in the subject areas of the papers.
Copyright © 2005
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
P.O. Box 9094
Farmington Hills, Michigan 48333-9094
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Printed in the United States of America
Editorial production: Lindsay K. Kennedy
Library of Congress catalog card number: 2005922742

ISBN: 0-8703 I -178-6

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Preface
Why should you be interested in the shrinkage and creep of concrete? To put this
question into perspective, the load induced elastic (immediate) strains in concrete are of
the order of 300 microstrain, depending upon stress level. The ultimate drying shrinkage
can range from 400 xI 0-6 to 900 x 10-6. The creep strain can be 25% to 70% of the
immediate strain after 24 hours and may be several multiples of the immediate strain after
several years, depending on the relative humidity. If concrete is restrained against
shrinkage it can crack.
Structural engineers are concerned with the consequences of shrinkage, creep and
cracking on the serviceability and durability of their structures. Creep increases
deflections, reduces prestress in prestressed concrete elements, and causes
redistribution of internal force resultants in redundant structures. Shrinkage can cause
warping of slabs on grade due to differential drying and increased deflections of non-
symmetrically reinforced concrete elements. Materials scientists are concerned with
understanding the basic phenomena and assessing new materials and the effects of
admixtures on the mechanical behavior of concrete.
Concrete is an age stiffening material that has little tensile strength, shrinks, and exhibits
creep in sealed conditions and additional drying creep in drying environments.
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Predicting the amount of shrinkage and deflection that may occur is not easy and is
especially complicated in concrete that contains supplementary materials, chemical
admixtures, and lightweight aggregates. Supplementary cementing materials and waste
products are being used in increasing volumes in response to environmental concerns.
Admixtures have been developed to modify the behavior of fresh and hardened concrete.
Self consolidating concrete is being used in more applications. A recent development is
the marketing of shrinkage reducing admixtures.
This volume contains papers presented during four sessions sponsored by ACI
Committee 209, Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete, and ACI Committee 231, Properties of
Concrete at Early Ages, held at the ACI Spring 2005 Convention. The subjects
addressed by the authors are diverse and cover many aspects of shrinkage and creep.
Some papers pay special attention to the development, use, and evaluation of models to
predict shrinkage, creep, and deflection, while other papers consider the behavior of
early age concretes that are restrained from shrinking, resulting in the development of
residual stresses and cracking.
Papers are presented to evaluate models for predicting shrinkage and creep, which is
especially crucial asACI Committee 209 attempts to refine the models that wiii are
presented in the ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. Several papers provide a field
assessment of creep and shrinkage in concrete structures, thereby providing an
explanation of how field data should be collected and how this data can be used to refine
predictive models. Other papers deal with an improved understanding of early-age
tensile stress development, including demonstrating the measurement of creep and
iii
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stress development. One paper presents experimental results to quantify differential
drying and thermal deflections in slabs. This volume also recognizes that modern
concretes are now no longer a simple mixture of water, cement, and aggregate. This
volume discusses specific aspects of how the shrinkage of these modern concretes may
differ from concrete made using conventional materials. Specifically, several papers deal
with the shrinkage and curing of concrete containing supplementary cementing materials,
which is especially important as the use of these materials is rapidly rising. The
shrinkage and creep behaviour of high-strength, lightweight concrete is also evaluated
and compared to existing models. One paper assesses the cracking behavior of self-
consolidating concrete, a rapidly emerging material that is often suspected to be
sensitive to shrinkage related concerns due to the higher paste volume that may exist in
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these mixtures. It is shown that self-consolidating concretes can be made to be resistant
to cracking. Finally, this volume describes a study that is focused on the development of
an approach to describe the shrinkage and early age stress development in concrete
containing shrinkage reducing admixtures.
This volume includes significant contributions by many leading research and practicing
engineers in the field of shrinkage and creep. The descriptions of field problems and the
assessment of the accuracy of predictive models may assist practicing engineers. For
researchers, the contents of this volume should be useful in the development and
evaluation of future models and laboratory measurements. Finally, it should be noted that
many people have contributed to the successful development of these proceedings, and
the editors, and authors, thank all of the anonymous reviewers who assisted in reviewing
the papers.
Co-Editors
N.J. Gardner
Jason Weiss
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .................................................................................................................................. iii
SP-227-1: Managing Deflection, Shortening and Crack Arising from Restrained

Contraction ........................................................................................................................... 1
by S. J. Alexander
SP-227-2: AS3600 Creep and Shrinkage Models for Normal and High Strength
Concrete .............................................................................................................................. 21
by R. I. Gilbert
SP-227-3: Sensitivty of the Models for Predicting Shrinkage of Concrete ................... 41

by A. Al-Manaseer and S. Ristanovic
SP-227--4: Deviations from the Principle of Superposition and their Consequences on

Structural Behavior ............................................................................................................. 67
by S. Staquet and B. Espion
SP-227-5: Design Implication of Creep and Shrinkage in Integral

Abutment Bridges ................................•.............................................................................. 85
by M. Arockiasamy and M. Sivakumar
SP-227-6: A Rational Approach to the Analysis of

Structural Effects due to Creep ......................................................................................... 107
by M. A. Chiorino
SP-227-7: Shrinkage and Creep Predictions Evaluated using 10-year Monitoring of the
North Halawa Valley Viaduct ............................................................................................ 143
by I. N. Robertson and X. Li
SP-227-8: Tension Cracking in Columns Under Compression Loads ......................... 163

by D. J. Carreira
SP-227-9: Estimating Time-Dependent Deformations of Prestressed Elements:

Accuracy and Variability .................................................................................................. 195
by M. W. Paulsen, S.D. B. Alexander, and D. M. Rogowsky
SP-227-10: Shrinkage of Virginia Transportation Concrete Mixtures ........................ 217

by D. W. Mokarem, R. E. Weyers, and M. M. Sprinkel
SP-227-11: Design Aids for the Evaluation of Creep Induced

Structural Effects ............................................................................................................... 23 9
by M. Sassone and M. A. Chiorino
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SP-227-12: Effect of Modulus of Elasticity on Creep Prediction of High Strength
Concrete Containing Pozzolans ...................................................................................... 261
by N. Suksawang and H. H. Nassif
SP-227-13: Shrinkage Behavior and Residual Stress Development in Mortar

Containing Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures (SRA's) .................................................... 285
by B. Pease, H. Shah, and J. Weiss
SP-227-14: Performance of Self-Consolidating Concrete Under

Restrained Shrinkage ........................................................................................................ 303
by H. T. See and E. K. Attiogbe
SP-227-15: Long-Term Creep and Shrinkage in High-Strength

Lightweight Concrete ....................................................................................................... 31 7
by M. Lopez, L. Kahn, K. Kurtis, and B. Buchberg
. SP-227-16: Stress Relaxation of Concrete Under Autogenous Early-Age

Restrained Shrinkage ........................................................................................................ 33 7
by M. Pigeon, B. Bissonnette, J. Marchand, D. Boily, and L. Barcelo
SP-227-17: Modeling Early Age Tension Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete ............. 349
by M.D. D'Ambrosia and D. A. Lange
SP-227-18: Evaluation of Thermal Warping in Pavements ......................................... 367

by M. A. Miltenberger, E. K. Attiogbe, and A. R. Stoddard
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SP-227-1
Managing Deflection, Shortening and

Cracking Arising from Restrained Contraction
by S. J. Alexander
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Synopsis: Concrete shrinks. Steel doesn't, and the resistance of reinforcement to

shrinkage causes deflection of slabs and beams and shortening of columns and walls. A
simple visualization is given, and used to derive formulae for analysis. Current methods of
calculating shrinkage curvature and deflection in reinforced sections are examined and
compared, concluding that the ACI method appears realistic while the UK and European
methods significantly over-estimate the deflection.
Restraint by differential contraction between an insitu concrete overlay and an

older substrate produces tension in the overlay and curvature and deflection of the
composite unit. A method for calculating this is given, and the resulting effects are found -
to be significant in certain circumstances. The method is extended to consider shrinkage
in insitu slabs in steel-concrete composite construction. The deflection from shrinkage is
found to be approaching span/750, and cracking in the slabs is predicted in some cases.
External testtaint to contraction induces tensile stresses, and a rational approach to

providing sufficient reinforcement to control cracking in direct tension is given. It is
particularly relevant to elements which need to be water-resisting, and a case study of a
basement is presented. The reinforcement needed to control cracking reliably is found to
exceed most current US, UK and European recommendations.
Keywords: composite beams; cracking; creep; deflection; design; early age

contractions; overlays; reinforced concrete; restraint; serviceability;
shortening; shrinkage; structural analysis
1
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2 Alexander
ACI member Stuart Alexander is UK-based Group Technical Coordinator for world-wide
engineering consultancy WSP Group. This involves publishing material on the intranet-
based technical library, preparing and delivering seminars, and giving expert advice. He
is also a regular contributor to technical journals, particularly on movements in building
structures.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete contracts and shrinks. The main effects to be considered in design are
early age contraction, temperature drop and long-term drying shrinkage. Restraint arises
in a number of ways. Embedded reinforcement causes deflection of slabs and beams and
contributes to shortening of columns and walls. Casting concrete against a previous pour
or as an overlay on top of an older substrate induces tensile stresses that can cause
cracking. So do metal decking and supporting beams in steel-concrete composite
construction. Similarly, external restraint from rigid elements such as in-plane walls, piles
and pile caps, and even friction from the underlying soil, can cause cracking. Shrinkage is
also significant in concrete roads and industrial ground floors, but the paper is limited to
typical structural elements in buildings.
The paper considers how to quantify these effects, and makes recommendations
for managing them.
LIFE CYCLE OF CONCRETE
Concrete typically goes through the following life cycle:

Early age contractions. In the first three to six days, the hydration process first causes the
concrete to heat up - from a casting temperature that is usually already a few degrees
above ambient. During this period, it behaves in a plastic manner so the only result is an
increase in volume. However, when it cools to ambient temperature (Figure 1) it has
hardened enough to go into tension and may crack if it is restrained. At the same time,
shrinkage (a complex combination of actions, see Altoubat and Lange (1 )) also occurs,
adding to the contractions.
Strength gain. In the following three to four weeks (longer in mixtures with flyash or
slag), both compressive and tensile strength increase.
Temperature. In the first year, it will be subjected to the seasonal temperature and
humidity cycle if it is exposed, or to indoor conditions if it is enclosed. Daily variations
will also occur.
Shrinkage. Over a longer period, perhaps two to ten years, long-term drying shrinkage
will gradually occur.
It is important to recognise the cumulative effect of all the contractions, that is

early age contractions (partially relieved by creep, see below) plus temperature drop plus
shrinkage, if they are restrained. Thus only a small temperature drop or amount of
shrinkage can be enough to initiate a crack in concrete with locked-in tensile stress from
early age contraction. However, note that concrete and steel can usually be assumed to
have the same coefficient of thermal expansion, so that embedded reinforcement does not
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Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete 3
form a restraint to thermal movements. Also, if the only restraint present is that to early
age contraction from a recent adjacent pour, shrinkage and temperature drop can usually
be assumed to apply equally to the whole structure and any long-term differential
therefore ignored.
Alleviation by creep
Some alleviation of sustained tensile stresses, that is those arising from early age
contractions and long-term shrinkage but only seasonal temperature, is provided by
creep. Altoubat and Lange found that early age contractions were reduced very rapidly by
as much as 50%. Interestingly, the same reduction is included in BS 8007 (2) where it is
explained as a 'restraint factor'.
European guidance on creep and shrinkage is published in BS 5400-4 (3), but

appears to be largely additional to early age effects. Figure 2 is derived from BS 5400-4,
and shows the reduction over time of both early thermal contraction and shrinkage. Early
thermal contraction stresses are reduced quite rapidly. The figure is based on fairly
conservative assumptions (loading at 3.5 days, section 300 mrn [12 in] thick exposed on
one side only, rh 80 %), yet the reduction is estimated to be 30% at four months and
60 % at two years. Long-term shrinkage is different. Although each increment is lessened
by creep, the shrinkage builds up quite slowly so the effect of creep is even more delayed.
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The figure shows that the effect is hardly significant up to one year, although ultimately
the reduction is about one-third.
Note that these reductions apply to the tensile stress in the concrete. Thus if it is
cracked the initial stress will be the stress at which it cracked and the reduction should be
applied to that stress.
RESTRAINT FROM EMBEDDED REINFORCEMENT
The easiest way to understand the restraining effect of reinforcement is to

envisage a unit length taken from a member. Imagine firstly that the reinforcement is
disconnected from the concrete, for example by being greased. When shrinkage takes
place, the ends of the reinforcement will be left projecting from the face. The
reinforcement is then pushed back into the concrete and at the same time the concrete is
pulled out so that the surface is flush once again (figure 3).
Symmetrically reinforced sections
If the reinforcement is symmetrical and the compressive strain in it is &5, the

total force in the reinforcement is lis Es A 5 • The tensile strain in the concrete is lCs - &,
where &cs is the free (ie unrestrained) shrinkage. A straightforward method of estimating
lCs taking relevant parameters into account is given in ACI 209R-92 (4) and is similar in
principle to the European method in BS 5400-4. The tensile force in the concrete is (lCs-
&5) Ec Ac. Equating these two forces gives the restrained shrinkage as

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4 Alexander
(1)
where m is the modular ratio (= £ 5 I Ec) and Pn is the ratio of reinforcement area to
concrete area.
Each increment of shrinkage occurs at a different age before being subsequently

relieved by creep, so it is not immediately obvious how to evaluate m. A simple
spreadsheet analysis by the author has shown that the 30-years effect is given quite
accurately by imposing the total shrinkage in one step at an age of 150 days. For a typical
structure indoors (rh = 45%,..fcu = 28/35 MPa [4000 psi], he= 250 mm [10 in]), this gives
the creep coefficient v = 1.6, whence Eetr = 11.5 GPa [1670 ksi] and m = 17.5.
Shrinkage deflection in reinforced members
If the section is reinforced asymmetrically - as is usual in a beam or slab - the

restraint provided by the reinforcement is lopsided. The shortening described above for
symmetrical sections takes place, but in addition the asymmetry produces curvature,
which leads to deflection.
Once again, the strain &, in the reinforcement is used to define the force, and the
stress in the concrete is calculated by the conventional formula FIA +My!I. The resulting
strain at the level of the reinforcement is equated to &cs - &,, giving the uncracked
curvature as:
Kun = &cs m s, I (lg + m Pn fc) (2)
where S, is the net first moment of area of the reinforcement about the neutral axis of
the concrete section (ie deducting S of any compression reinforcement), Ic is the
second moment of area of the concrete section, and lg is the second moment of area
of the gross section, ie including the reinforcement multiplied by (m-1).
This differs from the British code of practice BS 8110-2 (5) in that the second
term in parentheses is excluded and the points about calculating v at 150 days and
deducting the S of compression reinforcement are not made. More importantly, both
BS 811 0-2 and the forthcoming Eurocode EN 1992-1-1 (6) state that the cracked section
properties should be used if the section is cracked under load. This needs further
consideration.
At a crack, the concrete below the neutral axis cannot transmit shrinkage strain,
and it can be shown that the fully cracked curvature is
Kcr = Ccs / (d- c/2) (3)
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Compression reinforcement can be allowed for by reducing &cs by I + m p' where p' is
As' I b c and m is determined as above. The actual behaviour is presumably an alternation
between cracked and uncracked zones as shown in Figure 4.
The method recommended in the US is equation 2.26 in ACI 435R-95 (7):
(4)
where Ash= 0.7 p 113 for p' = 0 (modified for p' > 0). The curvature IS the term in
parentheses.
In order to compare the shrinkage curvatures obtained by different methods,

they have all been reduced to the form
(5)
and plotted in Figure 5 against values of Pd = I 00 As I b d. Where a method did not lend
itself to this formula directly, values were derived from the model of a 300 mm (12 in)
thick solid slab, taking d = 0.9 h and m = I7 .5. The tension reinforcement is assumed to
be the amount required for ultimate load, ie stressed to 300 MPa [I 05 ksiJ under service
load.
It can be seen that the ACI method lies 25-30% of the way between kun and kcr
while the BS and EN cracked methods lie 75-80% of the way between kun and kcr.
although this would effectively reduce to 65-70 % when used with the incorrect
deflection coefficient O.I04 (see below). Examination of figure 4 suggests that the ACI
method is realistic, and that the UK and EN methods significantly over-estimate
shrinkage deflection.
Compression reinforcement As' has been taken as zero, but similar graphs can be
produced incorporating different values of As'. Compression reinforcement is very
effective in reducing shrinkage curvature. By ACI 435R-95, providing 0.25 % additional
compression reinforcement in a section where As,req = 0.75% reduces the curvature by
29 % while adding it to the tension reinforcement increases it by I 0 %.
The 'locked-in' tensile stress at the extreme fibre in the uncracked zone from
restrained shrinkage is
fet = Kun Eeff (h- c) (6)
using the same Eerr as used to calculate K. This stress can be significant after some time
and appears to be overlooked in codes of practice when ascertaining whether the section
is cracked under load.
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6 Alexander
Estimating shrinkage curvatures at intermediate ages is not easy. It is possible to
set up a spreadsheet that divides the shrinkage into increments which are summed to give
the total curvature at the point in time required. However, shrinkage curvature is only a
small contribution to the total curvature and it will often be acceptable to make an
educated guess.
Deflection is obtained from curvature by the relationship
(7)
The coefficient K for shrinkage is 0.125 for a span, 0.5 for a cantilever. If the curvature
reverses over one or both supports, the coefficient is reduced by the multiplier 1 - {J/10
where fJ is the ratio (KA + Ka) I Kc in which KA, Ka and Kc are the curvatures at left
support, right support and mid-span respectively.
Confusion arises as both BS 8110-2 and EN 1992-1-1 (but not ACI) state that
the shrinkage curvature should be added to the curvature from load. This means that the
coefficient K for a simply supported span is taken as 0.1 04, not 0.125. For a cantilever the
difference is even more marked, correctly 0.5 not 0.25. In this paper it is assumed that the
various methods are all aiming to give the actual shrinkage curvature; incorporating this
curvature into the load calculation will therefore reduce the shrinkage deflection by
around 17% in a span and by 50% in a cantilever.
Shrinkage deflection calculated by the ACI method is typically L/1250 or less,

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supporting the approach in ACI-318 (8) of including it in the additional deflection from
creep.
CONTRACTION OF INSITU CONCRETE OVERLAYS
Casting an insitu concrete overlay onto a precast concrete substrate or base unit
is a common way of forming a homogeneous slab. However, the differential between the
contraction of the overlay and the lesser or even zero contraction of the substrate
produces internal stresses which lead to shortening and deflection of the composite unit,
and sometimes to cracking in the overlay. The same theory can be applied when the base
unit is prestressed or when it is a steel section (see below).
Consider an overlay cast onto a base section, and firstly allow the contraction of
the overlay to take place freely, as if the interface is greased. Then apply a tensile force to
the overlay with an equal and opposite compressive force on the base so that the relative
movement at the interface is eliminated (Figure 5). The force acts at an eccentricity e to
the centroid of the overlay to equalize the curvature in the overlay with that in the base.
By defining the strain in the overlay as s,, the force F = s, A. E•. Applying the
equal and opposite force to the base produces a strain at the level of the centroid of the
overlay
&n -lj. = F [l!EtAb + z(z-e)/E.,Ib] (8)

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Eliminating 1:r gives
F= lD I [11E.,A. + 1/E!Ab + z(z-e)IEtfb] = lD Eb Ib I [Et/JE.,A. +!JAb+ z(z-e)] (9)
In this, suffixes a and b refer to the overlay and the base respectively. A and I are
derived from the concrete section including the reinforcement multiplied by the modular
ratio m. Reinforced concrete is generally assumed cracked below the neutral axis,
prestressed sections uncracked throughout. z is the lever arm between the centroid of the
overlay and the centroid of the base. The duration is accounted for by using creep-
modified values of E.
The eccentricity e can be found by equating the curvatures (= MIEI) of the

overlay and base. This gives
(10)
whence
e = z I (1 + Et/JEJ.) (11)
z-e = z I (1 + EJ.IEtfb) (12)
lD is the net contraction ie the difference in contraction between the

= &a - &b,
overlay and the base in the time period in question (see below). In many cases &b can be
taken as zero, including all concrete (including prestressed) over about one year old.
Conversely, if the base is relatively young and the overlay thin (so that early thermal
contraction is minimal), &a and &b will rapidly converge so that lD can be taken as zero, ie
the differential contraction is not significant.
The expression for F can be clarified by writing Et/JE..Aa =me MAa = l and
MAb = r2; q is a measure of the influence of the overlay on the base and r is the radius of
gyration of the base. Then
(13)
The force F is applied as an external force to the base section (not to the
composite section), enabling any property to be calculated; most important will usually
be the curvature from which the deflection is then calculated. The tensile stresses induced
may also be significant.
The method can be used over any period of time. For instance, the effects of
early age contraction are virtually immediate, so that short-term values would be used to
give the immediate deflection. Long-term values can be used to give the long-term effect,
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8 Alexander
although splitting the behaviour into steps with a spreadsheet will be more accurate as F
will decline with time. The same spreadsheet approach may be necessary to find the point
at which cb overtakes &a if the base is prestressed.
For thin overlays in which cracking would be visible and undesirable, it could be
controlled with reinforcement. Where the substrate is less than about 4-6 months old and
is expected to be above 15 C for the first month, it will probably be enough to provide
Pimm· In other cases, it will be advisable to provide Pmat (p;mm and Pmat are defined below).
CONTRACTION OF INSITU SLABS IN COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
In composite construction, contraction of the insitu concrete slab can be

significant. The theory for insitu overlays in the previous section applies, with the
simplification that as the slab is usually thin relative to the steel beam the eccentricity e
can be ignored. The average slab thickness should be used, not the minimum.
Some assumptions need to be clarified. The first is that because the metal
decking is bonded continuously to the concrete, it can be treated in the same way as
embedded reinforcement. And because the slab is attached to the steel beam which
forces it to contract linearly it does not matter if the decking - or the reinforcement - is
not concentric in the section. For typical slab profiles with steel decking 0.9-1.2 mm
[0.035-0.047 in] thick and light fabric reinforcement, Po ranges from 1.0 to 1.4 %, ie
higher than is normal in conventional reinforced concrete slabs. Using the typical value
of the modular ratio m of 17.5 shows that the effect of the restraint is a factor of 0.80-
0.85.
The force F is applied as an external force to the steel beam (not to the
composite section) enabling the curvature and thence the deflection to be calculated. The
curvature Kis given by MIEI, so here
(14)
The principal current UK guide is the code of practice for design of composite
beams BS 5950-3-1 (9). However, shrinkage of the concrete slab is not mentioned as a
contribution to deflection. BS 5950-3-1 will be supplanted by EN 1994-1-1 ( 10),
currently available in draft. This states that "calculation of stresses and deformations at
the serviceability limit state shall take into account the effects of [inter alia] creep and
shrinkage of concrete", and further that "the effect of curvature due to shrinkage of
concrete should be included when the ratio of span to overall depth of the beam exceeds
20 and the predicted free shrinkage strain of the concrete exceeds 400 x 1o-6"
(presumably not when below these limits).
The author has carried out calculations for typical arrangements which show that
the shrinkage deflection is significant but that there is relatively little variation between
widely different steel beams; all approach span/750. A simple rule would therefore be to
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assume shrinkage deflection is equal to span/750 unless it is estimated by a more accurate
calculation- in spite of silence in BS 5950-3-1 and the let-off in EN 1994-1-1.
Cracking in composite concrete slabs
Tension is induced in the slab in three ways. First is the internal restraint of the
reinforcement and the metal deck. Taking typical values of l'cs = 400 J.lE, Eb = 200 GPa
(29 000 ksi) and m = 17.5 gives fctt = 0. 7 MPa (1 00 psi) for p = 1.0% and 0.9 MPa
(130 psi) for p = 1.4 %.
Second is the restraint of the steel beam itself. This produces a tensile stress
(15)
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The term (? + i) I l varies from about 3 for a heavy beam to as much as 15 for
a light one. Taking typical values of &cr = 325 J.lE and Eb = 11 GPa (1670 ksi) gives
fca = 0.25-0.9 MPa (35-130 psi).
Third is the restraint of the surrounding structure. This will usually be at least
0.25 MPa (35 psi).
This suggests that the resulting tensile stress will be at least 1.2 MPa (175 psi)
and could be over 2.0 MPa (290 psi). The tensile strength of concrete under sustained
loading is probably in the range 1.5-2.1 MPa (220-300 psi) for the grades of concrete
normally used in composite construction. It is clear that the possibility of the concrete
cracking is very real and should be considered, particularly where composite slabs are to
be left exposed to view. This could be controlled by providing a reinforcement content of
Prnat· It might be thought that the metal deck would perform this function, at least at right
angles to the corrugations, but evidence from sites suggests otherwise.
EXTERNAL RESTRAINT
This section uses a rational approach to give guidance on providing sufficient

reinforcement to control cracking in direct tension. It is particularly relevant to walls and
ground slabs in basements. These are also structures which often need to be water-
resisting. It is therefore on the safe side to assume they will be restrained and determine
the reinforcement on this basis.
Controlled cracks
If increasing axial tension is applied to a section it will eventually crack

across its full depth and the force will be transferred to the reinforcement. If the
tensile force (or the strain) continues to increase, provided the reinforcement
bridging the crack is stronger than the uncracked section a new crack will form in a
different place. And so on. This is controlled cracking. However, if the reinforcement

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10 Alexander
is not strong enough it will yield, and the first crack will be uncontrolled and will just
get wider.
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Design criteria for controlling cracking
Before showing how this understanding can be used to determine the amount of
reinforcement to be provided, it is important to consider the criteria to be applied to
cracking in these circumstances. A crack which is not controlled has an unlimited width,
and will therefore be unsightly at best and will leak if water is present. The target should
therefore be that uncontrolled cracks are unlikely to occur. A reasonable interpretation of
this would be to limit the probability of an uncontrolled crack occurring to 5 %or 1 in 20.
This would require the upper characteristic axial tensile strength.fctm.o. 95 of concrete to be
used.
In order to maintain the 5% probability, .fctm.o.95 should be used with the mean
strength of the reinforcement. US deformed high yield steel currently has design strength
414 MPa (60 000 psi) and mean yield strength 490 MPa (71 000 psi). When EN 1992-1-1
comes into use, the design strength is expected to be 435 MPa (63 000 psi) and the mean
to be at least 550 MPa (80 000 psi).
Minimum reinforcement in direct tension
The role of reinforcement in controlling cracking can be derived from first

principles by making the strength of the reinforcement greater than the strength of the
concrete in tension. Applying this principle, the reinforced axial capacity is:
(16)
and the uncracked capacity is:
(17)
The second term in {17) is quite small and is neglected at this point, although a
correction for it is applied later. Putting Fs;::: Fe gives:
(18)
Two cases need to be considered, early age contractions in immature concrete

and total long-term contraction in mature concrete.
Early age contractions
If the contractions are restrained (eg by pouring against an earlier pour),

prediction of the contractions is so unreliable that it is safer to assume that cracking will
occur and to provide sufficient reinforcement to control it.

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BS 8007 derives a similar expression to (18) for the minimum reinforcement:
Pimm = fctl/y (19)
wherefct is the direct tensile strength of the immature concrete, usually taken at the age of
three days as 1.6 MPa (230 psi) for grade 28135 (4000 psi) concrete. Hughes (11)
explains that fc 1 includes a hidden partial safety factor for materials of 1.1, and quotes a
more general value fc 1 = 0.12 ifcu)0·7 , where feu is the 28-day cube strength. With /y =
460 MPa (66 700 psi), Pimm = 1.6 I 460 = 0.35 %, the figure which has been familiar to
British engineers for some years.
Three factors need to be taken into account at this point. First is the increase in
Fe from the second term in ( 17); with the minimum percentages recommended here, this
requires a multiplier of around 1.06. The other two are the variation in tensile strength at
a given compressive strength and the variation of compressive strength. EN 1992-1-1
quotes the upper characteristic tensile strength of concrete as 30 % greater than the mean
fctm· The average concrete strength is usually taken as 8110 MPa higher than the specified
minimum, and the variation is typically 20 %. Combining these two variations by the
root-sum-of-squares rule gives a multiplier of 1.36. Multiplying this by 1.06 gives 1.44.
Combined with the US ratio of design to mean for reinforcement of 4141490 explained
above, this results in:
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Pimm = 1.22 ifct.imm I /sd) (20)
wherefct.imm = 0.12 <feu+ 10)0·7• For use with EN 1992-1-1, 1.22 is replaced by 1.14.
Values of!ct,imm and Pimm for a range of concrete strengths are shown in Table 1.
It can be seen that using either ACI or EN requires more than 0.35 % reinforcement for
all likely concrete grades.
Mature concrete
BS 8007 and ACI 350 (12) cannot be relied on for designing basements to be
watertight. They are written for reservoirs, ie concrete tanks which in service will be full
of water and usually embedded in soil, often with a covering of soil on the roof. In these
conditions, shrinkage is minimal and temperature variations small. BS 8007 assumes that
if early age contractions are controlled, subsequent movements will be insignificant, or at
least less than the reduction from creep (although this is not stated).
In basements, the internal faces are open to atmosphere and therefore

temperature movements and shrinkage will occur. The worst case is basements used for
car parking, especially if they are naturally ventilated, as the concrete is then exposed to
near-ambient temperature and humidity all year round. These circumstances are hinted at
in CIRIA Report 139 (13), but a full explanation does not appear to be given in any UK
or US industry-standard document.

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12 Alexander
Under sustained loading, the tensile strength of concrete is understood to reduce
by around 0.7. The dominant cause of full-depth cracking is sustained contraction -long-
term shrinkage and seasonal temperature drop added to early age contractions - although
more rapid temperature drops frequently contribute. Allocating these 60-40 suggests that
a reduction in.fc1mfor long-term effects of0.82 can be applied. This gives:
Pmat 2: 1.00 .fctm I/sd for ACI (21)
Pmat 2: 0.93 fctm Ifsc..Jor EN (22)
This results in the minimum percentages in the sixth and seventh rows of Table
1, ie 0.67% rising to 0.80% for concrete grades of 28135 and 35145 MPa (4000 and
51 00 psi) respectively. These can be compared to the minimum in ACI 350 of 0.50 % for
lengths over 12m [40ft] between joints or without joints. However, ACI 224R-Ol (14)
(clause 3.5.2) states "To control cracks to a more acceptable level, the percentage
requirement needs to exceed about 0.60 %".
The actual formula in EN 1992-1-1 is
Pmat 2:.fctm I /yk (23)
in which hk is the characteristic (ie 95% probable) strength of the reinforcement,

= 500 MPa (72 500 psi). No derivation is given, but it results in values only marginally
lower than the author's.
Modern concretes often contain substantial proportions of flyash or slag, which

slow down the rate of gain of strength. In immature concrete this means that the
assumption of cracking may be overly pessimistic (although still safe). If reinforcement is
provided to control cracking, the lower tensile strength may permit the amount to be
reduced. In mature concrete, the problem is that the concrete may gain strength
considerably after 28 days. Equation (21) should therefore be used with the value of.fc1m
appropriate to the expected final strength.
In the UK, comparisons can be made with BS 811 0-1 (15), which recommends
0.45% for "sections subjected mainly to pure tension", although this has previously been
thought to apply to structural tension members like hangers, and with the design of
continuous reinforced concrete pavements, for which the Highways Agency (16)
specifies 0.60 % reinforcement in one layer at the mid-depth.
Both ACI 350 and EN 1992-1-1 make an allowance for 'non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses' in thick slabs. Although expressed in different ways, the net effects
are very similar. They are illustrated in Figure 7; as the depth of the section increases (x-
axis) a central zone can be discounted and the reinforcement provided based on the
remaining surface zones alone. The upper lines express the same effect as a reduction
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factor. ACI 350 goes further by reducing the reinforcement in the bottom of base slabs
supported on soil by 50% (not shown in the figure).
Crack widths
Two different methods of estimating crack widths are given in UK codes. Both
are in BS 8007: bond slipping is assumed for immature concrete, while no slip is assumed
for mature concrete. These two methods are combined in a single method in EN 1992-1-
1. The important point to note is that all methods first assume that the reinforcement is in
the elastic range, ie that the cracks are controlled.
Should we specifr a maximum concrete strength?
The data above are based on the assumption that the average compressive strength
will be 8/10 MPa (1200 psi) above the specified minimum with a practical scatter of
20 %. This suggests that an upper limit should be written into specifications, as it is
clear from Table 1 that the minimum reinforcement content will be underestimated if
the compressive strength is too high. This could be enforced by also placing an upper
limit on cementitious material content and discouraging too-low a w/c ratio.
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Case study
Figures 8 and 9 show the floor slab of a single level basement 215 x 70 m
(700 x 230 ft) used for car parking which has cracked extensively. The slab is 350 mm
(14 in) thick, designed as a· flat slab on pile caps at two-way centers varying between 5.5
and 6.5 m (18 and 21ft). The section (Figure 10) shows that full restraint would be a
realistic assumption. Total reinforcement is 0.38 % in the middle strips, 0.60 % in the
column strips. Concrete grade was specified as 28/35, although no actual cube test results
are available.
The structure was built in the mid-1990s, although the cracks were only
observed around 2000. They are roughly parallel, at right angles to the long dimension.
They start about 27 m (90 ft) from each end and are in groups of two to five spaced at
500 to 1100 mm (20 to 42 in), followed by a gap of 2m (7ft) or more before the next
group. They are now around 0.5 mm (0.02 in) wide, although filled with a dark grey
precipitate, having leaked extensively over the three winters from 2000-1 to 2002-3,
having been below the water table for at least part of that time.
The author believes the explanation is that with p > Pimm controlled cracks did
initially form as predicted for early age contractions but because p < Prnat they later
widened uncontrollably rather than additional new cracks forming. The absence of cracks
at each end probably shows the distance needed for full restraint to develop, perhaps
aided by the inward pressure of the soil on the perimeter walls. The absence of cracks
parallel to the long sides (and of any movement at the construction joints) could be for
the same reason -the width is not much more than twice 27 m. The slab was constructed
in longitudinal strips generally 5-6 m (16-20 ft) wide, so an alternative explanation is that

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14 Alexander
the early age contraction cycle passed without restraint inducing any significant tensile
stress and that subsequent contractions have been within the tensile strain capacity.
Managing cracking in basements
Many techniques are available to reduce or control shrinkage effects in concrete,

both at early age and when it is mature. These include: limiting pour areas; forming
movement -joints; incorporating shrinkage gaps; using shrinkage-reducing admixtures;
and using shrinkage-compensating cements. All run the risk that if the restraint is
underestimated uncontrolled cracking may still occur. The one reliable solution is to
provide sufficient reinforcement to control cracking.
Historically, basement-type structures have been sized by first choosing the
thickness of concrete, often conservatively on the assumption that the thicker the concrete
the more watertight it will be. Reinforcement has then been decided; in the UK prior to
BS 8007 even 0.35% would have been thought excessive.
The analysis above shows that the preferred approach is to select the thickness
of concrete as only that necessary to perform structurally; in many cases the minimum of
250 rom (10 in) recommended in BS 8102 (17) will suffice. Reinforcement should then
be chosen to satisfy the criteria derived above. It might seem excessive by other current
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standards, but uncontrolled cracking still occurs far too often, and if it does all the
reinforcement that is put in has been wasted.
NOTATION
area of concrete
area of reinforcement (total in both faces)
area of compression reinforcement
width of section
c depth to neutral axis (consistent with immediate or long-term condition)
d depth to tension reinforcement
Ec; Eeff modulus of elasticity of concrete; modified for long-term effects
Es modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement
e eccentricity (defined in Figure 6)
·F force (suffixes c, s refer to concrete, reinforcement)
fct.fctm concrete tensile strength - generally, mean value
feu concrete compressive strength, expressed as eg 28/35 MPa [4000 psi] where
28 MPa [4000 psi] is the cylinder strength and 35 MPa is the cube strength
fsd reinforcement tensile design strength
(y reinforcement yield strength
(yk characteristic reinforcement yield strength (ie 95% probable)
h overall depth of section
h. effective thickness, = b hI (2 x exposed perimeter)
lc, Ig second moment of area of concrete section, gross section
K coefficient for deflection related to bending moment diagram
k, kp coefficients

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L span
M moment
m modular ratio between steel and concrete (consistent with immediate or long-
term condition, ie = E, I Ec orE, I E.rr)
q,r parameters (defined in the text)
rh relative humidity
TI temperature drop for early thermal contraction (defined in Figure 1)
S, net first moment of area of reinforcement about neutral axis of concrete section
(ie deducting S of compression reinforcement)
z lever arm between centroids of base and overlay
0 deflection
G"cr.• Gcs shrinkage in concrete - restrained, free (unrestrained)
'lj,, t;;., £, strains (defined in the text)
K curvature (suffixes A, B, C refer to left support, right support, mid-span)
!l£ micro-strain, ie strain X 10"6
v creep coefficient
ratio A, I b h
ratio As' I b c
ratioA,Ibd
ratio A, I Ac
tensile stress in concrete
suffixes
a overlay
b base (or substrate)
cr cracked
imm immature, ie in first 3-6 days
mat mature, ie older than 28 days
prov provided
req required
sh shrinkage
un uncracked
REFERENCES
Altoubat S A and Lange D A. Creep, Shrinkage, and Cracking of Restrained
Concrete at Early Age, ACI Materials Journal, July-August 2001, pp 323-331.
2 British Standards Institution, Design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous

liquids (BS 8007), London, 1987.
3 British Standards Institution, Steel, concrete and composite bridges, Part 4 Code
of practice for design of concrete bridges (BS 5400-4), London, 1990.
4 ACI Committee 209, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects

in Concrete Structures (ACI 209R-92), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1992.
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16 Alexander
5 British Standards Institution, Structural use of concrete, Part 2 Code of practice
for special circumstances (BS 811 0-2), London, 1985.
6 British Standards Institution, Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures Part 1:

General rules and rules for buildings (EN 1992-1-1 ), London, 2002.
7 ACI Committee 435, Control of Deflection in Concrete Structures (ACI 435R-

95), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1995.
8 American Concrete Institute (ACI), Building code requirements for structural

concrete (ACI 318-02), Farmington Hills, 2002.
9 British Standards Institution, Structural use of steelwork in building, Part 3

Design in composite construction, Section 3.1 Code of practice for design of simple and
continuous composite beams (BS 5950-3-1 ), London, 1990.
10 British Standards Institution, Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete

structures, Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings (EN 1994-1-1 ), London, 1994.
11 Hughes B, A new look at rigid concrete pavement design, Proceedings of ICE

Transport, February 2003, pp 29-36, plus discussion (to be published).
12 American Concrete Institute, Code requirements for environmental engineering

concrete structures (ACI 350-01 ), Farmington Hills, 2001.
13 Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Water-resisting

basement construction: a guide (Report 139), London, 1995.
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14 ACI Committee 224, Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures (ACI 224R-

Ol), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, 2001.
15 British Standards Institution, Structural use of concrete, Part 1 Code of practice

for design and construction (BS 811 0-1 ), London, 1997.
16 Highways Agency (UK), Design manual for roads and bridges, volume 7,
section 2, part 3, notes on figure 2.5.
17 British Standards Institution, Code of practice for protection of structures

against water from the ground (BS 81 02), London, 1990.

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Table I. Minimum reinforcement contents in direct tension for both immature and
mature concrete related to strength grade.
Specified strength feu MPa 20/25 28/35 35/45 45155

(psi) (2900) (4000) (5100) (6500)
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Immature tensile strength fct.imm MPa 1.45 1.72 1.98 2.23

(psi) (210) (250) (285) (325)
Pomm = 1.22 ifct.imm I /rv.~) [ACI] 0.43% 0.51% 0.58% 0.66%
P,mm = l.l4 ifct.imm I /rv.~) [EN] 0.38% 0.45% 0.52% 0.58%
Mean mature tensile strengthfctm MPa 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8
(psi) (320) (405) (480) (550)
Pmat = 1.00 ifct.matf/.ct) [ACI] 0.53% 0.67% 0.80% 0.92%
Pmat = 0.93 (fct,mat I /sd) [EN] 0.47% 0.60% 0.71% 0.82%
_.,....!.._t-1"~-- - - -
0 I 2
Figure 1. Typical early thermal temperature cycle for a relatively thick section
(cycle is more rapid for thin sections)
HJC
~
!~
;,
(.?
fl:l
ffi ~···· ·+··i---+-'-

M'ff 1!-' _...z_s.._._....'-=~~;..-;-.;_--+-_....~..~..._....__,_»~t~:~iD~
Yi'Af(S S 10 to SD
Figure 2. Reduction over time of restrained tensile stress due to creep.

Curve A early thermal (from I 00% ), curve B shrinkage (from free shrinkage C above)

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18 Alexander .
1------.-------......
Figure 3. Restrained shrinkage in an asymmetrically reinforced section
0.~,._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Figure 4. Alternation of shrinkage curvature between cracks and uncracked zones
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Figure 5. Values of kr ink= k,ec/d against rd = IOOAjbd for rectangular sections by

various calculation methods (r' 0) =

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r-------T-~..,.....6,d reM-€r
1=-----==-~~~~:;----F
Figure 6. Contraction of in-situ concrete overlay (or topping)
~r-----+-----+---------~~
"'~
~:r-----+-~~~~------~~
Figure 7. Reduction factor (upper) and illustration of surface and internal zones (lower)
against increasing overall depth of section
Figure 8. General view of a typical basement car park.

Note transverse cracks in floor in foreground.
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20 Alexander
Figure 9. Close-up of cracks in Figure 8
Figure 10. Section through floor construction of car park basement in Figure 8
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SP-227-2
AS3600 Creep and Shrinkage Models for

Normal and High Strength Concrete
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by R. I. Gilbert
Synopsis: The Australian Standard for Concrete Structures, AS3600-2001 (1 ), is currently

under review, with the intention to expand its scope to include concrete with characteristic
compressive strengths up to I 00 MPa. The procedures in the existing Standard for the
estimation of the deformation characteristics of concrete, including the tensile strength,
the elastic modulus, the creep coefficient and the shrinkage strain, are not applicable for
high strength concrete. To provide reasonable agreement with the test data for Australian
high strength concretes, new models for predicting the instantaneous and time-dependent
material characteristics had to be developed. In this paper, the new models that have been
adopted for inclusion in the next edition of AS3600 (due for release in 2006) are presented.
Keywords: creep; creep coefficient; deformational characteristics; elastic

modulus; high strength concrete; material properties, shrinkage; tensile
strength
21
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22 Gilbert
ACI Member Ian Gilbert is Professor of Civil Engineering and Head of the School of
Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of New South Wales, Sydney,
Australia. His research interests are in the area of serviceability and the time-dependent
behavior of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. He is actively involved in the
development of the Australian Standard AS3600.
INTRODUCTION
A revised edition of the Australian Standard for Concrete Structures, AS3600

(1) was released in 2001 with amendments introduced to facilitate the use of 500 MPa
reinforcing steel in the design of concrete structures. The revision also increased the
upper limit of the applicable range of the 28-day characteristic compressive strength of
concrete ifc) from 50 MPa to 65 MPa. A subsequent revision of AS3600 (2) is currently
underway, with the intention to expand the scope of the Standard to include concrete
with fc up to 100 MPa. The procedures in the Standard for estimating the strength and
deformation characteristics of concrete, including the tensile strength, the elastic
modulus, the creep coefficient and the shrinkage strain, were developed for normal
strength concrete and are not applicable for high strength concrete.
With the move towards higher strength reinforcing steels, the serviceability
limit states are more often the critical design consideration and reliable models for
estimating the deformation characteristics of concrete are essential. For example, when
500 MPa steel is used in a concrete structure, instead of 400 or 450 MPa steel, a smaller
quantity of reinforcement is required in a given situation to satisfy the requirements of
adequate strength. Under in-service conditions, this results in less stiffness after
cracking, and consequently greater deflections, and higher strains in the tensile
reinforcement, and consequently wider cracks. To adequately predict deflections and
crack widths, methods of analysis that realistically account for cracking and the time-
dependent deformations caused by creep and shrinkage of the concrete are required, as
are appropriate material modeling rules.
This paper is primarily concerned with the instantaneous and time-dependent

strength and deformation characteristics of concrete with fc up to I 00 MPa. The factors
that have been considered in the current review of the relevant clauses of AS3600 (2)
are discussed and the models that have been developed for predicting the tensile
strength, the elastic modulus, the creep coefficient and the shrinkage strain for the full
range of applicable concrete strengths (20 MPa '5. fc '5. 100 MPa) are presented. These
models provide a reasonable compromise between being relatively simple to use and
providing a reliable estimate of material properties.
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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE STRENGTH
The strength of concrete is specified in Australia in terms of the lower

characteristic compressive cylinder strength at 28 days (f~). This is the value of
compressive strength exceeded by 95% of all standard cylinders tested at 28 days
after casting under standard conditions. The standard compressive strength grades
of concrete, proposed for inclusion in AS3600 (2), are
20 MPa, 25 MPa, 32 MPa, 40 MPa, 50 MPa, 65 MPa, 80 MPa and 100 MPa.
The ratio of the mean compressive strength to the lower characteristic

compressive strength at age 28 days ifcm.zstf~J depends on the quality control during
hatching and the quality and variability of the concrete constituent materials
(aggregates and binder, in particular). In the absence of more accurate data, and if
quality control is good, AS3600 (2) adopts the assumption that the ratio varies
linearly from about 1.25 for 20 MPa concrete to about 1.1 for 100 MPa concrete.
The in-situ strength of concrete depends on many factors, including the
workmanship during construction, the degree of compaction, the curing and
finishing procedures, the environment and degree of exposure, the load history and
more. In the absence of more accurate information, AS3600 (2) takes the in-situ
compressive strength to be 90% of the cylinder strength.
The tensile strength,.fc" is defined in AS3600 (2) as the maximum stress which
concrete can withstand when subjected to uniaxial tension. Direct uniaxial tensile tests
are difficult to perform and tensile strength is usually assessed through either flexural
·tests on prisms or indirect splitting tests on cylinders. In flexure, the apparent tensile
stress at the extreme tensile fiber of the critical cross-section under the peak load is
calculated assuming linear elastic behavior and taken to be the flexural tensile strength
(or modulus of rupture), .fct.r· The flexural tensile strength .fct.r is significantly higher than
fc1 due to the strain gradient and the post-peak unloading portion of the stress-strain curve
for concrete in tension. The uniaxial tensile strength, !ct. is usually in the range of 50 to
60% of the measured flexural tensile strength. The indirect tensile strength measured
from a split cylinder test.fct.sp is also higher than the uniaxial tensile strength (usually by
about 10%) due to the confining effect of the bearing plate in the standard test.
Tensile strength test data shows a relatively large scatter of results and a high
degree of variability (3). In the absence of test data, formulas are often given in codes of
practice for estimating the lower characteristic flexural tensile strengthf~.r and the lower
characteristic uniaxial tensile stress /~1 • The formulas proposed for inclusion in AS3600
(2) are f~t.r = 0.6-ifc and/~= 0.36-ifc· The mean and upper characteristic values may be
estimated by multiplying f~.r or j~1 by 1.4 and 1.8, respectively. In serviceability
calculations, mean values of tensile strength should be used in most situations rather than
characteristic values (4).

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24 Gilbert
ELASTIC MODULUS
The value of the elastic modulus, Ec, increases with time as concrete gains
strength and stiffness. It is common practice to assume that Ec is constant with time and
equal to its value calculated at the time of first loading. For stress levels less than about
0.4fc, and for stresses applied over a relatively short period (say up to 5 minutes), the
numerical estimate of the elastic modulus specified in AS3600-2001 (1) for concrete
strengths up to 65 MPa was originally proposed by Pauw (5) and is given by
Ec = pl.S 0.043 --J.fcm (in MPa) (1)
where pis the density of concrete (not less than 2400 kg/m 3 for normal weight concrete)
and fern is the mean compressive strength in MPa at the time of first loading. Whilst
Equation (1) has been shown to provide a good estimate of the elastic modulus for
normal strength concrete, it overestimates Ec when !em exceeds about 40 MPa and is
generally felt to be unsuitable for higher strength concretes (6), (7) and (8). Carrasquillo
et al. (6) proposed
Ec = [3320 'Vfcm +6900](p/2320)1.5 (in MPa) (2)
which is claimed to be more suitable for high strength concrete (when/em is in the range
50 - 100 MPa). Plots of both Equations (I) and (2) for normal weight concrete with p =
2400 kg/m 3 are shown in Figure 1.
Acknow Iedging that Equation (1) overestimates Ec for high strength concrete,
Mendis eta!. (7) proposed the following modification:
(in MPa) (3)
where the modification factor 11 = 1.1 - 0.002 fc.::> 1.0. Equation (3) is also plotted in
Figure 1. However, the modification factor does not adequately cater for the inadequacies
of Equation (1) and Equation (3) also overestimates Ec for some aggregate types,
particularly for concrete strengths above 65 MPa.
An alternative approach (4) is the use of Equation ( 1) when !em :;; 40 MPa and
Equation (4) whenfem > 40 MPa.
Ec = [0.024 'Vfcm + 0.12] pl.S (in MPa) (4)
Both equations provide similar estimates of Ec at the transition point ifcm = 40 MPa).
Equation (4) is also plotted in Figure 1 for normal weight concrete and the values of Ec
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3
for in-situ concrete at age 28 days for each standard strength grade when p = 2400 kg/m
are given in Table 1 (where..fcm is taken as 90% of the mean cylinder strength).
The value of Ec given by Equations (1) or (4) is applicable for stress levels up to
about 0.4 ..fcm for normal strength concrete and up to about 0.6 ..fcm for high strength
concrete and for stresses applied over a relatively short time period (up to about 5
minutes). In general the faster the load is applied, the larger is the value of Ec. For
stresses applied over a longer time period (say up to one day's duration), significant
increases in deformation occur due to the rapid early development of creep. Yet in a
broad sense, loads of one day's duration are usually considered to be short-term and the
effects of creep are often ignored. This may lead to significant error. If short-term
deformation is required after I day's loading, it is suggested (9) that E c given by either
Eqt1ations (1) or (4) be multiplied by 0.8.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AS3600-200I (1) suggests that values of Ec given by Equation (I) have a range of±20
percent and this is also true for Equation (4). Typical variations in Ec with age for
concrete cured under standard conditions are shown in Table 2.
CREEP OF CONCRETE
Discussion
When concrete is subjected to a sustained stress, creep strain develops gradually

with time. Creep increases with time at a decreasing rate. In the period immediately after
first loading, creep develops rapidly, but the rate of increase slows appreciably with time.
Creep is generally thought to approach a limiting value as the time after first loading
approaches infinity. About 50% of the final creep develops in the first 2-3 months and
about 90% after 2 to 3 years. After several years under load, the rate of change of creep
with time is very small. Creep has its origins in the hardened cement paste and is caused
by several different mechanisms (9).
Many factors influence the magnitude and rate of development of creep,

including the properties of the concrete mix and its constituent materials. In general, as
the concrete quality increases, the capacity of concrete to creep decreases. For a
particular stress level, creep in higher-strength concrete is less than that in lower-strength
concrete. An increase in either the aggregate content or the maximum aggregate size
reduces creep, as does the use of a stiffer aggregate type. Creep also decreases as the
water-to-cement ratio is reduced.
Creep depends on the environment, and increases as the relative humidity

decreases. Creep is also greater in thin members with large surface area-to-volume ratios,
such as slabs. However, the dependence of creep on both the relative humidity and the
size and shape of the specimen decreases as the concrete strength increases. Near the

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26 Gilbert
surface of a member, creep takes place in a drying environment and is therefore greater
than in regions remote from a drying surface. In addition to the relative humidity, creep is
dependent on the ambient temperature. A temperature rise increases the deformability of
the cement paste and accelerates drying, and thus increases creep.
In addition to the environment and the characteristics of the concrete mix, creep
depends on the loading history, in particular the magnitude of the stress and the age of the
concrete when the stress is first applied. When the sustained concrete stress is less than
about 0.5 fc (and this is usually the case in concrete structures at service loads), creep is
proportional to stress and is known as linear creep. The age of the concrete when the
stress is first applied, r, has a marked influence on the magnitude of creep. Concrete.
loaded at an early age creeps more than concrete loaded at a later age.
The Creep Coefficient
The capacity of concrete to creep is usually measured in terms of the creep

coefficient, <p(t, z). In a concrete specimen subjected to a constant sustained compressive
stress, 0"0 , first applied at age r, the creep coefficient at time t is the ratio of creep strain to
instantaneous strain and is given by cAt, r) = &c(t, r)/ &_. Therefore, the creep strain is &c(t, r)
= cAt, r) Ee = qi.,_t, r) u,/Ec. For stress levels less than about 0.5 fc, the creep coefficient is a
pure time function, independent of the applied stress, and the creep coefficient increases
with time at an ever-decreasing rate. As time approaches infinity, the creep coefficient is
assumed to approach a final value tp*{ r) = cA oo, r), which usually falls within the range
1.5 - 4.0 (9).
The most accurate way of determining the final creep coefficient is by testing or
by using results obtained from measurements on similar local concretes. Testing is often
not a practical option for the structural designer. In the absence of long-term test results,
the final creep coefficient may be determined by extrapolation from relatively short-term
test results, where creep is measured over a relatively short period (say 28 days) in
specimens subjected to constant stress. Various mathematical expressions for the shape
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of the creep coefficient versus time curve are available from which long-term values may
be predicted from the short-term measurements. The longer the period of measurement,
the more accurate are the long-term predictions. Some of the more useful expressions for
cAt, r) are presented by Gilbert (9).
If testing is not an option, analytical methods are available for predicting the
creep coefficient. These predictive methods vary in complexity (9): Some are simple and
easy to use, and provide a quick and approximate estimate of cAt, r). Such a method is
included in AS3600 (I). Others are much more complicated and attempt to account for
the many parameters that affect the magnitude and rate of development of creep.
Unfortunately, an increase in complexity does not necessarily result in an increase in
accuracy, and predictions made by some of the more well-known methods differ widely
(9). The simple approach contained in AS3600 (1) does not account for such factors as
aggregate type, cement type, cement replacement materials and more, but it does provide

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a ball-park estimate of the creep coefficient for normal strength concrete.
The AS3600-2001 (1) Model for Creep Coefficient
AS3600 (I) defines a basic creep coefficient (/Jcc.b as the ratio of final creep strain
to elastic strain for a specimen loaded at 28 days under a constant stress of 0.4 fc· In the
absence of tests, the Standard specifies (/Jccb = 5.2, 4.2, 3.4, 2.5 and 2.0 for characteristic
strengths of fc = 20, 25, 32,40 and 50 MPa, respectively. According to AS3600 (1), the
creep coefficient at any time (/Jcc may be calculated from
(5)
provided that (/Jcc is used in conjunction with Ec at 28 days (irrespective of the age at
loading); the concrete is not subjected to prolonged periods of temperature in excess of
25'C; and the sustained stress level does not exceed 0.5 fc· Where the concrete is likely
to be subjected to prolonged period of temperature in the range 25-40'C, a 25% increase
in (/Jcc is here recommended.
The factor k2 depends on the hypothetical thickness, th, the environment and the
time after loading and is given in Figure 6.1.8.2(A) in the Standard (1). The hypothetical
thickness is defined as th = 2Aiue, where A is the cross-sectional area of the member and
Ue is that portion of the section perimeter exposed to the atmosphere plus half the total
perimeter of any voids contained within the section. The factor k3 depends on the age at
first loading and may be taken from Figure 6.1.8.2 (B) in the Standard ( 1). The Standard
also suggests that the actual creep coefficient has a range of approximately ±30% of the
value predicted.
The above procedure was calibrated from creep data for normal strength
concretes, but has been shown to underestimate the early development of creep in
structural members and to underestimate creep of concrete loaded at very early ages (4).
That is, the factors k2 and k3 need to be modified. The method also tends to underestimate
creep for 40 MPa and 50 MPa concrete.
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28 Gilbert
Tbe Proposed Model for Creep Coefficient - AS3600 (2)
A modified model for predicting the creep coefficient for concrete (with
compressive strength in the range 20 - 100 MPa) was proposed by Gilbert (10) and an
updated and simplified version of that proposal is outlined here and has been accepted for
inclusion in AS3600 (2). The model agrees well with the limited creep data available for
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Australian high strength concrete.
The creep strain at any time t caused by a constant sustained stress 0'0 shall be
calculated from E:cc = (/Jcc 0'0 /Ec(28), where Ec{28) is the elastic modulus of the concrete at
age 28 days and (/Jcc is the creep coefficient at time t.
The creep coefficient at any time may be calculated from
(6)
Although similar in form to the existing equation in AS3600 (1), Equation (6) introduces
two new k factors, revises the factors k 2 and k 3 , and modifies and extends the basic creep
coefficient ( <f'cc.b) as given in Table 3.
The factor k2 in Equation (6) describes the development of creep with time. It
depends on the hypothetical thickness, th (in mm) (as defined in the Standard) and is
given by Equation (7) (and illustrated in Figure 2):
a to.s
k2 = 08
2 (7)
t ' +0.15th
where tis the time (in days) since first loading and a2 is given in Equation (8).
(8)
The factor k3 is modified from that given in AS3600 (1) to predict higher creep
for concrete loaded at early ages and is given in Figure 3.
The factor k4 accounts for the environment and is equal to 0.7 for an arid environment,
0.65 for an interior environment, 0.60 for a temperate environment and 0.5 for a
tropical/coastal environment. The factor k 5 is given in Equation (9) and accounts for the
reduced influence on creep of the relative humidity and the specimen size as the concrete
strength increases (or more precisely, as the water-binder ratio decreases).

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When I: s
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
50MPa: ks 1.0 (9a)
When 50 MPa <I: s I OOMPa: k5 = (2.0-a3)- 0.02 (I .O-a3) I: (9b)
where (10)
The proposed predictive model gives similar results to AS3600 for normal
strength concrete and provides a ball-park estimate of the creep coefficient for high
strength concrete. However, it must be emphasized that creep of concrete is highly
variable with significant differences in the measured creep strains in seemingly identical
specimens, tested undel,' identical conditions (both in terms of load and environment). The
creep coefficient predicted by Equation (6) should be taken as an average value with a
range of ±30 percent.
To illustrate the use of the model, consider the following example. The final
design creep coefficient after 30 years under load (t = 10950 days) is required for 65 MPa
concrete, located in a temperate environment, first loaded at 28 days and with a
hypothetical thickness th = 200 mm.
From Table 3: (/)cc.b = 2.0
Equation (8) gives: a2 = 1.0 + 1.12e(-{).008x200) = 1.226
1.226 X 10950°·8
Equation (7) gives: k2 = = 1.205
10950°.8 +OJ 5 X 200
(or obtain directly from Figure 2).
From Figure 3: k3 1.1 and for a temperate environment: k4 = 0.6
Equation (10) gives: a 3 = 0.7/(0.6 x 1.226) = 0.952
Equation (9b) gives: ks (2.0 - 0.952)- 0.02 X (1.0 -0.952) X 65 0.985

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30 Gilbert
and from Equation (6): (/Jcc = 1.205 X 1.1 X 0.6 X 0.985 X 2.0 = 1.57
The final creep coefficients (/Jcc (after 30 years) predicted by the above method
for concrete first loaded at 28 days, for characteristic strengths of 25 MPa to 100 MPa,
for three hypothetical thicknesses, th = I00 mm, 200 mm and 400 mm and located in
different environments are illustrated in Table 4. The numbers shown in brackets for
concrete strengths of 25 MPa and 32 MPa are the values of (/Jcc determined using the
existing procedure in AS3600 (1 ). The proposed model and the existing model in
AS3600 are in veryclose agreement for low strength concrete.
The above discussion is concerned with compressive creep. In many practical

situations, creep of concrete in tension is also of interest. Tensile creep plays an
important part in delaying the onset of cracking caused by restrained shrinkage. The
mechanisms of tensile creep are different from those of compressive creep, but at the
same stress levels the magnitudes are similar. In design, it is usual to assume that the
creep coefficients in tension and in compression are identical. Although not correct, this
assumption simplifies calculations and does not usually introduce serious inaccuracies.
SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
Discussion
Shrinkage of concrete is the time-dependent strain in an unloaded and

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
unrestrained specimen at constant temperature. Shrinkage arises due to a variety of

causes and includes: plastic shrinkage which may occur in the wet concrete soon after its
placement; chemical shrinkage caused by hydration and other chemical reactions;
thermal shrinkage resulting from the cooling of the concrete soon after setting; and
drying shrinkage. Some high strength concretes are prone to plastic shrinkage, which
occurs in the wet concrete, and may result in significant cracking during the setting
process. This cracking occurs due to capiiiary tension in the pore water and is best
prevented by taking measures during construction to avoid the rapid evaporation of bleed
water. Since the bond between the plastic concrete and the reinforcement has not yet
developed, the steel reinforcement is ineffective in controlling such cracks.
Drying shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused principally by the loss of

water during the drying process. Following an initial phase where drying shrinkage
occurs very rapidly in the hours and days after drying commences, it increases with time
at a gradually decreasing rate and continues to take place in the months and years after
casting. The magnitude and rate of development of drying shrinkage depend on all the
factors that affect the drying of concrete, including the relative humidity of the
surrounding air, the mix characteristics (in particular, the type and quantity of the binder,
the water content and water-to-cement ratio, the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate, and the
type of aggregate), and the size and shape of the member. The magnitude of shrinkage

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that occurs in the initial phase soon after the commencement of drying depends on the
age of the concrete when drying commences and the initial period of moist curing. Poorly
cured concrete may suffer large shrinkage strains in the 48 hours after drying
commences.
Chemical shrinkage (often termed autogenous shrinkage) results from various

chemical reactions within the cement paste and includes hydration shrinkage, which is
related to the degree of hydration of the binder in a sealed specimen with no moisture
exchange. Chemical shrinkage occurs rapidly in the days and weeks after casting and is
less dependent on the environment and the size of the specimen than drying shrinkage.
Thermal shrinkage is the contraction that results in the first few hours (or days) after
setting as the heat of hydration gradually dissipates.
Concrete shrinkage strain, Ecs. which is usually considered to be the sum of the
drying, chemical and thermal shrinkage components, continues to increase with time at a
decreasing rate. Shrinkage is assumed to approach a final value, Ecs *, as time approaches
infinity. Drying shrinkage in high strength concrete is smaller than in normal strength
concrete due to the smaller quantities of free water after hydration. However, thermal and
chemical shrinkage may be significantly higher.
The AS3600-2001 (l) Model for Shrinkage
For normal strength concrete (f'e :5: 50 MPa), AS3600-2001 (1) suggests that the
design shrinkage at any time after the commencement of drying may be estimated from
(II)
where lics.b is a basic shrinkage strain and, in the absence of measurements, may be taken
to be 850 X 10·6; k1 describes the development of shrinkage with time and depends on the
environment and the concrete surface area-to-volume ratio (as measured by the
hypothetical thickness, th).
AS3600 (1) states that the actual shrinkage strain may be within a range of plus
or minus 40% of the value predicted. In the writer's opinion, this range may be
optimistically narrow. The approach does not include any of the effects related to the
composition and quality of the concrete. The same value of lies is predicted irrespective of
the water-cement ratio, the aggregate type and quantity, the type of admixtures, etc. In
addition, the factor k1 tends to overestimate the effect of member size and underestimate
the rate of shrinkage development at early ages. The method should be used only as a
guide for concrete with a low water-cement ratio (<0.4) and with a well-graded, good
quality aggregate. Where a higher water-cement ratio is expected or when doubts exist
concerning the type of aggregate to be used, the value of lies predicted by AS3600-2001
( 1) should be increased by at least 50%.
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32 Gilbert
The design shrinkage in AS3600-2001 (1) essentially refers to drying shrinkage.
The method is overly simplistic and cannot be extended to include high strength concrete
where the mechanisms, causes, magnitude and rate of development of shrinkage are
significantly different from normal strength concrete.
Tbe Proposed Model for Shrinkage - AS3600 (2)
The revised model for estimating shrinkage in both normal and high strength
concrete was proposed by Gilbert (4,1 0). The model divides the total shrinkage strain, &cs,
into two components, chemical plus thermal shrinkage (termed endogenous shrinkage),
&ese. and drying shrinkage, &esd. as given in Equation (12). Endogenous shrinkage is taken
to be the sum of chemical and thermal shrinkage and is assumed to develop relatively
rapidly and to increase with concrete strength. Drying shrinkage develops more slowly
and decreases with concrete strength.
lies = Iiese + &esd (12)
At any time /0 (in days) after placing the concrete, the endogenous shrinkage is
given by
Iiese - - Iiese* (1 •0 - e -o.u. ) (13)
where &ese * is the final endogenous shrinkage and may be taken as
Iiese *= (0.06fe- 1.0) X 50 X 10-6 (14)

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where fc is in MPa.
The basic drying shrinkage &csdb is given by
licsdb = (1.0- 0.008/c) X &csdb• (15)
where &csdb• depends on the quality of the local concrete, including the type and quantity
of aggregates, cement, cement replacement materials and admixtures. In the absence of
more reliable information, &csd.b• is specified as 800 x 1o-6 for Sydney and Brisbane, 900
X 10-6 for Melbourne and 1000 X 1o- elsewhere in Australia.
6
At any time td (in days) after the commencement of drying, the drying shrinkage
may be taken as

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Ecsd = k1 k4 Ecsdb (16)
and k 1 is given by Equation (17) and is illustrated in Figure 4.
_
a I to.s
d
k1 - (17)
~~·8 +0.15th
where
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a 1 = 0 • 8 + 1.2e- 0.005 th (18)
As for creep, k4 is equal to 0.7 for an arid environment, 0.65 for an interior
environment, 0.6 for a temperate inland environment and 0.5 for a tropical or near-coastal
environment.
As expressed in Equation (12), the design shrinkage at any time is therefore the
sum of the endogenous shrinkage (Equation 13) and the drying shrinkage (Equation 16).
The proposed model provides good agreement with available shrinkage measurements on
Australian concrete.
To illustrate the model, consider the following example. The design shrinkage
strain is required 1000 days after the commencement of drying for 65 MPa concrete,
located in Canberra (temperate inland environment) and with hypothetical thickness th =
200 mm. For this example, td is 1000 days and 10 is taken to be 1007 days.
Equation ( 14): &cse *= (0.06 X 65- 1.0) X 50 X 10·6 = 145 X 10·6
1007
Equation (13): &cse = 145 X 10-6 X (l.Q- e-O.I x ) = 145 X 10"6
Equation (15): Ecsdb = (1.0 - 0.008 X 65) X 1000 X 10·6 = 480 X 10-6
Equation (18): Ul = 0.8 + 1.2 e-0.005 x 200 = 1.24
1.24x1000°"8
Equation (17): k
I
=- -------
1000°· 8 + 0.15 X 200
= 1.11

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34 Gilbert
Equation (I6): E:csd = 1.11 X 0.6 X 480 X 10"6 = 319 X 10"6
6
Equation (12): E:cs = I45 X 10" + 3I9 X 10"6 = 464 X 10"6
For specimens located outside Sydney, Brisbane or Melbourne (E:csd.b* = 1000 x

I 0" 6) with hypothetical thickness th = 200mm, the shrinkage strain components predicted
by the above model at 28 days after the commencement of drying and after 30 years (td =
I0950 days) are given in Table 5. Typical final design shrinkage strains for specimens
with hypothetical thicknesses th = 50, I 00, 200 and 400 mm and located outside Sydney,
Brisbane or Melbourne (with E:csdb* = 1000 x 10"6) are given in Table 6.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The Australian Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600-2001 (1) is currently being
reviewed, with the intention to expand the applicability of the Standard to cover
concrete strengths up to I 00 MPa. The revised provisions concerned with the
instantaneous and time-dependent deformation characteristics of concrete, as well as the
tensile strength, have been discussed. The models that have been recommended for
inclusion in the Standard for predicting the direct and flexural tensile strengths, the
elastic modulus, the creep coefficient and the shrinkage strain for the full range of
applicable concrete strengths (20 MPa ::;:; fc ::;; I 00 MPa) have been presented. These
models have been developed to at once provide reasonable estimates of concrete
properties and deformation characteristic and at the same time to be relatively simple to
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
use and interpret.
NOTATION
A cross-sectional area;
Ec elastic modulus of concrete;
fc characteristic compressive strength of concrete in MPa;
fern mean compressive strength of concrete in MPa;
fcm.28 mean compressive strength of concrete at age 28 days in MPa;
fc 1 characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of concrete in MPa;
fctf characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete in MPa;
k~. k2, k3, k4 and k 5 modification factors for creep and shrinkage;
t time (in days) since first loading;
td time (in days) since the commencement of drying;

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th hypothetical thickness of a concrete element (in mm);
to time (in days) since casting the concrete;
ue section perimeter exposed to the atmosphere;
modification factors for creep and shrinkage;
Ec creep strain;
Ecs shrinkage strain;
Ecs.b basic shrinkage strain;
Ecsd drying shrinkage strain;
Ecsd.b basic drying shrinkage strain;
Ecse endogenous shrinkage strain (chemical plus thermal shrinkage);
Ecse * final endogenous shrinkage strain;
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ee elastic (or instantaneous) strain;
TJ modification factor;
<f>cc creep coefficient for concrete (AS3600);
<f>cc.b basic creep coefficient for concrete (AS3600);
<p(t, r) creep coefficient at time t due to a stress applied at age •;
<p*( <) the final creep coefficient due to a stress applied at age •;
p density of concrete;
0"0 constant sustained compressive stress; and
• age of concrete at first loading.
REFERENCES
1. Standards Australia. AS 3600 Concrete Structures. 2001. 176pp.
2. Standards Australia. Final Pre-Public Comment Draft, AS3600 - M0419,

Committee BD-002, June 2004, 163 pp.
3. Raphael JM. Tensile Strength ofConcrete. ACI Joumall984; 81(2): 158-165.
4. Gilbert Rl. Creep and Shrinkage Models for High Strength Concrete - Proposals for
inclusion in AS3600. Australian Journal of Structural Engineering. Institution of
Engineers, Australia. 2002; 4(2): 95-106.
5. Pauw A. Static modulus of elasticity of concrete as affected by density. ACI Journal

1960; 57(6): 679-687.

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36 Gilbert
6. Carrasquillo RL, Nilson AH and Slate FO. Properties of high strength concrete
subjected to short-term loads. ACI Journal 1981; 78(3): 171-178.
7. Mendis P. (Editor). High strength concrete- Technology, design and applications.

The University of Melbourne, February 1994, Technology 60 pp., Applications 67
pp., Design 16lpp.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. Setunge S, Attard MA and Darvall P. Engineering properties of very high strength

concrete. Structural Engineering Conference, IEAust, Adelaide, 1990, pp 120-126.
9. Gilbert RI. Time effects in concrete structures. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science

Publishers, 1988, 321 pp.
10. Gilbert Rl. Serviceability considerations and requirements for high performance
reinforced concrete slabs. International Conference on High Performance High
Strength Concrete, Curtin University of Technology, Rangan and Patnaik (Eds),
Perth, 1998: 425-439.
Table 1 Elastic modulus for in-situ concrete Ec when p = 2400 kg/mj

(Equations 1 and 4).
/~(MPa) 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
/em (MPa) 22.5 27.9 35.4 43.7 53.7 68.2 81.9 99.0
Ec(MPa) 24000 26700 30100 32750 34800 37400 39650 42200
Table 2 Increase in elastic modulus with age (Ec(t)!Ec(28))- Gilbert (10).
Cement Type Age of Concrete in days (t)

3 7 28 90 360
Ordinary Portland Cement 0.70 0.84 1.0 1.11 1.15
High Early Stren~th Cement 0.77 0.87 1.0 1.06 1.10
Table 3 Proposed basic creep coefficient (2).
J;(MPa) 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
fPcc.b 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.5

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Table 4 Creep coefficients after 30 years for concrete first loaded at 28 days.
Final creep coefficient, (/Jcc
J: Arid
Environment
Interior
Environment
Temperate
Inland
Tropical and
near-coastal
Environment Environment
MPa th (mm) th (mm) th (mm) th (mm)
100 200 400 100 200 400 100 200 400 100 200 400
25 4.82 3.90 3.27 4.48 3.62 3.03 4.13 3.34 2.80 3.44 2.78 2.33
(4.66) (3.88} (3.28} (4.30} (3.56) (3.00) (3.97} (3.28) (2.77} (3.37} (2.73) (2.26)
32 3.90 3.15 2.64 3.62 2.93 2.46 3.34 2.70 2.27 2.79 2.25 1.90
(3.77) (3.14) (2.66) (3.48) (2.88) (2.43) (3.21) (2.66) (2.24) (2.73) (2.21) (1.83}
40 3.21 2.60 2.18 2.98 2.41 2.02 2.75 2.23 1.87 2.30 1.86 1.56
50 2.75 2.23 1.89 2.56 2.07 1.73 2.36 1.91 1.60 1.97 1.59 1.33
65 2.07 1.75 1.53 1.95 1.66 1.46 1.84 1.57 1.38 1.61 1.38 1.23
80 1.56 1.40 1.29 1.50 1.36 1.25 1.45 1.32 1.22 1.33 1.23 1.14
100 1.15 1.14 I. II 1.15 1.14 1.11 1.15 1.14 1.11 1.15 1.14 l.ll
Note: The nwnbers shown in brackets for concrete strengths of25 MPa and 32 MPa
are the values of (II.., determined using the existing procedure in AS3600 (1).
Table 5 Shrinkage strain components (th =200mm, &c.sdb• = I 000 x I 0"6).

Environment t: Shrinkage strain &a (x1 0_.;) and shrinkage strain
components &cse (x10~ and GC.a(x10"')
t=28 days t- 10950 days (30"yrs)
t;,,. 6<..! t;,. tCse 6<..! t;,.

Arid 25 25 225 250 25 685 710
32 45 210 255 45 635 680
40 65 190 255 70 580 650
50 95 170 265 100 510 610
65 135 135 270 145 415 560
80 180 100 280 190 310 500
100 235 55 290 250 170 420
Interior 25 25 210 235 25 635 660
32 45 195 240 45 595 640
40 65 180 245 70 540 610
50 95 155 250 100 480 580
65 135 125 260 145 385 530
80 180 95 275 190 290 480
100 235 50 285 250 160 410
Temperate 25 25 195 220 25 585 610
Inland 32 45 180 225 45 545 590
40 65 165 230 70 500 570
50 95 145 240 100 440 540
65 135 115 250 145 355 500
80 180 85 265 190 260 450
100 235 50 285 250 150 400
Tropical or 25 25 160 185 25 485 510
near-coastal 32 45 150 195 45 455 500
40 65 140 205 70 420 490
50 95 120 215 100 370 470
65 135 100 235 145 295 440
80 180 70 250 190 220 410
100 235 40 275 255 115 370
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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38 Gilbert
Table 6 Typical shrinkage strains after 30 years (&cs<ib* = 1000 x 10~
Environment J: Final shrinkage strain &:s (xlO~)

th= th= th= th=
50mm lOOmm 200mm 400mm
Arid 25 990 870 710 550
32 950 840 680 530
40 890 790 650 510
50 830 740 610 490
65 730 650 560 460
80 630 570 500 420
100 490 460 420 380
Interior 25 920 810 660 510
32 880 780 640 500
40 830 740 610 480
50 770 690 580 460
65 680 620 530 440
80 590 540 480 410
100 480 450 410 370
Temperate 25 850 750 610 470
inla~d 32 820 720 590 460
40 780 690 570 450
50 720 650 540 440
65 640 580 500 410
80 560 520 450 390
100 460 430 400 360
Tropical or 25 720 630 510 400
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
near-coastal 32 690 610 500 390

40 660 590 490 390
50 620 550 470 380
65 560 510 440 370
80 500 460 410 360
100 420 400 370 340
- - AS3600-2001 (Eqn 1)
---·- CarrasquiUo et al (Eqn 2)
- -- - Mendis et Bl {Eqn 3)
40000 ---- • Current Proposal (Eqn 4)
~ L---~------~------~------L-----_J
0 20 40 60 80 100
Average compressive strength,/"" (MPa)
Figure 1 Elastic modulus vs concrete strength (when r == 2400 kg/m3).

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1.8
1.6
a., ...
~ = ,... +O.lSt•
1.4
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
10 30 100 3 10 30
Days Years
rune after loading, t
Figure 2 The factor Is versus time after loading (2).
1.9
1.7
!2 1.5
i 1.3
·o"
IE 1.1
u"
0
0.9
0.7
0.5
7 365
Age of concrete at time ofloading, ' (days)
Figure 3 Age-at-first-loading coefficient k3 (2).

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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40 Gilbert
1.8
1.6
1.4
a 1 = 0.8 + 1.2e- o.oos,,
1.2
kt (td is in days)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0
3 10 30 100 3 10 30
Days Years
Time since commencement of drying, t.!
Figure 4 The factor k1 versus time after loading (2).

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SP-227-3
Sensitivity of the Models for Predicting

Shrinkage of Concrete
by A. AI-Manaseer and S. Ristanovic
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Synopsis: The purpose of this study was to conduct a sensitivity study on shrinkage
prediction ofconcrete utilizing theACI 209 (1 ), GL 2000 (2), B3 (3), and CEB MC 90-99 (4)
models. The sensitivity of a prediction model is function of different parameters utilized in
the equations describing the model. The influence of changing input parameters on
shrinkage prediction was investigated. The study reveals that the change of relative
humidity will result in similar sensitivity for different shrinkage models. The autogenous
shrinkage component in the CEB MC 90-99 was found to be most sensitive to strength
change at 28 days. The GL 2000 was found most sensitive to cement type while the B3
model was found to be most sensitive to specimen size and type of curing. In general the
B3 was the most sensitive model while the ACI was the least sensitive.
Keywords: relative humidity; sensitivity; shrinkage; strength; type of

cement; type of curing
41
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42 AI-Manaseer and Ristanovic
Akthem Al-Manaseer, FACI, is Professor and Chair of Civil Engineering at San Jose
State University, San Jose, CA. He is a member of ACI Committees 209, Creep and
Shrinkage in Concrete, and 231, Properties of Concrete at Early Ages.
Snezana Ristanovic is a Product Manager in ADAPT Corp., a software and structural

engineering consulting firm. Her work involves design of post-tensioning structures,
seismic design of concrete structures and creep and shrinkage of concrete. She received
MSc in Civil Engineering from San Jose State University.
INTRODUCTION
Accurate estimation of concrete shrinkage is significant in the design of concrete

structures. Benefits of an accurate prediction model can yield to a safer design, a structure
with minimal cracking, extended life and durability. Also, a precise model can reduce the
cost incurred from over-design.
The error in determining input parameters can produce significant change in

shrinkage prediction values. This change can be quantified by determining the sensitivity
of the model used for shrinkage prediction.
SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is presented as the percentile change in shrinkage prediction value

caused by change in input parameter. Equation (1) defines sensitivity as:
[1]
s(p) = Shrinkage sensitivity due to change of any input parameter p such as:
relative humidity RH, specimen size, 28-day compressive strength fcm 28 •
pI = Initial value of input parameter p
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P2 = Value of parameter p after change

& ( p 1) = Predicted shrinkage of concrete for the value of input parameter equal
PI
&( p 2 ) = Predicted shrinkage of concrete for after change of input parameter
fromp 1 to p 2
The input parameters utilized for the different models are summarized in Table 1.
The limitations of input parameters, from Ref. 1-4, for each of the four models are given
in Table 2.
The study utilizes Equation (1) to derive sensitivity equations for each input
parameter listed in Table I. The sensitivity equations for each model are described next.

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The ACI-209 Model Sensitivity
ACI Model-Relative Humidity - Sensitivity of the model due to change of

relative humidity (RH) can be determined as follows:
s(RH) = 1- Ksh
K P) ] x100% (2]
[ s'\t)
Ksh =Relative-humidity correction factor for shrinkage as defined in Figure 1.
The results of the sensitivity analysis for different values of RH are shown in
Figure 2.
It can be observed from Figure 2 that the sensitivity hi-linearly increases as the
change of relative humidity increases and is most sensitive in the range of 80-100%. This
rate of increase was found to be higher when the change occurs from a higher initial
valueofRH.
ACI Model-Specimen Size - The change in shrinkage due to change of specimen

size (i.e. volume to surface area ratio, V/S) can be calculated using equation (3):
1.14-·o.oo3s(v)
s(V/S) = 1-
s (2)
x100% [3]
1.14-0.003s(v)
s (1) '
V/S (I) = Initial size of concrete specimen

V/S (2) =Size of specimen after change
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The equation is illustrated in Figure 3.
It can be observed from Figure 3 that the specimen size sensitivity linearly
increases with change in specimen size. The rate of change in sensitivity is higher for
larger initial values of (V/S(l)). It can be observed from analyzing specimen size
parameter that if the V/S exceeds 315 the prediction values become very large and do not
reflect the actual behavior of concrete.

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ACI Model -Type of Curing - The sensitivity to type of curing is determined as
follows:
s (type of curing) = 1- ( ) (
b, +(t-tc)J
) x 100% [4]
( b( 2 )+ f-fc
b = Constant depends on curing method. b(l) is initial condition of curing, while

b(2) is the type of curing after change.
= 35 for moist cured concrete
=55 for steam cured concrete
t = age of concrete
tc = age when drying commence
t-tc = duration of drying
As shown in Figure 4, moist and steam cured concrete has approximately same
sensitivities. It can be observed that early age concrete is more sensitive to the type of
curing. The sensitivity reduces as the duration of drying increases up to 500 days. Above
500 days the ACl model is not sensitive to type of curing.
The GL 2000 Model Sensitivity

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
GL 2000 Model - Compressive strength - The sensitivity of this model due to

change of 28-day compressive strength is given with the following equation:
s(fcm28 )= 1-(
fcmzs'
()J ~] xlOO%
2 [5]
r fcmzs(2)
fcm 28 (ll is initial compressive strength of concrete specimen

fcm 28 (2) is the value of strength after change
The Equation 5 is plotted in Figure 5.
It can be observed from Figure 5 that sensitivity is nonlinearly related to change

of strength ratio. The figure show that the GL 2000 model sensitivity is close to 40% if
the strength of concrete is reduced to half of the initial strength value, while it is 25% if
the strength of concrete is increased to double the initial value.
GL 2000 Model - Relative Humidity - The change of relative humidity

influences the prediction values of drying shrinkage as follows:

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1-1.18(H(2).)4
100
s(H)= 1- xlOO% (6]
1-1.18(H(I) )4
100
H(l) = initial value of RH

H(2) =value ofRH after change
The GL 2000 model sensitivity to relative humidity was plotted in Figure 6.
As shown in Figure 6 the sensitivity nonlinearly increases as the RH increases

and is not a function of the initial RH in the range of 20-40%. As shown in the figure the
common sensitivity of 100% was obtained for the change of RH from any value to 96%
indicating the GL 2000 model shows a swelling behavior after 96%.
GL 2000 Model - Specimen Size - The change of the specimen size will
influence the change in predicted value of shrinkage as follows:
t-tc +0.12(V)
S (I)
s(V/S)= 1- 2
xlOO% (7]
t-tc +0.12(V)
s (2)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t = Age of concrete [days]

tc =Age of concrete when drying commenced [days]
t-tc =Duration of drying [days]
V/S(l) =Initial size of specimen
V/S(2) =Size ofthe specimen after change
As shown in Equation 7 the sensitivity to change of specimen size is also a

function of time. The sensitivity for the duration of drying equal to 7 days is presented in
Figure 7.
It can be observed from Figure 7 the larger the specimens the more sensitive the
model to change in specimen size. Also, a negative sensitivity means shrinkage increases
with reduced V/S ratio while a positive sensitivity indicates that shrinkage reduces with
increased V/S ratio. It can be observed that the positive sensitivity is almost constant for
all values of initial V/S ratio.

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The influence of duration of drying on sensitivity is shown in Figure 8.
It can be observed from Figure 8 that sensitivity will reduce with aging of concrete.
GL 2000 Model - Cement Type - The influence of cement type on shrinkage

prediction value can be determined as follows:
2
s (cement type) = [1- K( )] x 100% (8]
K(I)
K =Shrinkage constant which depends on cement type as shown in Table 3.

K(l) is the value of constant K for initial cement type used in concrete specimen
K(2) is the value of cl?nstant K for cement type used after change of type of
cement in concrete specimen
A negative value in the table indicates that shrinkage increased with change of
cement type, while a positive value indicates that shrinkage decreased with change in
cement type. It can be observed from Table 3 that concrete with cement type II is most
sensitive. The increase in shrinkage predicted value of 53% was obtained when type II
cement was replaced with type III cement. The minimum shrinkage sensitivity of 13%
was obtained when type III cement was replaced with type I cement.
The CEB MC 90-99 Sensitivity
Shrinkage of the CEB MC 90-99 is the sum of the autogenous and drying
shrinkage component. The sensitivity of the autogenous shrinkage component sa, and of
the drying shrinkage component sdis presented separately as follows:
CEB 90-99 Model - Cement Type - Change in cement type will produce the
change in autogenous shrinkage prediction as follows:
sa (cement type)= 1- aa as,<-l ] x 100% (9]

[ as(!)
aas =Coefficient to account for type of cement as shown in Table 4

aas (1) =Value of coefficient a as for the initial type of cement
aas <2> =Value of coefficient a as for the changed cement type
As shown in Table 4 concrete with cement type III is most sensitive. The change
in shrinkage predicted value of 33% was obtained when the cement type III was changed
into cement type II in the same concrete specimen. The minimum shrinkage sensitivity of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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13% was obtained when the specimen with type II was changed to cement type I in the
same concrete specimen.
l
Change in cement type will result in change of drying shrinkage prediction as
follows:
220 +adsi, ) e fcm28 (a

----w- a )
d>2p)- d'2(1)
(
sd (cement type)= 1- ( l-l ) x 100% [10]
[ 220+adsi(1)
ads I= Coefficient that depends on the type of cement

= 3 for type II (SL) cements
= 4 for type I (R) cements
= 6 for type III (RS) cements
a ds 2 =Coefficient that depends on the type of cement
= 0.13 for type II (SL) cements
= 0.11 for type I (R) cements
= 0.12 for type III (RS) cements
As shown in Equation 10 sensitivity to cement type is also a function of

compressive strength fcm28 . The equation was plotted for the values of fcm 2s in the range
Of 15-120 MPa and shown in Figure 9.
It can be observed from Figure 9 that the sensitivity increases with the increase
of fcm 28 . The maximum sensitivity was obtained when the cement type I was changed
into cement type II in the same concrete specimen for different values of fcm 28 . For the
constant value of fcm 2s equal to 120 MPa the maximum sensitivity was 27%.
CEB-MC 90-99 Model - Relative Humidity - The autogenous shrinkage

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
component is not sensitive to change ofRH.
s)H)= 0 [ 11]
Sensitivity of the drying shrinkage component can be determined as follows:
[12]

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As shown in Figure 10 the jJRH coefficient is a function of fcm28 for the RH in
the range of 87.5-99%. The sensitivity of the CEB model to change of RH will be
influenced by compressive strength for the same range of relative humidity as shown in
Figures II and I2.
It can be observed from Figure II that the sensitivity to the change of RH is

higher for the higher values of initial RH. Also, sensitivity increases as the change of RH
increases. The sudden jump in sensitivity shown in Figure II is due to swelling of
concrete. The value of humidity at the point of sudden jump is a function of fcm 28 as
shown in Figure 12. According to the CEB Model the swelling point can be anywhere
between 87.5 and 100% relative humidity. It can be observed from Figure 12 that as
strength increases, swelling of concrete occurs at lower values of RH.
CEB MC 90-99 Model - Compressive Strength - The sensitivity of autogenous

shrinkage component due to change offcm28 can be calculated as follows:
s a = 1- xlOO% [13]
fcm 2s(l) is the initial strength of concrete

fcm 28 <2J is the value of strength after change
The sensitivity was plotted in Figure 13 for different values of fcm 28 varying
from 15-120 MPa.
As shown in Figure I3 the sensitivity decreases with fcm 28 increase. This

indicates that the autogenous shrinkage predicted values for higher strength concrete are
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
less sensitive due to change of strength than the autogenous shrinkage predicted values
for lower strength concrete. Also it can be observed that the sensitivity almost changes
linearly as the change of fcm 28 increases. For the value of fcmZS(Z) equal to I5 MPa the
sensitivity is almost same for all initial values of strength.
The change of the drying shrinkage component due to a change of the fcmzs value
from 15-120 MPa is given in the following equation:
jJRH, _afo2(fcm2s(2)-fcm28(1)J]
sd = 1---<·_l e xlOO% {14]
[ jJRH(l)

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49
[14]
ads 2 =Coefficient that depends on type of cement

f3RH =Coefficient to take into account the effect of relative humidity
As shown in equation (14) the sensitivity to compressive strength is also

influenced by cement type and humidity when in the range of 87.5-99% . For all other
values of humidity the jJRH (2)/ jJRH (I) is equal to 1 and doesn't influence sensitivity.
The Equation 14 was plotted in Figure 14.
It can be observed that the sensitivity is only a function of the change in

compressive strength of concrete. The sensitivity increases as the change of strength
increases. The type of cement doesn't influence the sensitivity for the positive values of
compressive strength change (positive sensitivity).
CEB MC 90-99 - Specimen Size -Autogenous shrinkage is not sensitive to

specimen size change.
sJv IS)= o [15]
The sensitivity of the drying shrinkage component can be determined as follows:

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sAV/S)= 1- xlOO% [16]
The sensitivity is a function of initial specimen size, change of specimen size

and duration of drying as shown in Figures 15 and 16.
It can be observed from Figure 15 that sensitivity decreases with increase in

specimen size. The shrinkage prediction is less sensitive for larger specimen sizes. Figure
16 shows the change of sensitivity as a function of duration of drying. The figure shows
that at the high values ofV/S(2) the difference is very small.

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Equation (17) was plotted in Figures 17 and Figure 18.
It can be observed from Figure 17 that the sensitivity decreases with increase of
fcm 28 • Sensitivity of the B3 model due to change of compressive strength is in the range of
20-28% for all values of strength and water content equal to 120 kg/m 3• The influence of
water content on sensitivity is shown in Figure 28. It can be observed that concrete with
less water content is less sensitive to change in compressive strength. It can be noticed
that the sensitivity is almost constant for water content equal 70 kg/m 3•
B3 Model -Specimen Size - The sensitivity due to change of specimen size can
be determined from the following equation:
[18]
V/S(l) =Initial size of specimen

V/S(2) =Size of the specimen after change
It can be observed from Equation 18 that the sensitivity is a function of the ratio
(V/S)( 1)
(V/S)(2)
(V/S) I
It can be observed from Figure 19 that when ( ) ( ) increases the sensitivity
VjS (2) .
increases nonlinearly. The graph show that for a 50% reduction in volume to surface area
ratio the sensitivity increases by 250%, while if the specimen is enlarged by 50% the
percentage sensitivity becomes 20%. As shown in Figure 19, the model is extremely
sensitive to reduction of specimen size.
B3 Model - Relative Humidity - Relative humidity influences the sensitivity as

follows: ·
s (H) = [1- :hp) ] x 100% [19]

h(l)
Kh =Humidity function for shrinkage

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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n
~ [ 1-(I~0 X 100% fo< H ,;; 98%
For H ~ 98% , the Kh is defined as shown in Figure 20.
As shown in Figure 20 the Kh coefficient change sign for the value of humidity
equal to 98.5%. This will result in a change of sign of the shrinkage value from negative
to positive. The sensitivity of B3 model is influenced by this change as shown in Figure
21.
It can be observed that the sensitivity is a function of initial RH and increases as

the initial RH increases. Also, as shown in Figure 21 the sensitivity wi11 increase as the
change of RH increases. The common sensitivity of 100% was obtained for the value of
humidity of 98.5%. According to the model this is the humidity at which concrete starts
swelling.
B3 Model - Cement Type - The sensitivity due to change in type of cement can
be defined in the following equation:
at,]
s (type of cement)= 1- a (-J x 100%
[ I( I)
[20]
a 1 = Correction factor to account for type of cement as shown in Table 5.
As shown in Table 5 the change of cement type II to type III is most sensitive.
The change in shrinkage predicted value of 29% was obtained when the cement type II
was replaced with cement type III in the same concrete specimen. The minimum
shrinkage sensitivity of 9% was obtained when the specimen with type III was changed to
cement type I in same concrete specimen.
B3 Model -Type of Curing - The type of curing influences model sensitivity as

follows:
212
s (type of curing) = [1- : )] x 100% [21]
2(1)
The values of a 2 for different types of curing and sensitivity as calculated from equation
(21) are shown in Table 6.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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As shown in Table 6 the maximum sensitivity value of -60% was obtained when
compared shrinkage of concrete that was steam cured with the shrinkage of concrete
cured under sealed conditions.
B3 Model - Water Content - The change of water content can influence the
sensitivity of the model as follows:
o.ot9(w)~~;Ctcm28r · +27o]
0 28
s ( w) = 1- 28 x 100% [22]
r 0.019(w)~~; (fcm 28 )-0. +270
The sensitivity of the model is shown in Figure 22.
It can be observed from Figure 22 that specimen with higher water content is
less sensitive. Common sensitivity was observed for the change of initial water content
from any value to the value of 56 kg/m 3 . Analysis also showed that the sensitivity
changes insignificantly with the change of compressive strength.
COMPARISON OF MODEL SENSITIVITIES
The sensitivity of the models due to change of any input parameter can be a
function of several parameters as summarized in Table 7.
The models sensitivities were compared for input parameters having ·the following limits:
- 40%:$ H:::;;; 80% (All models are defined in this range)
- 18MPa:::;;; fcm 28 :::;;; 69MPa (All models are defined in this range)
As shown in Figure 23, the sensitivity to relative humidity change is determined

for a range of 40-80%. All models have similar sensitivity. The sensitivity is nonlinear
for GL 2000, CEB 90-99, B3 models and linear for ACI 209 model.
The comparison of model sensitivities to change of specimen size is presented in

Figure 24.
The GL 2000 and CEB MC 90-99 model sensitivity due to change of specimen
size is also a function of duration of drying. The maximum sensitivity obtained for the
duration of drying equal to 7 days was calculated for both models and plotted together
with the sensitivities of the ACI 209 and B3 model as shown in Figure 24. It can be
observed that the B3 model is the most sensitive and the ACI 209 is the least sensitive
model. The GL 2000 and CEB MC 90-99 have the same sensitivity to change of
specimen size.
Comparison of model sensitivities to change of compressive strength is shown

in Figure 25.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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The sensitivity of B3 model is also a function of water content. The maximum
sensitivity of this model was obtained for a water content of 611 kg!m 3 and plotted in
Figure 25 together with the sensitivities of the other shrinkage models. It can be observed
that the autogenous component of the CEB 90-99 model has the extremely high values
while the sensitivity of the drying component has the smallest values. The ACI 209
model is not a function of fcm28·
As shown in Table 8 the most sensitive model due to change of cement type is
the GL 2000 model and the least sensitive is the B3 model.
Sensitivity of the models due to change of type of curing is presented in Table 9.

The maximum sensitivity of the ACI 209 model is obtained for the duration of drying
equal to 7 days.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions of the sensitivity analysis on shrinkage of concrete are

summarized in five categories: relative humidity, specimen size, compressive strength,
cement type and type of curing. Maximum value of sensitivity for each model was
compared in order to determine the most sensitive model. The following is the summary
of the analysis for each category:
Relative Humidity- In the range of 40-80% all models have similar sensitivity.
For relative humidity above 80%, the sensitivity for all models rapidly increases. For the
GL 2000 model the relative humidity of 96% is the critical humidity at the sensitivity
analysis indicating swelling of concrete and extremely high values of sensitivity. For the
CEB MC 90-99 model the critical value varied between 87.5 and 99% depending on the
concrete compressive strength. For the B3 model the critical value of humidity at which
swelling starts is 98.5%.
Specimen Size - The B3 model is evaluated as the most sensitive model due to
change of specimen size, while the ACI 209 is evaluated as the least sensitive model. The
GL 2000 and the CEB 90-99 models have the same sensitivities due to change of
specimen size.
Compression Strength - The CEB 90-99 model is the most sensitive model due
to change in the compressive strength of concrete. This conclusion is based on extremely
high vales of sensitivity that were obtained for the autogenous shrinkage component. The
GL 2000 model is the least sensitive model due to change of compressive strength. The
B3 model sensitivity is higher than the sensitivity of the GL 2000 and the drying
component of the CEB MC 90-99 model. The ACI model is not related to fcm2s parameter.
Cement Type - The GL 2000 model is more sensitive to cement types than the
B3 model and the CEB MC 90-99 model. The ACI 209 model is not sensitive to this
parameter.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Type of Curing - The B3 model is more sensitive to change of curing type than
the ACI 209 model. The GL 2000 and the CEB-FIP MC 90-99 models are not a function
of this input parameter.
Overall Comparison
Table I 0 summarizes the common parameters in aJI four models. In the table the
maximum values of sensitivities are considered for each model. Note that the comparison
was performed for the specific ranges of input parameters as described in Table 2. The
numbering in the table indicate the level of sensitivity of each model due to change of
input parameters. The highest number was assigned to the most sensitive and the lowest
number was assigned the least sensitive model.
AII models have similar sensitivity to change of relative humidity. The GL 2000
is the most sensitive to change of cement type. The autogenous shrinkage component in
the CEB 90-99 model is the most sensitive to 28 day compressive strength change. The
B3 model is most sensitive to change in specimen size and type of curing.
REFERENCES
I. ACI Committee 209-92 (reapproved I997) , "Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and

Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures," ACI Manual of Concrete Practice,
Part I, Materials and General Properties of Concrete, 2004.
2. Gardner, N.J., and Marty Lockman, "Design Provisions for Drying Shrinkage and
Creep of Normal-Strength Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 98, pp. I59-
167, March-April2001.
3. Bazant, Z.P. and Baweja, S., "Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Model for Analysis
and Design of Concrete Structures," the Adam Neville symposium, SP-194,
Editor: Akthem Al-Manaseer, pp. 1-83,2000.
4. MuJler, H.S. and Hillsdorf, H.K., "CEB Bulletin d' information, No. 199,
Evaluation of the Time Dependent Behavior of Concrete, Summary report on the
Work of General Task Group 9," September 1990, pp. 290.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Table 1 Input Parameters Characteristic for Different Shrinkage Models
Input parameter p
ACI GL CEB-FIP
B3
209 2000 MC90-99
28-Day
compressive ---- X X X
strength, fcmzs
Relative
X X X X
Humidity
Specimen size X X X X
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Specimen shape --- --- --- X
Type of cement --- X X X
Type of curing X --- ---- X
Water content ---- ---- ---- X
Table 2 Limitations of Input Parameters
CEB-FIP
Input parameter p ACI209 GL2000 B3
MC90-99
fcm2s [MPa] --- 16-82 15-120 17.2-69
Relative Humidity, H
40-100 20-100 40-100 40-100
[%]
Specimen size,
volume to-surface ---- >19 --- ----
area ratio V/S [rom] ·
Water content, w
fkg/m 3l
---- --- --- 56-611
Table 3 Sensitivity of the GL 2000 Model Due to Change of Cement Type
American Cement Type I II m

European Cement Type R SL RS
(K) (1.0) (0.75) (1.15)
American Cement Type II m I III I II
European Cement Type SL RS R RS R SL
Sensitivity[%]
25 -15 -33 -53 13 35
Table 4 Sensitivity of the CEB MC 90-99 Due to Change of Cement Type
American Cement Type I II III

(a.,) (700) (800) (600)
American Cement Type II m I III I II
Sensitivity[%]
-14 14 13 25 -17 -33

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Table 5 Sensitivity of the 83 Model Due to Change of Cement Type
American Cement Type I II III

(a,) (1.0) (0.85) (1.1)
American Cement Type II III I m I II
Sensitivity [%]
15 -10 -18 -29 9 23
Table 6 Sensitivity of tbe 83 Model Due to Change of Curing Type
Type of curing Steam Water Sealed

(a2) (0.75) (1.0) (1.2)
Typeofcuring Water Sealed Steam Sealed Steam Water
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sensitivity[%]
-33 -60 25 -20 38 17
Table 7 Sensitivity of the Models as a Function of Input Parameters
Model sensitivity Input parameters that influence model sensitivity

due to change of
input parameter p ACI209 GL2000 CEB-FIP 90-99 B3
s(p)
Autogenous shrinkage:
fcm28
fcm28,
s(fcm28) -- fcm28
Drying shrinkage: type w
of cement, l'cnus, and H
forH>87.5%
Drying shrinkage: H and

s(H) H H H
fcrn28 for H>87.5%
VIS, Drying shrinkage: VIS,
s(V/S) V/S V/S
t-tc t-tc
Type of
Type of
s(type of curing) curing, -- -- curing
t-tc
Autogenous shrinkage:
Type of cement
Type of Type of
s(type of cement) -- cement cement
Drying shrinkage: Type
of cement fcm28
w,
s(water content) -- -- -- t:m2s

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Table 8 Comparison of the Model Sensitivities Due to
Change of Cement Type
Sensitivity GL2000 CEB90-99 B3

Maximum Autogenous component: 25
-53 -29
sensitivity [%] Drying component. -21
Minimum Autogenous component: 13
13 9
sensitivity [% 1 Drvin~component: -0.2
Table 9 Comparisons of the Model Sensitivities Due to

Change of Curing Type
Sensitivity ACI209 B3
Maximum
-48 -60
sensitivity[%]
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Minimum
0 17
sensitivity [%]
Table 10 Model Sensitivity
CEB-FIP
ACI MC 90-99
Input parameter GL2000 B3
209 Drying Autogenous
shrinkage shrinkage
28-Day
compressive --- 2 1 4 3
strength, fcm28
Relat~v~ 140-SO% Similar sensitivity for all models
Humidity
Specimen size 1 2 2 -- 3
Type of cement --- 4 2 l 3
Type of curing I --- --- --- 2
0.2 +----L..;:....:.:.:.:.::::.=:::..._J-+--~---1
0+-------~--------~------~
40 60 H[%]
80 100
Figure I Relative Humidity Correction Factor,

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100r---~--~~===c~--~--l:~~
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
H(2) [%)
Figure 2 Sensitivity of the ACI-209 Model Due to Change of Relative Huntidity
100
~ 0
fi)
~ -100
"' -200
:f
=
-300 --1
" -400
</.)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

V/S(2) [mm]
Figure 3 Change of Shrinkage Due to Change of Specimen Size

(i.e. Volume to Surface Area Ratio, V /S)
~~
I~ p-- - -I:- - "- - -:I- · · -
1
0 500 1000 1500
Duartion of drying, t-tc [days]

--Moist curing · · · · · · · Steam curing
Figure 4 Sensitivity to the Type of Curing

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100
so v-- Strength is
double
lI
~
"'
6 -50
0
I~v . . ._ I Strength reduced

to half
l
:~
·;;; ~
<::
b._
-----
~ -100
I
I
-ISO
0 2 3 4 5 6
fcm28( l )/fcm28(2)
Figure 5 Sensitivity of the GL 2000 Model Due to Change of Compressive Strength fcm 28
300
200
~ 100
I'
u; 0 I
~ -100
·;;;
~
c:
-200
<I>
(/) -300
-400
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
H(2) [%]
Figure 6 Sensitivity of the GL 2000 Model to Change of RH
300
~ I V/S" 1~19mm I
/ I
0
~ -300
~ ~
-600 / ! '--I V/S(IJ~toomm I
i-
·;: /\..
:~
-900
II --J V/Sul 300mm l t-tc- · davs
a:; -1200
Vl
-1500 I
0 100 200 300 400
V/S(2) [mm]
Figure 7 Sensitivity as Function of Specimen Size for the

Duration of Drying Equal to 7 Days
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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-~I VIS" 1~!9mm I
300
/
;;)
~ -300
;;. -600
·:; -900
0
r
~--·
/_
/'\.
- ~
'---I V/S(I>=IOOmm
-·.
I
-~
·;;; -1200 I -I VIS(!) 300mm 1 t-tc- davs
c: I
" -1500
{/) I
0 100 200 300 400
V/S(2) [mm]
Figure 8 Influence of Duration of Drying on the Sensitivity of the GL 2000 Model to

Change of Specimen Size With V/S =19 mm
30
I ----:-:-:---1-" --
l
~ 20
,.. 10
-- -- ..
--
~-
:~
----
--
0
" -10 .... --
eX -20 I
-30 I
0 50 100 150
fcm28 [MPa]
-+-I,n _.._I,m - - n . I -n.m ----· IJI.I --m.n
Figure 9 Sensitivity of the CEB MC 90-99 as a Function of Change of

Cement Type and fcm2s
100
80
99
.....__
- '\
[\_
I
i
I
II PRH=0.2
87;5
i
I
r\.1 99% (35tfcrn2sr5 99%

I
60 I
I pRH =-1.55( 1-(Hil ooi)

I I
40
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
fcm28 [MPa]
Figure 10 Determination of the PRH coefficient
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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150
I Hill 60% I
~
100
50 ifi Hcn-40%, I J
r- I
I ..-:j
!
:f 0 . l' ~~_./
- -50 ~-----===~;;;--"""""'=---\~;::::=======;~
"' -100 ___-r ~I Hin 80%
-150 +-----i-----+-~----i
40 60 80 100
H(2) [%]
Figure II Sensitivity of the CEB MC 90-99 Due to Humidity

Change for fcm 28 = I20 MPa
160
~ 120 _,
I
~ 80 ~ RH=60% \
__.;:.. r--
; I
:~ 40
~
"' 0 - f,----
-40
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
60 70 80 90 100 110
H(2) [%]
- - - ·fcm28=30MPa--- fcm28=60MPa • • • • • ·fcm28=80MPa --fcm28=120MPa
Figure I2 Influence of the change of fcm 28 value on the

sensitivity due to humidity change
200
i!-
·;;
l001====~~~~:1:5t;~~~==:I:=:]
0
:~ -100 11====:::::::;
"' -200
ii
-300 -+---+---1,...--+---+---1,..--+----1
0 20 ~ W W
fcm28 [MPa]
100 IW I~
Figure 13 Sensitivity of Autogenous Shrinkage Due to Change of fcm2s

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100 . . - - - , - - , - - , - - - - - - , - - r - - - - - - - ,
i:::~~=kl==tll='~-150 -100 -50 0 50 100

fcm28(2}-fcm28(1} [MPa]
I
150
• · • · Type I (R) - - T y p e II (SL) ---Type JII (RS)
Figure 14 The sensitivity of the CEB MC 90-99 Due to Change of f, 0128 for Different Type
fJRH(')
of Cements and - - - - = 1
fJRH(l)
150
100 r 1- 1 V/S(l)=l9mm 1
I
I
~
//' :::--- ......

2....
50
,q
.i:: 0 VIS(t)=30mm I
.-:::: //( I
a -50
" -100
{ll
/ -J V/S(l)=60mm I
I
I t-tc = 28 days I
I I
-150
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
V/S(2) [mm]
Figure 15 Sensitivity of the CEB-FIP MC 90-99 Due to Change ofV/S
100 , - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - , !
f.. 80 I
-
-~ 60
!. ---28days
·Ei 40 -t----H--T--,----j l ·•· ···IOOdays
] 2~ ~------' . -~ ~ --300days
-20 +----+----1---...----;
0 100 200 300 400
V/8(2) [mm]
Figure 16 Change of Sensitivity as a Function of Duration of Drying
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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30 --
~ 28
--20MPa
c 26
~~
- - -40MPa
24
• • • · • ·60MPa
5 22 +-------:o:.~~:____+-----------1----
00 ::r· ...
20+------T------4-----~------~
0 20 40 60 80
fcm28(2) [MPa]
Figure 17 Sensitivity of the B3 Model Due to Change of fcm 28
kglm3
---70
••••• 200
--300
10+----+----r----r--~----;---~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
fcm28(2) [MPa]
Figure 18 The Influence of the Water Content on the Sensitivity Due to Change of fcm2s
~
0
:§ -700
-100
-300
-500
300
100
-- r--....
"-..J
I.
I
1--......_
i
·;;;
g -900
en -1100
I
I
""" '\.
-1300 I '\.
-1500 i '\.
0 2 3 4 5
(v/S(1 ))/(v/S(2)}
Figure 19 The Sensitivity of the B3 Model to Change of Specimen Size
98 98.5 99 99.5 100

H [%]
Figure 20 Determination of~ Coefficient for the Relative Humidity H ~ 98%
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~ 100
.l:-
~ 0
~"
-100
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
H(2) [%]
Figure 21 Sensitivity of the B3 Model Due to Change of H< 1J
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

w
Figure 22 Sensitivity of the B3 Model Due to Change of Water Content
so~----~------~----~----~
~ 40~------~-----+------~---~~ ---ACI209
.£ 30 ~---r'-:-:-----ll----~~-....j ----GL2000
:~ 20 L----~~==::;:;:~:2:::L:_j________j -CEB90-99
lj ·······B3
~ 10~---~~--~~-----~---~.
o~~=--4------~----~~----~
40 50 60 70 80
H[%]
Figure 23 Comparison of Models Sensitivities Due to Change of RH
120~-------.------~-------,
~ 100+-------~==~~~~
~ ---ACI209
,e. 80 ---GL2000
:~ 60
-cEB90-99
-~ 40 -~--~1------t--~~=------~-------....j
----- 83
~ 20-1-~--~~--------~-------....j
0+-~--~-------+------~
0 100 200 300
V/S(2) [mm]
Figure 24 Comparison of Models Sensitivities Due to Change of Specimen Size

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i_:JK:r-·T--Il ~--~=:=-
20 30 40 50 60
fcm28(2) [MPa]
Figure 25 Comparison of models Sensitivities Due to Change of fcm2s
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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66 AI·Manaseer and Ristanovic
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-4
Deviations from the Principle of

Superposition and their Consequences on
Structural Behavior
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by S. Staquet and B. Espion
Synopsis: This research focuses on deviations from the linear viscoelastic behavior of
concrete occuring at high stress levels (from 0.5 f' cto 0. 7 f' c), at early age loading (I to 2
days) and in case of unloading implying strain reversal.
A large series of creep tests was performed on high strength concrete specimens
undergoing creep under constant stress, followed by a period of recording of the creep
recovery after complete unloading. Some specimens were heat cured before loading. Some
nonlinear effects at very early age .have been observed. After unloading, experimental data
show that the creep recovery deviates strongly from the numerical predictions obtained
by the application of the principle of superposition but seems to conform rather well to the
recovery model proposed by Yue and Taerwe 3 •
This model was then applied, through a step-by-step approach, for the time-dependent
structural analysis of a precast composite prestressed bridge deck with 26 m span. The
application of the recovery model yielded computed strains which are in good agreement
with in situ measured strains, and in better agreement than the strains computed by the
application of the principle of superposition. This enhanced approach was then used to
optimize the phases of construction of this kind of structure. Thanks to this research, the
age at transfer of prestress could be significantly reduced.
Keywords: bridge; composite beam; creep properties; creep recovery; early

age; heat curing; prestress loss; prestressing; shrinkage
67
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68 Staquet and Espion
ACI Member Stephanie Staquet is Post-Doctoral Researcher at the Department of Civil
Engineering at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium. She is carrying
research on modelling of creep and shrinkage effects in prestressed and composite
structures, early age concrete behaviour and ultra high performance concretes.
ACI Member Bernard Espion is Professor of Civil Engineering at the Universite Libre de
Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium. His research interests include the analysis of time-dependent
effects of concrete on structural behaviour, nonlinear design, carrying capacity of slender
concrete columns and high performance concretes.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Computation methods dealing with the time-dependent analysis of concrete

structures generally evolve from the application of the principle of superposition oflinear
viscoelasticity. However, it is known that the delayed behavior of concrete does not fully
comply with the principle of superposition. Deviations from the linear viscoelastic
behavior are known to occur when concrete is submitted to high stress levels (i.e. above
0.4 f c). at early age of loading and in case of unloading implying strain reversal. All
these deviations can occur in the case of precast prestressed concrete structural elements:
prestressing is generally applied at a very early age and at high stress levels, and the
concrete fibers belonging to the bottom side of prestressed beams undergo a stress/strain
history of unloading when the permanent loads are applied step-by-step. The purpose of
this paper is to assess whether these deviations are worthy to be taken into account in the
time-dependent analysis of a particular kind of composite prestressed beam.
INTRODUCTION
A new kind of prefabricated composite railway bridge deck with trough U-

shaped cross section has been developed in Belgium for the construction of viaducts for
the Railway High Speed Lines 2• The purpose was to maximize the span/construction
depth ratio. Simply supported spans up to 26 m with span/construction depth ratio as
large as I 00 have been achieved by using simultaneously precambered steel girders and
prestressing forces.
Fig. I shows a typical cross section of these bridge decks along with the
indication of the location of the extensometers in an instrumented bridge deck. The basic
steps in the construction of these bridge decks are:
two high strength steel girders with an initial precamber are prestressed on a
prefabrication bench by downwards concentrated loads acting at 1/41h and 3/4th of the
span;
passive (rebars) and active (tendons) reinforcement is placed in the space that will be
filled by the bottom slab (depth: 0.25 m);
the tendons are stressed and the slab is concreted;
at an early age for the concrete of the slab (between 40 hours and 62 hours), a I st
stage of prestressing of the slab is obtained by releasing the concentrated loads
acting on the steel girders, immediately followed by a znd stage of prestressing
through the release of the anchorage forces at the ends of the bonded tendons;

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the deck is removed from the prefabrication bench and the webs are encased by a 2nd
phase concrete;
the bridge deck is then ready for transportation to the construction site and
installation on its final supports.
These bridge decks have been designed up to now with a classical computation
method where the time-dependent effects are taken into account within the framework of
a pseudo-elastic analysis with a variable modulus method 1 • The modular ratios given in
1
the NBN5 are intended for selected situations only (m = 5.59 at the transfer of
prestressing; m = 9.05 for sustained loads; m = 4.97 for variable loads). It has been
shown that the strains computed by this method differ significantly from the strains
measured in situ on an instrumented bridge deck, in particular from one year after
construction2 • These composite bridge decks are rather heterogeneous from the point of
view of their viscoelastic behavior and, as a consequence, the authors felt that it would be
useful to assess more thoroughly their time-dependent behavior. In a previous part of the
2
research , they used the method that relies on the numerical step-by-step evaluation of the
hereditary integral of the principle of superposition.
MODELLING THE CREEP RECOVERY
The step-by-step method used in the first part of this research applies the
superposition principle of the linear theory ofviscoelasticity which assumes that concrete
creep strains depend linearly upon the sustained stress level. Hence, a partial unloading is
considered as a negative load which induces an equal but opposite creep to that which
would be caused by a positive load of the same magnitude applied at the same time.
However, it appears that after a period of compression creep, creep recovery is
significantly less than predicted by the superposition principle. In the construction phases
of this composite prestressed bridge deck, the bottom side concrete fibers undergo a
stress/strain history of significant unloading when the permanent loads are applied step-
by-step.
Among existing approaches for modelling this phenomenon, the authors focused on the
so-called two-function method for the prediction of concrete creep under decreasing
stress proposed by Yue and Taerwe 3• In this approach, the nonlinear behavior caused by
unloading is divided into two parts: a classical linear creep law J for loading and a creep
recovery law J, for unloading. The stress-dependent strain (initial + creep) is computed
from Eq.l:
n n
&a (t,t 0 ) = a 0 .J{t,t0 ) + L J(t,t;).~a(t;) + L J, (t,t0 ,t;).~a(t;)
I I
[1]
where J (t, {j) =creep function (1/MPa)
o 0 = initial compression stress value
(supposed to be a loading) applied in t 0 (MPa)
.:1o (ti) = variation of stress inti (loading or unloading) (MPa)
J, (t, to, ti) =creep recovery function (liMPa)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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J,(t,t 0 ,tJ = 0 when ~cr(ti) > 0 (loading)
[2]
where
a = 1- exp[- O.l{t0 + 0.05(t; - t 0 )}]

[3]
and E(ti) =modulus of elasticity of concrete at ti (MPa)

E28 =modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
Experimental data have shown that creep recovery decreases with the increase of
the age at loading (to) and the duration of loading (ti - to) and that the development of
recove7 is more rapid when load is applied at an early age or for short durations of
loading . In Eq.2, it can be seen that the final value and the rate of development of the
recovery function are influenced by the loading history.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF CONCRETE DELAYED BEHAVIOR
In order to assess precisely the time-dependent properties of the concrete (grade

60 MPa) used in this kind of structure, creep and shrinkage tests on cylinders (with
diameter 80 mm and height 320 mm) have been performed in the laboratory. All
specimens were molded at the precasting yard. Each creep specimen has a companion
shrinkage specimen. We report hereafter results from some basic and total creep tests
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
compared with the values predicted by the 1999 version of the CEB-MC90 mode1 4 for
creep and shrinkage under constant stress and by Eq.2 proposed by Yue and Taerwe 3 for
the creep recovery law. The concrete mix proportions are: 680 kg/m 3 of sand from Maas
river (0/5), 1200 kg/m3 of limestone aggregates (7/14), 400 kg/m 3 of early high strength
Portland cement (CEMI 52.5 R LA), 8 kg/m3 of water reducing admixture (Visco 4) and
132 l/m 3 of mixing water. The total volume of water, including the liquid part of the
water reducing admixture is 138 l/m 3 and the water/cement ratio is 0.345. The
recommendations 5 issued by RILEM TC I 07 to perform tests under drying (23 C, 53 %
relative humidity) and sealed (23 C) conditions have been followed. Creep specimens
have been loaded at various ages (I day, 30 hours, 36 hours, 2 days, 28 days) under
different levels of stress (50 %, 60% and 70% off cJ where j is the age of concrete at
loading) and have been completely unloaded at various ages (28 days, 55 days, 140 days,
210 days, 338 days) in order to have different durations of loading. Some of the
specimens have been heat-cured at 45 C during the day after their molding and kept in
the same environment as the bridge decks submitted to heat curing in the same
conditions. We report hereafter only some results with a level of stress equal to 50 and 60
% off cJ which is the maximum level of stress reached in these bridge decks. For a level
of stress equal to 70 % off cj, some nonlinear effects at very early age were observed and
are supposed to be linked to the evolution of the degree of hydration. The influence of
this percentage as well as the effect of the heat curing on the creep function was
previously analyzed in detail 6• The average concrete compressive strength f cJ is

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Shrinkage and Creep -of Concrete 71
measured on three cylinders with diameter 80 mm and height 160 mm. Results are given
in Table 1. Batch 1 corresponds to data given in Figs.2 to 7 and Batch 2, to the data
reported in Figs.8 and 9. To explain the difference in strength between concrete from
Batch 1 and concrete from Batch 2, it should be mentioned that for this research several
( 12) series of cylinders were molded at the precast yard at different times along a period
of two years. Batch 1 and Batch 2 correspond to two different series. The scatter for the
concrete strength which may be explained by slight differences in materials supply or by
seasonal effects along such a long period, remained limited with an average 28 days
compressive strength for non heated specimens lying between 61 and 73 MPa.
Figs.2 and 3 show the total and basic creep functions measured on non-heated
specimens loaded at 28 days and unloaded at 55 days with a level of applied stress equal
to 50 % of f cj· The measurements are compared with values predicted by the CEB-
MC90 model code4 (1999) with application of the superposition principle or with the
creep recovery Jaw 3 for the unloading. In both cases, basic and total, the difference
between measurements and predicted values after unloading is significant when the
superposition principle is applied whereas the trend of the experimental values is well
reproduced with the application of the creep recovery law.
In case of heat curing before loading, the CEB-MC 90 model code 4 proposes to
use an equivalent-time to take into account the actual maturity of concrete for the
computation of the age of concrete at loading. According to the Arrhenius law, an
equivalent-time tot is first computed with Eq.4:
4000
tor= M;.exp[13.65--- - -]
273 +I';
[4]
where .Mi = i1h time-interval (d)

Ti =temperature during .Mi (C)
Then, according to the type of cement, an equivalent time toeff is finally

computed with Eq.5. In the case of rapid hardening cement, toeff is significantly higher
than tot. This parameter influences directly the rate of development of the creep function.
toejf=tor·[ 91.2
2 +tor
+l]a
[5]
where a = -1 for slow hardening cement

= 0 for normal cement
= 1 for rapid hardening cement
For measurements presented in Figs.4 to 7, the evolution of the temperature in

concrete specimens submitted to a heat curing was recorded. The evolution of the
temperature during the cure is given in Fig.l 0.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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In Fig.4, the temperature data were introduced in the CEB-MC 90 model
predictions in two ways: firstly, by considering only to, (Eq.4, Model 1) and secondly, by
considering toetT (Eq.4 and 5, Model 2) in order to compute the effective age of concrete at
loading. The comparison between measured and predicted strain values indicates that it is
necessary to consider toetT in the computations and that after loading, the recovery creep
Jaw provides the best agreement with data.
When the level of applied stress is higher than 40% of f cj. the CEB-MC90
model code 4 proposes an expression for a multiplier k which increases the creep
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
coefficient.
[6]
where f cj = average compressive strength of concrete

at the age of loading (MPa)
a = applied stress at loading (MPa)
a, = 0.5 if relative humidity > 98 %
= 1.5 if relative humidity < 98 %
Fig.5 shows that no difference exists between experimental creep functions of

heated specimens loaded at a level of stress equal to 50 % or 60 % of f cj· The best
agreement between experimental data and predicted values is found with the model
predictions considering a level of stress equal to 50 % off' cj for both cases. We have
already shown 6 that for the heated specimens from this series of tests, the level of applied
stress has no influence on the creep function provided that this level remains below 70 %
of f cj· In Fig.6, the necessity to consider toetr (Model 2) instead of t 0, (Model I) for the
evaluation of the equivalent age at loading for heated specimens is confirmed for the very
early age at loading of one day. Figs.6 and 7 show the total and basic creep functions of
the heated specimens loaded at one day and unloaded at 210 days. After unloading, the
superposition principle deviates again from the data. Fig.8 shows that for non-heated
specimens loaded at 2 days, it is necessary to use the parameter k that increases the creep
coefficient for a level of stress equal to 60 % of f' cj· Fig.9 shows that for non-heated
specimens loaded at one day under a level of stress of 50 % off cj and unloaded at 338
days, a very good agreement is found with the CEB-MC 90 model code 4 (1999) and the
creep recovery law. The trend of the experimental values reported in Figs.2 to 9 seems to
be well reproduced in the different situations (level of applied stress, heat curing, and age
of loading and unloading) by the CEB-MC 90 model code 4 (1999) supplemented by the
creep recovery Jaw detailed in Eq.2. Hence, these models will be used in the numerical
simulations presented below.
COMPARISON BETWEEN MEASURED STRAINS IN SITU

AND COMPUTED VALUES
A bridge deck with 26m span (belonging to a viaduct situated at the entrance of
Brussels South Station) has been instrumented at the third of the span and at mid-span

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with 12 resistive strain g_a.pes and 12 vibrating wire extensometers in order to assess its
time-dependent behavior"· . Strains have been recorded since the construction ofthe deck
in June 2000. For each section, two vibrating wire extensometers (TSi) have been placed
at 8cm below the top section fiber and four others at Scm above the bottom section fiber.
Four strain gages (Ji) have been bonded on the bottom flanges of the girders and two
others on the upper flange of the girders (Fig.l ).
The reference (t = 0) of the strain measurements is taken just before pre-bendin§

of both steel girders. In Figs.ll to 14, Ji represents the measurement given by the i
strain gage and TSi, the measurement given by the i1h vibrating wire extensometer. A
positive strain value indicates an extension. The external relative humidity used in the
computations is set to 70 %. The loading history proceeded as follows: concreting of the
bottom slab took place between 6 and 9 hours after pre-bending the girders; transfer of
prestressing occurred at t = 2.6 days; concreting of the webs took place at t = 3. 7 days;
the deck was stored in the prefabrication yard, then transported by rail near the
construction site; the deck was installed on temporary supports (at 115th and 4/5 1h of the
span) between t = 10 and 45 days; the deck was installed on its final bearings at t = 45
days; some equipment was placed at 130 days; the ballast was placed at t = 270 days and
at t = 305 days.
Figs.ll to 14 show the results of the time-dependent structural analysis

compared with strains measured at mid-span at the bottom and upper flanges of the steel
girders, at 50 mm from the bottom fiber in the concrete slab and at 80 mm from the upper
fiber in concrete webs. The scatter of the experimental strain measurements has been
discussed previously 7• For the vibrating wire gages, it remained extremely limited. Long-
term strain measurements with resistive strain gages are more delicate, and signals from
strain gages J7 (Fig.ll) or J9 (which is not reported in Fig.12) that deviate from the main
trend are regarded as unreliable. The model proposed by Yue and Taerwe 3 was applied
through a step-by-step approach in the time-dependent structural analysis of the
instrumented prestressed brid~e deck. It has already been shown that the application of a
simple modular ratio method (NBN5) yields computed strains far from the measured --`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
values and that the application of the step-by-step method for evaluating the principle of
superposition of linear viscoelasticity leads to computed results which are in better
agreement with recorded data2 • It can now be seen that an even better agreement between
strains measured in situ and computed values is found with the step-by-step method
incorporating the recovery phenomenon.
Fig.l5 shows the evolution of the corresponding computed stresses at the bottom
level of the steel girder. At this level, the steel girder is in tension after pre-bending. But
after the transfer of prestressing, compression increases in the lower flange of the girders
due to the combined effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete. Fig.l6 yields the
evolution of the computed stress at the bottom fiber of concrete slab at mid-span: it
should be observed that no tension appears neither with the classical step-by-step method
and the method incorporating the creep recovery law nor with the simple computation
method 1 (NBN5) used for the design of these bridge decks. It has been shown2 that the
application of the principle of superposition method yields much higher values for the
long-term prestress losses than the design method using the modular ratio. However,
prestress losses are reduced in the analysis that takes into account the deviation of the

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principle of superposition. At 10000 days, we still have 11.7 MPa in compression in the
slab at its bottom fiber with the simple computation method 1 (NBN5), 1.2 MPa with the
classical step-by-step method2 and 2.7 MPa with the method considering the creep
recovery Jaw.
APPLICATION OF THE ENHANCED MODELLING
The comparison between measured and computed strain values has shown that a
very good agreement is obtained by taking into account the creep recovery law in the
modelling. Hence, this approach can be used to optimize the phases of construction of
these composite bridge decks. In Figs.l7 to 21, a conventional history was assumed to
compute the evolution of stresses in the structure. It proceeds as follows: prestressing
occurs at t' (Table 2), concreting of the webs takes place at t" (Table 2), some equipment
is installed at 130 days and the ballast is placed in two stages, at 270 days and 305 days.
Fig.17 shows the evolution of the computed stresses in the concrete slab by
application of the two-function method in three situations: firstly, the bridge is not heated
and prestressed at 2.6 days as the instrumented one (curve 1); secondly, the bridge is
supposed to have been heat cured for one day after casting according to the evolution of
temperature given in Fig.l 0. Then, two cases are considered: in the 151 one (curve 2), toetf
is used to compute the age of concrete at loading (Eq.5, Model 2) and in the 2"d one
(curve 3), to. only is considered (Eq.4, Model 1). Curves 1 and 3 seem to yield close
results. However, curve 2 representing the results of the analysis that takes into account
the type of cement (to.11) on the effect of heat curing shows that prestress losses are
reduced when the type of cement is introduced (via Eq.5) in the analysis.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Experimental creep data on laboratory heated specimens have shown previous!/
that the computation must be done with toeff instead of to 1• Hence, by considering only
heated bridge decks, the age at prestressing t' and the age t" at the casting of the second
concrete phase were changed in order to optimize the construction phases (see Table 2).
Fig.18 shows the results of different simulations by applying the step-by-step method and
Fig.l9 shows the corresponding results obtained by the analysis with the two-function
method. In Fig.19, we can see that we can still count on a residual concrete compressive
stress (under permanent loading) of 4 MPa at 10000 days (30 years) by applying heat
curing and releasing the prestressing at 20 hours (0.833day); but by comparison, the
residual concrete compressive stress in a non heated bridge deck prestressed at 2.6 days
(like the instrumented deck) is only 2. 7 MPa.
Figs.20 and 21 show the corresponding stresses in the second phase concrete at
the upper fiber of the section at mid-span by applying the step-by-step method (Fig.20)
and the two-function method (Fig.21). At this fiber, the difference between the stresses
computed by the two methods is not significant. These illustrations indicate that, due to
creep and shrinkage of concrete, the stress in the concrete at the top fiber of the cross
section reach more than 3 MPa in tension, but also that these stresses are significantly
reduced when the ballast is installed.

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CONCLUSIONS
This research has focused on a new kind of composite prestressed bridge deck
with strong stress redistribution between steel and concrete within the cross section and
also significant prestress losses. The purpose of the present paper was to analyze in detail
the influence of some non linear effects of concrete creep in the time-dependent analysis
of such kind of highly heterogeneous structures. A laboratory investigation was set up to
study experimentally the influence of early age loading at high stress levels and the
influence of heat curing on the creep function. It was shown that, for the concrete
considered, these parameters were correctly taken into account by the full application of
the 1999 version of the CEB MC90 prediction model. Then, the phenomenon of creep
recovery after unloading was considered and was found well reproduced by the two-
function method.
These aspects were applied to the time-dependent analysis of an instrumented

bridge deck. The enhanced approach yielded computed strains in very good agreement
with the strains measured in situ. This approach predicts fewer prestress losses than the
losses obtained by the application of the principle of superposition. By applying this
approach to optimize the phases of construction of this kind of structure, the age of
concrete at prestressing could be significantly reduced to 20 hours, a worthy result for the
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
precaster.
REFERENCES
1 NBN5, Steel Bridges, draft for the part: Composite Bridges, Doc.270/43 F*,
Belgian Institute for Standards, Brussels, 1987, (in French).
2 Staquet, S., Rigot G., Detandt, H. and Espion B. "Innovative Composite Precast
Prestressed Precambered U-Shaped Concrete Deck for Belgium's High Speed Railway
Trains", PCI Journal, September-October 2004 issue.
3 Yue, L.L. and Taerwe, L., "Two-function method for the prediction of concrete
creep under decreasing stress", Materials and Structures, 26, 1993, pp.268-273.
4 fib-CEB-FIP, "Structural Concrete Volume 1", Bulletin fib, N° I, 1999.
5 Rilem TC 107-CSP, "Measurement of time-dependent strains of concrete",

Materials and Structures, 31, 1998, pp.507-512.
6 Staquet, S., and Espion, B., "Effects of heat treatment on creep functions of high
performance concrete loaded at very early age", Proceedings of the IX1h Conference on
Advances in Cement and Concrete: volume changes, cracking, and durability (D.A.
Lange, K. Scrivener and J. Marchand, eds.) , Copper Mountain, CO, August 2003,
pp.4 71-480.
7 Staquet, S., Detandt, H. and Espion, B., "Field investigation of a new kind of
composite railway bridge deck", Proceedings ofthe 61h International Conference on Short

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& Medium Span Bridges (P. H. Brett, N. Banthia and P.G. Buckland, eds.), Vancouver,
BC, August 2002, Volume 1, pp.627-634.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of this research is financed by a grant funded by the Belgian National

Foundation for Scientific Research, which is gratefully acknowledged. We also wish to
thank the companies Ronveaux s.a. and Tucrail s.a. for their collaboration.
Table l - Average compressive strength results on 3 cylinders in MPa
Age Batch 1 Batch 2

(days) Heated Non-heated Non"heated
1 49 32 30
2 so so 41.6
28 61 69 61.7
Table 2 - Ages ofthe I ' 1 phase concrete at prestressing (t')

and at the casting of the 2nd phase concrete (t")
t' 0.833 1 1.5 2 2.6

(days)
t" 1 1.1 1.6 2.1 3.7
_(_da_y~
• Vibrating wire
extensometer
- Strain gage
Figure 1 - Typical cross section and location of the extensometers

on the instrumented bridge deck
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Creep function l (1/MPa)
0,0001 ~r====~=-~:;::=.::;;======;----,
0,00009 r-J
1
experimental total J, 50%, t1 =55d
•
i -predicted tota1 J, 50%, tl = 55d, with recovery ftmction

0,00008 H ·predicted total J, 500/o, tl = SSd, superposition principle
0,00007
0,00006 -t-----------_/~'+---------i f
0,00005 -t----------/--:;>P----/-------l
0,00004 +--------..¥"~,r----a-------j
0,00003 +-.•.-=~~~~~~-----+~~.~~==--9
-- ! --.--..---
0,00002 +---------------'.--------1
0,00001 +-----------------'0.--~~=j
(t-28) in days
0,0001 0,001 O,QJ 0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 2 - Total creep functions of the non-heated specimen

loaded at 28 days and unloaded at 55 days
0,0001
0,00009
.
Creep function l (1/MPa)
experimental basic J, 50o/0, tl = SSd

-predicted basic J, SOo/o. tl = SSd. with recovery function I
!
i
I
I
i
0,00008 ···-··predicted basic J, 50"/o, tl = 55d, superposition principle
'
0,00007
I
......
0,00006 I
0,00005 I
0,00004
0,00003
0,00002
• ~ • . .~ I
II
0,00001 ~-·- I
·-~-------- .... (i-i8jiii[d.ysl
0
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000 1
Figure 3 - Basic creep functions of the non-heated specimen

loaded at 28 days and unloaded at 55 days
Total creep function l (1/MPa)

0,00012 ~-====~====:;------------,
• experimental J
-·- · wilh recovery, mode11
0,0001 ---- superposition principle, modell 1-----7""------j
-with recovery, model2 /;j·
0,00008 +-=="="=··su=u~petpOS==i•=·on"''princ!:O':=!ii=1e:!Omode:==:=l~2"-----,4/-',f!:..f--------1
0,00006 t------/---::A)~-~~;.::;2::::::::::'~
.,.
/.7 '---- -·-·--·-·
0,00004 +---~.....-;±t ~-· \~--·-
W! ---
0,00002
(1·2) inda)'l!
0+----~-----~----~---~
0.0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 4 -- Total creep functions of the heated specimen loaded at

2 days (under 50%) and unloaded at 55 days
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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~----------------------------------·
Total creep fimclion J (1/MPa)
0,0001
0,00009
O,O!lOOS
.•
~·-·
experimenla! J, 60'A.
O"J'criJnenW J, 50%
J, 60'/o, with recovery
'
jl
-··- J, 60o/o, supe.rposition principle /~l
0,00001
0,00006
:=:} =: =~":: mincinle /7
?-:;;:IF ::;:,. ·-···
0,0001)1
.-......;.:
0,00004
0,00003
0,00002
~·
- -~·-
\ ....•..... -······;;;;;c.
0,0000!
(1-l)in days
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 !0 100 !000 10000
Figure 5 - Total creep functions of the heated specimens (with model 2)

· loaded at 1 day and unloaded at 28 days
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0,00002 +------------------___;
(t-1) in days
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 6 Total creep functions of the heated specimen loaded at 1 day (under 50%)
and unloaded at 210 days
0,00008
0,00004 ........ ~-····' ..
0,00002 ~----~-----------------1
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 10
Figure 7 Basic creep functions of the heated specimen loaded at 1 day (under 50%)
and unloaded at 210 days

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• Total creep limction J (IIMPa)
0 00016
~ • experimontal J, 60% 1
0,00014 -predicted J, 60%, with recovery
0,00012
·· ···· pn:dicted J, 60'A., supc:rpositi011 principleI ~"/
0,0001 //l
0,00008
o'"/ -··· .-· ·-····
0,00006
..y
0,00004 . -~
~
0,00002
(t-2) in days
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 8 - Total creep functions of the non-heated specimen loaded at 2 days and
unloaded at 140 days
0,00016
i•
O,OOOJS Total creep limction J (1/MPa)
experimental J
- pn:dicted J, with recovery
...... predicted J, superposition princi lc
I
I /;,
0,00014
0,00012 //i
0,0001
//
~-~·-/ ·- .... ···- ..
0,00008
0,00006
.& " ...
. ./
0,00004
0,00002
(t-1) in days
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 9 - Total creep functions of the non-heated specimen loaded at 1 day

(under 50%) and unloaded at 338 days
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Tempen~~ur<inC
70
Figure 10 - Recorded temperature values in heated and non-heated concrete specimens

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Suain (~m/m) c 17
800 X Jl
600
~ : ~ • J8
• )2
o NBNS
400 +---------~~----------~-----~;~~~~~
200
.YotPI:I
-200
-400 ······ .....

time in days
-600
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 11 -- Measured and computed strains in the steel girders at the

bottom flange level at mid-span
Strain (Jimlm)
200
...
~-1--------~----~r-----~------~----~~
time in days
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 12 -- Measured and computed strains in the steel girders at the

upper flange level at mid-span
Suain {11m/m) • ISS

• TS3
-100 • TS2
D JS4
-200
o NBNS
-300 -1-------------l-------------~ --_ step-by-stq> with recovery
-400 ······ suOerDosition orinciole
-500
-600
-700 •
-800
-900
-1000
-1100
-1200
-1300
0,1 10 100
Figure 13 - Measured and computed strains in the concrete

at 50 mm from the bottom fiber at mid-span
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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300
Strain (pmlm~
. --·. I • ~I
c TS6
I
r:
-step-by-step with m:overy
200
.
· · · · · · supell)Osilion principle
~
100
4b..6M
0 r ~
c c c"c<\l
-100
-200 ~ ··M-a.·············· ...

a
D -.....:
timeiadays
-300
0,1 I 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 14- Measured and computed strains in the concrete at 80 mm from

the upper fiber at mid-span
Sln:ss(MPa)
150
l -step-by-step with tocovery I

100 +----------4--------~~··~··~-·~~~~~sit~ion~p~ri~~:~ii~J~,·-~
sot----------+------------------------_,
~
.....~
-50+-----------------~--~-~--.'-
• ......._"'::----t"" ...~"'-._-
.."',---""-- __-___-___ -____- ___---1
-100 +---------------------------------'-"'---=-l
time ia days
-150 +-----~~----~-----~--------------1
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 15-- Computed stresses in the steel girder at the bottom level at mid-span
Sln:Ss(MPa)
• NBNS
I
-step-by-step with recovery
-2 +----------+-1 ······ suuert><>Oiticn Drinci 1e
L
r-_-__-..-::-
....~-..--='---j
-4
-6
-8
-10
. ··J
-12
..· /
-14
-16 .l
-18 ..'1 .. ·· .. - /
-20
J ... v
-22
time in days
-24
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 16 -- Stresses computed with different methods in the concrete at the

bottom fiber at mid-span
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Sttess (MPa)
0
-2
-4
~
-6
-8
-10
_r:-
-12
......-:::J
-14
/7
-16 -~
-18 -~ j······Curve 3: Heated, f = ld, Modell
-20
~ ';?" j-Curve I:Non-heawd,f=2.6d
I -Curve 2: Heated, tp = ld, Modell
-22
time in days
-24
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 17- Stresses computed with recovery function in the concrete at the
Stt<:ss(MPa)
Or--~~~~r--------------,
·2
;:: l ---- i
,.........--___...,.,
~ :=-=-=-=-=-=-=-:~:~:~=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-~........-::::~:;~::-.
..'-: ._- :-. -:·_-:· l'i'j.---j. II
-8+-----~~~'+-----------~~~------~
-10 +-----f+-+:-;-1:
r-----..,..::::;-~7'+-s-----1
-12 +-----+.-~~.,..,:f-----~-,
~::=--------1
...
I
I
4
·1 !j ~"#' Non~heatcd. t' 2.6d i
-16 +-----+.-:
-i-!<-!;f-~--:;-~~~-'-"~;.=.----! -Heated, t' =0.833d ~ I
-18 +-------f-1,+:d ... ~--Z::.------1
~· f,cz!lii ---Heated, t' = ld
•2 ot-----w.'~'i""'F-,.---------i -·-·Hcated,t'=I.Sd .
-22t-------\lt-j
IJLH ······Heated.f:o:2d "i 1,
• ~ ~ time in days I
-24
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 18 - Stresses computed with the principle of superposition in the concrete at the
-
So-ess (M]>a)
-2
:!~
-4
-6 l 1:
I j:
-8
\ !:
-10 I j:
I·:
-12
-14
: jj ~
-16 : !i ~?;."" Non-heated. t' a 2.6d
-18
-20
-22 , ,; time in days
-24
0,1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 19- Stresses computed with recovery function in the concrete at the
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Stress(MPa)
3,5 ./-
3 .#'V
2,5 ff
2 / .6
1,5 / //
I / //
// _//_
0,5
&/ //
s
0
-0,5
//
-I 1--1 Non-heated, f 2.6cl //
-1,5 -Heated, I'= 0.833d II
---Heated, I'= ld
-2 -·-·Heatcd,l'=l.Sd
-2,5 ····· Hcate<l I' 2d time in days
-3
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0,1 10 100 1000
Figure 20 - Stresses computed with the principle of superposition in the concrete at the
upper fiber at mid·span
Slless(MPa)
4
3,5 Non-heated, f =2.6cl
-Heated, f = 0.833<1
.QW
2,5
3
2
---Heated, f = ld
-·-·Heated, f D I.Sd
, #
·· ··· Heated, r - 2d ./ ./£

l,S
I / h
0,5 L Iff
0 .#/ //
-0,5 //
#'
;,u
-I
-1,5
-2
-2,5 ttmcm..,.
-3
0,1 I 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 21 -Stresses computed with recovery function in the concrete at the

upper fiber at mid-span

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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-5
Design Implications of Creep and Shrinkage in

Integral Abutment Bridges
by M. Arockiasamy and M. Sivakumar
Synopsis: Integral abutment bridges are becoming popular among a number of

transportation agencies owing to the benefits, arising from elimination of expensive joints,
installation, and reduced maintenance cost. Unlike framed structures, in addition to the
effects of creep, shrinkage, and temperature, integral bridges are also subjected to the soil-
substructure-superstructure interaction. The analysis of these bridges requires realistic
modeling that can include the time-dependent material behavior. Statical indeterminacy in
the structure introduces time-dependent variations in the redundant forces. An analytical
model is developed in which the redundant forces in the integral abutment bridges are
derived considering the time-dependent effects of creep and shrinkage.
The analysis includes nonlinearity due to cracking of the concrete, as well as the time
dependent deformations of composite cross section due to creep, shrinkage and
temperature. American Concrete Institute (ACI) and American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approaches are considered in modeling
the time dependent material behavior. Age-adjusted effective modulus method with
relaxation procedure is used to include the creep behavior of concrete. The partial restraint
provided by the abutment-pile-soil system is modeled using discrete spring stiffuess for
translational and rotational degrees of freedom. The effects of creep and shrinkage on the
service life are illustrated and the results from the analytical model are compared with the
published field test data of a two-span continuous integral abutment bridge.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Keywords: continuous composite structures; creep; integral abutment

bridges; restraining moment; shrinkage
85
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86 Arockiasamy and Sivakumar
ACI member M. Arockiasamy, is a Professor and Director of Center for Infrastructure
and Constructed Facilities under Department of Civil Engineering at Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, FL. His research interest includes concrete durability, bridges,
advanced polymer matrix composite materials, and infrastructure systems.
ACI student member M. Sivakumar, is a Design Engineer at PTE Strand Co. Inc.,
Hialeah, FL. He pursued his Ph.D., at Florida Atlantic University. His research interest
includes creep, shrinkage and thermal induced stresses in concrete structures.
INTRODUCTION
Integral abutment bridges (Figs. 1-2) are becoming popular among a number of
transportation agencies owing to the benefits, arising from elimination of expensive
joints, instailation, and reduced maintenance cost. Integral abutment bridges
accommodate superstructure movements without conventional expansion joints and
hence avoid problems associated with bridge deck joints. One of the advantages of
integral construction is better seismic resistance due to the added redundancy. The
integral bridges differ from regular rigid frame bridges in the manner of distribution of
stresses due to temperature change, prestressing, creep, shrinkage, and restraints provided
by abut~ent foundation and backfill. Although the majority of the integral abutment
bridges perform adequately, many of them operate at high stress levels (Burke, M.P. Jr.,
1990). Although the stress levels generated by secondary effects are weii understood
from the field observations and performance (Kunin, J., and Alampaili, S., 2000), these
effects are not weii quantified. Design and construction practices are based largely on
past local experience and thus empirical in nature. Because of limited knowledge on the
behavior of integral abutment bridges, no unified design guidelines are available to
foiiow. Integral abutment bridge designs rely on the experience, empirical formulae, and
simplified design assumptions based on the performance of existing bridges rather than
theoretical considerations.
When the superstructure is subjected to sustained service loads, it undergoes
nonlinear time-dependent deformations in the concrete due to creep and shrinkage in
addition to nonlinearity produced by cracking of the concrete. The stress and strain in a
reinforced or prestressed concrete structure vary over a period of time due to gradual
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
development of creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressing steel.

Therefore, the analysis for time-dependent stresses and deformations should include time
functions for the strain or stress in the materials. Though the effects of creep and
shrinkage in a composite girder were investigated on continuous concrete bridges with
simple supports (Gilbert, R. 1., and Bradford, M. K., 1995, Me Donagh, M.D., and
Hinkley,K. B., 2003, Mirmiran A., et. al., 2001, Ma, Z.,et. a1,.1998), a detailed procedure
to analyze integral abutment bridge is not available. Sivakumar, M and Arockiasamy, M.
(2002) showed that the assumption of a simple support for an integral bridge
superstructure produces about twice the moment in the girder with fixed end condition.
The continuity of the structural members, shrinkage induced change in the

reactions, creep due to sustained service loads, relaxation of prestressing steel, a uniform
temperature change over the span and a gradient or non-uniform heating or cooling of the

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superstructure across the depth in the integral abutment bridge complicate the behavior
prediction under sustained service loads.
Unlike framed structures, in addition to the effects of creep, shrinkage, and

temperature, integral bridges are also subjected to the soil-substructure-superstructure
interaction. The stiffness of substructure system includes the contribution from abutment
walls, pile foundation and soil. A parametric study was carried out for the response of
laterally loaded piles supporting the abutment of the integral abutment bridge under
various conditions. The lateral movement of the pile is mainly a function of horizontal
soil stiffness, stiffness of the pile (orientation of the pile), and presence of oversized
predrilled hole filled with soil of desired stiffness (M. Arockiasamy et al., 2003).
The present study attempts to quantify the time-dependent effects using an

analytical model to ensure efficient and reliable design and gives a rationale for the
adoption of integral abutment bridges. An analytical procedure incorporating the time
dependent behavior of the superstructure will aid in getting the appropriate forces
transmitted to the substructure system of the integral abutment bridge rather than
assuming the superstructure and substructure as separate systems.
An analytical model is developed to determine the time-dependent effects of

creep, shrinkage and cracking of concrete on the behavior of continuous composite
integral abutment bridges including the partial rigidity provided by the substructure
system. The influence of creep, and shrinkage effects in the design of integral abutment
bridge is studied considering the structural behavior of the composite cross-section.
Numerical simulation is carried out for time-dependent effects in the continuous
superstructure of the integral abutment bridge, and the laterally loaded pile analysis in the
'substructure. The results from the analytical model are compared with the published field
data.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE INTEGRAL ABUTMENT BRIDGE
The analysis of time-dependent behavior of superstructure of continuous integral

abutment bridges is carried out using the relaxation procedure with age-adjusted effective
modulus method to include the creep behavior of concrete. The constitutive materials are
assumed to carry uniaxial stress only. The prestressing force at any section along the
tendon, and the tendon cross-sectional area are assumed constant at any given time. The
total uniaxial concrete strain, ec(t) at any time, (t) is assumed to be the sum of the
instantaneous strain caused by sustained service loads, the time dependent strain due to
creep, shrinkage, and loss of prestressing force and strain produced due to the
temperature gradient across the cross-section.
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Creep and Shrinkage Strain
Under the sustained stress, crc applied at time ! 0 , the total strain, Ec at any time t
including the instantaneous and the increase in strain due to creep is
c c (t) = ; : i;: j[1 + Q1 (t, t 0 )] ( 1)
where, Ec(to) = modulus of elasticity of concrete at t0

r/J(t,to) =creep coefficient at time t due to the load applied at t0
This linear relationship is true within the range of stresses under sustained loads,
and allows superposition of the strain due to changes in stresses and shrinkage. Thus, the
total strain in concrete due to instantaneous and gradually applied stress, Llcrc and
shrinkage, Esb is
l+Q'(t,to) r6o-,(t) l+Q'(t,r) () ( ) (2)
cc(t)= a"c{t0 ) ( ) + Jo ( ) dcrc r +&511 t,t 0
Ec t 0 Ec r
If the gradual stress increment is assumed to be applied at time t0 and sustained to age t, a
reduced creep coefficient can be used to calculate the creep strain. With this
simplification, the integral equation is eliminated and Eqn.(2) is modified as
l+Q1(t,t 0 ) ()I+ XQ'(t,t 0 ) ( ) (3)
&c ()
t =ere (t 0 ) ( ) +~eTc t 1 ) +csh t,t 0
Ec fo Ec \.to
where x is the concrete aging coefficient to account for the effects of aging on the
ultimate value of creep for stress increments or decrements occurring gradually after the
application of the corresponding load.
Time-Dependent Strain and Curvature
The total strain at any fiber 0 (Fig. 3) at any time t is the sum of the
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instantaneous strain &ai• time-dependent strains due to creep, shrinkage and prestress, Llc0
and strain due to self equilibrating force due to temperature effects Ll&or and given by:
Cot = Coi + Ll&o + Ll&or (4)
and the total curvature K 1 at time t is
Kr = Ki + L1K + LIKr (5)
where ICi = instantaneous curvature
LIK = time-dependent increment in curvature due to creep
L1Kr = curvature due to self equilibrating force due to temperature effects
In a statically indeterminate structure under sustained load, internal forces due to

creep, shrinkage, prestressing force, and temperature, change due to gradual
redistribution of moments over the period of time. The moment redistribution produces
an additional time-dependent change in the support moments. The total strain at any fiber
o
0 including the increment of strain, E:t due to incremental moment is given by:
Cot= Coi + .1&0 + Ll&or + OCt (6)
where 8~::t = increment of strain due to incremental moment for a statically indeterminate
structure,
and the total curvature including the curvature increment, Kt is o

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Kt = K; + LIK + LIKr + OK1 (7)
where & 1 = increment of curvature due to incremental moment for a statically
indeterminate structure
Instantaneous Analysis
For any applied moment, M; and axial force, N; the instantaneous strain, e0 ; and
curvature, K; are obtained from
{
& 0 ;}
K; = E,.AAI- B
I [ IB -AB]{N;}
2
M; ) -
(8)
where e0 ; = instantaneous strain at reference fiber 0
K; = the instantaneous curvature
N; = the resultant initial axial force
M; = the initial bending moment about the reference fiber 0
A= fdA= area of transformed cross section
B = JydA =first moment of transformed area about top fiber
Eref= modulus of elasticity of reference material
f
I = y 2 dA = the second moment of the transformed section about the top surface
ofthe section
The instantaneous stresses across the depth of the composite section are
acij = ECA&oi + YcjK;) (9)
asij = E, (coi + YsjKi) (10)
where CTcij = instantaneous stress at /h fiber of concrete
CTsij = instantaneous stress at /h fiber of steel
EcJ =modulus of elasticity of/h fiber of concrete
E, = modulus of elasticity of steel
YcJ =distance between the reference fiber and/h fiber of concrete
y sJ = distance between the reference fiber and /h fiber of steeI
Time - Dependent Analysis Including Creep and Shrinkage
Assuming the strain distribution to remain unchanged in any time interval, i.e.,
the total strain is assumed held constant and the creep and shrinkage components change,
then the instantaneous strain component must also change by an equal and opposite
amount. When the instantaneous strain changes, the concrete stress also changes. The
stress on the cross section is, therefore, allowed to vary freely due to relaxation.
Consequently, the internal actions change and equilibrium is not maintained. To restore
equilibrium, an axial force, LJN and moment, LJM must be applied to the section. The
change of strain due to creep and shrinkage may be considered to be artificially prevented
by restraining actions of- LJN and- LJM When LJN and LJM are applied to the section, the
restraining actions are removed and equilibrium restored. The restraining forces LJN and
LJM are calculated as follows:
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Creep: If creep were not restrained in any way, the fiber strain and curvature would
increase to ¢(t,t0)&o; and ¢(t,t0) K; respectively, during the time interval (t,to), The
restraining forces required to prevent this deformation are
(11)
/lMcreep =-i£ej</JABcj&Oi +]c/(J (12)

}=I
where Ac1 = area of the /h concrete element

BcJ and IcJ = first and second moments of the area of/'' concrete element about the
reference level respectively
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£.1
= age adjusted effective modulus of one of the /h concrete element
Shrinkage: If the shrinkage is assumed uniform over the depth of the section and
completely unrestrained, the shrinkage induced fiber strain, which develops during the
time interval (t,t0 ) is &sh (t,t0) and curvature is zero. The restraining forces required to
prevent this uniform deformation are given by
!l}lshrinkage =-f£.AAcj&shi) (l3)

j=l
11M shrinkage = - i
}=I
Eej (B cj &shi )
(14)
Relaxation: For a prestressed concrete section, restraining forces required to prevent the
reduced relaxation in the tendon must also be included. The restraining forces required to
prevent the tensile creep in the steel (which causes relaxation) are
"
/lN relaxation = LA
k=l
pskl10" prk
(15)
11M relaration = i
k=l
A psk /),. 0" prk Y psk (
16
)
where Apsk =area of prestressing steel in the k1h layer

L1aprk =stress reduction due to relaxation during the period to to t
Ypsk = distance between the reference fiber and kth layer of prestressing steel
Stress relaxation in the prestressing tendon with time is considered in the model and the
remaining prestress at any time t after relaxation.f;,R, is
fpR
[pi
=I-(Iog(tp))(fpi
10 [py
-o.ss) (17)
where JPY = stress at 1% elongation, and

tp = time after initial prestressing in hours.
Temperature Gradient: Uniform or linearly varying temperature over the depth of the
cross-section of a member of a statically determinate structure does not produce any
stresses. However, if the temperature variation is multi-linear or non-linear, then self-
equilibrating stresses are produced. Integrating the stress produced by the hypothetical
strain,&1J that would occur at/'' fiber, at a distance y from the reference fiber, if it were

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free, the resultant restraint forces required are determined to prevent deformation due to
temperature gradient. The resultant restraint forces are
ANr =- fEeJJdA (18)
I'J.Mr=-JEeJJydA (19)
The restraining forces are calculated as the sum of the four terms:
{ :~} = {:~} creep

+ {:~} .
shrznlwge
+ {:~} .
relaxatwn
+ {:~} .
temp .grad1ent
(20)
The increments of strain, I'J.so in reference fiber and curvature, L1K produced by the axial
force, L1N and moment, L1M, gradually applied about the reference level, are obtained
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
from,
11&0 } 1 [ I, (21)
{ AK = E (A I - B 2 ) - Jj
e ee e ·e
where Ae = area of age adiusted transformed section, based on the Ee

~
Jje = first moment of area, Ae about reference fiber

I e = second moment of area, Ae about reference fiber
Ee = age adjusted effective modulus
The age adjusted effective modulus of one of the concrete elements ( E ei, say
deck slab) is selected as the modulus of age adjusted section. The age adjusted effective
modulus is calculated using the following equation:
-E ( ) - E c (to ) (22)
e t,t0 -
1 + x t,t 0 JlP t,t0
( \..(( )
where :x(t,to) is the concrete aging coefficient, which accounts for the effect of
aging on the ultimate value of creep for stress increments or decrements occurring
gradually after the application of the initial load.
The change of concrete stress, L1acj at a point in the /" concrete element at a
depth y below the reference fiber is equal to the sum of the stress loss due to relaxation of
the age-adjusted transformed section, and the stress which results when L1N and L1M are
applied to the cross section.
I'J.acj = £.J~Jeo; + YK;)+ &shj- (!J.eo + yi'J.K )] (23)
The stress change with time in the/" layer of steel is
I'J.a sj = Esj (i'J.e 0 + Ysji'J.K) (24)
Based on the principle of superposition, the total concrete strain at any time is
assumed to be the sum of instantaneous strain due to applied load and strains due to time
effects consisting of creep, shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of prestress and temperature
effects. In addition to the time-dependent effects, if the structure is statically
indeterminate, time effects cause a gradual distribution of redundant moment, oM over
the period of application of the sustained load. Hence, each cross section will be

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subjected to a time-dependent increment of moment, JM along with the initial moment,
M.
Analysis: Construction Stages
The continuous composite integral abutment bridge structure is analyzed at five

different construction stages. These stages are:
i) precast girder immediately after the transfer of prestress;
ii) precast girder prior to casting of the deck;
iii) precast girder immediately after casting of deck slab;
iv) composite girder after the hardening of deck slab; and
v) application of live load
Stages I and II represent casting of the girder at a manufacturing plant before

being transported to the bridge site for erection. Prior to the casting of the deck slab the
prestressed concrete girder undergoes time-dependent strain and deformations in the
internal stresses due to the sustained dead load and the prestressing force due to creep,
shrinkage of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing tendon. After erection of the girders
in position, casting of continuous deck slab, end walls of the abutments, diaphragm at the
pier and girder ends follows to make the structure continuous and integral with the
substructure system and additional superimposed dead loads are introduced in stage Ill.
The girder is assumed to be simply supported for instantaneous application of dead load
from the deck slab and other imposed dead loads.
In stage IV, the deck slab is assumed to attain sufficient strength and the girder
and slab act together as a composite unit. The properties of composite cross-section are
considered in the analysis for this stage. Since the abutment and the deck are integrally
cast, the end supports are no longer simple supports. Now the composite system becomes
statically indeterminate. Age difference between the girder and the slab is considered in
the time-dependent analysis. The time dependent analysis is carried out assuming
composite section with distinct characteristic strengths both for girder and the slab. An
internal redistribution of forces takes place due to creep, shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of prestressing steel of the girder, and differential creep and shrinkage of the
deck slab due to difference in age of concrete in the girder and the slab. The associated
deck shortening is accommodated by the lateral deformation of the abutment. The axial
force and bending moment in the abutment are calculated based on the lateral
deformation resulting from the creep, shrinkage of concrete. The composite girder is
assumed continuous over supports for time dependent analysis. The time-dependent
restraint forces developed are determined due to creep, shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of prestress and continuity of the structural system. The changes of forces are
expressed in terms of the unknown strains and curvature considering the equilibrium and
compatibility conditions. The time-dependent changes in the redundant force are
calculated due to creep, shrinkage of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing steel, and
the temperature gradient in the composite section. It is assumed that most of the time-
dependent changes due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressed
steel take place prior to the application of live load and that no cracking occurs up to this
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age. The superstructure is in the uncracked condition during stages I through IV. The
variation in displacement with respect to time at any point along the composite
prestressed concrete girder is found by double integration of the corresponding curvature
at any given time interval (Arockiasamy, M., et. al., 2003, and Sivakumar, M., 2004).
In stage V the live load is assumed to be applied to the member. The additional
internal forces produced due to the live load produce instantaneous changes in stress and
strain and are assumed to cause cracking, which reduces the effective area of the section.
The analysis of cracked members is carried out in two phases: i) uncracked condition in
which concrete and steel are assumed to behave elastically and exhibit compatible
deformations. Full area of the concrete cross-section is effective and the strains in
concrete and reinforcements assumed compatible; ii) fully cracked section, in which the
concrete in tension is ignored, and the cross-section is considered to be composed of the
reinforcement and concrete in compression zone.
After the application of live load, the instantaneous stresses are evaluated at
various fibers along the span. If the stress at the extreme fiber exceeds the tensile strength
of the concrete, then the section is analyzed using the properties of cracked section. The
cracked region length is identified based on the actual concrete tensile stress. In the
cracked region, the fictitious decompressive forces are computed, along with the forces
that cause cracking of the cross-section. The eccentricity at which the resultant of the
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cracking forces act is evaluated and the positions of neutral axis computed at various
sections along the span in the cracked region.
· SUBSTRUCTURE MODELING
The bridge substructure system consists of abutment wall, wing wall, the piles
supporting the abutments, and the backfill. The system is idealized as discrete springs for
translational and rotational degrees of freedom. The piles are considered to have fixed
head with no relative movement or rotation between the piles and abutment. Equivalent
cantilever length (Greimann, L. F., et al., 1987) based on stiffuess criterion is used to
evaluate the stiffness of the pile. The substructure system is analyzed considering the
support moments from the time-dependent superstructure analysis that accounts for the
creep, shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestress and temperature gradient in the
composite section. These forces are then apportioned to the components of the
substructure system. Based on the parametric studies (Wilson, 1988) the piles of the
substructure system are apportioned seventy five percent of the calculated moment. This
idealization is intended to represent fixed head HP steel piles, with a length to least lateral
dimension ratio of 55, which tends to produce a fairly stiff pile foundation. The
apportionment of 75% rotational stiffness to the piles is on the conservative side, whereas
the actual stiffuess could be much lower. The behavior of the laterally loaded piles due to
the axial force and bending moments determined from the substructure modeling is
evaluated by computing the lateral deflection, bending moment, shear force and stress
along the depth.

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NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE BEHAVIOR AND VERIFICATION
BASED ON FIELD DATA
Numerical simulation of a typical two-span continuous integral abutment bridge

with two equal spans of 35 m (115 ft.) with prestressed concrete composite deck is
carried out in two phases. In phase I, the superstructure of the integral abutment bridge is
analyzed as a continuous structure subjected to time-dependent effects. In phase II, the
laterally loaded piles in the substructure are analyzed based on the forces at the
superstructure-abutment interface obtained from phase I.
Superstructure Analysis for Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Gradient
The cross-section of the bridge deck is shown in Fig. 4. The tributary width of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the deck slab is considered to be the effective flange width for each girder. The idealized
cross-section consists of a precast pretensioned girder and a cast-in-situ concrete slab
(Fig. 5). Age of the precast girder at the time of transfer of prestress is assumed as 3 days
and that at the time of casting of in-situ slab as 60 days. The concrete properties of the
girder and the deck slab are given in Table 1. Each pretensioned girder is assumed to
have an initial prestressing force of 4100 kN (920 kips). The self-weight of the girder is
11.99 kN/m (0.82 kip/ft.). Diaphragms of size 300 x 1200 mm (1 'x 4') are assumed at 1/3
points of the span. Additional superimposed dead load due to the self-weight of the slab,
diaphragm, overlay, barriers etc., is determined as 23.68 kN/m (1.62 kip/ft.). The live
load combinations described in the AASHTO LR.FD ( 1998) Bridge Specifications are
used in the simulations. A bi-linear temperature gradient recommended by AASHTO-
LRFD (1998) for zone 3 is considered in the analysis.
Numerical Results
The deformations and stresses due to typical sustained loads as well as the
effects of live load are computed and presented in Tables 2 to 6. Table 2 shows the time-
dependent moments at the midspan and the supports at various stages of construction.
The numerical simulation based on the AASHTO and ACI models predicts a decrease of
36 % and 42 %, in the negative moment and an increase of 72 % and 84 % in the
midspan positive moment. The redistributions can be attributed to the restraint moments
developed due to creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of prestressing force in the
prestressing tendon, as well as the statical indeterminacy of the integral abutment bridge.
Time-dependent change in bending moment at the interior support for various

stages of construction is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the moment at the interior
support reduces due to the time-dependent effects. The time-dependent change in
deflection at various stages of construction at mid-span is shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen
that the deflection increases over a period of time due to the time-dependent effects. The
upward deflection (camber) due to the sustained prestressing force in the tendon increases
with time (Fig. 7), until additional superimposed dead loads are applied at the age of 61
days. The differential shrinkage and creep of concrete deck slab influence an increase in
the downward deflection.

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Time-dependent change in the bending moment along the span for various
stages of construction is shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the moment at the mid-span
due to the time-dependent effects, tends to approach the value of a simply supported
girder. The deck slab and the abutment attain sufficient strength during the period 61 to
63 days and thus contribute to the composite action of the system. The bending moment
variation along the span changes from the simply supported condition at 61 st day to a
continuous system at 63rd day.
The instantaneous deflections of the cracked section are computed based on the
analytical model, and ACI bilinear method (Nawy, E. G., 2000) considering the elastic
and cracked moment of inertia of the cross-section. Table 3 shows the comparison of the
instantaneous deflections on the 181 51 day at the midspan based on the present study and
the bilinear method. The values of computed deflection from the present study are higher
(26 %) than those based on the bilinear method. This can be attributed to the fact that the
present study considers the variation of cracked cross-section properties along the span
instead of average values.
Time-dependent changes in strain, curvature, stresses at top and bottom fiber of

the girder and deflection at midspan, moments at abutments, and interior support reaction
are presented in Table 4. It can be seen that the time-dependent restraint forces cause a
reversal of stress in the girder at 60 days and 180 days.
Table 5 shows the time-dependent changes in strain at various fibers at the

midspan. The girder is subjected to a differential shrinkage and creep of concrete during
the period of 63 and 180 days. During this period, an increase of 109 % and 154 % in the
strain is observed at the bottom fiber of the composite girder.
A stress reversal at the bottom fiber of the composite girder is observed from the
Table 6. The fiber stress changes from compression to tension in this stage, leading to
cracking upon application of the live load.
Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles
The typical dimensions of the abutment wall, wing wall, the pile supports and
the backfill for the integral abutmnet bridge under investigation are shown in Fig. 9. The
width of the abutment wall is assumed as 16.80 m (55.1 ft.). The stiffness contributions
of the wingwalls are neglected, since they are not integral with the abutment. It is
assumed that medium dense sand having a soil modulus of 17.2 MPa (360 ksf) is used as
backfill in the abutment. The influence factors are taken as 2.45 for the pile cap and 1.85
for the abutment wall. Poisson's ratio for the backfill is assumed as 0.3.
The horizontal displacement at each abutment due to seasonal variation in temperature is

calculated as fl. 1 = a 1 (llT)Lb, where a. is the coefficient of thermal expansion, fl. Tis the
temperature range and Lb is the total length of the bridge. The displacement thus obtained
is equally apportioned to each of the abutments. This horizontal displacement induces a
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moment of 6EI6/L2 and horizontal force of 12EI6/L3 on the pile head, which are
considered in checking the adequacy of the pile section. The moment in the pile is
computed due to the P-61 effect (Fig. 10). This moment is then used in the laterally
loaded pile analysis together with the moment from the superstructure analysis.
Numerical Results
The behavior of laterally loaded piles is evaluated by computing the lateral deflection,
bending moment, shear force and stress along the depth due to the axial force and
bending moments. The results of the laterally loaded pile analysis are plotted in Fig. 11
(a) - (d). Only about 50% of the depth from the pile head is shown in the figure for
clarity. Beyond this depth the values are almost constant. The pile analysis shows the
maximum pile lateral displacement to be 0.34mm (0.014 in.) and the stresses in the pile
are within the allowable limits due to the effects of creep in concrete, resulting from the
self weight of the superstructure, shrinkage, and thermal changes in the integral abutment
bridge, the concrete deck strain are small and in the range of 283 to 294 micro strains and
those in the girders in the range of 294 to 370 micro strains (Table 5). It can be seen that
the superstructure deck system is well within the elastic limits in compression without
any cracking.
The lateral displacement, moment, shear and stresses obtained by this approach are
comparable to those of the values obtained using secondary P-6 method for laterally
loaded piles (Arockiasamy et al, 2003). The plot of the results, shows the influence of the
lateral soil reactions is concentrated along the top 3.0 m (10ft.) of the pile, which is about
10 times the equivalent diameter of the pile. Beyond this depth, lateral displacement,
shear force and moment are almost negligible and the lateral forces are insignificant.
Comparison with Field Data
The analytical procedure developed in the present study was used in the analysis of a
two-span integral abutment bridge located on Porter Road (PR) across State Rt. 840 in
Dickson, TN. The analytical results are compared with the field measurements reported
by Basu and Knickerbocker (2003). The two-lane PR bridge has two spans of 48.46 m
(159 ft) each as shown in Fig. 12. The initial prestressing force, Pi= 195,458 N/strand
(43,943 lb/strand). The average concrete properties of PR bridge are given in Table 7.
The superstructure of the bridge was constructed in two stages. First, the pretensioned
girders for individual spans were manufactured in a precast products factory, and then
transported to the bridge site, and deck slab is cast after the girders are erected in place.
The structure was divided into 50 segments for the analysis of forces and deformations.
Table 8 compares the results based on the analytical procedure with the measured mid-
span deflection (camber) of both interior and exterior girders (PI and PE). The agreement
between the analytical values and field measurements is good.

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
An analytical model is developed to simulate the time-dependent behavior of continuous

composite integral abutment bridges. The time dependent deformations caused by creep
and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of pre-stressing steel, and material non-linearity
caused by concrete cracking are taken into consideration. Creep and shrinkage are
evaluated using the AASHTO and ACI models. Age-adjusted effective modulus
approach is used to determine time dependent cross sectional properties.
Examination of the computed time-dependent bending moment values shows

redistribution over a period of time. Redistribution of negative moments at the supports
(36 - 42 %) and positive moment at midspan (72 - 84 %) can be attributed to the
continuity and the time-dependent effects (Table 2).
Time-dependent differential shrinkage and creep of concrete and relaxation of

prestressing steel produce a delayed increase in deflection of magnitude more than three
times (Fig. 7) the instantaneous deflections. Hence, the influence of time-dependent
effects needed to be considered in the sustained service load analysis.
The time-dependent changes in strains lead to a delayed deflection and redistribution of

stresses across the composite cross-section. The time-dependent changes in strains also
lead to delayed cracking in concrete, when the tension in the concrete exceeds its tensile
strength. The cracking of concrete under tension reduces the stiffness of the structure and
modifies the stress distribution between the components of the composite girders. In the
case of integral abutment bridges, it also affects the distribution of internal forces.
The analysis of laterally loaded piles shows that the pile lateral displacements are
negligible and the stress in the pile well within the allowable limits (Fig. 11 ). The
influence of the lateral soil reactions is concentrated along the top 10 ft. (3.0 m) of the
pile, which is about 10 times the equivalent diameter of the pile. Beyond this depth,
lateral displacement, shear force and moment are almost negligible and the bending
stresses are insignificant.
Time-dependent creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of prestressing steel should be

considered in the analysis and design of integral abutment bridges with pretensioned or
post-tensioned concrete girders. Integral abutment bridges shall be designed to resist all
the vertical and lateral loads acting on them. The load effects at various stages of
construction should be considered in the design. The stages, at which the structure is
simply supported, and made integral with abutments, are of primary importance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to express sincere thanks to Florida Department of Transportation

(FDOT) for·the financial support of the study presented in this paper (research project:
Design Consideration for Integral Abutment Bridges in Florida, Contract No. BC342),
Principal investigator: Dr M. Arockiasamy, Project Manager: Marc Ansley). They wish
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to express their appreciation to Dr S. Nix, Professor and Chairman, Department of Civil
Engineering, and Dr Karl K. Stevens, Dean, College of Engineering, Florida Atlantic
University for their continued interest and encouragement.
REFERENCES
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Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
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Arockiasamy, M., and Sivakumar, M., (2003), "Design Considerations for Integral
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Me Donagh, M.D., and Hinkley,K. B., (2003) "Resolving Restraint Moments: Designing
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104-119.
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Mirmiran A., Kulkarni S., Castrdale R., Miller R., and Hastak M., (2001), "Nonlinear
Continuity Analysis of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders with Cast-in-place
Decks and Diaphragms", PC! journal, Sep-Oct, pp 60-80.
Nawy, E. G., (2000) "Prestressed Concrete-A Fundamental Approach", Third Edition,

Prentice Hall, NJ.
Sivakumar, M and Arockiasamy, M., (2002), "Modeling of Creep, Shrinkage and

Temperature Effects in Integral Abutment Bridges", Proceedings of the ! 1 Concrete
Bridge Conference, Nashville.
Sivakumar, M., (2004), "Creep and Shrinkage Effects on Integral Abutment Bridges",
Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wilson, J. C., (1988), "Stiffuess of Non-skew Monolithic Bridge Abutments for Seismic
Analysis", Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 16, pp. 867-883.
NOTATIONS
= uniaxial concrete strain,

crc = sustained stress, applied at time to
E0 (t) = total strain, at any time t
Ec(to) = modulus of elasticity of concrete at t0
~crc = gradually applied stress,
Esh = shrinkage strain,
t/J(t,to) = creep coefficient at time t due to the load applied at t 0
X = concrete aging coefficient
&,; = instantaneous strain,
~Go = time-dependent strains due to creep, shrinkage and prestress,
~GoT = strain due to self equilibrating force due to temperature effects
K; = instantaneous curvature
LIK = time-dependent increment in curvature due to creep
Lllcr = curvature due to self equilibrating force due to temperature effects
&r = increment of strain due to incremental moment for a statically indeterminate
structure,
OKr = increment of curvature due to incremental moment for a statically
indeterminate structure
= instantaneous strain at reference fiber 0
= instantaneous strain at reference fiber 0
K; = the instantaneous curvature
N; = the resultant initial axial force
M; = the initial bending moment about the reference fiber 0
A= JdA =area of transformed cross section
B= Jyd.A =first moment of transformed area about top fiber

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E,,1 = modulus of elasticity of reference material
J
I = idA = the second moment of the transformed section about the top surface of the
section
acij =instantaneous stress at/" fiber of concrete
asij = instantaneous stress at/" fiber of steel
EcJ = modulus of elasticity of/" fiber of concrete
E. = modulus of elasticity of steel
YcJ =distance between the reference fiber and/" fiber of concrete
YsJ =distance between the reference fiber and/ fiber of steel
LJN = restrained axial force,
L1M = restrained moment,
AcJ =area of the/" concrete element
BcJ and lei = first and second moments of the area of/" concrete element about the
· reference level respectively
Eei = age adjusted effective modulus of one of the/" concrete element
Apsk = area of prestressing steel in the kth layer
L1aprk = reduced relaxation during the period t0 to t
Ypsk = distance between the reference fiber and k1h layer of prestressing steel
f;,y = stress at 1% elongation, and
t =time after initial prestressing in hours.
~eo = increments of strain,
L1K = increments of curvature,
A, = area of age adjusted transformed section
Be = first moment of area, Ae about reference fiber
Ie = second moment of area, Ae about reference fiber
E, = age adjusted effective modulus
JM = time-dependent redistribution of moment,
Table 1-Concrete properties for numerical simulation
Components J:, MPa Ec.GPa

Girders at transfer of prestress 24 25
Girders at casting of deck slab 61 37
Deck slab 22 23
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Table 2-Time-dependent moments at support and at mid-span (N-mm.)
AASHTO ACI
Time
(Days) End/interior End/interior
Mid-span Mid-span
Support Support
3 - -3.29E+08 - -3.29E+08
60 - -3.29E+08 - -3.29E+08
61 - 2.14E+09 - 2.14E+09
63 -1.42E+09 7.12E+08 -1.42E+09 7.12E+08
180 -9.12E+08 1.22E+09 -8.25E+08 1.31E+09
181 -2.82E+09 2.18E+09 -2.82E+09 2.18E+09
Redistribution due
to time-dependent
-35.92 71.86 -42.04 84.07
effects from 63 to
180days%
Table 3-lnstantaneous deflection at 181"' day at mid-span from cracked section

analysis using Detailed analysis and Bilinear method - In mm
Table 4-Time-dependent change in stresses and forces
Time Strain at Curvature Stress Stress OeflecUon Interior Moment Change Change
the at the at the at mid- support at in in
centroid top bottom span reaction abutmen interior moment
of the fibero fiber of support at
(xgird~
the the reaction abutment
10 (X 10-8) I girder girder Rc MA liRe liM
Days lmm MPa MPa mm kN kN-m kN kN-m
ACI
3 -291.80 -7.72 -5.86 -8.51 -17.74 - - - -
60 -362.64 -4.55 020 1.05 -27.20 - - - -
61
63
-8.29
-148.33
55.62
-4.58
-15.61 12.62
-4.23 -6.55
70.98
5.71
-
488
-
-1420
-
0
-
0
180 -335.68 -5.57 -o.44 2.64 3B.43 488 - 0 599
181 -349.25 81.17 -8.92 34.29
49.12
AASHTO
- - - -
3 -2.91.80 -7.72 -5.86 -8.51 -17.74 - - - -
60 -483.39 -4.3B 024 1.54 -37.75 - - - -
61 -8.29 55.67 -15.61 12.62 70.98 - - - -
63 -148.33 -4.58 -4.23 -8.55 5.71 488 -1420 0 0
180 -453.79 0.39 -1.10 3.10 79.90 488 - 0 512
181 -364.69 83.25 -7.33 34.93 50.20 - - - -
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Table 5-Time-dependent strains (millions) in various fibers
(Compressive strains shown as -ve)
Time Deck Deck Deck Girder lop Top Prestress Bottom Girder
opfibe reinforce bottom fiber reinforce level reinforce bottom
Days men! fiber ment ment fiber
level level level
ACI
3 - - - -234.38 -238.24 -332.58 -336.44 -340.30
60 - - - -328.78 -331.05 -366.70 -368.98 -391.25
61 -
63 -105.08 -109.66 -114.25
- - -421.87 -394.06
-114.25 -116.54
285.49
-172.55
313.30
-174.84
341.11
-177.13
180 -283.07 -288.65 -294.23 -294.23 -297.01 -365.13 -367.92 -370.70
181 -349.25 -268.08 -186.91 -186.91 -146.33 845.28 886.15 926.74
AASHTO
3 - - - -234.38 -238.24 -332.58 -336.44 -340.30
60 - - - -450.82 -453.01 -506.53 -508.72 -510.91
61 -
63 -105.08 -109.66 -114.25
- - -421.87 -394.06
-114.25 -116.54
285.49
-172.55
313.30
-174.84
341.11
-177.13
180 -457.47 -457.08 -456.69 -456.69 -456.49 -451.72 -451.53 -451.33
181 -364.69 -281.43 -198.18 -198.18 -156.55 860.50 902.43 944.06
Table 6-Time-dependent stress in various fibers, MPa

(Compressive stresses shown as -ve)
Time Deck Deck Deck Girder top Top Prestress Bottom Girder
top reinforce bottom fiber reinforce level reinforce bottom
Days fiber men! fiber men! ment fiber
level level level
ACI
3 - - - -5.86 -47.65 -66.52 -67.29 -6.51
60 - - - 0.20 -66.21 -77.34 -77.80 1.05
61 - - - ·-15.61 -78.81 57.10 62.66 12.62
63 -2.42 -21.93 -2.63 -4.23 -23.31 -34.51 -34.97 -6.55
180 0.06 -70.97 0.35 -0.44 -69.03 -53.24 -52.59 2.64
181 -10.39 -146.52 -6.58 -11.39 -187.81 3.97 11.87 31.42
AASHTO
3 - - - -5.86 -47.65 -66.52 -67.29 -6.51
60 - - - 0.24 -90.60 -101.31 -101.74 1.54
61 - - - -15.61 -78.81 57.10 62.66 12.62
63 -2.42 -21.93 -2.63 -4.23 -23.31 -34.51 -34.97 -6.55
180 0.76 -104.61 1.25 -1.10 -100.88 -70.52 -69.27 3.10
181 -10.05 -182.83 -5.93 -12.41 -246.10 -34.23 -25.50 33.01
Table 7-Average concrete properties for PR-bridge
Components J; , MPa (psi) f., MPa (psi) E0 , GPa (psi)

Girders 72.60 (10 530) 6.38 (926) 45.47 (6 594 267)
Deck 54.91 (7 964) 5.25 (762) 31.03 (4 500 568)
Table 8-Predicted and measured camber at different stages of construction
Camber at different stages mm (In)

Transfer Erection Deck load
Present Study I -57.7 (2.27) -119.1 (4.69) -28.4 (1.12)
Basu and I PI -63.5 (2.5) -127.0 (5.0) -19.1 (0.75)
Knickerbocker I PE -76.2 (3.0) -120.6 (4.75) -28.6 (1.125)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Cycle .
Integral control joint FleXIble
abutment pavement
Fig. !-Longitudinal section of a typical integral abutment bridge
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 2-Typical cross-section of integral abutment
Fig. 3-Details of composite integral abutment bridge system:

cross-section and strain diagram
l~ 6 @ 2095 mm c/c
Fig. 4-Cross-section of bridge deck

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190
762
1372
AASHTO Type lV giroer

A."' 509,031 mrn'.
1, =108.53 x 10° mm•.
A,, = 5000 mm'
Aq= 1500mm•
A.,.= 3160 mm•
A..1 "' 1500 mm'
Fig. 5-Prestressed concrete composite cross-section
-1.60E+09
~--AAsHTOI
E ---- ----
-+-ACI
~ -1.20E+09
z
.:
c -8.00E+08 - - - - -
~
~ ~
-4.00E+08 ---- --------
:a"'c
c
..
ID
O.OOE+OO
4.00E+OB
0 50 100 150 200
llme, Days
Fig. 6-Time-dependent change in bending moments at interior support
200,----------------------------~
~ :: ::::: :··" ::::::::: :·::: ::::::::::::----------1 :·:

i 50 ----------------- ~ ---------- ____ !____ _
i. ~
~
., ,...,
0+-~-;~-T~~~~+-~~-+-+~~~~
i -50 r~~-~l'j;j~~----------------------j=::SHTOt
-100 L__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ --====:::J
0 50 100 150 200
Time, Days
Fig. 7-Time-dependent change in deflection at mid-span
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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-4,00E..OSI '-t-3Days -.r.-60Days ---61 Dayo I ~
DaY!! ··
i:::::: .'~\~·····=--·····. .···~-~-~-~:~::··~~~-:~--~ . 9/·
~ .J.OOE+09 ~-······ ., ...K S3 Days -+-180 Days · ... 181
~ O.OOE+OO
01
~ 1 OOE..OS
c
& 2.00E+09
3.00E..OS
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Span Length, mm
Fig. 8-Time-dependent change in bending moments along the span
1830
Approach slab
Wingwall
4267
Abutment 915
13741 •I•1220•I ~3oo
Fig. 9-Abutment, wing wall and approach slab plan

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 10 Equivalent cantilever idealization for a fixed-head condition

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Doftoc:tlon, mrn Moment. tO "'8 N-mm
_, 1 2
-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 020 025 0.30 0.35
1000 1000
E
E 2000 ~2000
13000 !
Q
3000
4000 4000
5000 L - - - t - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' 5000 L---~~------------------~
(a) (b)
Shear,N Strau,Nimm"'2
·2500 ·2000 -1500 -1000 -500 500 12 16 20
o~~~~~~~~~~~~
1000 1000
E
~2000 e 20oo
'
t
g
3000
4000
13000
4000
(c) (d)
Fig. 11-Pile analysis results along the depth: variation of (a) horizontal displacement;
(b) bending moment (c) shear; (d) stress
~\ 1 . _~_K_k_~__d1-n)----~\~r·G~
\---~----------------~~~~-~-·.o_ \""" ti'LONG
pLAN VIEW Qf QECK
ABUTMENT
IPILECAPJ:
U"tTcPita'
:::::::r~~r-==~::::=::==~~=~==~~~1;;~ ... 1.... 1
WING WALl.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
20-PILES:
NP12XU
Fig. 12-North elevation of PR bridge (Basu and Knickerbocker, 2003)

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SP-227-6
A Rational Approach to the Analysis of

Structural Effects due to Creep
by M. A. Chiorino
Synopsis:
The long-term service behavior of modem reinforced or prestressed concrete
structures, whose final static configuration is frequently the result of a complex
sequence of phases of loading and restraint conditions, are influenced largely by
creep. Creep substantially modifies the initial stress and strain patterns, increasing
the load induced deformations, relaxing the stresses due to imposed strains, either
artificially introduced or due to natural causes, and activating the delayed
restraints. The resulting influences on serviceability and durability are twofold,
creep acting both positively and negatively on the long-terni response of the
structure.
The paper shows that use of the four fundamental theorems of the theory of
linear viscoelasticity for aging materials, and the related fundamental functions,
offers a reliable and rational approach to estimate these effects.
Extremely compact formulations are obtained, which are particularly helpful in
the preliminary design, as well as in the control of the output of the fmal detailed
numerical investigations and safety checks, and suitable for codes and technical
guidance documents.
Particular attention is dedicated to the problem of change of static system.
Keywords: aging; compliance; concrete; creep analysis; delayed restraints;

prediction models; redistribution function; relaxation; static sys tern; stress
redistribution; structural analysis; viscoelasticity
107
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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108 Chiorino
ACI member and ACI Italy Chapter President Mario A. Chiorino is Professor oj
Structural Mechanics at the Politecnico di Torino and a member of the Turin
Academy of Sciences. He has been associated with CEB activities since 1968 as a
member of Advisory Committee, Committee for CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 and
and as editor of the CEB Design Manual "Structural Effects of Time-dependent
Behavior of Concrete". He is a member of several RILEM technical committees
and of ACI Committee 209, Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete. He has published
papers on structural mechanics and concrete viscoelasticity and has been
designer of large reinforced and prestressed concrete structures: tall chimneys,
bridges, nuclear plants, etc. ·
INTRODUCTION
In modem reinforced or prestressed concrete structures the final service

conditions are generally the result of a complex sequence of phases. In fact, both
loads and imposed deformations are normally applied at different times while the
final static system is often attained through progressive changes of the initial
system by the introduction of additional restraints. One of the reasons, is the wide
use of segmental and/or sequential construction.
As an example, a reinforced concrete arch with fixed ends may be subjected to

permanent loads (static actions) in different steps and to imposed deformations
like settlement of the ·abutments, shrinkage and seasonal thermal effects (natural
geometrical actions). Often the arch is subjected also to one or more corrections of
the initial internal stress state through the application of imposed deformations
(distortions) by flat jacks (artificial geometrical actions). The arch can be
constructed, either on fixed centering or by rotation of vertical segments, with two
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or three provisional hinges. Continuity at the crown and the abutments is then
introduced at a later stage, simultaneously or in different steps, with or without
concurrent corrections of the stresses by jacking.
In cantilever built bridges, the initial, statically determinate structural system is

normally modified to obtain a monolithic structure over multiple spans. In the
construction of cable-stayed bridges and structures the construction sequences
may become even more complex and be spread over large time intervals.
The long-term service behavior of all these types of structures is largely

influenced by the creep of concrete. Creep substantially modifies the initial stress
and strain patterns, increasing the load induced deformations, relaxing the stresses
due to artificially introduced and natural caused imposed strains, and
progressively activating the delayed restraints that were initially reaction free.
The resulting influences on serviceability aoo durability are twofold, creep acting
both positively and negatively on the long-term response of the structure. On one

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hand, creep exercises a beneficial effect, partially relieving the undesirable
stresses due to unintentional imposed deformations induced by natural causes.
On the other hand, creep a) increases by an important factor the initial

deformations due to the permanent loads, b) substantially reduces the beneficial
effects of the deformations artificially imposed at the construction stage or in the
early life of the structure to improve the internal stress distribution (as e. g. in
arches), and c) gradually reintroduces a large amount of the stresses due to the
permanent loads that were eliminated by a temporary reduction of the level of
restraint of the structure (e.g. the parasite bending moments in arches due to axial
shortening, provisionally eliminated through the adoption of the temporary
hinges, or the positive moments in the spans of cantilever built bridges).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Therefore, if appropriate design and construction criteria are not adopted to

counteract these effects or to reduce their importance (like e.g. pre-camber,
additional reinforcement and/or prestressing to meet the needs of the creep
induced moment redistributions, high level of load balancing in prestressed
structures), the long-term serviceability and the durability of the strocture may be
adversely affected. The negative consequences may consist of unacceptably large
deformations or undesirable cracking. In general, the safety ofthe structure, in
terms of its ultimate capacity, is not endangered by creep effects. This is not true,
however, for slender structures with a low degree of restraint, for which the
danger of creep buckling must be taken into consideration 1•
In conclusion, in the design and assessment of modem reinforced and

prestressed concrete structures resulting from complex construction histories,
creep structural effects must be properly accounted for. Reliable methods for their
estimation are necessary to appropriately define the safety levels, with prevailing
regard to serviceability, and to adopt the convenient countermeasures. In fact,
unreliable approximations or purely qualitative and sometime theoretically
unjustified interpretations, are still encountered mther frequently in professional
practices.
Besides the discrete approaches in space and time - based e.g. on f.e. analyses
incorporating in the constitutive laws the time-dependent properties of the
material and solved step-by-step by appropriate numerical procedures - compact
methods for a global evaluation of the creep induced structural effects are strongly
needed. This is the case, in particular, in the preliminary design stages, like
comparison of different design solutions and construction sequences, sensitivity
analyses, etc., as well as in the control of the output of the final detailed numerical
investigations and safety checks.
1
For example, in flat three hinged arches the important delayed creep vertical deflections,
besides negatively influencing the service behavior by an unacceptable alteration of the
longitudinal profile of the structure (e.g. a bridge), may induce a non-linear response of
the arches due to second order effects, possibly leading to loss of stability (snap-through).

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110 Chiorino
Recent progress of the theory of linear viscoelasticity, extended to materials
like concrete showing a complex creep rehavior - characterized both by aging
and delayed elasticity - allow a rational interpretation of all the mechanical
phenomena induced by creep described above. In particular, the use of the four
fundamental theorems of the theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging materials, is
very helpful as it offers a general unified approach for the creep analysis of
structures which consists of theoretically correct, conceptually clear and very
compact closed form solutions 2 [Chiorino et a!. 1980, 1984; Chiorino and
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Lacidogna 1993, 1999, Chiorino 2000, Chiorino eta!. 1999, 2000, 2002].
Such solutions are based on the use of the three fundamental functions:
- the compliance function J (which is normally the output of creep prediction
models),
- the relaxation functionR,
- the redistribution function~-
This general and concise approach is very suitable for design applications
and it may be recommended for the insertion in codes and technical guidance
documents 3• Consequently it has been adopted by the CEB Model Code 1990
[CEB 1993], the CEB Manual Structural Effects of Time-dependent Behaviour oj
Concrete [Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993], and, more recently, by the CEN
European Standard Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 2: Concrete
Bridges4 [CEN 2004].
The present paper illustrates this general approach and presents the
corresponding solutions for all the main problems of analysis of structural effects
due to creep.
A special attention is devoted to the problems of modification of the static

system For these problems the compact formulations of the general approach
2
This general approach does not introduce any approximation in the fundamental integral
equation relating strain to the applied stress and to the viscoelastic compliance J
(Appendix I, eq. Al.l), as it is the case for the methods based on the approximate
algebrization of this equation, like e.g. the age-adjusted-effective-modulus (AAEM)
method [Bazant 1972b] (Appendix 3).
3
Through the introduction of modified functions (in particular the reduced relaxation
function R *), the same compact solutions can be extended to cover the case, which is out
of the scope of the present paper, of concrete structures with external elastic (steel)
restraints. These last fonnulations - still theoretically consistent, conceptually simple and
concise - have been presented in the specialized literature [Chiorino et al. 1986, Mola
1993, Giussani and Mola 2003]. They are very helpful in the pre-design and final checks
of cable-stayed structures, concrete arches with steel tie rod, and similar structures.
4
The AAEM method has been considered by CEN Standard as an alternative to the
general approach.

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based on the redistribution function ~ show their superiority with respect to any
other approximate approach, offering a concise and theoretically consistent
solution
At the same time, the paper discusses the implications connected with the need
of disposing of an immediate information on the values of the basic functions J, R,
~ characterizing the resolving formulations, and the relation of this problem with
the problem of selecting an appropriate creep prediction model. In fact, the
expedience of the compact formulations presented in the paper is strictly related to
the prompt availability of the numerical values of the basic functions for the
different parameters relevant to the problem under consideration.
Considering that a discrete number of creep prediction models have been

proposed in the specialized literature in the last two decades, and that they are
presently under discussion for their inclusion in the technical guidance documents
of the international civil engineering associations (see e.g. (ACI 2004]), a
convenient information source providing the basic functions for all these models
must be organized.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
While the conceptual and practical aspects of this last problem are discussed in
a parallel paper [Sassone and Chiorino 2005], the present paper focuses the
attention on the large differences that are found, in the trends and long-term
values of the basic functions corresponding to each model.
The examples of applications to practical engineering situations that conclude

the paper confirm the large influence of the creep prediction model being adopted
on the final results of the analysis.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
The solutions presented in this paper, derived from the direct application of
one of the four basic theorems of the theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging
materials, apply to homogeneous concrete structures with rigid restraints.
Therefore, a first restriction is represented by the need to ignore the

heterogeneities in the creep properties of concrete between the different parts of
the structures, and-consequently to refer to a homogeneous structure of average
properties. These heterogeneities may be usually due to the differences in size or
in the casting ages of the various structural parts or segments of the construction.
The differences in the casting ages may be more pronounced in case of segmental
construction. A second restriction is represented by the need to ignore the
heterogeneities due to the presence of steel within concrete sections.
Such restrictions, which are common to every problem of estimation of the

global creep structural effects on concrete structures considered as a whole -
without describing the rheological non-homogeneity of the various parts - do not

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112 Chiorino
impair, however, the relevance of these types of solutions. In fact, on one hand
their sound theoretical basis guarantees their reliability from the conceptual point
of view, so that the general trend of each of the phenomem under consideration as
well as the kind of influence of the different variables are unquestionably seized,
while, on the other hand, in what concerns the quantitative aspects, the reference
to average rheological properties allows to capture the fundamental orders of
magnitude.
A last restriction concerns the inability to accommodate external elastic

restraints. This means that the external restraints must be rigid, or their
deformations, if any, must be of the type of imposed load-independent
deformations equivalent to the imposition of geometrical actions to the structure.
However, in case of a presence of elastic restraints reference can be done, as .
indicated in the introduction, to a set of extended compact (and theoretically
exact) solutions based on the reduced relaxation function R*.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS
The following types of problems can be considered:

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a) Static actions (imposed loads)

Constant or variable sustained loads applied in one or different steps are
considered. Most frequently constant p;:rmanent loads are applied in a discrete
number of steps.
b) Geometrical actions (imposed deformations)
Constant or variable sustained geometrical actions applied in one or different
steps are considered. They may include constant or variable artificially imposed
deformations (e.g. internal distortions applied by jacks in concrete arches, forcing
of external supports, etc.) and/or natural imposed deformations (restrained
shrinkage, seasonal thermal variations, settlements of supports etc.).
c) Modification ofthe static scheme

As indicated in the introduction, this is a common problem in modern
construction practices. Typical examples are schematically represented in Fig. I.
The delayed additional internal or external constraints, that are introduced in

one or, more frequently, in successive steps at different stages of the construction
process and in the early life of the structure, modify the initial structural system,
gradually increasing the degree of static indetennination of the structure.
One of the main reasons of these common choices in the conceptual design and
in the selection of the construction process is represented by the convenience of
initially exploiting at their best the large economical and operational advantages
offered by prefabrication and/or segmental construction techniques (Fig. 3). In
some cases the initial static configuration is the result of a specific construction
process requiring temporary hinges for the rotation of structural segments which

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are cast in different positions. Like e.g. in the bascule construction of arches in
which the two semi -arches are built with climbing forms, as curved quasi-vertical
elements with an hinge at their base, and then rotated to meet at the crown (Fig.2).
One other reason of preferring an initial temporary static configuration with a

reduced level of restraint (reduced degree of static redundancy or statically
determined structural system as e.g. in arches or frames with provisional hinges)
is the concern about the parasite structural effects of imposed deformations
(geometrical actions) in terms of undesirable stresses that might impair the service
conditions of a highly restrained structure during its early life (e.g. the effects of
sudden or rapid initial foundation settlements or yielding of restraints, rapid initial
shrinkage, etc.).
The subsequent increase of the degree of mutual connection between the

different parts and/or of the number of external restraints is dictated, on the
contrary, by the aim of increasing the serviceability level and the ultimate strength
and robustness of the final construction.
BASIC FUNCTIONS
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Creep (compliance) and relaxation functions
Within the field of the theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging materials
(Appendix I), time dependent properties of concrete are fully characterized either
by the creep (compliance) function J(t, 'r) or the relaxation function R(t, 'r), where:
J(t, 'r) represents the stress dependent strain per unit stress, i.e. the response at
time t to a sustained constant unit imposed stress applied at time '!;
R(t, 'r) represents the stress response at time t to a sustained constant unit
imposed strain applied at time 't
The compliance and the relaxation function are reciprocally related by the integral
equation:
I
J
I= R(t0 ,t0 ) J(t,t 0 ) + J(t, r)dR('r,t0 ) =
to
I (I)
=Ec(t0 )J(t,t0 )+ fJ(t,7:)dR(r,t 0 )
'•
Redistribution function ~(t,toh)
When the static scheme of the structure is modified at a time t 1 ~ t0+ (t 0 being the
age at application of constant sustained loads and to+ the same age immediately
after loading), the redistribution function ~ measures, at a given time t, the creep
induced part of the difference between the stress distribution corresponding to an
hypothetical application of the constant sustained loads to the structure in its final

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114 Chiorino
static scheme and the stress distribution in the structure in its original static
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
scheme, which is progressively taken over by the structure due b creep [Chiorino
et al. 1980, 1984; Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999, Chiorino 2000, Chiorino et
al. 1999,2000,2002, Dezi et al. 1990, Dezi and Tarantino 1991].
The redistribution function c; has the character of a non dimensional factor whose
values lie in the interval (0,1) (with ~ = 0 for t = t 1 ), and is related to the
compliance and to the relaxation functions through the equivalent expressions:
t
~(t,t0 ,t1 ) = R(t,r)dJ(r ,t0 ) J (2)

t,
I
J(t,t 0 )-J(t 1,t0 ) == JJ(t,r)d~(T,t0 ,t 1 ) (3)
If the change of static scheme is operated immediately after the initial elastic
deformation of the structure following the application ofloads at t =to (i.e. t1 =to +)
one obtains:
(4)
BASIC SOLUTIONS BY THE GENERAL METHOD
The solutions for the basic problems are given in the following in application
of the four theorems of the theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging materials5•
The solutions obtained for every type of problem may be superimposed in time on
the basis of the principle of superposition forming the basis of this theory.
Static and geometrical actions
Denote:
S (t) = system of the stresses (internal stresses, sectional forces, external
reactions)
5
The F' and 2nd theorem conceming, respectively, the effect of imposed loads and of
imposed deformations were restated by the author within the theory of linear
viscoelasticity for aging materials in [Chiorino et al. 1980, 1984]. The 3rd theorem
concerning the effect of a single change in the static !'Cherne was first demonstrated by
the author [ibidem and Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993]. An earlier proof within the theory
of aging was given in [Levi 1951]. The 4th theorem, concerning the effect of multiple
changes in the static ~heme, was first proved in [Chiorino and Mola 1982]. See also
[Dezi, Menditto and Tarantino 1990]. A concise proof of the 4th theorem is given in
Appendix 2.

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1
ff (t) elastic solution for the system of the stresses in the associated elastic
=
problem,
D (t) = system of the deformations (internal strains, sectional deformations,
external displacements),
If1 (t) = elastic solution for the system of the deformations in the associated
elastic problem,
Ec = reference elastic modulus for the associated elastic problem.
a) Static actions (imposed loads)

The 1'1 theorem of linear viscoelasticity states that in presence of sustained static
actions (imposed loads) the elastic stresses are not modified by creep, while the
deformations are modified by the creep integral operator:
S(t) = ff 1 (t) (5)

I
D(t) = Ec f J(t, r)dDel (r) (6)
0
For constant sustained loads one obtains:
S(t) = Sel,t, D(t) = Ec (to) J(t,to) De!,r, (5)', ( 6)'
with:
elastic solution for the system of the stresses in the associated elastic
problem for the initial value Ec(t0) of the elastic modulus at t = t0 ,
elastic solution for the system of the deformations in the associated
elastic problem for Ec (t 0).
Therefore, the effect of constant permanent loads is represented by initial

deformatiom followed by their creep induced gradual increase; the evolution of
the initial and time-dependent deformations is related by an affinity to the creep
compliance. The initial state of stress in the structure is not altered by creep.
b) Geometrical actions (imposed deformations)

The 2nd theorem of linear viscoelasticity states that in presence of sustained
geometrical actions (imposed deformations) the elastic deformations are not
modified by creep, while the stresses are modified by the relaxation integral
operator:
D(t) = De1 (t) (7)

I
S(t) =II Ecf R(t, r)dSe\r) (8)
0
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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116 Chiorino
For constant imposed deformations one obtains:
S(t) = R(t, 10 ) 5 ,,, 1• (7)', (8)'

D(l) =De/,10
EJt0 )
Therefore, the effect of constant imposed deformations is represented by initial

stresses followed by their creep induced gradual decrease; the evolution of the
initial and time-dependent stresses is related by an affinity to the relaxation
function The initial state of deformation in the structure is not altered by creep.
Modification of the static scheme
Denote:
S 2 (t) system of the stresses for t> t 1 in the modified structure with the final
static scheme 2, with 11.2 = n1 + .:ln1 restraints,
S ei,I elastic solution for the stresses in the original structure with initial
static scheme 1, with n1 restraints,
L1S 1 (t) == creep induced correction of the stresses of the original structure,
L1S e/,1 == correction to be applied in the associated elastic problem to the elastic
solution S e/,1 in order to respect the .:ln1 additional geometrical
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
conditions imposed by the ~n 1 (external or internal) additional
restraints of the final static scheme 2, imagined as introduced before
the loads (i.e. for loads imagined as applied to the structure in the static
scheme 2, with all the n2 restraints).
c) Single_modification ofthe static scheme at time I}~ t 0 +

The 3rd theorem of linear viscoelasticity (or theorem of partial acquisition of the
stress distribution of the modified static scheme) states that in a structure
subjected to imposed constant loads, whose initial static scheme 1 is modified into
a final static scheme 2 at time t1 ~ t/, the stress distribution evolves for t>t 1
approaching the stress distribution corresponding to the application of the loads to
the structure in the final static scheme according to the following expression:
(9)
Therefore, the long-term stress distribution is largely influenced by creep. In fact,

since the free creep displacements due to the pre-existing permanent loads are
subsequently prevented by the introduction of the delayed additional restraints,
the initial stress distribution corresponding to these loads is progressively altered.
More specifically, redundant reactions arise at these restraints. Their values, and
consequently also the values and the distribution of the internal stresses in the
structure, varying continuously with time, tend to approach the values and the
distribution that would be obtained loading the structure with the same permanent
loads in its final static configuration. As a general indication, it can be stated that

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the higher is the residual creep deformation capacity of the structure after the
application of the delayed restraints the higher is this tendency.
d) Multiple modifications of the static scheme at times ti;? t0 +
The 41h theorem of linear viscoelasticity states that in a structure subjected to

imposed constant loads, whose initial static scheme 1 is modified into a final static
scheme j+ 1 by means of several different restraint modifications applied at times
ti ;? to+ (i = 1, .... ,j) the redistribution effects consequent to every single
modification of the static scheme may be superimposed in time; therefore, the
stress distribution evolves for t>t1 approaching the stress distribution
corresponding to the application of the loads to the structure in the final static
scheme according to the following expression:
Sj+I(t) =Sei,I + f~(t,to,t;) Mel.i (10)

i=l
with:
.1S el.i correction to be applied in the associated elastic problem to the elastic
solution seu
in order to respect the geometrical conditions imposed by
the &li additional restraints of static scheme i+ 1, imagined as
introduced before the loads.
The higher is the residual creep deformation capacity of the structure after the
application of all the restraints, or of the main part of them, the higher is this
tendency. ·
DETERMINATION OF THE BASIC FUNCTIONS
Compliance function J
Creep prediction models adopted by Codes or technical guidance documents, or

proposed in the specialized literature, provide information on the compliance
functionJ.
Derived functions R. g.
Equations (1) and (2) [or (3)] enable to obtain the derived functions R, ~ from the
reference compliance J .For realistic forms of J, eq. (1) and (3) are not integrable
analyticalll and numerical integration is mandatory. Criteria for the numerical
processing were first proposed in [Bazant 1972a].
6
For the determination of the redistribution function ~'the numerical solution of integral
eq. (3) is normally preferred to the calculation of the integral of eq. (2) requiring the
previous determination of the relaxation function R. For more information see the parallel
paper [Sassone and Chiorino 2004]
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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118 Chiorino
DESIGN AIDS
For a given creep prediction model numerical processing of these equations

can be performed and design aids in terms of numerical tables or large sets of
graphs be published in design Manuals 7 for both the primary function J and the
derived functions R, ;.
The need to rapidly obtain graphical or numerical information on the basic

functions for all the prevailing prediction models for whatever combination of the
influencing parameters, in order to avoid interpolation and speed up calculations,
as well as to allow the incorporation of this information in automatic calculation
procedures, has suggested the idea to establish a web site incorporating the
numerical solver of the basic integral equations 8•
The criteria for establishing this interactive source of information are discussed
in detail in the parallel paper [Sassone and Chiorino 2005], which illustrates the
web site created at the Politecnico di Torino (www.polito.it/creepanalysis). As a
first step the three new prediction models (CEB MC90, GL2000 [Gardner and
Lockman 2001] and B3 [Bazant and Baweja 2000]) included by ACI Committee
209 on Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete in its new draft document [ACI 209
2004] have been incorporated in the website.
The essential idea is to build up a flexible tool with a user friendly interface to
obtain, for each basic function and for any selected set of the input parameters
referring to ambient, concrete mix and size of the structural element:
- spot-type numerical evaluations of the function under consideration for given
values of the age and time variables,
- full graphical representations of the family of curves for an extended range of
values of time and age.
The web site has a flexible architecture and will be progressively extended to
include the automatic calculation of other functions of interest for the creep
analysis of structures 9•
7
For the CEB MC90 creep prediction model [CEB 1993] an extended set of graphs of J,
R and ~ for a wide spectrum of the parameters influencing the creep properties of
concrete were published in the revised edition of CEB Manual Structural Effects of Time-
dependent Behaviour of Concrete [Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993].
8
At this respect, it must be considered that in the past years the numerical integration of
the Volterra integral equations of the type of eqs. (!)and (3) was a rather slow process,
due to the limited speed of computers; as a rough indication, when more than a hundred
time steps were used, many hours of computer time could be necessary. Today, the power
of computers has grown enough to allow a true real-time integration of these equations on
a personal computer.
9
For example. the aging coefficient X (see Appendix 3) of the age-adjusted-effective-
modulus-method, and the reduced relaxation functions R* (see note 3).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete 11 9
EXAMPLES OF THE BASIC FUNCTIONS AND COMPARISONS
BETWEEN DIFFERENT MODELS
Samples of the diagrams of the three basic functions J, R, ~, are presented in

Fig. 15 for the three new prediction models being considered by ACI 209, and for
an identical set of input parameters representing typical average conditions for
structural concrete elements. For any detailed information concerning the
obtainment of these diagrams the reader should refer to the parallel paper.
Inspection of the diagrams shows immediately significant differences in the

shapes of the families of curves and in their long-term values for all the basic
functions between CEB MC90 creep model and GL2000 and B3 models,
respectively. In fact, the influence of both long elapsed times t, and of almost the
entire range of ages t0 at loading or t1 at modification of the static scheme, is
evaluated in significantly different ways.
Each function has been explored until maximum values of the age t0 at loading,
and of age t1 at modification of the static scheme, of 2 years (730 days), and up to
elapsed times t larger than a reference value of 100 years = 3.65x10 4 days. This
reference value has been selected in consideration of the fact that adequate
serviceability and durability conditions must be guaranteed for an expected
service life of the same order of magnitude for important structures, like e.g.
bridges and tunnels. However, the general trends of the curves do not change in a
significant way, and the same comment may be expressed, if both the age at
loading t0 , the age t1 at modification of the static scheme, and the final observation
time t, are limited to half of these values. Extended explorations performed for
different sets of parameters - covering a wide spectrum of possible situations of
ambient, concrete mix and size of the structural element ambient - confirm the
same general trends, showing that these differences are related to the structure and
the basic conceptual fundaments of the models.
At this respect, the following observations must be taken into account:

a) it must be noted that the duration of the creep tests, whose results have
been incorporated in the data bank [Muller 1993] used for the calibration
of the three creep models (i.e. for the definition of the compliance
function J(t,t 0) characterizing each model), never exceeds 104 days, most
data been contained within 5 to 6 years (2.1 0 3 days), with a very limited
number of points in the interval 5-20 years (2.1 03 -7.103 days);
b) the data bank incorporates experimental information limited to the
compliance J;
c) due to the structures of equations (1), (2) [or (3)], the shape ofthe family
of curves of the compliance J (in particular the influence on J of the age at
loading T and of large elapsed times t) plays a dominant role in shaping
the corresponding family of curves for R and ~ .
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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120 Chiorino
Therefore, in spite of the fair to good ratings that - depending on the statistical
criteria and indicators adopted - have been attributed in the recent literature [ACI
209 2004, Al-Manaseer and Lam 2004] to all the three models in their evaluation
with respect to the experimental results gathered in the data bank and concerning
the compliance J, the significant differences in the trends of the curves, for both
the compliance and, in particular, the derived functions R and ~. arise as a
consequence of an extrapolation process.
This extrapolation process is essentially developed in the J domain, in order to

extend the time horizon of its prediction beyond the typical durations of the
experimental investigations summarized in the data bank. Ire extension concerns
both time, for the evidenced need to cover durations of the same order of
magnitude of the service-life of important structures, and age, for the reason that,
in the lack of significant experimental results for the derived functions R and ~ ,
high values of age at loading (same order of magnitude of elapsed times) are
needed for their numerical derivation from J.
The criteria adopted for the extrapolation depend on the conceptual fundaments
that are at the base of each creep prediction model, and that may be partly related
to different physical interpretations of the rheological behavior of concrete. As a
general consensus on these fundaments is yet far to be reached, although it may
benefit in the future of more fundamental studies in the physics of concrete
developed by the research community (see e.g. Bazant et al. 2004, and included
references), a provisional conclusion must be drawn, and a reasonable guideline
formulated, for the needs of codes and technical guidance documents and
manuals.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In the author's opm10n, the only possible conclusion at this stage is the
recommendation to refer, in the assessment of the serviceability of structures with
respect to creep effects, to a range of long-term values for the basic functions
characterizing the different solutions comprised between an upper and a lower
bound, in order to account for the large differences still existing between different
creep prediction models.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
Three examples are considered. For the sake of simplicity, and in the principal
aim of evidencing the effectiveness of the proposed solutions in sizing the main
aspects of the structural problem under consideration, two simple structural
schemes and construction sequences have been selected. More complex sequences
of loading and restraint can be analyzed easily by the same approach.
The first two examples concern a problem of modification of the static scheme
through the introduction of additional restraints in one step (cantilever built bridge
made continuous}, or in two steps Qocking of provisional hinges in a concrete
arch). The third example concerns the application of artificial imposed

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deformations (jacking of a concrete arch). The second and third examples refer,
respectively, to one of the two different techniques intended to improve the stress
distribution of concrete arches in service.
Example I - Single modification of the static scheme in a cantilever built bridge

at time tL:?: t2+
A three span cantilever built bridge is considered (Fig. 3). The delayed
connection at midspan of the central span transforms the statically determinate
scheme 1, consisting (after removal of provisional side jacks on piers and fixing
lateral ends to abutments) from two simply supported beams with central
overhangs, into the continuous beam of scheme 2 (Fig. 4).
Heterogeneities of the creep properties along the structure, with particular regard
to differences in the age of concrete, are diregarded. As the bridge is built by
segmental construction technique, this last assumption would be approximately
met in the case, which is imagined here, of a sufficiently short duration of the pre-
casting and assembling phases in comparison with the amplitudes of the time-lags
between these phases, and between the assembling phase (during which the
permanent actions of self weights and initial prestressing are applied) and the
moment of variation of the static system.
For a single change in static scheme, eq. (9) (3rd theorem) applies, with t 0
representing the average age of application of the permanent actions acting before
the introduction of the continuity restraint (self weight w, and initial prestressing 10
p approximately treated as a system of imposed constant forces), and 11 the time of
introduction of the continuity restraint (casting of the mid-span segment).
Solving equations
Let ,1Mm''·'·w+p represent the elastically evaluated continuity bending moment at

the median section m of the central span due to the permanent actions (w+p)
imagined as applied after the introduction of the continuity restraint, i.e.
calculated for scheme 2, e.g. by the virtual works equation expressing the
compatibility of the deformations at the median section (no rotation for the respect
of symmetry).
The development in time, and the long-term value (t = 100 years = 3.65xl04
days), of the bending moment at the median section of the central spans (where
Mmei.J,w+p = M,/·'·P) is then given by the following expressions obtained from eq.
(9) for S 2 (t) = Mm 2 (t), S ''·' = Mmeu.p, and L1S e/.J = ,1Mme/.J,w+p:
M 2/tl
1m
= M e/,J,p
~ / m
+ '!!/t
=' (•, t 0, t}
1
Mf. el,l,w+p
m (11)
(12)
10
Prestressing applied to the structure in the initial cantilever static configuration.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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122 Chiorino
Similarly the time-variations and long-term values of the restraint reactions,
bending moments M 2 and, in general, load effects and components of the stresses
due to the permanent actions throughout the structure in its final static ~heme 2
can be obtained from eq. (9).
Numerical evaluation
Only the long term values (t = 100 years) of the creep-induced stress
redistribution are investigated here. Three different creep prediction models are
considered, namely CEB MC90, GL2000 and B3.
The following values are considered for the main parameters governing the
problem through their influence on the creep compliance function J (and
consequently also, due to eq. (3), on the redistribution function~):
t0 = 28 days (average value of the age at loading and application of prestress,
neglecting the duration of the assembly phases of the cantilevers), t1 = 90 days,
relative humidity R.H.= 80 % (h = 0.8), concrete strength fck = 40 MPa, notional
=
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
size (effective thickness 2 VIS) 2Ac /u 400 mm, with reference to the average
geometrical characteristics of the cross sections of both bridges (notations for GL
2000 and B3 models in parenthesis).
I
The long term values ~(100y,28,90) of the redistribution function are obtained
from the numerical processing of eq.(3) [Sassone and Chiorino 2005]:
CEB mode/1990: 0.49
GL2000: 0.65
B3 model: 0.87.
Therefore, the three models predict very different long-term creep induced
redistribution effects
The bending moments in the original free cantilever structural configurations

(static system 1) M ei.J.w, Met,J,p and M et,J,w+p, respectively due to self-weight (w),
initial prestressing (p),and to their combination (w+p), are represented in Fig. 5
(abutments at left of diagrams). Elastic analysis gives the following values for the
continuity bending moment at the median section:
t1Mmel,l.w+p= 7084 kNm
The long term bending moments M 2 (JOOy) in the final structure, due to the
permanent actions (w+p) applied to the original structure and to the stress
redistributions induced by creep, are represented in Fig.6 for CEB MC90, GL2000
and B3 models, respectively. They are compared with the moments M et,J,w+p in
the original cantilever structure (static scheme 1), and with the moments
M 1·2·w+p= Met,J,w+p+ t1Met.J,w+p evaluated for the final static scheme 2 [i.e. for the
permanent actions (w+p) imagined applied to the structure in static scheme 2].

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Inspection of the diagrams shows that an important creep induced redistribution
takes place in the bridge. The long term creep induced correction at mid span-
i.e. the increment of the positive moment represented by the term ~(JOOy, t0.1J)
L1Mmei.I,w+p of eq. (12)] -equals in absolute value 15%, 20% or 27% ofthe
maximum original moment at the piers for CEB MC90, GL2000 and B3 models,
respectively.
These results confirm that the prediction models adopted in the analysis have a
considerable influence on the amount of the estimated stress redistribution due to
creep, and underline the need to refer to a range of long-term values comprised
between an upper and a lower bound, to account for differences in the models.
Example 2 - Multiple modifications of the static scheme in a concrete arch

(locking of provisional hinges)
We will consider the case of a concrete arch constructed with three provisional
hinges, which are locked at a later stage after decentering. Fig. 9 shows e.g. the
provisional hinges adopted in the crown and abutment sections of the Fiumarella
Viaduct in Italy (figs. 7 and 8, arch span 231 m. [Morandi 1961 ]), with details of
the reinforcement of the concrete added in second phase to obtain the continuity.
The hinges are imagined to be locked in two successive steps, first the hinges at
the abutments at time t1 > t0 +and then the hinge at the crown at time t2> t 1•
At the time t = t0 of decentering and application of the dead load the arch behaves
as a statically determinate three-hinged arch. Successive locking of the hinges by
casting additional concrete establishes continuity introducing an additional degree
of restraint for each locked section.
Creep activates these delayed internal restraints influencing the long term stress
condition of the arch, which tends to approach the stress condition of a hingeless
arch. In the case of an arch with a center line corresponding to the funicular curve
for the dead load, creep gradually reintroduces the reduction H' of the thrust 11 due
to axial shortening, and the consequent displacements of the thrust line and
parasite moments, that were eliminated by the introduction of the provisional
hinges.
As this is a case of a double change in the static scheme, eq. (10) (4'h theorem)
applies, withj= 2.
The example is dealt with in the following in a schematic form, without reference
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to a specific case study. The evaluation of the elastic terms may be performed in
practical cases with reference to the elastic theory of arches, taking advantage of
11
With respect to the thrust H calculated for a three-hinged arch. The reduction H' of the
thrust His applied at the elastic center of the arch [Timoshenko 1965]

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124 Chiorino
formulations based on the con::ept of the ellipse of elasticity (Colonnetti 1914,
1955, Belluzzi 1958, Timoshenko 1965).
Elastic solutions for the reference arch
The following elastic terms are introduced:

Static scheme 1: Three-hinged arch (hinges at abutment and crown sections)
sei.I = statically determinate system of the stresses;
Static scheme 2: Single-hinged arch (hinge at crown)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
L1S e/, 1 redundant correction to be applied to S e/, 1 in order to
respect the additional geometrical constraints imposed at t
= t1 by the elimination of the hinges at the abutments;
s e/, 2 = s e/,1 +L1S e/,1 = elastic solution for the system of the stresses
Static scheme 3: Hingeless arch
L1S •1•2 redundant correction to be applied to S e/, 2 in order to
respect the additional geometrical constraints imposed at t
= t2 by the elimination of the hinge at the crown;
s •1•3 = s '1•2 +L1S e/, 2 = elastic solution for the system of the stresses.
Solving equations
The development in time, and the long term value (t = 100 years), of the system
S(t) ofthe stresses in the arch are obtained from eq. (10):
S 3 (t) = S el, I + ~(t,toh) L1S e/,1 + ~(t.to/2) L1S e/,2 (13)
S 3(100y) = S e/,1 + ~(IOOy,to.fi} L1S e/,1 + ~(IOOy,to,tJ) 11) e/,2 (14)
Numerical evaluations
Only the long-term values (t 100 years) of the creep-induced stress
redistribution are discussed here.
In usual situations the difference between t 1 and t2 is rather limited (of the order of
the days or of a few weeks), while the time interval between the application of the
loads at t0 and the first locking of hinges may be of the order of some weeks or a
few months, as a maximum
In these conditions, the long-term values of the redistribution function ~ are

rather high. In particular, if reference is made to the 83 and GL2000 creep
prediction models, the values of the redistribution function rarely drop below 0.8.
This means that after the final locking of all the provisional hinges large amounts
of the redundant rorrections are introduced in the arch by creep. Consequently,
the final stress distribution in the arch approaches the elastic stress distribution of
the hingeless arch.

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Example 3 Jacking of a concrete arch
First introduced to obtain the automatic decentering of concrete arches built on

fixed centering, the jacking technique has then been frequently adopted to
artificially apply imposed internal deformations (distortions) with the aim of
obtaining a convenient modification of the stress pattern in the arch under service
conditions [Freyssinet 1921, 1928].
Even if adopted only to obtain the automatic decentering, a minimum convenient

distortion is needed (i.e. a minimum alteration of the stress distribution with
respect to the reference elastic stresses due to dead load) in order to raise the arch
from the centering, facilitating its removal. The jacking section may be the crown
section, but jacks have been located in the haunch region (e.g. Gladsville Bridge,
1964, Fig. 10, [W edgwood and Shepherd 1965]), or they may be placed at the
abutments (e.g. Crozet Viaducts, 1999, Fig. 12, [Fremont et al. 2001]) for an
easier access.
As far as the restraining conditions at the jacking section are concerned, it must be
noted that they depend on the arrangement of the jacks. Most frequently jacks are
placed on two lines on each side of the centroid of the arch section (Crozet, Fig.
13), or they are distributed on the perimeter of the section (Gladsville, Fig. 11).
Therefore the continuity of the arch is not interrupted and a delayed locking of the
jacking section by additional concrete does not introduce any additional restraint.
The problem to be considered in this case is simply a problem of sustained
geometrical actions (2nd theorem, constant imposed deformations) 12 •
Solving equation
Let .1 S el,t, represent the elastic stress response in the arch to the constant
deformation imposed by jacking, evaluated for the initial value Ec(t0) of the elastic
modulus at t = t0 (i.e. the initial value of the imposed stress correction).
The development in time, and the long term value (t = 100 years), of the stress
correction .1 S(t) are obtained from eq. (8)':
(15)
12
Crown section has been forced in some cases with a single line of jacks at its centroid
(Krk Bridge, [Stoidanovic and Sram] (1981), fig. 14). Therefore, the initial restraint
condition at loading in this section is equivalent to a hinge. If the jacking section is finally
locked at a later stage by additional concrete, the continuity is established in the section
with an increase of the level of restraining (change of static system). In this case two
problems coexist: a problem of sustained constant geometrical actions, and one of
modification of the static scheme. Their solutions may be sought separately on the l:asis
of the indications given in this paper, and then superimposed in time in application of the
principle of superposition.
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126 Chiorino
dS(lOO )= R(lOOy,to) Me'·'• (16)
y EJt0 )
Therefore, the initial stress correction obtained by jacking is reduced by creep.

The reduction is related by an affinity to the relaxation function. On the contrary,
the initial state of deformation of the arch consequent to the distortion imposed by
jacking is not altered by creep, as indicated by eq. (7)'.
Numerical evaluations
Only the long-term values (t 100 years) of the creep-induced stress are
discussed here.
Inspection of the diagrams of the relaxation function in Fig. 15 for the different
creep prediction models shows that the long-term creep induced attenuation of the
initial stress correction is rather drastic, in particular if jacking is applied when
concrete is still rather young.
The advantages in maintaining a higher level of the long-term stress correction

through a repeated forcing of the jacks at different times, which may be estimated
on the basis of the CEB MC90 creep prediction model, are significantly reduced if
reference is made to the family of relaxation curves of the B3 and GL2000
models.
In conclusion, it may be deduced that the benefits of a well known construction

technique, like jacking, to improve the stress distribution in concrete arches, are
jeopardized to a large extent by creep effects. The long term stress distribution in
the concrete arch approaches the elastic stress distribution of the hingeless arch. A
conclusion similar to that obtained for the arch with provisional hinges.
Conclusion on creep effects on concrete arches
The preceding discussion concerning the creep induced structural effects on the
stress distribution in hingeless concrete arches, subjected to one of the two
different widely used technical artifices aimed to improve the stress distribution in
service - i.e. adoption of provisional hinges or jacking - shows that the effect of
creep tends to substantially reduce the long term benefits of both techniques 13•
The long-term service conditions of modem reinforced or prestressed concrete

structures subjected to complex histories of loading and restraint conditions, are
largely influenced by creep. Creep acts both positively and negatively on the long-
term response of the structure.
13
A conclusion already evidenced on the basis of the theory of aging [Levi 1951].
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The paper shows that the extensive use of the four fundamental theorems of the
theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging materials, and of the related fundamental
functions, offers a reliable and rational approach for the estimation of these
effects. Conceptually clear and concise formulations are obtained, suitable for
codes and technical guidance documents, and particularly helpful in preliminary
design stages and in the control of the final detailed numerical investigations and
safety checks.
Samples of the diagrams of the fundamental functions [J (compliance), R

(relaxation) and ; (redistribution)] have been presented for the three new
prediction models (CEB MC90, GL2000 and B3) included by ACI Committee
209 on Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete in its new draft document
A web site (www.polito.it/creepanalysis) containing the numerical solver for

the immediate determination of the derived functions R, ; ·from the primary
functions J has been described. The subject is dealt with in detail in a parallel
paper.
Inspection of the sample of diagrams shows the significant differences - in the

shapes of the families of curves and in their long-term values, for the compliance
J and, in particular, the derived functions R and ; - between on one side the CEB
MC90 creep model and, on the other side, GL2000 and B3 models. In fact, the
influence of both long elapsed times t, and of almost the entire range of ages to at
loading or t1 at modification of the static scheme, is significantly different in the
two cases. ·
It is observed that, in spite of the fair to good ratings that - depending on the
statistical indicators adopted - have been attributed in the recent literature to all
three models in their evaluation with respect to the experimental results contained
in the data bank and concerning the compliance J, these significant differences
arise as a consequence of an extrapolation process. This extrapolation process is
essentially developed in the J domain, in order to extend the time horizon of its
prediction beyond the typical durations of the experimental investigations, whose
results are summarized in the data bank, up to significant values of elapsed times
and of the ages at loading of the order of magnitude of the service life of
important structures. The compliance values for high ages at loading are needed
for the subsidiary numerical determination of the secondary functions R and ; .
This aspect deserves proper attention in the present discussions taking place
within international associations on the proper prediction models to be considered
in practical design situations.
The paper is concluded by the presentation of two case studies concerning the
effect of creep in case of changes in the static scheme in prestressed cantilever
built bridges and in reinforced concrete arches. A third example concerns the
effect of creep on the stress corrections obtained by jacking of the arches.
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128 Chiorino
These case studies confirm the large influence of the adopted prediction model
on the long term results.
At this respect, in the author's opinion the only possible conclusion at this
stage is the recommendation to refer, in the assessment of the serviceability of
structures with respect to creep effects, to a range of long-term values for the
basic functions characterizing the different solutions comprised between an upper
and a lower bound, in order to account for the large differences still existing
between different creep prediction models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to Franco Levi, professor emeritus of the Politecnico of
Turin, Honorary President of CEB and FIP and Honorary Member of ACI, for
continuous guidance and encouragement. The assistance of Dr. G. Lacidogna and
Dr. M. Sassone is gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX 1
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fundamentals of linear viscoelasticity of aging materials applied to concrete
Concrete is considered to comply mth the theory of linear viscoelasticity for

aging materials [Bazant 1975, Chiorino 1984].
Introducing the creep (compliance) function J(t, r) and the' relaxation function
R(t, r) and summing the responses to all uniaxial stress and strain increments
introduced at times r, the following integral relations are obtained to model the
responses at time t to sustained variable imposed stresses or strains:
I I
t:cu(t)= Jl(t,r)da(r) a(t) = J R(t, r )dt:ccr(r) (Al.l), (A1.2)

0 0
where:
l::crr (t) = r.c(t) - l::cn(t) = stress-dependent strain,
ec (t) = total strain at time t,
l::cn(t) =stress-independent strain,
a(t) = stress at time t,
and the hereditary integrals must be considered as Stielties integrals in order to
permit discontinuous stress or strain histories a(t) and t:ccr(t) If the law of variation
ofthe imposed stress or strain is considered continuous after an initial finite step,
the ordinary Rieman definition of the integral applies and eqs.(A 1.1) and (A 1.2)
may be written in the form:

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f
I
Eccr(t) = G(t0 )J(t,t 0 ) + J(t,r)da('r) (Al.l)'

Ia
a(t) = Eccr Uo)R(t ,to)+ R(t, r)dECG (-c) f (A1.2)'

to
Equations (Al.l) and (A1.2) can be written in the operator form:
(j = R Ecu (Al.l)", (AI.2)"
where J and R represent the uniaxial 14 creep and relaxation operators [Mandel
1958, 1974, Bazant 1975).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The compliance function J(t, r) is normally separated, on the basis of some

convention, into an initial strainJ('r+L1, r) with L1 = t- r small, which is treated as
instantaneous and elastic (nominal elastic strain) introducing a corresponding
elastic modulus for the concrete Ec(r), and a creep strain C(t, r), i.e.:
J(r+il,r)
I
=J(r,r) =Ec(r)
-- (Al.3)
1
T(t,r)=--+C(t,r) (Al.4)
Ec(r)
By analogy, in the relaxation function the initial stress response for L1 =t - 1

small is treated as instantaneous and elastic, i.e.:
R(r+L1, r) := R(r, r)= Ec(r) (Al.5)
A creep coefficient ~ is normally introduced representing the ratio between the

creep strain C(r ,t) and the initial strain at t = r (e.g. in the current ACI creep
model [ACI 1992] and in B3 and GL2000 models) or at a conventional age r at
loading (e.g. in CEB MC90, with r = 28 days), i.e.:
14
Extension of eq. (Al.l) to multiaxial stress may be easily performed [Bazant 1975] and
it can be shown that under the assumption of isotropic behaviour and constancy of the
creep Poisson's ratio v(t, 1), which is sufficiently confirmed by experimental evidence at
least for sealed specimens [see e.g. list of references in Bazant 1975], creep deformability
of concrete is fully characterised by J(t, r).

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130 Chiorino
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
J(t 'l')=-1-+ Q>(t,'l') (A1.6)

' Ec('l') Ec('l')
J(t,'l')=-1-+ if>2s(t,'l') (A1.7)

EJr) Ec2s
It must be noted that for structural analysis only the compliance function J(t, 'l') is
of importance (and the related functions R(t, 'l') and ~ (t,t 0,t1)). The conventional
separation adopted in eq. (A1.4) and the value of ..1 in eqs. (Al.3) and (Al.5)
have no influence on the result of the analysis, except in the definition of the
"initial" (nominally elastic) state of deformation or of stress due to a sudden
application of actions (respectively forces or imposed deformations, see e.g. eqs.
(6)' and (8)' in the text). Such a state is in effect by itself a matter of convention
depending on the procedures in the application of the actions at t = t0 on the
structure, on the initial time t0 + ..1 of observation of the effect and on the
measuring procedures 15 •
Time-dependent properties of concrete are fully characterised either by J(t, 'l') or

by R(t, r) representing the kernels of eqs. (Al.l) and (Al.2). The relation between
J and R may be obtained by considering in eq. (Al.l) the history of the stress
dependent strain fca(t) to be a unit step function for 'l' = t 0 [Heaviside step
function H(t- 'l')], i.e.:
for t < t0
for t ";?. t0
in which case the history of stress is by definition represented by the relaxation
function for 'l' = t0 , i.e. a(t,t0) = R(t,t0), and eq. (1) of the text is obtained.
Equation (1) represents a non hormgeneous Volterra's integral equation for the
determination of the relaxation function R(t,t0) from the creep function J(t, 'l').
Different values of -r = t0 and repeated solutions of eq. (1) must be performed to
obtain R(t, 'l') from J(t, 'l').
Standard numerical procedures for the solution of the integral equation (1) have
been developed [Bazant 1972a] and they have been incorporated in design
manuals [Chiorino et al., 1980, 1984, Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999],
bringing to an end a line of research, which has occupied some fifty years, aimed
15
The elastic modulus Ec2s is tenned Eci in the CEB Model Code 1990 [CEB 1993] and
Ec in the CEB Design Manual (Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993]. It is defined as the tangent
modulus of the stress-strain diagram obtained for monotonically increasing compressive
stresses <ic or strains Ec at a rate of ic:tl"' 1MPa 1sec or je, 1= 30 ·I o_.sec_,, respectively.
For current ACI model and model GL2000 refer to the specific documents.
For model B3 a reference value .:l = 10 sec= 0.00012 days has been adopted in the
examples of the basic functions (Fig. 15), and in the examples of application.

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to the selection of special creep functions a11owing the analytical conversion from
J to R. It has been in fact practically demonstrated that no formulation for J(t, r)
can be found that would be sufficiently accurate and would allow at the same time
the conversion to be accomplished analytically.
APPENDIX2
Concise proof of the 41h theorem of linear viscoelasticity
It is sufficient to consider that the introduction at time ti of ~ni additional restraints

is equivalent to the imposition for t > ti of variable deformations at the points of
application of the new restraints to refrain the free creep deformations that would
develop at these points for t > ti in the last static scheme. The compatibility of the
creep deformations (for t > O with all the restraints introduced before ti is not
questioned. The creep induced modification L1S i (t) in the system of the stresses
S i (t) for t > ti produced by the introduction at t = ti of the group of the new
restraints and the resulting system of the stresses S i+J (t) in the modified static
scheme i+ 1 can therefore be deduced from eq. ( 1), i.e.:
(A2.1)
Applying the principle of superposition the stress effects of the deformations

imposed at each step i can be superimposed. Thus eq. (10) follows.
APPENDIX3
Correlations between the general approach and the age-adjusted-effective-

modulus (AAEM) method
Eq. (Al.l)' may be written in the following equivalent algebraic form when the
creep function is ofthe type ofeq. (Al.6):
= ac(to) + ac(t)- ac(to)

(A3.1)
Ec,e/l,lo) Ec,adj(t,to)
having introduced the aging coefficient:

1
X(t,to) =---=---- (A3.2)
1- R(t, 10 )/ EJt0 ) Ec (t0 ) J(t ,10 ) -1
the effective modulus:
(A3.3)
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132 Chiorino
and the age-adjusted effective modulus:
Ec(to)- R(t,to) (A3.4)
1/>(t, t0 )
The approach based on the aging coefficient X [Bazant 1972b] leads to solutions
that are in some cases equivalent to the fundamental solutions of the general
approach based on theory of linear viscoelasticity for aging materials developed in
this paper (general method), e.g. in the cases of constant imposed loads (static
actions) or deformations (geometrical actions), or of a linear combination of these
problems.
For the problems of variation of static scheme this equivalence is limited to the
case, seldom encountered in practical design situations, of a single variation of
static scheme introduced at t =to+ immediately after the application of the loads 16•
In fact, from eq. (A3.2) one obtains the following relations between the basic
functions of the general method and the aging coefficient:
l(t,to) = 1- ¢(t,to) (A3.5)

~c(t 0 ) 1+ X¢(t,t 0 )
and therefore:
;; ( +) _ I R(t,t 0 ) _ _....!.!/>_,_(t..:...,t-"-
0 "--)-:- (A3.6)
"' t,fo,lo - - -
Ec(t 0 ) 1+ X¢(t,lo)
On the contrary, the solution based on the aging coefficient X is not valid if the
change of static scheme is operated at any time t 1 after the time t0 of application of
the loads, which is the case in most practical design situations. The only correct
solution is obtained in a very straightforward way on the basis of the 3rd theorem
using the redistribution function ~(t,t0,t1).
Similarly, the aging coefficient method is inapplicable to deal with the problem of
multiple successive changes of static system (which is also a frequent case in most
practical design situations). The only correct and simple solution is obtained
superimposing the effects of the successive changes of static scheme, as indicated
1
by the 4 h theorem. In all these cases the solutions based on the aging coefficient X
may introduce unacceptably large errors.
16
In fact, in this case we may imagine to reach the final static configuration applying the
loads on the final static scheme with all the restraints (a problem of constant imposed
loads) and introducing, immediately afterwards, a state of constant imposed deformations
to annul the geometrical constraints introduced by the additional restraints.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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NOTATION
=time, in days
to = age at loading, in days
to+ = age immediately after loading, in days
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t1:2:t/ = age at change of static scheme, in days

tc = age when drying begins, end of moist curing, in days
a(t) = stress at time t
ec(t) = total strain at time t
Ecn(t) = stress independent strain otal strain at time t
Ecc/t) = ec(t)- Eccft) =stress dependent strain
S(t) = system of the stresses
D(t) = system of the deformations
S 1 (t) = system of the stresses in the associated elastic problem
De1 (t) =system of the deformations inthe associated elastic problem
Ec = reference elastic modulus for the associated elastic problem
Ec(t0) = elastic modulus of concrete at time t 0
Ec2 s, Eci = elastic modulus of concrete at time t = 28 days
J(t,t0) = creep or compliance function,
R(t,t0) = relaxation function
~(t,t 0,tJ) = redistribution function
X,(t,t0) = aging coefficient
R.H% = relative humidity, in percentage in CEB MC90 model
h = relatiye humidity (range 0-l) in GL2000 and B3 models
2A/u = notional size of the concrete member in mm, in CEB MC90 model
VIS = volume to surface ratio of the concrete member, in GL2000 and
B3 models; (2 VIS) = effective thickness
fck = characteristic strength of concrete.
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n rl --
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t1 1"1 ll n n rl
~T~ -- q: tF
'
to::==== --
Fig. !-Examples of change in the static scheme.
a::::=== •
Fig. 2-Bascule construction of a concrete arch with temporary hinges.
Fig. 3-Cantilever construction of a three span bridge.

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138 Chiorino
Fig. 4-Longitudinal section of the bridge in the final static configuration.
-10
~
ze -a
.....
.:.::
-
0
.....
:E
-2
6
2
7 5
Fig. 5-Bending moments in the orginal free cantilever structural configuration due to
self-weight (w), intial prestressing (p), and to their combination (w + p).
Fig. 6-Long term bending moments M 2(1 05) in the final structure. Comparisions with
moments M e1. 1·" + P (static system 1) and M ' 1• 2• "'+ P (static system 2).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 7-Fiumarella Viaduct, Italy, R. Morandi 1961.

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Fig. 8-Fiumarella Viaduct: general scaffolding and location of provisional hinges.
Fig. 9-Fiumarella Viaduct: provisional hinges at crown and abutment sections.
~i·~
.
~ =~----· __. ____;
·-------l!W .... - ---··
Fig. 10-Giadsville Bridge, Sidney, Mausnell & Partners 1964: location of jacking sites.
Fig. 11-Gladsville Bridge: detail of a jacketing section showing flat jacks.
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140 Chiorino
Fig. 12-Crozet Viaducts, Jean Muller International 1999.
Fig. 13-Crozet Viaducts: jacketing section at the abutment.
f.· ••···•·• ,,,~!:5~.:: ....o~.o.•,•.•.•M'-----l
Fig. 14-Krk Bridge, I. Stoidanovic 1981: general view during construction and
detail of jacketing section at the crown.
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Values ofparameters:
tc; 3 days (if required by the model)
to: 7 days (for the redistribution fUnction g)
Type of cement: N. R, (normal or rapid hardening)(CEB MC90),
Type I (B3, GL2000)
R. H. (h): 80% (0.8)
fct: 30MPa
lcm28 =lck2s+ 8 Mpa = 38 Mpa (CEB MC90)
lcm28 = 1.1 /ck2s + 5 Mpa = 38 Mpa (GL2000 and B3)
Effective thickness: 2A/u = 2V/S = 200 mm
For model B3 the following values offorther parameters have been assumed:
.1 in eq. (Al.3): 10 sec= 1.16.Ur days
Aggregate content: 1820 kg/m 3
Cement content: 400 kglm 3
Curing condition factor: a 2=1,2 (normal curing)
Water content: 180 Kglm 3
¥to-•
-- ,go,....
-- l001'NI'S
Fig. 15-Examples of the diagrams of basic functions J (t, r), R (t, r), q(t, tO' t 1), for
different creep prediction models and for average values of the influencing parameters.
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From left to right CEB MC90, GL2000, and B3 models. Time in days. (for further
information refer to [Sassone and Chiorino 2005]).

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142 Chiorino
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SP-227-7
Shrinkage and Creep Predictions

Evaluated using 10-Year Monitoring of the
North Halawa Valley Viaduct
by I. N. Robertson and X. Li
SJ'no.psis: This paper presents the results of a 10-year instrumentation and

monitoring program on the North Halawa Valley Viaduct, a major prestressed box girder
viaduct on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii. The long-term monitoring program was initiated in
1994 during construction of the long-span post-tensioned box-girder viaduct. Over 200
electrical strain, displacement, temperature and load sensors were installed in one unit of
the structure and have been monitored continuously since. These instruments monitor
vertical deflections, span shortening, prestress loss, longitudinal strains and temperature
in the box-girder concrete.
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The long-term response of this structure is presented and compared with the initial
predictions made during the design process. Modified material properties based on short-
term shrinkage and creep tests were incorporated into the long-term prediction model to
produce significantly improved comparisons. A procedure is proposed for prediction of
upper and lower bounds for the long-term response of long-span prestressed concrete
bridges. This improved prediction model is applied to the other five units making up the
NHVV to verify its performance as a design tool.
The results of this study were then incorporated into the development of an
instrumentation system for the planned Kealakaha Bridge on the Island of Hawaii.
Application of the prediction model is demonstrated using shrinkage and creep data
determined from short-term tests performed on the concrete mixture proposed for this new
long-span box-girder bridge structure.
Keywords: bridge monitoring; creep; instrumentation; long-term

deflection; prediction; shrinkage
143
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144 Robertson and Li
ACI member Ian N. Robertson is associate professor of civil engineering at the Univer-
sity of Hawaii at Manoa. He is a member of ACI Committees 209 Shrinkage and Creep
and 352 Joints and Connections in Monolithic Concrete Structures. His research interests
are field instrumentation and monitoring of structural response to time dependent and ex-
treme events, seismic response of concrete systems, and FRP retrofit of concrete mem-
bers.
Xianping Li is a graduate assistant in civil engineering at the University of Hawaii at

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Manoa. His research interests include the prediction of long term effects on concrete
structures, and computer modeling of structural response.
INTRODUCTION
The North Halawa Valley Viaduct (NHVV) is a 1.5 km box-girder viaduct with span
lengths up to II 0 m. It is part of the new H-3 freeway on the island of Oahu in Hawaii.
The twin inbound and outbound viaducts were built by means of post-tensioned in-situ
balanced cantilever construction as described by Banchik and Khaled (I). Each viaduct
consists of three structurally independent units. Four spans of Unit 2 of the inbound via-
duct, Unit 2IB, were selected for instrumentation to provide an adequate representation of
the viaduct long-term behavior (Figure I). The instrumentation program was developed
in conjunction with T.Y. Lin International, structural engineers for the viaduct. Personnel
from the University of Hawaii (UH) and Construction Technology Laboratories (CTL) in
Skokie, lllinois, installed all instruments during construction of Unit 2IB.
The instrumentation used in this project was designed to provide long-term monitor-
ing of the structural performance of the viaduct. The measurements required to achieve
the project objectives include concrete strains, concrete and ambient temperatures, con-
crete creep and shrinkage strains, span shortening, tendon forces, span deflections, and
support rotations. In order to perform these measurements, over 200 instruments were
installed including vibrating wire strain gages, electrical resistance strain gages, thermo-
couples, extensometers, tendon load cells, base-line deflection systems, tiltmeters, and
automated datalogger recording systems.
This paper presents results from the vibrating wire strain gages, span longitudinal and
vertical deflection measurements, and tendon prestress forces. These measured results
are compared with long-term analytical predictions using SFRAME, a time-dependent
step-wise finite element analysis program written specifically for analysis of incremen-
tally constructed bridges (2). Comparisons based on the original analyses performed dur-
ing the design phase show poor correlation with the observed response. However, based
on short-term creep and shrinkage tests performed on the concrete used in the structure,
improved material parameters were developed for use in SFRAME. These updated mate-
rial parameters provide improved long-term predictions, leading to development of a de-

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sign aid for prediction of upper and lower bounds of anticipated long-span bridge re-
sponse. The proposed design bounds are verified through application to the other five
non-instrumented units constituting the inbound and outbound viaducts of the NHVV.
The results ofthis study were then utilized in the design of a future long-span box-
girder bridge structure to be constructed over the Kealakaha Stream on the Big Island of
Hawaii. The primary objective of the instrumentation of the Kealakaha Bridge is seismic
monitoring. However, the instrumentation will provide valuable long-term data, which
can be compared with the pre-design predictions made using the methodology developed
on theNHVV.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTATION
A detailed description of all instrumentation and the installation procedures used in

this project is given by Lee and Robertson (3). The following is a brief description of the
strain, deflection and prestress force measurement systems pertaining to the results pre-
sented in this paper.
Instrument Locations
Seven sections were selected for instrumentation in order to provide an adequate rep-
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resentation of the viaduct behavior. Sections A, D, E and G are at, or close to midspan,
while B, C and Fare close to the ends of the instrumented spans as shown in Figure 1.
The primary instruments for measuring concrete strain are Vibrating Wire Strain
Gages. These gages were embedded in the concrete to measure longitudinal strain. Ten
vibrating wire strain gages were placed around the box-girder cross-section at each end
span instrumented section (B, C and F) as shown in Figure 2. Eight gages were placed
around the midspan sections (A, D, E and G) in the same locations as shown in Figure 2,
but without gages 5 and 9. For comparison with the predicted top slab strains, gages 1, 3
and 7 readings are averaged. For comparison with the predicted bottom slab strains,
gages 2, 6 and 10 readings are averaged. The predicted strains are computed at the level
of the gages using linear interpolation between top and bottom fiber predictions provided
bySFRAME.
Span Longitudinal Deflections
Extensometers were installed in the four instrumented spans to monitor the overall
shortening of the box-girder. Each extensometer consists of a series of graphite rods
(6mm diameter by 6m long) spliced together to span from pier to pier inside the box
girder. The rods are coupled together and inserted into a 20mm diameter PVC pipe at-
tached to the underside of the girder top slab. One end of the rod is fixed to the top slab

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soffit at one end of the span, while the other end is coupled to a Linear Variable Dis-
placement Transducer (L VDT) at the other end of the span. The relative displacement of
the concrete at the two ends of the extensometer is measured by the L VDT, providing a
measurement of the span shortening. These longitudinal span shortening measurements
were compared with those predicted by SFRAME at each instrumented span.
Span Vertical Deflections
A taut-wire base-line system was installed in each of the four instrumented spans to
monitor vertical deflection of the box-girders. This system consists of a high-strength pi-
ano wire strung at constant tension from one pier to the next, inside the box girder, to act
as a. reference line as shown in Figure 3. A precision digital caliper was used to measure
the distance between the base-line and steel plates attached to the underside of the top
slab. Changes in the caliper readings indicate the vertical deflection of the box girder
relative to the ends of the span. The base-line system measurements were confirmed by
comparisons with optical surveys performed by the State of Hawaii as part of the bridge
maintenance program. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show that the base-line deflections compare
well with the optical survey results for Unit 218 after 2 and 8 years of monitoring, respec-
tively. In some cases the base-line systems were able to identify apparent errors in the
optical survey readings as noted at midspan between P8 and P9, and at P9 in Figures 4
and 5. Similar errors in the optical survey results were noted at other locations, but in
general the optical survey results are assumed to provide a reasonable record of the via-
duct vertical deflections. The base-line system also produced reliable results for short-
term deflections during a load test and thermal study performed on the viaduct (4). These
vertical deflection measurements are compared with the SFRAME predictions by normal-
izing the predicted top-of-pier deflections to zero at each end of the span so as to remove
pier and foundation deformations from the predicted deflection.
SFRAME COMPUTER ANALYSIS
The SFRAME computer program is a finite element code specifically developed for
the prediction of long-term response of segmentally constructed prestressed concrete
bridges (2). In addition to structural geometry and section properties, the input data in-
cludes a constitutive model of the concrete material. This model includes the time-
dependent variations in modulus of elasticity, shrinkage and creep. The program em-
ploys a step-wise incremental analysis of the bridge structure during and after construc-
tion. Each concrete pour, tendon stressing operation and gantry load is included as an in-
dividual step in the construction of the viaduct.
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In the original design, T.Y. Lin utilized the CEB-90 models for creep and shrinkage
prediction (5). These models were modified based on preliminary short-term creep and
shrinkage tests performed on the proposed design concrete mixture.
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE PREDICTIONS
In order to establish the creep and shrinkage response of the concrete in the NHVV,
numerous creep and shrinkage tests were performed on concrete cylinders made from the
concrete used to pour the instrumented bridge sections. These test, along with associated
strength tests, were performed at CTL in Skokie, Illinois. Creep and shrinkage tests were
initiated at 3 days, 28 days and 90 days after loading. The tests were continued for at
least one year.
Durbin and Robertson (6) compared four creep and shrinkage prediction models with
the CTL test data from this project. The prediction models considered were the current
ACI 209-92 (7), CEB-FIP Model Code 90 (5), Bazant and Baweja Simplified model B3
(8), and Gardner and Zhao (9). All of these models underestimated both the creep and
shrinkage observed in the laboratory tests.
Based on the initial 28-day data from the laboratory tests, long-term creep and shrink-
age predictions were made using an extrapolation method proposed by Bazant and
Baweja (8). This simple linearization procedure is used to correlate the predictive models
to the first 28 days of shrinkage and creep data. If the predictive model data, f/J' (t), cor-
responded exactly to the test data, rfJ(t), a plot of f/J' (t) versus r!J(t) would be a 45 o
straight line passing through the origin. In reality, these values do not correspond ex-
actly. To obtain the least deviation between the test data and the model, a least-squares
regression is calculated. The y-intercept, p 1 , and slope, p 2 , from this linear regression
are then used to modify the predicted values as follows:
¢"(t) == p 2f/J'(t )+ P1
Subsequent shrinkage and creep can then be extrapolated using these modified mod-
els. The linearization procedure produces particularly good agreement for the Gardner
and Zhao model for shrinkage, and the Bazant and Baweja model for creep (1 0). These
models were then modified for the field relative humidity and ambient temperature, and
for the average volume to surface area ratio for the box girder section, and used to predict
long-term creep and shrinkage for loading at various ages from 1 day to 3600 days. The
resulting matrix of creep and shrinkage predictions was then input as "LAB DATA" into
SFRAME for analysis of the viaduct response.
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LONG-TERM STRUCTURAL RESPONSE
Long-term vertical deflections
During the design of the NHVV, TY Lin International used the CEB-90 model for
creep and shrinkage prediction, modified based on short term tests of the concrete mix-
ture proposed for the viaduct. Figure 4 shows the resulting deflections compared with the
optical survey and baseline measurements for Unit 2JB over the two-year period from
1995 to 1997. The TY Lin!CEB predicti~:m significantly underestimates the observed de-
flections, particularly in the longer spans.
In order to improve the deflection comparison for Unit 2IB, the Gardner and Zhao
model for shrinkage, and the Bazant and Baweja model for creep, modified based on
short term test data as described above, were used along with the SFRAME input vari-
ables listed in Table 1. The relative humidity of 85% was based on the average field
measurements over a two-year period. The creep and shrinkage variability was taken as
± 30% based on ranges suggested in the literature. A I 0% reduction in prestress force
was assumed based on the average forces measured in some of the span tendons, com-
pared with the specified prestress force.
After a trial and error matching procedure, this combination of parameters produced
the best agreement between predicted vertical deflections and measured deflections for
Unit 2IB for the two-year period from 1995 to 1997 as shown in Figure 4. The Gard-
ner/Bazant prediction shows far better agreement with the observed deflections. How-
ever, the use of a single set of input data is still not able to completely capture the long-
term response of this complex structure.
This same input data was later used to predict the vertical deflections for Unit 2IB for
the 8-year period from 1995 to 2003 as shown in Figure 5, as well as for the other 5 units
in the twin viaducts. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the comparisons for Units 1 and 3 of the
inbound viaduct. Again the Gardner/Bazant prediction is a significant improvement over
the original design prediction, although variability in the material properties, prestress
force, etc. along the viaduct length results in disagreement in certain spans. Similar com-
parisons resulted for the three units making up the outbound viaduct ( 11 ).
Development of Design Envelope
Because of the variability in the factors affecting long-term vertical deflections, it is

unrealistic to expect a single set of input variables to accurately predict the full viaduct
response. Instead, a Design Envelope is proposed which accounts for the variability in
each of the material and environmental factors affecting long-term structural response.
Upper and lower bound estimates of the Design Envelope are based on estimated ranges
in all relevant material and environmental variables. If any of the Design Envelope pre-
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dictions present a significant concern, design changes can be made to improve the long-
term performance. It is therefore necessary for the selected variable ranges to encompass
the full spectrum of anticipated field conditions. For the NHVV project, the parameter
ranges in Table 2 were used to produce the Design Envelope.
The lower bound estimate is anticipated to produce the greatest vertical deflection,
while the upper bound estimate will produce the least vertical deflection. The relative
humidity range from 80 to 90 percent was based on the humidity recorded at the Halawa
Valley site over a two-year period. The± 15% range assumed for both creep and shrink-
age predictions is based on the variability of results from the CTL creep and shrinkage
tests and on the recommendations of the creep and shrinkage model authors, since the
models have been updated using short-term test data. Where test data is not available, the
variability for creep and shrinka~ predictions should be taken as ± 30%. Load cells on 6
span tendons indicated that the initial prestress was as much as 15% below the design
level, hence a lower bound estimate of 0.85 is used. For cantilever and continuity ten-
dons a lower bound estimate of 0.90 is used based on TY Lin field engineer recommen-
dations. An upper bound scaling factor of 1.05 is used for all prestress tendons to ac-
count for possible overstressing. These parameter ranges were considered appropriate for
the NHVV, but modified ranges may be appropriate for other projects.
Figure 8 to Figure 10 show the resulting design envelopes for Units 1 to 3 of the in-
bound viaduct, respectively. Similar results were obtained for the three units in the out-
bound viaduct. In some spans the actual deflection is close to the upper bound, while in
other spans it is close to the lower bound. However, there are only a few locations where
the actual deflection deviates slightly from the predicted Design Envelope. This enve-
lope therefore provides a powerful tool for the design engineer and client to evaluate the
potential structural response. For this particular structure, the maximum midspan deflec-
tion predicted by the Design Envelope by 2003 is 145mm in span P14-P15 of Unit 3IB.
On a 110m span, this represents a deflection to span ratio of L/760, which would be con-
sidered acceptable for most highway viaducts. If the maximum predicted deflection were
considered excessive, additional camber could be added to the span during construction
to offset some of this potential deflection. In reality, this span deflected 100 mm over the
8-year period, representing only L/11 00.
The Design Envelope can now be used to predict the future performance of the
NHVV or any other bridge project. An example application to a proposed long-span
prestressed box-girder bridge over the Kealakaha Stream on the island of Hawaii is pre-
sented later in this paper. The Gardner/Bazant SFRAME model and the Design Envelope
can also be used to estimate other response parameters such as concrete strains, span
shortening and prestress losses as shown in the following sections.
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Long-term axial strains
Figure 11 shows the average strains measured by the vibrating wire strain gages in the
top and bottom slabs of midspan section A compared with the SFRAME predictions us-
ing the Gardner/Bazant model presented earlier. Similar comparisons were obtained for
the other instrumented sections. In general, the SFRAME model tended to over-predict
the long-term strains, however the shape of the predicted strain-time relationships are
very similar to those observed in the structure.
Span Shortening
Figure 12 shows good agreement between the span shortening from Pier P 11 to P 12
as measured by the extensometer, compared with the shortening predicted by the
SFRAME Gardner/Bazant Model. The Design Envelope provides a significant margin of
error against under- or over-prediction. The lower bound prediction could be used, along
with anticipated thermal movements, to develop a conservative estimate of the expansion
joint capacity required for the viaduct.
Tendon Prestress Loss
Figure 13 shows the reduction in prestress force for one of the span tendons as meas-
ured by a load cell installed below the prestress anchor during tendon installation. The
measured tendon force is compared with the SFRAME predictions using the Gard-
ner/Bazant Model and the Design Envelope. Although the envelope appears overly con-
servative for this load cell, this was not the case for all instrumented tendons. In general,
the Design Envelope provides a safety margin against both over- or under-estimation of
the actual tendon prestress force.
APPLICATION TO KEALAKAHA BRIDGE
A new post-tensioned box-girder bridge is to be built on the Island of Hawaii in 2004

(Figure 14). The lessons learned from the NHVV instrumentation system have been in-
corporated into the design of a seismic and long-term monitoring system for this new
bridge on the seismically active island. In addition to traditional accelerometers for seis-
mic monitoring, a strain-gage based deflection system has been developed to monitor dy-
namic deflections during ambient traffic flow and seismic ground shaking. This system
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will be augmented by a taut-wire baseline system similar to that used in the NHVV, but
with automated measurements using electronic displacement transducers (LVDTs). All
recorded data will be transmitted real-time to a data acquisition center at the University of
Hawaii for continuous monitoring.

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The long-term prediction model developed during the NHVV project has been used to
provide long-term creep and shrinkage predictions for use by HDR International in their
design of the Kealakaha Bridge (12). In addition, the Gardner/Bazant input model for
SFRAME has been applied to this structure to predict long-term vertical deflections and
overall bridge shortening as reported below.
Vertical Deflection Predictions
Figure 15 shows the vertical deflections predicted for the Kealakaha Bridge for 50 years
after construction. Figure 16 to Figure 18 show the deflection envelopes for the 1-year,
5-year and 50-year predictions. A range of :t 30% was used for creep and shrinkage pre-
dictions since short-term test data on the bridge concrete are not yet available. The pre-
dicted midspan deflection of 114 mm after 50 years represents a deflection ratio ofL/965.
The maximum lower bound estimate of 203 mm represents an acceptable deflection ratio
ofL/542.
Span Shortening
Figure 19 shows the total predicted span shortening for all three spans, resulting in an
overall shortening of the bridge structure. This prediction can be used, along with esti-
mates of thermal contraction, to verify the capacity of the expansion joints at each abut-
ment.
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Tendon Prestress Loss
Table 3 lists the predicted prestress loss for 6 tendons in the Kealakaha Stream
Bridge. These tendons represent both long and short span tendons in the end spans and
center span, and long and short cantilever tendons over one of the piers. The average
prestress loss predicted using SFRAME with the Gardner/Bazant model is 31 %. Figure
20 shows the predicted tendon prestress loss for tendon 39, a long span tendon in the cen-
ter span. At 50 years, the upper and lower bounds provide conservative estimates of the
possible maximum and minimum prestress force remaining in the tendon after all losses.
These estimates can then be used to adjust the initial prestress force if necessary, or pro-
vide open ducts for additional tendons in case they are needed in the future. If the mini-
mum prestress force predictions are adequate to ensure proper performance after 50
years, then such measures are not necessary.

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CONCLUSIONS
1 Original SFRAME design predictions of long-term vertical deflections for the North
Halawa Valley Viaduct differ significantly from the observed deflections. This is at-
tributed to increased creep and shrinkage compared with that anticipated during the
design phase, and variability in other material and environmental properties critical to
the long-term response.
2 Creep and shrinkage predictions based on interpolation from short-term test data pro-
vided improved predictions of the viaduct vertical deflections. However, a single set
of input data could not accurately predict the deflection response for all spans in the
viaduct.
3 This improved prediction model provided reasonable estimates of longitudinal con-
crete strains, span shortening, and prestress Joss.
4 A procedure is proposed for prediction of upper and lower bound response based on
anticipated ranges of material and environmental variables. This Design Envelope is
shown to encompass virtually all observed results for vertical deflection, span short-
ening and prestress loss.
5 Application of the Design Envelope to a future structure is demonstrated using the
Kealakaha Stream Bridge to provide preliminary estimates of vertical deflection, span
shortening and prestress loss.
6 The Vibrating Wire strain gages used in this instrumentation program proved ex-
tremely reliable for long-term monitoring.
7 The base-line system used for deflection measurements was reliable and accurate,
both for short-term and long-term monitoring. This system is being adapted for use
with automated LVDT measurements for installation in the Kealakaha Stream Bridge
during a future instrumentation program.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the considerable assistance received during this in-
strumentation program. The input of Scott Hunter and Jose Sanchez ofT. Y. Lin Interna-
tional and Henry Russell and Tom Weinmann of Construction Technology Laboratories
was crucial to the successful implementation of the NHVV instrumentation program.
The assistance of a number of graduate students at the University of Hawaii is also
greatly appreciated. In particular, Andre Lee's tireless efforts during instrument installa-
tion, and Michael Durbin's attention to detail during data processing.
This project was supported by funds from the Hawaii State Department of Transporta-
tion and the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. This
support is gratefully acknowledged. The contents of this paper reflect the views of the
authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein.
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The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the State of Ha-
waii, Department of Transportation, or the Federal Highway Administration.
REFERENCES
1. Banchik, C. and Khaled, N., North Halawa Valley Viaduct Design and Construction.
Concrete International16(3), 1994, pp. 39-43.
2. Ketchum, M. A., Redistribution of Stresses in Segmentally Erected Prestressed Con-
crete Bridges (SFRAME), Report UCB/SESM-86/07, 1986, Univ. of California, Berke-
ley.
3. Lee, A. and Robertson, I. N., Instrumentation and Long-Term Monitoring of the North
Halawa Valley Viaduct, Research Report UHM/CE/95-08, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu,
HI, Sept. 1995, pp. 149.
4. Ao, Weng C. and Robertson, Ian N., Investigation of Thermal Effects and Truck
Loading on the North Halawa Valley Viaduct, Research Report UHMICE/99-05, Univ. of
Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, July 1999, pp. 217.
5. CEB-90., CEB-FIP Model Code 90, Comite Euro-Intemational du Beton. Thomas
Telford Services, 1993.
6. Durbin, M.P. and Robertson, I. N., Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete- Use and Com-
parison of Current and Proposed Predictive Models in the H3 North Halawa Valley Via-
duct Project. Research Report UHMICE/98-04. Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, June
1998, pp. 130.
7. American Concrete Institute, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects
in Concrete Structures. ACI 209R-92, 1992.
8. Bazant, Z.P. and Baweja, S., Short Form of Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Model B3
for Structures of Medium Sensitivity, Materials and Structures V29, 1996, pp. 587-593.
9. Gardner, N.J. and Zhou, J.W., Shrinkage and Creep Revisited, ACI Materials Journal.
May-June, 1993, pp. 236-246.
10. Robertson, I. N., Correlation of Creep and Shrinkage Models with Field Observa-
tions. The Adam Neville Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage- Structural Design Effects,
SP 194-9, Akthem Al-Manaseer, Editor, American Concrete Institute, 2000, pp. 261-282.
I I. Li, Xianping and Robertson, Ian N ., Long-Term Performance Predictions of the
North Halawa Valley Viaduct. Research Report UHM/CEE/03-04, Univ. of Hawaii,
Honolulu, HI, June 2003, pp. 75.
12. Robertson, I. N. and Zaleski, A. B., Creep and Shrinkage Tests and Modeling for the
Kealakaha Stream Bridge. Report UHM/CE/98-02. Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, April
1998, pp. 100.
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Table 1: SFRAME input parameters for Gardner/Bazant Model
SFRAMEinputparameter Gardner/Bazant Model
Relative Humidity 85%
Creep scaling factor 1.3
Shrinkage scaling factor 0.7
Span prestressing force scalin_g factor 0.9
Cantilever and continuity tendon scaling factor 0.9
Table 2: SFRAME Input parameters for Design Envelope

SFRAME input parameter Lower bound Upper bound
Relative Humidity 80% 90%
Creep scaling factor 1.15 0.85
Shrinkage scaling factor 1.15 0.85
Span tendon scaling factor 0.85 1.05
Cantilever and continuity tendon scaling 0.90 1.05
factor
Table 3: Summary of predicted tendon force losses
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Tendon Tendon Force (kN) Prestress Loss
Tendon Description
No. DesiQn 50-Year kN %
1 3253 2411 842 26 End span lonQ tendon
2 3213 2442 771 24 End span short tendon
4 3378 2193 1185 35 Short cantilever tendon
19 3487 2363 1124 32 Long cantilever tendon
39 3283 2175 1108 34 Center span long tendon
54 3282 2135 1147 35 Center span short tendon
Figure I: Elevation of Unit 2IB of the NHVV showing instrumented sections, A to G

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t BOX GIRDER 6250mm
ALL 'MRES
\EXIT AT
\:AME
POINT
_ _ ,Ill #6
,2.
l-----'3"'50""5'":..::'m"----li-----'3"'5"'05::::m::.:m_ _~
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Figure 2: Vibrating wire strain gage locations at section B
(////(/~/////,)
E PULLEY f
~ MAG~~~~
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'MRE TAUT V>1RE Y>1RE
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PREaSION
CALIPSR
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Figure 3: Base-line Deflection System
UnH 218 • Deflec:tlon Predictions 1995-1997
I ..0 +---~-h+--~"----------'l.r----1
c
I ::r----------------------4
Loo t--------------1~;:=:::=~-!1
> -Optk:al Survey
-120 r--------------1 -•- Base-line Measurement
• 140 t--------------~--o .. TYLlniCEBPracllcllon

·160 L__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _:::======:::J
- Gardner/Bazant f'redlctlon
Figure 4: Deflection Predictions for Unit 2IB, 1995-1997
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Unit 218- Deflection l'nldlctions 1995-2003
e4o~--~~i~.,,~~~.-~~~----~~~,4~~--~
.5.
I -llO
~-80
i.1oo -1-----------"-----------------------------------l
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·120 -1-----------------------------i -.-optical &rvey
--.- Base-Line Measurements
-140 -1--------------------------------j ··D··lY Un/CEB Predldlan
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
•
160
L _________________::=·•=·Ga=rdn=er!Bazan=='=Pred=iCIJ=·on~
Figure 5: Deflection Predictions for Unit 2IB, 1995-2003
Unit 118- Deflection l'nldlctlons 1995-2003
e 40+----------~~~--------~~~------------~
.5.
i ::+----------------------------------------~
5
'li -100 +--------------------------------------1
>
-120 +-----------------------f-_:-:Optica:::;::.~~S;:-u-:-MI:--Y----,
-140 -1--------------------------J··D·· TY Un/CEB Prediction
-1eoL_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _:::::::::::=====:!..J
-Gardner!Bazant Prediction
Figure 6: Deflection Predictions for Unit liB- 1995-2003
Unit 318- Deflection l'nldlctions 1995-2003
_140 f-------------------i··•··lY lin/CEB Prediction

-GarclneriBazant Predk:tion
-160L-------------=======::J
Figure 7: Deflection Predictions for Unit 3IB - 1995-2003

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Unit 118 1995-2003 Enwlope
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-~~--+----+~--~~~c_~~~~+~~-+~~
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i ~+---------~-~~--------~~----------~
~ ~~----------~----------~~----------~
'B
~-100
L------------------f=~::Co;;;;pli;;;.cai;;;-;Su;;;:rv;;;ey;---l
-120
-140 .J------------------1" · · Upperbound Prediction I

1
L __________:::::==:::::::==:::==::...l
- Lowertlound Prediction ,
-160
Figure 8: Design Envelope for Unit liB vertical defl~ctions for 1995-2003
Unit 218 1995-2003 Envelope

20
-20
.
e.§. P7
~
:ll ~
I -1!0
1-100
-Optical Survey
·120
- •- Base-Line Measurements
-140 +----------------1 · · · Uppertlound Prediction

-~und Prediction
-160
Figure 9: Design Envelope for Unit 2IB vertical deflections for 1995-2003
Unit 318 1995-2003 Envelope
-~+4+-+-~~-~~~~-+~--J~~--44--~
I~~~--~~~~~----~~~~~~~~~~
g ~-~-----~~-#--------~~~--~/-----~
~~+----~~--~~----~
"B
'!! -100 +------+'"'--~--------1--1---------~
~
-1~ -l--------+--l---------hf-~--Op1l-ca-l5-u-rvey----,l
-140 +----~r-1-----------..Y..J· · · Uppe<bound Prediction
-160 L ___________.::::::::::::===:::J
- Lowertlound Prediction
Figure 10: Design Envelope for Unit 3IB vertical deflections for 1995-2003

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158 Robertson and li
Jar>-94 Jan-!le Jan-98 Jan-00 Jan-<12 Jan-04
ort----~----~----~==~~====~
-VWTopStrain
~SFRAME Top Strain
--VWBotStrain
·&ml~~~~r-------------------h==---~s~~~~B~ot~s~mo~··~Li
.~L-------------------------------------~
Figure 11: Top and Bottom Slab Concrete Strains at Section A
Jan-94 Jan-96 Jan-98 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04

or-~--~------~------~r=====~====~
- Extensometer
- Gardner/BazBnt Model
• • Upperbound Prediction
... ........ -Lowerbound Prediction

........................
·125 " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
Figure 12: Span Shortening from Pier Pll to Pl2.
Jan-94 Jan-96 Jan-98 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04

3000~-------------;:======::::::::;J
- Extensometer
- GardnerJBazant Model
2750 t-------------------------1 - • •Upperbound Prediction
-LDNerbound Prediction
2500+------------------------------------------1
~--·································
i
12250
.. 20001'~e~~~~~
1750 t-----------=:::::~="""-------=====1
1500 ..._______________________________________ __~
Figure 13: Prestress Loss for Load Cell 6.
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~
Plan
I \
/il
~ Sectio~
Eodspoo
®
I
tr
Figure 14: Layout of proposed Kealakaha Stream Bridge
Kaalakaha Bridge Vertical Deflecdon • GardneriBazant Model
~---------------------------------------.
-20
.
'E
!. -00
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
J -80
-100
-120
-140 -20-Yaar
-so-Year
-160
Figure 15: Deflection predictions for Kealakaha Stream Bridge

Vertical Deflection Envelope -1 Yeer
- t ~---o-oo00~:;7"" t -
I.oo
-20
-40
IAOUtmOrlt
I
Pieri "-----/
~
I
Pier2 ADUimenl<
j.:
'! -120
! -140
-160
-160
1 oo- Upperoound Prediction
[ -+- Gardner/Baumt Model
-200
I - L - . n d Prediction
-220
Figure 16: One-year deflection envelope

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Unit 318 • Dellocllcn l'nK.IIcllono 1995-2003
· 1 4 0 + - - - - - - - - - - - - - ; ··•·· TY Lin/CEB-
-GardnerJBazant Prediction
·1110l__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___!:======::!l
Figure 17: Five-year deflection envelope
Vertical Dolflecllon Envelope - 50 Year

20
t~···::;.:;Y t ~- /ir t ~--·,:;1f
I~ """""""
'--""
-
I \'\.'·. //f I
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a
'5 -120 \ '-,.../ I
! ~14() \ I
·160 \ I
·180
\ I •••Uppe_nd_
.;roo \ I -G...meriBazontModel
-~ndPreclletion
-220
Figure 18: Fifty-year deflection envelope
Overall Bridge Sho1111nlng

0
\'·..
""'•~.,.,.., a
...., •"'
....... . . . ~- ...... ---·~····,.·-*·--· ...........................
I l\
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-100
I
f
-150
\~
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-
• • • Uppelbound Pre<!lcllon
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1-L.owemound Prediction
-300
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
YearB
Figure 19: Bridge shortening envelope due to long-term effects

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Prestress Loss Pmllcllon • Tendon No.39 Awrage Force
~r-------------------~======~~
J· .. Uppe<bound p -
3250 ~--------------1~-Gardner/BazantModel
-Lowe<bound Prediction
~t--------------k==~======~
z
i 2750 .........
~ 2500 \ ............. ···~-----~----...--.!

12250 ' - - -
{! \
rooo~'----~---------------------------1
1750 +--------=="""'-------------4
1500~-----------------------------~
0 10 20 30 40 50
Years
Figure 20: Prestress loss prediction envelope for center span long tendon
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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-8
Tension Cracking in Columns Under

Compression Loads
by D. J. Carreira
Synopsis: Reinforced concrete columns under compression loads and under little or no
moment may exhibit cracking. Some cracks develop at early ages and others years later
under sustained axial loads or no significant loads at all. Flexural cracking may be
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expected from externally applied loads on columns within the tension-controlled zone in
the axial load-moment diagram. However, for columns within the compression-controlled
zone of the diagram, cracking is not normally expected to occur under allowable service
loads. Concrete shrinkage and creep, temperature variations and loading history cause all
these cracks. In this paper, the causes of these cracks are described, analyzed and
illustrated with photos of cracked columns. Design and construction recommendations to
prevent or reduce these cracks are provided.
Keywords: cracking in columns; creep; loading history; longitudinal

cracks; shrinkage; temperature variations; transverse cracks
163
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164 Carreira
ACI Fellow D. J. Carreira is a consulting civil and structural engineer and an adjunct
professor of Civil Engineering at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, IL. He
is a member and past chairman of ACI Committee 209, Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete,
of ACI Committee 301, Specifications for Concrete, Chairman of its Sub Committee A,
and ACl Committee 439, Steel Reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
Cracking in reinforced concrete members occur when principal tension stresses

exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. Therefore under certain conditions, it may be
seen paradoxically that columns under service axial and quasi-axial compression loads
exhibit cracks normal to or at an angle with the assumed uniformly distributed
longitudinal compression stress.
Cracks in columns under axial compression loads may form transversely or

parallel to the column longitudinal directions. Intuitively, there should be no tension
longitudinal stresses in these columns under compression service loads. It is normal to
expect that applied moments, shear forces, horizontal displacements and buckling cause
columns cracking. However, cracks considered in this paper develop even under axial
load alone in the absence of moments, shear forces and buckling from externally applied
loads, of corrosion or any concrete pathology. In general, these cracks do not jeopardize
the structural capacity of the column.
TYPES OF CRACKS
This paper considers five types of cracks in reinforced concrete columns under
compressive axial load caused by concrete creep and shrinkage, by the cement heat of
hydration, by ambient temperature changes and by unloading. These cracks develop in
addition to the expected common flexural cracks in the tension-controlled zone of
columns axial load-moment diagrams. They are classified based on their predominant
cause as follows:
1. Unloading Cracks. Through transverse cracks across the section of axially loaded
columns in compression after a significant portion of their allowable service
sustained load is removed while remaining under partial service compression axial
load.
2. Cracks in Thick Columns Under Light Loads. Shallow-to-deep transverse cracks
in thick columns under light axial compression loads compared to their allowable
maximum service axial load.
3. Cracks in Heavily Reinforced Columns. Shallow-to-through transverse cracks in
heavily reinforced concrete columns. Extreme cracking conditions occur in
composite compression members with heavy structural steel shapes.
4. Cracks from Heat of Hydration. Shallow-to-deep longitudinal cracks occur in
thick columns regardless of their longitudinal reinforcement ratio and loading
history.
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5. Cracks from Imposed Displacements. Diagonal deep to through cracks in columns
in structures supporting post-tensioned floor slab systems and beams.
It is common to observe more than one type of crack in a column, since their causes are
common and in many situations they are not mutually exclusive.
SHRINKAGE AND THERMAL GRADIENTS
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A discussion of the effects of shrinkage and thermal strain gradients in plain
concrete is needed to better understand how the concrete volume changes cause concrete
columns and walls to crack. These strain gradients are non-linear and vary with time.
Shrinkage strain gradients evolve slowly when compared with the thermal gradients.
Carlson (1) and Pickett (2) defined the shrinkage strain gradients in terms of the
equivalent thermal gradients by substituting the thermal constants and parameters with
those of shrinkage. Shrinkage gradients shapes are similar to thermal gradients, except
that their time scale is measured in days and years rather than in minutes and hours for
the thermal.
Let's consider simple examples of (schematic shrinkage symmetric strain)
gradients in walls. One-dimension walls are simpler compared to the two dimensions in
columns. Figure I shows a wall4 ft (1219 mm) thick (3) with a steel liner on one side,
which from the drying shrinka~e standpoint is equivalent to an 8 ft (2438 mm) wall
drying from the two opposite surfaces. Figure 2 shows shrinkage gradients in a wall 40
in (1016 mm) thick, and Figure 3 a wall 16 in (406 mm) thick. Shrinkage gradients in
these figures correspond to an environment with constant humidity and temperature.
Figure 4 shows an asymmetric temperature gradient across a nuclear

containment wall 15 minutes after the Loss Of Coolant Accident, (LOCA). The heat
input varies with time from the surface with the steel liner (3).
Once the strains or thermal nonlinear gradients are known, Reference 3 provides
a procedure to consider their effects in the structural analysis of concrete members. The
Equivalent Linear Gradient (ELG) in Reference (3) models nonlinear and
nonsymmetrical strain or thermal gradients in terms of their three additive components.
They are; the axial, the curvature and the local strain or temperature components. Line I-
2 is the ELG in Figure 4 from temperature at liner surface, Tei to the outside face
temperature, Teo·
The axial strain or temperature component is the longitudinal strain or

temperature at section centroid in an externally unrestrained concrete member. The axial
temperature is shown as Ta in Figure 4. The increment of the axial temperature, ~T. is
referred to the linear normal steady-state operating temperature gradient before the
accident. Areas between the ELG and the actual strain or temperature gradient above and
below the ELG must be equal to satisfy equilibrium of internal forces from internal
restraints.

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166 Carreira
Curvature from strain or temperature is the unit rotation of the plane section
from the nonlinear gradient referred to a horizontal plane. Angle ~ in Figure 4 is the
curvature and ,:1~ is the change in curvature referred to the linear steady-state normal
operating temperature gradient prior the accident.
Externally restrained axial and the curvature strain or temperature components

must be considered in structural analysis. Shrinkage and temperature linear gradients are
input as temperature gradients in terms of the axial and curvature components of the
ELG. Linear thermal gradients are within the capability of most commercial structural
analysis programs. Concrete creep relaxes moment and force effects from these
gradients, (11), (12).
Local temperatures, T1c or shrinkage strains, E1c are the difference between the
actual nonlinear gradient and the ELG. Line 3-4 in Figure 4 is the local temperature
gradient in the vicinity of the steel liner from heat input. Local temperatures or strains
produce neither axial strain nor curvature changes on externally unrestrained members
because they depend only on the internal restraints. However, they affect the member
stiffness by the resulting cracking when local tension stresses exceed the tensile strength
of the concrete.
There is no curvature component in Figures 2 and 3 since all the gradients are
symmetric. Comparing the increment in the axial component, L1Ea from 28 days to 1.4
year in Figures 2, and to one year in Figure 3 shows larger axial shrinkage strain
components as the thickness of the wall decreases, and larger local strain components as
the section thickness increases. The size and shape function in the mathematical
prediction models of the axial shrinkage and creep strains accounts for the increment of
the axial component of the ELG.
During testing for creep, shrinkage and temperature changes, strains are
measured on the surface of the test specimen or internally as described in Reference 15.
Externally applied strain gages on the sides of the specimens measure a combination of
the axial and local strain components. Embedded axial strain gages and external strain
gages at the ends of the longitudinal axis on prismatic specimens mainly measure the
axial strain component.
CRACKING OF CONCRETE
Concrete Restraints
Principal stresses develop when restraints prevent concrete strains or

displacements. Cracking occurs when principal tension stresses exceed the concrete
tensile capacity. External restraints depend ori the member boundary conditions. Internal
restraints depend on the concrete section dimensions and shape, and on the ratio and
location of the steel reinforcement or embedded structural steel members.
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In Figure 4, concrete internal restraint produces local compressive stresses from
points 3 to 5 along line 1-2. To satisfy equilibrium, the compressive stresses volume
must equal the tensile stress volumes within points 1-4-3 and 2-5-6.
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Most structural design cracking analyses refer to the external restraints and
externally applied loads, and ignore the internal restraints and local stresses. ACI
Committee 207 (I 0) addresses the effects of the non-linear cooling gradients from the
cement heat of hydration in the design and construction of massive structures. Wall
thickness in nuclear power plants, (3 to 8 ft or 76 to 203 mrn) are thicker than in most
common concrete structures but by far thinner than those in dams and other massive
structures as shown in Figure 5. For nuclear containments and similar structures,
Committees ACI 349 (7), and ACI 359 (8) present design approaches for the thermal
loads on such reinforced concrete structures.
Concrete cracks when the value of the combined strains from applied loads;
internal and external restraints exceed the tensile cracking strain. Cracks widen with time
from the combined effects of concrete creep, shrinkage and the seasonal and daily
thermal actions.
Figure 5 shows temperature gradients from seasonal and daily changes (10) in a
massive wall. Since temperature seasonal changes occur during one year, relaxation from
concrete creep reduces the stresses with time. Cracks develop as concrete ages since the
modulus of elasticity increases with age while creep decreases. This explains the initial
delay in the development of cracks from seasonal temperature cycles and early
development of thermal cracking.
Concrete is exposed to thousand of daily temperature variation cycles during its

service life. Daily temperature cycles in Figure 5 with ranges of 36 "F (20 °C) and higher
combined with the seasonal temperature cycles and shrinkage crack the concrete.
Effects of Concrete Creep on Shrinkage and Thermal Stresses
Concrete creep relaxes stresses from restrained thermal and shrinkage strains.
As concrete ages the relaxation effect of the creep reduces. In relatively thin members
the effect of the fast cooling from the cement heat of hydration on the development of
concrete maturity is limited. Therefore, the short duration dissipation of the heat of
hydration has a small effect on reducing the high early concrete creep. Hence, the high
early creep relaxes the early thermal and the early shrinkage induced stresses. Cracking
in thin members from external restraints occurs at later ages as concrete dries and it is
exposed to thermal cycles.
In thick members, the autogenous or self-produced curing from the cement heat
of hydration accelerates the rate of strength and modulus of elasticity development, while
reducing the early and final creep. Hence, as the member thickness increases, the
beneficial stress relaxation from early creep of the thermal and early shrinkage induced

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168 Carreira
stresses reduces. Thus, cracking of thick members from internal restraints is first
observed at early ages.
Relaxation of stresses from external restraints is addressed in Chapter 5 of ACI

209R-92 (11) and in Reference 12. However, the treatment of the effects of creep on
stresses from internal restraints is not well known. The problem is further complicated
by the effects of the cement heat of hydration on early creep, shrinkage, strength and
modulus of elasticity. The treatment of relaxation from external restraints may not be
equally applicable to those from internal restraints.
The analysis of the interaction of the cement heat of hydration on early creep,
shrinkage, strength and modulus of elasticity is beyond the scope of this paper. These
interaction topics need further research.
Concrete Strain at Crack Initiation
Concrete strain at crack initiation depends on numerous conditions, such as

mixture proportions, materials characteristics, dimensions and shape of the structural
member, curing and environmental conditions.
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Based on the findings and suggestion from M. E. FitzGibbon in 1976, Reference
6 shows that a temperature difference of 20 °C, (36 °F) with a coefficient of thermal
expansion of 10 x 10-6/ °C, (5.5 x 10-6/ °F) results in a differential strain of 200 !!E. This
is a realistic estimate of the tensile strain at crack initiation in concrete test specimens
under short duration loads. Concrete coefficient of thermal expansion, strength, modulus
of elasticity, creep and relaxation vary with the concrete temperature and age. Therefore,
the tensile strength and the strain at cracking vary widely in technical literature even for
short duration testing at constant temperature and moisture content.
Cement content in concrete mixtures used in columns may exceed 840 lb/yd 3
(500 kg/m 3) with the cement ground very fine, (Blaine 450 to 600 m2/kg). Hence, the
nonlinear thermal gradients from heat of hydration and subsequent cooling could easily
generate temperature differentials of 40 °C (72 °F) and higher during cooling. Therefore,
the initial cracking could occur at early ages even for cross sections 20 in. (500 mrn)
thick or less. During cold weather construction, thermal shock will crack the concrete
during and after formwork removal, since the concrete with an early high elastic modulus
is still very hot.
Local shrinkage and thermal strains of 400 to 600 !!E are common at concrete
surface of thick members and they will open the initial thermal cracks. Subsequent
nonlinear cooling in winter will add to crack width.
Initial curing temperatures during cold weather construction techniques

compound the heating of the concrete during mixing with the use of antifreeze
admixtures to accelerate strength. Development of high early strength prevents concrete

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from freezing and allows for the early removal of form work and shoring. However, high
initial concrete temperatures are the cause of thermal shock and subsequent cracking.
Local strains from drying exceeding 200 J.1E occur in Figure 1 at the 4 ft (1219
mm) thick wall, after 28 days and before one year after drying. Shrinkage strains
combine with those from the cooling of the heat ofhydration and accelerate the cracking
development and widening. These cracks are common and conspicuous in nuclear
containment walls and in thick columns. They develop between one and four months
after concrete placement depending on placing temperature, the environmental conditions
and section thickness.
Observed crack spacing up to 5 ft. (1524 mm) varies depending on wall

thickness or column smallest dimension. These cracks occur in both, the horizontal and
vertical directions. Since the cracks are caused by the local strains at the surface and they
increase with time, these cracks will not fully close after post tensioning or loading.
These cracks are common in nuclear containment walls with steel liner on the interior
surface and thickness from 4 to 5 ft (1219 to 1524 mm), and on the thick columns
supporting the turbine-generator foundations in power plants.
For the 40 in. (1016 mm) thick wall in Figure 2, cracking from shrinkage alone may
occur as early as at 28 days. The effect of cooling from the cement heat of hydration on
cracking in a 16 in. (406.4 mm) thick wall is smaller than in a 40 in. (1016 mm) thick
wall, because of the increased time lag between the thermal and shrinkage strain
gradients in the thinner wall. By the time shrinkage local strains may produce local
cracking, the stresses from the heat of hydration are relaxed by creep and cracking.
Tensile strains between 28 days and one year in Figures 2 and 3 are high enough to
produce local cracking.
Time lag between the cooling gradients and the development of significant
autogenous shrinkage and local drying shrinkage strains decreases as the column or wall
thickness increases. Usually the cement heat of hydration initiates most cracks, and
subsequently they are further widened by the drying shrinkage.
In thin members the dissipation of the heat of hydration is fast and the drying
shrinkage nonlinear gradients are very flat. Conversely, in thick members, the dissipation
of the heat of hydration is slow and the initial development of internal restraints on
nonlinear gradients is fast.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Different combinations of column loading history, concrete restraints on

shrinkage and thermal strains, and the concrete strain at crack initiation explain cracking
development from thick members to thin members.
Type 1 cracks can be analyzed based on accepted Mathematical models.

Models are needed to quantifying crack width and spacing of crack Types 2 to 5.

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170 Carreira
TYPE 1 UNLOADING CRACKS
These transverse cracks occur in columns under sustained compression axial

loads close to their maximum allowable service load, Ps after a significant portion of their
sustained service load is removed. Once cracks have occurred they remain open under
the remaining compressive axial load. The combined effects of the loading history with
the concrete creep and shrinkage cause these cracks. They occur even in the absence of
external and internal restraints. Figure 6 shows schematically typical Type 1 Cracks.
Transverse-through-section cracks show all around the column perimeter.

Initially they are uniform in thickness and are spaced at one to two times the smaller
cross section dimension. After they occur, the remaining compression load on the
column is supported entirely by the reinforcing bars across the cracks. Nonlinear
shrinkage and temperature gradients widen these cracks with time.
Examples of columns with Type 1 transverse unloading cracks are:
Columns supporting silos or warehouses where heavy live loads were sustained
for a long time such that significant creep and shrinkage have occurred prior to
the live load removal. They occur in columns of old multistory warehouse
structures converted to loft apartments.
• An extreme case of these cracks occurs in drilled concrete pier foundations

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(caissons) and in piles after loads they supported were removed.
The author became first aware of these cracks during the evaluation of clinker
and cement silos scheduled for demolition in 1965 because silo walls exhibited severe
chloride corrosion after more than 40 years of seashore exposure. Surprisingly the light
crossed through the columns cracks despite that they were supporting the total design
dead load of the silos. Furthermore, no significant corrosion damage was observed on
those columns
Early in the 1970's Professor Dr. Chester P. Siess described in his class at the
University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, similar cracks in columns supporting grains
silos in Illinois and Indiana after seasonal unloading.
A detailed example calculation of Type 1 Cracks is shown in the Appendix. In
this example nonlinear strain gradients as well as the temperature contribution are
ignored. Several case studies, not included in this paper, show the stress in reinforcement
remains elastic after a long time under sustained load very close to the unfactored loads
corresponding to their nominal strength. This condition is typical for most column
sections tabulated in the CRSI Manual (9).
Under sustained loads, concrete creep and shrinkage strains transfer the load in
the concrete to the reinforcement. This is why it is recommended to limit the force in the
reinforcement by p ~ 4.0 % or Asfy ~ 0.4 Ac:f c· Cracking of concrete after unloading
releases tension stresses at each crack location. After removal of sustained load and

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subsequent cracking, the reinforcement in compression supports all the dead load, P ,0 and
all remaining loads at crack locations without any help from concrete. Local shrinkage
strains at concrete surface widen Type 1 cracks after they develop.
Concrete creep and shrinkage are the main causes of column tension cracking
after removal of sustained live load. Creep significantly relaxes the concrete stress from
externally applied loads and from shrinkage.
Once cracks open they don't fully close back even if the initial service load Psis
re-applied. Unrecoverable creep and shrinkage strains, local shrinkage strain near the
concrete surface and dislodged concrete fragments keep cracks open.
Reinforcement with a low yield stress, fy may yield in columns under sustained
loads for a long period of time if concrete has high creep and shrinkage.
Recommendations to Avoid or Reduce the Occurrence of Type 1 Cracks
Design concrete mixture to minimize creep and shrinkage.
Delay the application of the sustained superimposed loads until aging has
reduced the concrete potential creep and shrinkage.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Design column with a reinforcement ratio p :S 4% or Asfy :S 0.4 Acf c·
Reinforcement ratios higher than 4% may result in Type 3 cracks.
INTRODUCTION TO TYPE 2 CRACKS TO TYPE 4 CRACKS
Cracks Type 2, 3 and 4 are caused by the internal restraints of concrete tensile
strains. These internal restraints are from the reinforcement and embedded structural
steel shapes, and from the concrete nonlinear strain gradients. Combinations of
conditions such as the dimensions and shape of the columns, reinforcement ratio, the
cement heat of hydration and thermal shock during form removal define the type of
cracking. Specific combinations of similar causes differentiate crack Type 2, 3 and 4
from each other.
TYPE 2 CRACKS IN THICK COLUMN UNDER LIGHT LOAD
Type 2 Cracks are shallow-to-deep transverse cracks in thick columns under

light sustained axial compression service loads compared to their allowable maximum
service axial load. They are observed on bridge piers in non-seismic zones with
minimum reinforcement ratios and designed not to exceed an axial nominal load capacity
ofO.lO fcA 8 •
Since these columns are oversized for the loads they support, their reinforcement
ratio is usually low, 0.005 < p :S 0.1. In addition, large diameter bars are used to facilitate

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172 Carreira
construction. Type 2 cracks in columns are caused by the combination ofthe non-linear
strain gradients from the cooling of the cement heat of hydration, drying shrinkage, the
early development of the concrete modulus of elasticity, Ec;, and the small compression
strains from applied loads that cannot offset the local tensile stresses from nonlinear
strain gradients.
Type 2 cracks commonly occur in thick columns supporting bridges and are
wider in dry environments. Figure 7 shows however a typical pier supporting an exit
ramp of a viaduct in Northern Illinois. Cross section is 3'-6" by 5'-4" (1067 by 1626
mrn), is 16'-4" (4978 mm) high with 20 No. 10 (No. 32) bars, 7L-5S and p = 1%.
Concrete was placed in late November 1999. Figure 8 shows a close-up view of one of
the Type 2 crack on this pier. Maximum crack width is toward the comer and in summer,
it is 0.012 in. (0.30 mm) wide.
Similar cracks occur in prestressed and post tensioned members, but they are
difficult to detect not long after the prestressing force transfer to the concrete because of
the high compressive stress in concrete from prestressing force and high early creep (13).
In precast prestressed members similar cracks are attributed to the axial thermal
contraction of concrete after overnight steam curing while the prestressed strands restrain
concrete. Cracking increases with longer spans, larger cross section dimensions, higher
placing and curing temperatures, higher temperature differentials at end of curing, and
with the shortening of the length of exposed strands between beams. In precast
prestressed members there often are two to four cracks within the middle portion of the
beam (13).
In post-tensioned members they occur if prestressing is delayed waiting for the

development of the concrete specified strength or after using high curing temperatures
prior to post-tensioning.
Transverse Type 2 Cracks occur around the column perimeter and in most --`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
instances they started at the comers of the columns. They are uniform in thickness and
are spaced from two to three times the smaller dimension of the column cross-section but
usually not farther apart than 4ft. (1219 mm). After the development of transverse Type
2 Cracks, longitudinal Type 4 cracks may occur in columns thicker than 5 ft. (1524 mm).
The limited amount of reinforcement and large bar diameters cannot distribute
the local strain gradients to avoid or reduce cracking. The author recommended the use
of skin reinforcement in columns and walls for crack control since the late 1970's, but it
is not used systematically to his knowledge.
Design concrete mixture to minimize creep and shrinkage as well as the effects
of the cement heat of hydration.

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Use of wire mesh as uniformly distributed skin reinforcement.
Avoid thermal shock at time of form removal.
TYPE 3 CRACKS IN HEAVILY REINFORCED COLUMNS
Type 3 cracks are shallow-to-through transverse cracks in heavily reinforced

concrete columns and in composite compression members with structural steel shapes.
ACI 3I8-02 Code Section I O.I6. 7.4 limits the reinforcement ratio to 8%
maximum in columns for economic and placement reasons. A maximum ratio of 4% is
recommended to reduce congestion from splices. Limiting the reinforcement ratio
reduces the transfer of the permanent loads stresses from the concrete to the
reinforcement. This can be analytically proven following the same procedure used to
illustrate the Type I Cracks in the Appendix.
Type 3 cracks occur in thick bridge reinforced concrete columns in Seismic

Zones IV. These columns are designed for seismic lateral loads and therefore they are
heavily reinforced, while they support very light axial permanent loads. Figure 9 shows
the reinforcement in a bridge column during construction in early 2004 and a circular
column supporting the elevated bridge. The circular column was prefabricated and steam
cured, which reduces shrinkage but is prone to thermal shock. Figure I 0 shows the Type
3 cracks observed on the circular column in Figure 9. Despite the paint, cracks are
visible to the naked eye.
In composite compression members, the structural steel shape and the additional
reinforcing bars carry most of the dead load and the sustained live loads, even if the
concrete is designed to resist portions of the dead and permanent loads. Steel shapes in
composite columns at the lower stories of high-rise buildings are designed to carry all the
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dead loads and most of the gravity live loads, while the concrete is designed to resist the
short duration wind and seismic loads.
Safety factors keep the steel shapes elastic under service loads, which in
combination with the concrete creep and shrinkage relax any compressive stress in the
concrete by transferring the load to the steel. Nonlinear temperature gradients from the
cooling of temperatures from the cement heat of hydration initiates cracking early in the
concrete life and well before loads are applied to the column. Nonlinear shrinkage strain
gradients internally restrained by the steel shape and the reinforcing bars gradually
further open the initial thermal cracks.
Typical Type 3 cracks in composite columns are shown in Figures 11-14.

Columns in Figures 11-13 were built in the late 1950's and received many layers of paint.
Despite the layers of paint the cracks can be seen with the naked eye. Composite column
in Figure 14 was built in the 1970's and supports light loads.

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174 Carreira
Recommendations to A void or Reduce the Occurrence of Type 3 Cracks
Design concrete mixture to minimize creep and shrinkage as well as the effects
of the cement heat of hydration. See recommendations under Type 4 Cracks.
In composite compression members with structural steel shapes, use skin

reinforcement uniformly distributed in the form of wire mesh. Uniformly
distribute the longitudinal reinforcing bars with closely spaced stirrups.
TYPE 4 CRACKS FROM HEAT OF HYDRATION
Type 4 cracks are shallow-to-deep cracks occurring in thick columns regardless

of their longitudinal reinforcement ratio and loading history. Most common cracks are
longitudinal cracks in thick columns, however horizontal cracks and inclined cracks are
also common, depending on the dimensions, shape and restraints of the column.
Type 4 cracks are mainly caused by the concrete internal restraint of the local
tensile stress from nonlinear temperature gradients during cooling of the cement heat of
hydration. Autogenous shrinkage first and drying shrinkage later continue to widen the
original thermal cracks.
High mixing and placing temperatures accelerate concrete curing as they

increase the cement hydration temperature and its rate of development. Accelerated
curing generates high early strength and high elastic modulus, Eci with a drastic reduction
in creep. Thus, concrete internal restraint develops very fast resulting in high early
tensile stress. Early reduction of creep prevents the benefit of the stress relaxation by the
otherwise high initial early creep.
In cold weather construction, the thermal shock from the early removal of the
forms accentuates crack development. ACI 301 Specification, Section 8.3.2.4 "Control
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of concrete surface temperature" (15) requires cooling the temperature of the concrete
gradually so that the drop in concrete surface temperature during and at the conclusion of
the curing period does not exceed 20 °F (12.5 °C) in any 24-hr. period. Without specific
instructions, this provision is difficult to enforce.
Since heavy axial loads define design of columns in high-rise structures, high
strength concrete is used to reduce cross section dimensions. High strength concrete
mixture proportions with high content of cement generate high early heat of hydration,
high early elastic modulus and the development of related cracking.
Massive member dimensions and exposure conditions addressed in References 7

and 10 are more critical than most of the concrete columns in high-rise buildings.
Building structure designers and concrete suppliers mainly focus on the compressive
strength, and frequently ignore the effects of the heat of hydration, autogenous and drying
shrinkage with the resulting Type 4 cracks.

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Figures 15-17 show typical Type 4 cracks in two columns in one of the
basements of a high-rise structure built in the early 1960's. The diameter of the columns
varies from 6 to 7 ft ( 1829 to 2134 mm) and their height is 8' -8" (2642 mm ). All the
columns in the basement have at least two of these cracks and most of the wide cracks are
vertical or slightly skewed from vertical. The exposure of these garage columns ts
interior, underground and ventilated with no heating or air conditioning.
Figure 15 shows one of the two vertical Type 4 cracks in this column with the
vertical crack at center of the photo and two cracks at the sides just above the painted
border. There is a horizontal crack 0.08 in (2 mm) wide all around the perimeter just
above the sign. There is one horizontal crack at the left of the vertical crack and one
inclined crack going up at its right side. Masked by layers of paint the crack width is
approximately 0.010 in. (0.25 mm). A closed-up view of the vertical crack is shown in
Figure 16. Crack width varies from 7/32 to 9/32 inches, (6 to 7 mm) in spite of the
numerous paint layers.
Figure 17 shows two of the four Type 4 cracks in another column of the same
basement; one is wide and inclined, while the other is vertical and thinner.
Figure 18 shows the Type 4 Cracks on a circular column with a northern exterior
exposure. No corrosion was observed despite the width of the cracks. All the columns in
this building show these cracks highlighted by the blast finish. The non-linear thermal
gradients from the cement hydration combined with the autogenous, drying shrinkage
gradients and thermal shock explain the development of these cracks.
Vertical cracks in Figures 15-17 are wider at the bottom of the column than on
the top, because of the external restraint of the older concrete at the lower floor compared
with the externally unrestrained fresh concrete at the top during construction. The heat
could dissipate faster from the unformed top surface of the column than from the formed
surfaces and from the bottom in contact with older concrete. Chapter 4 in Reference 10
discusses in detail the cracking from thermal stresses in massive concrete members from
the effects of the internal and external restraints, and how to prevent them from
happening.
To avoid or to reduce the occurrence of these cracks, the effects of the cement
heat of hydration and of the autogenous shrinkage must be reduced. The following
reduces the effects ofthe cement heat of hydration:
Reduce the cement content in the concrete mixture. Substitution of cement with
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fly ash will reduce the heat of hydration and delay the early development of
strength and modulus of elasticity. Fly ash substitution increases creep thus
benefiting crack reduction.

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176 Carreira
Delay the reference age for the specified compressive strength, f c from 28 days
to 56 or 91 days. This recommendation and the use of fly ash must be
complimented by extending concrete curing, otherwise strength may not develop
as expected compared with that of the test specimens cured in the laboratory.
Avoid the use of accelerating admixtures.
Reduce concrete placing temperature to 45 °F (7 .2 °C) or lower will reduce

cement content, improve workability and delay development of heat of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
hydration.
Prevent thermal shock at form removal in accordance to ACI 301 Specification,

Section 8.3.2.4 "Control of concrete surface temperature" ( 15).
Use wire mesh as skin reinforcement and well-distributed longitudinal

reinforcement with closely spaced spirals or ties to distribute the cracks around
the perimeter of the columns thus reducing their width.
Effects of Crack Type 1 to 4 on the Structural Behavior of the Columns
There is no evidence of any adverse effect of these cracks in the behavior of

columns with Type 1 to 4 cracks examined. As long as ties and spiral reinforcement
provide the necessary confinement for the longitudinal reinforcement and concrete, no
degradation of the structural capacity of the column is expected. Injecting cracks wider
than 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) with a polymer resin is recommended to reduce the possibility of
corrosion.
TYPE 5 CRACKS FROM IMPOSED DISPLACEMENTS
Type 5 cracks are diagonal through cracks in columns of structures with post-
tensioned floor slab systems and beams. These cracks are caused by the principal tensile
stresses from imposed lateral displacement on the externally restrained column by the
post tensioning of the slab systems and the lack of appropriate shear reinforcement in the
columns in addition to ties and spirals.
These cracks share with the other four types of cracks that they are caused by
the concrete shrinkage and creep, and by the temperature changes of the floor system.
However, an external displacement is imposed on the column by the floor system
shortening from elastic, creep, shrinkage and temperature strains. Figure 19 shows a
Type 5 Crack in a column at the ramp of a parking structure.
Reference 16 discusses in detail the effects of these cracks in the structural behavior of
the columns, and how to design and built post-tensioned slab systems to minimize the
occurrence of Type 5 Cracks.

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CONCLUSIONS
This paper explores five crack types caused by combinations of the following
factors: concrete shrinkage and creep, cement heat of hydration, ambient temperature
changes, loading history, external and internal restraints, reinforcement ratio and concrete
section shape and dimensions.
Type I cracks are transverse through cracks all around the column perimeter.
These cracks develop after a significant portion of the column allowable sustained service
load is removed. Concrete creep and shrinkage strains transfer the load in the concrete to
the reinforcement. Also, they are expanded by column restraints, reinforcement provided
and ambient conditions, but they are primarily caused by the column load history.
Type 2, 3 and 4 cracks develop when non-linear strain gradients from shrinkage,
heat of hydration and ambient temperature cycles are internally restrained.
Type 2 cracks are shallow-to-deep transverse cracks in thick columns lightly

reinforced and under light axial compression loads compared to their allowable service
axial load. These cracks develop when compressive strains from applied loads cannot
offset the tensile strains from the concrete internal restraint due to the nonlinear heat of
hydration and shrinkage strain gradients.
Type 3 cracks are shallow-to-through transverse cracks in heavily reinforced

concrete columns and in composite columns. Restraint of concrete by reinforcement and
embedded structural steel sections is the primary cause of these cracks: Extreme cracking
conditions occur in composite compression members with heavy structural steel shapes
and thin concrete dimensions.
Type 4 cracks are shallow-to-deep longitudinal cracks in thick columns

regardless of their longitudinal reinforcement ratio and loading history. The primary
cause of these cracks is the concrete internal restraint of the tensile local strains from
nonlinear temperature gradients during cooling of the cement heat of hydration.
Type 5 cracks are diagonal deep to through cracks in columns in structures with
post-tensioned floor slab systems and beams. Columns are horizontally displaced by the
floor system shortening from the elastic, creep, shrinkage and temperature strains. They
generate principal tensile stresses and these cracks.
It is common to observe more than one type of crack in a column, since in many
conditions their causes are not mutually exclusive.
For structural analysis, non-linear strain gradients are modeled in terms of the
Equivalent Linear Gradient (ELG) three temperature or strain components. That is, the
axial, the curvature and the local components. To account for the external restraints,
temperature and shrinkage linear gradients are input in commercial programs of structural
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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178 Carreira
analysis as linear temperature gradients in terms of the axial and curvature components of
the ELG. Local stresses are added to those from the analysis output.
The analysis of the interaction of the cement heat of hydration on early creep,
shrinkage, strength and the modulus of elasticity is beyond the scope of this paper and
needs further research.
Recommendations to avoid or reduce these cracks include the following
Design concrete mixtures to minimize the effects of concrete creep and

shrinkage, and the cement heat of hydration. -
Delay the application of the sustained superimposed loads until concrete aging
has reduced the potential creep and shrinkage effects.
Column reinforcement ratio should be less than 4% or Asfy ~ 0.4 Acf c·
In heavily reinforced sections and in composite compression members with

structural steel shapes, use skin reinforcement like wire mesh.
Prevent thermal shock during and after form removal.
REFERENCES
1. Carlson, R., W., Drying Shrinkage of Large Concrete Members," Proceeding of the
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, Vol. 33, 1937, pp. 327-336.
2. Pickett, G,. "Shrinkage Stresses in Concrete," Journal of the American Concrete

Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, Vol. 17, January 1946, pp. 165-204 and February
1946, pp. 361-398.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Walser, A. and Carreira D. J., "Analysis of Concrete Containments for Nonlinear

Strain Gradients," Fifth International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor
Technology, Paper 13/7, Berlin, West Germany, November 1980, pp. 77-83.
4. Bruegger, J-P., "Methods of Analysis of the Effects of Creep in Concrete

Structures," a Master Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Toronto, Canada, August 1974.
5. Committee I 05, "Reinforced Concrete Column Investigation-Tentative Final Report

of Committee 105," ACI Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, Proceedings V. 29, No.5, Feb. 1933, pp. 275-282.
6. Neville, A. M., "Properties of Concrete," Forth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1996,844 pp.

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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7. ACI Committee 349, "Reinforced Concrete Design for Thermal effects on Power
Plants Structures," (ACI 349.1R-91 ), American Concrete Institute Farmington Hills,
MI, pp. 30.
8. ACI Committee 359, "Code for the Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments,"
(ACI 359-01 ), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. This Code is the
section III, Div. 2 of the BPV Code of the ASME.
9. CRSI DESIGN HANDBOOK 2002, 91h Edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel

Institute, Schaumburg, IL, 648 pp., 350 pages on CD ROM.
10. ACI Committee 207, "Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforcement on
Cracking of Mass Concrete," (ACI 207.2R-95), R-2002, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 26 pp.
11. ACI Committee 209, "Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in
Concrete Structures," (ACI 209R-92), American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 47 pp.
12. Chiorino, M. A. "Principles for a Rational Viscoelastic Analysis of Concrete

Structures," ACC. Sc. Torino-Memorie Sc. Fis., 24 (2000), MECCANICA DEI
SOLIDI, pp. 57-80, 5ff. July 14, 2000.
13. OPEN FORUM, Problems and Solutions, "Pre-Release Cracking in Prestressed

Concrete Beams," PCI Journal, January/February 2004, Precast I Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, p. 112.
14. Carreira, D. J. and Burg, R. G., "Testing for Creep and Shrinkage," (ACI SP-194-12)
The Adam Neville Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage- Structural Design Effects,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2000, pp. 381-420.
15. ACI Committee 301, "Standard Specification for Structural Concrete," (ACI 301-
99), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1999, 49 pp.
16. Carreira, D. J. and Bastidas, C., P., "Effects of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature
Shortening of Post-Tensioned Concrete Slabs on Columns and Supporting Walls,"
presented at the Technical Session on "Post-Tensioned Flat-Slab Design," ACI
Spring 2002 Convention in Detroit, Michigan, April 24, 2002, (In process of
publication).
APPENDIX. EXAMPLE CALCULATION OF TYPE 1 CRACKS
Find out if cracking occurs when an axially loaded 20" (508 mm) square short
-
column is partially unloaded after 10 months (305 days) under sustained load. Consider
the effects of loading history, and the axial strain components of creep and linear
shrinkage only. Ignoring non-linear shrinkage, temperature gradients and assuming an

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180 Carreira
axial loaded "short" column reduce the computed stresses, strains and crack widths.
Assume a Creep Coefficient, UcJos = 2.4, a Shrinkage Strain, EshJOs = 500 J.lE and an Aging
Coefficient, x305 = 0.80, (11).
Data:
Ag = 400 in 2 (258,064 mm 2)
f ci = 5.0 ksi (34.5 MPa) and Eci = 4030 ksi at loading age, t1a
fc = 6.0 ksi (41.4 MPa) after loaded for 305 days
A, = 20.32 in2 (13,109.7 mm 2 ) or 16 No. 10 (36), Grade 60 bars (414)
E, = 29,000 ksi, (199,950 MPa)
p = 5.08 % (1.0% < p < 8.0%).
Initial application of service load P, on the column occurs at time t1., with an
initial modular ratio, n. and a nominal axial strength Pn of:
E
n. = _s_ = 7.2
Eci
Pu = 1586 k (7,054 kN), from CRSI Tables (9)
Pn = 2832 k (12,597 kN), for cjl = 0.7 and a 0.8 reduction of the maximum
nominal axial load capacity based on ACI 318-02 Code Appendix C.
Hence, assume the Maximum Allowable Axial Service Loads, as:
P, = P,o + P,L= Pu/(0.4 x 1.4 + 0.6 x 1.7), then

P,o = 0.4 P, = 402 k (1,788 kN) and P,L= 0.6 P, = 602 k (2,678 kN).
Calculation of Elastic Stresses in Concrete, fea and in Reinforcement f,. at Time, t1•
of tbe Initial Maximum AUowable Service Load, P, Application
Concrete stress, fca and reinforcement stress, f.. are:
Ps .
fca = = 1.91 ks1 (13.1 MPa) or 0.32 f c elastic.
Ag + (n 8 -l)A 5
f,. = na fca = 13.74 ksi (94.73 MPa) or 0.229 f.y elastic.
From Jensen's elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain diagram, the stress in

compression is elastic if 0 < Ec :5 Eco for f co= 0.85f c·
Eco = 0.85 X 6.0 ksi I 4030 ksi = 0.001191.

The corresponding initial strain in the concrete, Eca at t18 is:
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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fca
&ca = - - = 0.0004736 <&co
Eca
elastic.
The strain in reinforcement, &sa is the same as in the concrete from strain
compatibility condition,
f
&sa= ...E. = 0.0004736 < 0.002069,for Grade 60 (414) elastic.
Es
Figures AI and A2 show stresses and strains on the reinforcement and concrete
stress-strain diagrams at time t1••
Concrete Stresses £5305 and Strain, ec305 After 305 Days Under Total Service Load P,
and Prior to tbe Removal oftbe Live Load, PsL
The age-adjusted concrete elastic modulus (11 ), Eca is,

E·
Eca CI = 1380 k.si (9514.76 MPa),
1+ X3o5u3o5
Eca = 0.342 Ec; which is a significant reduction from Eci.
Stiffuess coefficient, a; from Bruegger (4) defines the elastic portion of a load or
strain applied to symmetric reinforced section acting on the reinforcement.
1
a; 0.278.
Using the "Relaxed Stress," Rfca (4) to compute stresses in concrete and
reinforcement from the sustained load and concrete shrinkage after 305 days,
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fc305 = fca- Rfca = 0.714 ksi (4.92 MPa) from fca = 1.91 ksi (13.17 MPa).
Figure A3 shows concrete stress history from t = t 1a to t = 305 days just prior the
removal of PsL· Stress transferred from concrete to reinforcement, Tf,. is:Tf,.
Ac Rfca
=A = 22.341 k.si (154.03 MPa).
s

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182 Carreira
Stress in the reinforcement after 305 days under Ps prior the removal ofPsL is:
fs305 = fsa + Tfsa- fs30S = 36.075 ksi (248.73 MPa).
Since f5305 = 36.08 ksi < fy = 60 ksi, (248.73 MPa < fy = 414 MPa), the
reinforcement is elastic and in compression under the total service P s load sustained for
305 days. Figure A4 shows reinforcement stress history from t = t1a to t = 305 days just
prior the removal of PsL· The portion of PsL on A., Fsr and the portion on the concrete,
Fc305 at t = 305 days just prior to the removal ofPsL are:
Fsr = f 53o5 As= 733.04 k (737.49 MPa) in compression and

Fc3os = Ps- Fsr = 270.76 k (1204.35 MPa) in compression.
The strain increase in the concrete and in the reinforcement (axial shortening)
after 305 days under load on the average, R&c 305 from Reference 4 is,
f + Ssh305Eci
ca
R&c305 = UjU305 ( U305 . ) = 0.0007704.
l + a.iX3osU305 E As
SA
c
Hence, the strain in concrete just prior to PsL removal at 305 days, &c305 is:
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
&c305 = &ci + R&c305 = 0.0004736 + 0.0007704 = 0.0012434.
Concrete and Reinforcement Stresses and Strains Just After the Removal of the
Live Load, P.L at 305 Days
Concrete instantaneous elastic modulus, Ec305 and the modular ratio n 305 at t =
305 days are:
Ec3os = 57000 ~ 6000psi = 4,415 ksi (30,440 MPa),

Es
n305 = - - = 6.57 VS. na = 7.2 at tla• Instantaneous stresses
Ec305
removed from the uncracked concrete, fcti and from reinforcement fsti at t = 305 days are:
psL
fcti = 1.174 ksi (8.09 MPa) and
Ac + (nti + l)As
fsti = n305 fcti = 7.704 ksi (53.15 MPa).
The instantaneous stress in reinforcement just after unloading at t 13 = 305 days
is:

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fsti = fs3os = 28.37 ksi (195.58 MPa) then,
the instantaneous force in reinforcement just after unloading at t1• = 305 days is:
F,, =A, f,u = 576.39 k (2563.80 kN) > P,o = 402 k (1,788.11 kN).
From equilibrium, the tension force in concrete, T c is:
Tc = Pso - F,, or Tc = -174.4 k (775. 74 MPa) and
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the tension stress in the concrete, fc 1 that was initially under compression, is now
T
fc 1 = c =-0.486ksi(-2.16MPa)intension.
Ag -As .·.
Concrete axial tensile strength, f 1 varies from - 3../f: to - 6J['; psi, (-
0.249$c to -0.498.J['; MPa). For fc = 6.0 ksi (41.4 MPa) f 1 varies from -232
psi to -465 psi (-1.60 to -3.21 MPa).
Since ftc = I -0.483 I ksi (I -3.33 I MPa) < I f 1 I, through cracks release the
tension force in concrete. After cracking, the reinforcing bars support all the dead load
P,0 in compression.
The strain in concrete just after PsL removal at 305 days, EcJoso is:
fcti 1.174ksi
Ec3050 = Eci + REc305- - - = 0.0012434- = 0.0009776.
Ec305 4415ksi
From strain compatibility, the strain remaining in the reinforcement just after PsL
removal at 305 days, e, 305 is on the average the same strain as in the concrete. Hence,
E511 = Ec3oso = 0.0009776 and the corresponding residual stress, f, 305 is:
fstl = Ecti E, = 28.366 ksi < 60 ksi (195.58 MPa < 414 MPa) -+ elastic.
Reinforcement and concrete stress and strain histories are shown in Figures A4
and A5. Figure 6 shows schematically the typical Type I cracks on axially loaded
columns observed on partially unloaded columns.
In columns with low yield strength reinforcement or fy from 33 to 40 ksi (228 to 276
MPa), with low reinforcement ratio and concrete with high creep and shrinkage, the
reinforcement may yield under loads sustained for a long period of time. Reference 5
shows that the transfer load from the concrete to the reinforcement is greater as the ratio
ofreinforcement decreases even for short-term loads.

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184 Carreira
100
200
"':I..
-~
300 .,
Vl
bO
~
]
400 Vl
500
Steel liner or axis
of symmetry
600
Wall thickness
Figure 1. Typical Non-Linear Shrinkage Transient Strain Gradients Across a

Nuclear Containment Wall 4ft (1219 mm) Thick, (3)
Assumed initial
gradient
0
ea2~y
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
too T
28 days
200
1.4 years
300
11 years
400
44years
88 years 500
600
-;>I I~
10"(254mm) -+ELG
Figure 2 Transient Strain Gradients Across a Wal140 in. (1016 mm) Thick

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Assumed initial t
gradient
~:-rj
200
300 "':::1.
li
·~
!l.l
400
~
88 years 500 ~
]
!l.l
600
I~!
+ELG 5" (127 mm)
I
Figure 3. Transient Strain Gradients Across a Walll6 in. (406 mm) Thick
C" F'
Transient gradient' 250
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
·, :}.../, After 15 minutes

)'...__ 100 ...
"200
I
f
Exposed~
"1 $0 sunac.e
Figure 4. Asymmetric Temperature Gradient Across a 4ft (1219 mm)

Thick Concrete Wall 15 Minutes After LOCA Started with Its
Equivalent Linear Thermal Gradient and Local Temperatures, (3)

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186 Carreira
Distance From Surface, meters
0 3.05 6.10 9.15 12.20 15.25
1.0
~\
0.9 Temperature Range in Concrete
RATIO=
Temperature Range at Surface
0.8
0.7
R 06
A .
-l Diffusivity = 1.0 if/day (0.0039 m /day) ~ 2
T 0.5
\
I
0 0.4
\
lr Adnua1 Cycle
0.3
\.
'\
0.2
""
--
VDai1y pycle i'....
0.1
\ r- 1---
0.0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance From Surface, ft
Figure 5. Annual and Daily Temperature Gradients in Massive Walls, (10)
P, Transverse Crncks After Remnving P,L at

1"' 305 days as in Example in the Appe!l<lix
P, m P,t + r,.,~ Total Servicet.oad

Pu. ·~ 0.41', ~ Sorvic.: Live l..ond
P,0 ~ 0.6 P, ~Service Dead Load
l ~Column initiJ!l length
• C,:t(~ ~ Strain alier P,< removal
Through CFucks in ooncrete und;:r

the ccmpres•iorl L(!lll:l, P,o
Column Ele•ation
Figure 6. Schematic Column Elevation Showing Type 1 Transverse Through Cracks

After Unloading
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Figure 7. Concrete Pier Supporting the Exit Ramp of a Viaduct with Type 2 Cracks
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 8. Closed-Up View of One of the Type 2 Cracks in Figure 7

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188 Carreira
Figure 9. Columns in Seismic Zone IV. Precast Circular Column Supporting the
Bridge and Column showing Reinforcement in a Bridge Column During
Construction in Early 2004
Figure 10. Type 3 Cracks on the Circular Column in Figure 9. Despite the Paint on the
Concrete Surface, Cracks Are Visible to the Naked Eye
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Figure 11. Typical Type 3 Cracks in a Composite Column at Second Floor with Interior
Exposure in Chicago. (Arrows Show Transverse Cracks)
Figure 12. Closed-Up View of the Type 3 Crack with Arrows 1 and 2 in Figure 11
Figure 13. Closed-Up View of Type 3 Crack with Arrows 4 and 5 in Figure 11.
Notice the Loss of Concrete at the Left-Hand Side Edge of the Column
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190 Carreira
Figure 14. Typical Type 3 Cracks in the Composite Columns at a Second Floor with an
Exterior Exposure in Chicago
Type4Crack
Figure 15. Typical Vertical and Horizontal Type 4 Cracks in a Basement Column in a
High Rise Building. Column Diameter is 7.0 ft (2134 mm)
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Figure 16. Close-Up View of the Ve1tical Wide Crack in Figure 15 and the Thin
Horizontal and Inclined Cracks on Each Side of the Vertical Crack
Type4 Crack
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
T'<"N 4 Crock
Figure 17. Typical Type 4 Cracks in a Basement Column in a High Rise Building.
One Vertical Crack Is Inclined and Wide and the other is Thinner

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192 Carreira
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 18. Circular Column with Type 4 Cracks in an Exterior Exposure. No Corrosion
Observed on Any of the Columns in this Building Despite the Cracks Width and Length
Figure 19. Type 5 Crack on a Column at the Ramp of a Parking Garage.

This Crack Was Covered-Up with Stucco and Reappeared

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fy= 60 ksi
(414MPa)
At t1a -+ P = P s
r.. = 13.74 ksi

(94.73 MPa)
&sa= 0.0004736
Strains
Figure AI. Instantaneous Reinforcement Stress and Strain at~'
fci
f ca =6.0 ksi
(41.4 MPa)
At t1a---? P = P.
fca = 1.91 ksi

(13.17 MPa)
Esa = 0.0004736
Strains
Figure A2. Instantaneous Concrete Stress and Strain at t1,
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194 Carrei'ra
f,=6ksi
(41.4MPa)
From t = t,. 10 I= 305 days

prior to PsL removal, P = P,
""' = 0.0004736
f.,.= 1.91 ksi

(13.17Ml'a)
t;,,., = 0.714 ksi

Strains
&o>os = Ec; + Ri:c:JM = 0.0012434
Figure A3 .. Concrete Stress and Strain History up to 305 days
f,
i From t = t~o tot= 305 days

! prior 10 Pn. removal, P = P,
f, 305 = 36.08 k.•i (248. 73 MPa T Prior removal ofPo~.
f.,.= 7.714 ksi (53.19 MPa) ~ r...
From removal ofP,L
f., 1 =28.361 ksi(l95.58MPa) - - After removal of Po~.
" Strains
L &ol05 =
&.11 =
0.001244
0.0009776
Figure A4. History of Reinforcement Stress and Strain up to 305 days
r~=6ksi
(41.4 MPa)
Att= 305 days just after P,L

removal. P = P•D
fc = 1.91 ksi
(13.17MPa)
f,, = ·0.486 ksi Strains

(· 3·35 MPa) +-+ £oloso = 0.0009776
Figure AS. Concrete Stress and Strain History At t = 305 Days Just After P,L Removal
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-9
Estimating Time-Dependent
Deformations of Prestressed Elements:
Accuracy and Variability
by M. W. Paulsen, S.D. B. Alexander, and D. M. Rogowsky
Synopsis: Continuous highway overpass structures are often governed by serviceability

rather than ultimate conditions. Deflection prediction and control is vital to avoid
cracking. A two span overpass in Calgary was chosen as a case study. Deflections and
strains in two precast prestressed girders were monitored from fabrication to erection, and
a comprehensive material testing program was done on the concrete mix. The results of
the case study show that the CEB MC-90 model code underestimated the time-dependent
response by a maximum of 16% while ACI 209 overestimated by 19%. By tuningACI 209
and CEB MC-90 to the concrete material testing data, predictions were increased to within
8% and 7%, respectively. A variability analysis on the two tuned models showed that
while they give nearly the same prediction, the CEB MC-90 format induces less
uncertainty in predictions. In addition, extrapolation to long-term ages shows a
substantial divergence between predictions of the two models.
Keywords: camber prediction; case study; creep, prestressed; shrinkage

variability
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195
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196 Paulsen et al.
ACI student member Michael W. Paulsen is a graduate student of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the University of Alberta, Canada. His current research
focuses on external post-tensioning as well as predictability and variability of creep and
shrinkage of concrete.
ACI member Scott D. B. Alexander is a senior structural/bridge engineer

with UMA Engineering Ltd. He IS an associate member of ACI-ASCE
Committee 421, Design of Slabs, a member of the ACI-ASCE Committee 445
task group on punching shear and a member of the Canadian Standards
Association sub-committee on the design of slabs.
ACI member David M. Rogowsky is a structural engineering specialist at UMA

Engineering Ltd. and a former professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the
University of Alberta. He is a member of ACI Committee 423, Prestressed Concrete.
His research interests include behaviour and design of reinforced and prestressed
concrete structures.
INTRODUCTION
A common structural system for bridges consists of precast, prestressed concrete

girders made continuous through a cast-in-place deck and diaphragms. To assess the risk
of cracking under service conditions the designer needs to estimate, with reasonable
confidence, the internal stresses in the concrete. Time-dependent deformations associated
with creep, shrinkage and prestress relaxation produce an internal stress redistribution on
the section. The ability to accurately predict the time-dependent behaviour of prestressed·
elements may accelerate construction schedules, reduce serviceability issues, and
increase confidence in designs.
The prediction of time-dependent response requires two components. The first

is a material model to describe the time-dependent properties and the second is an
analysis capable of incorporating the material model. Material models may be taken
directly from codes or developed from extensive material testing, while analysis methods
vary from the approximate to the highly refined.
The first objective of this paper is to compare, for one particular case study,
differences in the time-dependent response predictions resulting from changes in the
structural analysis methodology and/or the material models used to describe concrete
behaviour. ·
The second objective of this paper is to assess the variability of the material
models used in making predictions. A straightforward statistical approach is used to
determine the 95% confidence intervals on predictions of the material properties critical
to time-dependent deformations.
Two precast, prestressed girders were instrumented and monitored for strains
and deflections for a five-month period from fabrication to erection. To describe the
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behaviour of the concrete used in the girders, laboratory tests were conducted to measure
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
In September 2003, an instrumentation program began to measure strain

distributions and vertical deflections on two prestressed girders used in the 1301h A venue
and Deerfoot Trail overpass in Calgary Alberta, Canada. The girders were monitored
from fabrication to erection. Also, samples of the concrete mix used were obtained for a
material testing program.
Overpass Description
Figure I shows the profile of the overpass and a typical section. A total of 12
precast girders were fabricated for this bridge. The construction sequence of the overpass
is summarized as follows: 1) Erect pre-cast girders on piers (2 Spans), 2) Place deck and
diaphragms to create continuity, 3) Post-tension longitudinally, 4) Make integral
bridge/abutment connection.
The girders are 38 metres long, 1.65 metres deep and cast with a high-
performance concrete. Each is prestressed with 56 - 15.2mm low-relaxation strands
(tensile strength, fpu = 1860 MPa) and contains a combination of welded-wire mesh and
deformed bars for passive reinforcement. To avoid cracking at release, some of the
prestressing strands were debonded. Figure 2 shows a typical girder cross-section, while
Table I lists sectional and material properties for the concrete, the steel reinforcement
and the prestressed reinforcement. The section was designed to remain uncracked
throughout its service life.
Laboratory Testing
Properties of the concrete mix used in the main girders of the overpass were
determined from nominally 150 x 300 mm cylinders. The cylinders were tested to
determine compressive strength gain with time, modulus of elasticity, creep and
shrinkage properties. The concrete specimens were steam cured for 12 hours to simulate
the curing conditions the girders experience, then kept at a relative humidity of 50%
( ± 4%) and a temperature of23°C ( ± 1.7°C).
The fabrication of one girder required 18 concrete batches. Strength gain,
modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage tests were performed on two separate batches
while compressive strength tests were performed on every batch to determine the mean
strength of each mix. Refer to Appendix A for the results from the laboratory testing
program.
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198 Paulsen et al.
Field Measurements
The instrumentation plan focused on monitoring curvatures and deflections.

Five sets of demecs (demountable mechanical extensometers) were placed on each web
of the girder, as shown in Figure 2, to measure strain distribution at a section. Five
sections (marked I through V in Figure I) were instrumented with demecs on each girder.
Using a survey level, vertical deflection measurements were made at sections I through V
as well as at the ends.
The load-histories and measurement sampling times for the test girders are
summarized in Table 2. For each sampling time at each section, I 0 strain readings were
obtained. A curvature was estimated from the 10 readings by finding the best-fit plane
section. Figure 3 shows the measured strain distributions at station III of Girder 273-01
at time t 1•
Curvatures were calculated at each section for each measurement period. These
were numerically integrated to obtain deflections. Figure 5 shows the curvature
measurements and deflections for both girders at the time of stressing.
PART 1 - ACCURACY
To predict the time-dependent response of concrete elements, two components

are necessary. The first is a material model describing all necessary properties of the
concrete. The second is a structural analysis method that incorporates the material
model.
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Material Model
Three models were used in this study to predict the mechanical properties of the
concrete used. They are ACI 209 (1), AASHTO (2) and CEB MC-90 (3). These three
models require similar information regarding the concrete's strength, the specimen's
shape, and the environmental conditions. The ACI 209 formulation also has additional
factors based on the composition of the concrete. In this paper, this formulation will be
tem1ed ACI 209 + Mix Factors.
In addition, two material models based on the laboratory data have also been
used. The first termed Model A uses the CEB MC-90 format, and the second, Model B,
uses the ACI 209 format. The empirical constants in these formulae were fitted to the
measured test data. These models are described in Appendix A.
Structural Analysis Methodology
Two methodologies are used to predict the sectional responses with time. Both
methods are accepted structural analysis methods, and are presented in a format so that
differences may be noted. In both cases, plane-sections theory ofuncracked elements set

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the compatibility requirements. The differences arise in how the time-dependent effects
of creep, shrinkage and prestress loss are included.
At any time, the curvature is computed at a number of sections along the girder
and is numerically integrated to obtain the deflected shape. With the assumption that
creep strain varies linearly with applied stress, generally considered accurate for applied
stresses up to 0.5 fcm• superposition can be used in the analysis.
Elastic Response of a Section
The section forces considered are the normal force N acting at the reference
point and the bending moment M, taken with respect to the reference point. For a section
under the influence of prestressing and applied normal force and moment, the section
forces are calculated as:
[I]
[2]
where Pi is the prestressing force in layer j, Yrsi is the distance to the centroid of the
prestressing force for layer j, No is the applied normal load, and Mo is the applied
sectional moment, with No and M 0 being independent of prestressing and acting through
or about the reference axis. The prestressing force is usually specified as a percentage of
the ultimate strength, fru• where the prestressing behaves in a linear elastic manner. Thus
the prestressing force can be described by: ·
[3]
where ni is the number of strands in layer j, Aps is the area of one strand, Eps is the elastic
modulus of the prestressing and Ej is the strain in the prestressing strand of layer j.
The response of a section to the loading defined by equations [ 1] to [3] can be

described by its strain distribution. For a plane section the strain distribution is linear,
and herein is described by the strain at the reference axis, £ 0 , and curvature, 'I'· The strain
distribution for the section is calculated as:
[4]
while the strain in the prestressing layer j is calculated as:
[5)
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200 Paulsen et al.
Then, for a section under a normal axial force, N and moment M, the elastic
response at time t is given by:
[6]
where A , B and I are the transformed sectional properties calculated with respect to
the concrete's elastic modulus, Ec(t). The solution to equation [6] requires iteration until
the strain compatibility defined by equations [4] and [5] is met. N is positive in tension
and M is positive when causing tension on the bottom fibre.
Method 1 -Effective Modulus Method
The first of the methods considered is the simpler, and uses the effective
modulus to calculate stress related strains. The use of this method assumes that any
stresses applied on a section are done so instantaneously. The effect of creep on the
section is considered directly proportional to the creep function J(t,t0) with free shrinkage
and prestress relaxation being effectively treated as forces on the section. The procedure
is adapted from Collins and Mitchell (4) and is summarised as follows. First the load
vector is calculated as the sum of applied loads, shrinkage effects and prestressing.
{MN} ={NMo + {N(t,tJ}

M(
0}
t, ti) shrinkage +
{N(t,ti)}
M(t, ti) prestress
[7]
where, the first vector on the right side of the equation is the applied forces on the
section,
{N(t,( tJ})
M t ' t·I .
shnnkage
= Ec ' eff ( \. (
t, tiJGcs t, ts {Ac]
Bc
[8]
N(t, ti )} _ { - L Ep,effn jApsEpsj }

[9]
{M (t ' t·1) prestress - L E p,eff n J·A ps EpsJYpsJ
· ·
The effective modulus of the prestressing, Ep,eff, accounts for relaxation by

reducing the elastic modulus of the prestressing steel and is defined in the notation
section. The strain distribution at any timet, after loading at ti is then calculated as:
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s0 (t, tJ}
{ 'l'(t, tJ
1
= Ec,eff(t, tdA'I'-
[ I'
B' 2 ) - B'
- B'
A'
]{N}M [I OJ
where the prime symbol denotes an effective sectional property and is calculated as the
transformed section property with respect to the effective modulus of the concrete,
Ec,eft(t,ti). The effective Modulus is equal to the inverse of the creep function.
Ec(t,ti)
(11]
1+ <Pi(t, tJ
where <l>i (t, ti) is the creep coefficient as defined by ACI 209.
Method 2 -Age-Adjusted Elastic Modulus Method
The second method follows the procedure described by Ghali et al (5). In this
method the time-dependent effects on a section are expressed by a change in strain, tle0 ,
and curvature, tl'Jf, that occur over the time period considered. This is done by first
calculating the forces required to prevent unrestrained creep, unrestrained shrinkage and
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strand relaxation, then applying these forces to the age-adjusted transformed section. The
restraining force is:
{ ~N(t,ti)}
~M t t·
( ' ')
= {~N(t,ti)}
(t' t·I ) ~M creep
+ {~N(t,tJ}
~ ( t ' t·I) shrinkage
+ {~N(t,ti)}
~ ( t ' t·I) relaxation
{12]
where the restraining forces for creep, shrinkage and relaxation are determined as
follows:
{ ~N(t,(t, tJ}) creep =-Ec,aa (t,til'Pi t,ti lAc

~M t 1•
\.!. (
Be
[13]
~N(t, ti.)}
{ ~M ( t, t,
)
shrinkage
( I~ ( lAc]
= -Ec,aa t, ti JGcs t, ti
Be
[14]
[15]

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202 Paulsen et al.
where Ec,aa(t,ti) is the age-adjusted elastic modulus, Ecs(t,t5) is the unrestrained shrinkage,
Llcrpr is the intrinsic relaxation of the prestressing steel and Xr is a relaxation reduction
coefficient. The age-adjusted elastic modulus is defined as:
E ( ) Ec(t,tJ [16]
c,aa t, ti = 1 "'· (t t.)
+ X'I'J ' I
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The change in the sections strain distribution is calculated as follows:
-8]{--LW(t,tJ
A
~N(t, td} [17]
-
where A, B and I are the age-adjusted transformed section properties. Thus the total
strain distribution at time t after an age at loading of ti is the sum of equations [6] and
[17].
Determining Response History
The assumption of creep linearity with applied stress allows for the
superposition of time-dependent effects for future changes in loading or boundary
conditions. Strain distributions associated with changing conditions are calculated and
summed to give the theoretical strain distribution.
Predicted Response
Sectional response was predicted using the section properties listed in Table 1
and the specified design parameters listed in Table 3. Relaxation of the strand and
transfer lengths were calculated using the recommendations of the Canadian Prestressed
Concrete Institute (6).
Figure 4 compares the predictions of Method 1 and Method 2 using Model A to

predict concrete properties. Deflection predictions followed the known load-histories
presented in Table 2.
Figure 5 shows curvature and deflected shape predictions of both girders

immediately after stressing occurred. The girders have different load-histories, but share
the same age at stressing. Predictions are made with AASHTO, ACI 209, ACI 209 plus
mix factors, CEB MC-90, Model A and Model B material models.
Figure 6 shows the effect of material models on the prediction of mid-span

deflection. The predictions were made using analysis method 2 with AASHTO, ACI
209, ACI 209 including composition factors, CEB MC-90, Model A and Model B.

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Thermal Effects
In the analysis no effect of concrete temperature on curvatures was included. To

reduce thermal effects, measurements were taken at times when thermal gradients were
expected to be minimal. In most cases, measurements were made in the morning and on
relatively overcast days. However, a 1°C linear temperature difference over the height of
the girder will produce a 1.1 mm mid-span deflection.
PART 2 -VARIABILITY
The model code formulations used thus far are basically deterministic in nature.
While they state in global terms the levels of uncertainty (CEB MC-90: coefficient of
variation of 20% for creep function, ACI 209: inherently random parameters with
coefficients of variation of 15% to 20% at best, AASHTO: cannot expect results with
error less than ± 50%), most do not provide equations that allow for a probabilistic
analysis. Without the ability to account for the variability in concrete property
prediction, it is impossible to perform a confidence analysis on service deflections in
concrete structures.
Sources of uncertainty in the prediction of time-dependent effects in concrete

can be classified as one of two types: external and internal. External or parametric
uncertainties, such as environmental conditions or specimen shape, are those that are a
result of variability in input parameters. Internal or model uncertainties result from
inadequacies or assumptions inherent in the model. This analysis is limited to an
estimate of the internal uncertainties.
Method of Variability Assessment
In Appendix A two material models are presented. These have been fitted using
least-squares regression. That is, the parameters ~i and ei have been determined that
minimise the sum of the square of the residual error. If we now include the internal error
of these models, the residual errors are explained by the variation in ~i and ei. These
models are now probabilistic, and the parameters are represented by their expected value
and coefficient of variation. Appendix B shows the method used to determine model
parameter variation.
To incorporate variability into structural analysis, probability distributions for

the parameters are needed. In this case, insufficient data was obtained to infer the
distribution from measurements. However, it is deemed reasonable to represent the
distributions as normal or lognormal, as appropriate.
Variability Results
The effect of model code format on the long-term prediction of creep is shown
in Figure 7. The measured creep function for an age at loading of 8 days is plotted. The
formulae used to predict the creep function are strength growth with time, stiffness, and

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204 Paulsen et al.
the creep coefficient. The predictions made by Model A and Model B are shown along
with their respective upper and lower bounds for a 95% confidence interval.
The effect of model code fonnat on the long-tenn prediction of free shrinkage is
shown in Figure 8. The measured data is shown with the predictions from Model A and
Model B and their respective 95% confidence intervals. The first 7 days of shrinkage
were not recorded, and so the equations were adjusted to account for this.
DISCUSSION
Figure 4 shows the difference between the predictions of Method 1 and Method
2 using material model A. It is seen that the predictions are nearly coincident, with both
predictions within ±8%. This suggests, that for this problem, the added complexity of
Method 2 is not justified. Figure 4 also shows that the use of an appropriate analysis
method with a tuned material model gives high accuracy in predictions of elastic and
time-dependent deflections.
Figure 5 shows predictions of elastic deformations with several material models.

These figures show that CEB MC-90 and AASHTO underestimate the elastic response
because they overestimate the concrete stiffness while ACI 209, ACI 209 plus mix
factors, Model A and Model B all predict the curvatures and deflections within ±2%.
This figure also shows that the model used to describe the girder accurately predicts not
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
only the deflected shape, but also the curvature. This gives confidence of the model to
predict the deformations of the girder in whole. Thus, mid-span camber values give a
measure of the accuracy to which the girder deformation is being predicted.
The effect of material model on mid-span deflection growth predictions is

shown in Figure 6. The tuned models provided the best predictions with Model A
producing predictions within ±7% of measured and Model B produced predictions within
±8%. Using ACI 209 overestimated deflections up to 19%. The addition of mix
composition factors resulted in a modest improvement of 3%. The use of ASSHTO
underestimated deflections up to 30%. CEB MC-90 underestimated deflections by up to
16%.
The results of the laboratory testing program allow for a reasonable assessment
of the internal uncertainty in Model A and Model B. The one assumption is that there are
no external uncertainties involved in the process of fitting these models. However,
proper testing procedures were used minimize testing errors through repetition. Also any
external uncertainties will be the same for both models and should not be biased towards
one or the other.
Figure 7 shows the effect of model code fonnat on long-tenn predictions and
confidence for the tuned material models. The two models give similar predictions up to
3 years under load; however, Model B predicts greater creep than Model A with final
values being 117x1 0"6/MPa and 88.6xl0.6/MPa for the creep function respectively. This
figure also shows that for Model A, the 95% confidence interval is tight to the prediction,

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and remains nearly constant, whereas with Model B, to ensure 95% confidence in the
prediction the interval is much larger, and grows with time.
Figure 8 shows the effect of model code format on free shrinkage predictions.
The predictions from Model A and Model B are both good, and do not differ much in the
long-term. As was the case with creep, the 95% confidence interval for Model B is wider
than for Model A.
CONCLUSIONS
From the case study on the 1301h avenue and Deerfoot Trail overpass, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
• The use of an appropriate analysis method, when used with a material model that
has been tuned to the concrete mix, yields accurate predictions of the mean
behaviour.
• The difference in predictions between analysis methods was not greater than the
uncertainty in measured results; thus, the added complexity of Method 2 is not
justified in this case.
• CEB MC-90 and ACI 209 were almost equally accurate, with predictions of mid-
span deflection growth within ±16% and ±19% respectively, while AASHTO
produce results within ±30% of measured.
• The mix composition factors in ACI 209 produced an improvement of less than
3% in predictions.
• On the basis of these laboratory tests, there appears to be more model uncertainty
associated with the ACI 209 format than with the CEB MC-90 format.
ACKNOWLDEGEMENTS
The work presented herein was part of a research program leading to a Master of
Science Degree for the first author. That effort was supported by the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Con-Force Structures Ltd, the Cement
Association of Canada and the University of Alberta. The authors would also like to
thank Azita Azamejad of CH2M Hill for her insight into the design of the overpass.
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NOTATION
Aps Area of one prestressing strand

A Section's area denoted by sub/overscript
B Section's First moment of Area as denoted by sub/overscript
Ec Concrete's elastic modulus
Ec,eff Concrete's effective modulus
Ec,aa Concrete's age-adjusted elastic modulus
Ep. Prestressing steel elastic modulus
Ep,eff Prestressing steel effective modulus = Ep- N- Acr/spsi
fern Mean compressive strength (MPa)
fcmo 10 MPa

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206 Paulsen et al.
fpu Ultimate strength of prestressing steel
h Notional size of a member= 2Acfu (mm)
ho lOOmm
I Section's second moment of area as denoted by sub/overscript
J(t,t;) Creep function
M Section bending moment
Mo Applied bending moment
nj Number of strands in prestressing layer j
N Section normal force
No Applied normal force
Pj Prestressing force at layer j
RH Average Annual Relative humidity(%)
RHo 100%
t Time
t;,A Adjusted age at loading, used in Model A
t;,a Adjusted age at loading, used in Model 8
u Perimeter of concrete section in contact with environment
Distance from the reference axis to the point of considerati_on
. Distance from the reference axis to the centroid of prestressing layer j
/
Intrinsic stress relaxation of prestressing steel (From CPCI6) I
Section strain distribution

Section strain at the reference axis
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Shrinkage strain occurring from time t, to time t

Epsj Initial prestressing strain
<jl;(t,t;) Creep coefficient based on ACI 209 definition
$2&(t,t;) Creep coefficient based on CEB MC-90 definition
cr(t;) Sustained stress applied initially applied at time t;
X Aging coefficient of concrete
'N Reduction coefficient of intrinsic relaxation
c Subscript denotes concrete section property only
Overscript denotes section property transformed with respect to Ec,aa
Overscript denotes section property transformed with respect to Ec,eff
Overscript denotes section property transformed with respect to Ec
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 209, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects

in Concrete Structures, (ACI 209R-92), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, 1997.
2 AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications - Second Edition, American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 1998.
3 Comite Euro-International du Beton, CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Redwood

Books, Trowbridge, Great Britain, 1993.

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4 Collins, M.P. and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Basics, Canadian
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1987.
5 Ghali, A., Favre, R. and Elbadry, M., Concrete Structures: Stresses and
Deformations 3rd edition, Spon Press, New York, NY, 2002.
6 Canadian Prestressed Concrete Institute, CPCI Design Manual, Canadian

Prestressed Concrete Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1996.
7 Silva, W.P. and Silva, C.M., LAB Fit Curve Fitting Software V 7.2.26,
http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/labfit, date of access: 2004-05-05.
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APPENDIX A- MATERIAL TESTING RESULTS AND MATERIAL MODELS
Laboratory testing on the mix used in fabrication was conducted at the

University of Alberta. Results for compressive strength gain with time, modulus of
elasticity, creep and shrinkage are presented. Two material models have been fitted to
the data. The first, termed Model A is based on CEB MC-90 format, and the second,
termed Model B is based on ACI 209 format. A comparison of the predictions of test
results made by ACI 209, AASHTO, Model A and Model B appears in Figures 9(a)
through (g).
For brevity, the equations taken from CEB MC-90 and ACI 209 have been
presented in their fitted forms. Undefined terms can be found in the Notation section.
The parameters that are fitted in Models A and B are designated Si and ei respectively.
They are summarised in Table 4 along with their code recommendations.
For the parameter of compressive strength, the mean compressive strength, fern,
was used with both models. The current ACI 209 model code uses the specified strength,
thus to allow for a comparison of predictive abilities, the following relationship between
specified strength and mean strength (from CEB MC-90, based on characteristic strength)
can be used:
f'c =fern+ 8MPa [ 18]
Short-Term Property Tests
Short-term property testing included compressive strength and modulus of

elasticity tests, which were conducted in accordance with CSA 23.2-9C and ASTM C
469 respectively. Compressive strength test were conducted at 1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 15, 28, and
84 days while modulus of elasticity tests were conducted at 1, 9, 15, 28 and 84 days.
The following equations are used for predicting the mean cylinder strength,
fcm(t), at some time after curing, where tis the time in days:

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208 Paulsen et al.
Model A: fom(t)~ f= · exp{s{I- (zJ!'f>]} [19]
ModeiB: [20]
The following equations are used for predicting modulus of elasticity, Ec, as a
function of mean compressive strength:
Model A: [21]
ModeiB: [22]
Long-Term Property Tests
The long-term property tests included creep and shrinkage tests which were
conducted in accordance with ASTM C 512. The ages at loading for creep cylinders
were 1.25, 8, 28, and 84 days, and the magnitude of the sustained load was 203 kN,
which amounts to an average uniaxial stress of 11.2 MPa. The first 6 months of test data
have been used.
Model A:
For CEB MC-90, the creep coefficient is defined as the ratio of creep strain over
the 28 day elastic strain and takes the form:
[23]
where Ecc(t,ti) is the creep strain at time t, ti is the time of loading, Ec(28) is the modulus
of elasticity at 28 days, and cri(ti) is the sustained stress initially applied at ti. The
equation given by CEB MC-90 for predicting the creep coefficient of a concrete mix is
put into the following form:
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1
/RHo
1 - RHi [ 5.3 ][ 1 ]~4 ( t - ti )~ 5 [ 241
+ 0.46 (.XJY, /';(, 0.1 + t?,l ~H + t- t;

where, ti,A is the adjusted age at loading in days (equation [25]), and PH is a coefficient
that adjusts the time development of creep due to shape and humidity, and is taken as 364
for the conditions and specimens used. The adjusted age at loading accounts for the
effects of differing curing regimes and cement types on the development of the creep
coefficient. The adjusted age at loading is defined in equations (2.1-72) and (2.1-87) in
CEB MC-90.
ti A
'
= 0.98ti + 6.8 [25]
ModeiB:
ACI 209 defines the creep coefficient as the ratio of creep strain over the initial
elastic strain. This takes the form:
[26]
where Ec(ti) is the modulus of elasticity at the age ofloading. The equation given by ACI
209 for predicting the creep coefficient of a concrete mix is put into the following form:
where t1a is the adjusted age at loading, and compensates for steam curing by equating 1
day of steam curing to 7 days of standard curing.
Model A and Model B have different definitions of the creep coefficient, which
can be related through equations [23] and [26]. An alternative description of creep
effects is the creep function, which is a description of total stress related strain. Figure 8
shows the creep function predictions of Model A and model B with the measured data for
the 8-day age at loading test. The creep function is defined as:
[28]
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21 0 Paulsen et al.
Shrinkage
Model A:
Shrinkage is typically described by the free shrinkage strain. The equation from
CEB MC-90 is put in the following form for shrinkage strain prediction (microstrain):
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
[29]
where t. is the time drying begins and 13sc is a coefficient that accounts for cement type,
and is taken as 8 for this mix.
ModeiB:
The equation from ACI 209 is put into the following form for prediction of
shrinkage strains:
Shrinkage strain predictions from Model A and Model B with measured data
appear in figure 8.
APPENDIX B -MULTIPLE REGRESSION AND VARIABILITY
Of the equations presented in Appendix A, only the equations for creep and
shrinkage of Model B cannot be put in a linear form. These were analysed using the
software LAB Fit from Silva and Silva (7). · The remaining equations can all be analysed
using multiple linear regression techniques. The process is presented for equation [24],
the creep coefficient of Model A. The values for RH, h, and fern are all known, and the
product of those factors with s 3 will be termed S3 for simplicity. To linearise, the
natural log of the equation is taken. Thus, the equation for the log of the creep coefficient
is:
ln[<hsn (t, ti )] = ln~3] + S4 ln[ 0.1 +1ti,A + s ln[ j3H t+-tti- ti ] +en
_ ]
02 5 [31]

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where <l>2sn (t, ti) is the measured creep coefficient and en is the residual error. Or, in a
simpler notation:
[32]
Written in matrix notation, the set of measurements is predicted by a system of

equations.
r 1 al bl el
{~}
1 a2 b2 e2
{y} = ~~ = = [x]{~}+ {e} [33]
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
lYn 1 an bn en
It is known that the solution of {~}which minimises the sum of the square of ~he
residual errors is obtained as follows. Let us refer to this solution as {z} :
{z}= Qxf[xJt[xf {y} [34]
The variance-covariance matrix of the estimated regression coefficients is given

by:
[35]
where k is the number of degrees of freedom associated with the sum of the squares of
the residual. Then the variance of the parameters of {z} is given by:
[36]
and the covariance is given by:
Cov(z.I 'Z·)=crz
J
2
·z· =c··s
IJ IJ
2
[37]

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212 Paulsen et al.
2
where s is the is the residual mean square, and provides an unbiased estimate of the
population variance. It is defined as:
n
l:ef
s2 = __::1_=.:._1- - [38)
n-k-1
Refer to Table 4 for a summary of expected values and variances of the
parameters of Model A and Model B.
Table 1 - Girder Sectional and Material Properties

A •a *I •oy E Number of Debondod fi:om end
Part
(mm2) (mm3) (mm') (mm) (MPa) PIS Strands 4500mm 9000mm
Concrete 1.03 xi06 823 x!06 1.02 xi0 12 802 ApendixA
Nonpn:stn:ssod
8.72 xlo' 8.25 xl06 10.7 x109 946 200 xlo'
Reinforcement
Prest=scd
3.50 xlo' 385 x!o' 65.5 xl03 110 190 x!o' 25 2 7
Steel Layer I
Prestressed
434 xiO' 260 x!03 81.2 xl03 60 190 x!o' 31 8 9
Steel Layer 2
..
"Calculated about reference axiS m Ftgure 2 **y mdicates distance 1iom centrotd of sectioo to reference axiS
Table 2 - Load-History of Instrumented Girders

Girder 273-QI Girdcr273-ID
Girder Age Support Reactions* Girder Age Support Reactions•
Tim: Action
(days) a(mm) b(tml} (days) a{mm) b(mm)
to CcnmleCast 0 NIA NiA 0 N/A NiA
tl ~tressing Applied 1.0 0 0 LO 0 0
t2 Moved to Stora~ 2.8 1000 1000 1.1 1000 1000
tJ Stored 23.9 1000 1000 18.9 1000 1000
~ Ston:d 66.9 1000 1000 61.9 1000 1000
~ Stored 95.0 1000 1000 90.0 1000 1000
~ l..ooded on TlllCk 145 1700 2.WO 139 1900 3000
I ll m IV V
• l.otatioo of Support Reactions
&a !l1114&f!
b
Table 3 - Specified Design Values

Initial Prestress Self-Wei~ Relative Humidity f.,.,..... f,23 Aging Coefficient Thermal Coefficient
(MPa) w(kN/m) RH(%) (MPa) (MPa) X a
0.71 r,.. 24.8kN/m 55% 40MPa 60MPa 0.8 10x10"~/°C
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Table 4 - Material Model Parameter Summary
CEB MC-90 I Model A ACI 2091 Model B
Probabilistic Probabilistic
Mechanical Panmeter Code Parameter Code
Expected Value Coefficient of Expected Value Coefficient of
Property a,
strength
"
1;,
Value
0.2
E[Q
0.0501
Variation
6.46% 8,
Value
1
E[Q
0.284
Variation
9.93%
6:! 0.95 0.988 0.90%
Stiffiless 1;. 21500 15365 0.55% 8s 4743 3570 0.52%
t;, 11.6 7.66 3.30% a. 2.49 3.32 34.7%
creep
I;. I 1.16 4.12% a, -().094 -Q.I37 10.6%
t;, 0.3 0279 2.06% a. 0.6 0.353 13.97
8r 10 7.84 35.26
t;, 108.5 141 0.67% 8s 696 616.1 3.83%
shrinkage t;1 0.5 0.341 2.35% e, 1 0.73 3.78%
a,. 55 15.7 5.59%
(a) Overpass Profile and Locations of Instrumented Stations

NORTH SOl..'Til
(b) Section A-A of Overpass and Instrumented Girders
Figure 1 - 130'h Avenue and Deerfoot Trail Overpass
®Indicates DEJIEC Location
Figure 2 - Girder Cross-Section
1600
1200
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
<> Skle A Readings

o Side B Readings 400
-BestFltPiane
0
-750 -6)() -450 -300 -150 0
Strain (Microstrain)
Figure 3 - Strain Distribution of Section III at Time t 1

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214 Paulsen et al.
40 60 so 100 120 140 160

Time Under Load (Days)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 4 - Effect of Analysis Method on Mid-Span Deflection Prediction for
Girder 273-01 using Model A
0.0
eg -0.1 .
0 Measured Data- Girder 2~1
Measurod Data · Girder 273-ID
~ ..0.2
-;;
~ -0.3
"
10 20 30
Lengtb Along Girder (m)
(a) Curvature
a so
a
'; 40
.e
! 30
I! 20
"1!.10
~
!!!
0
.
0 Mca&unxl Da1a- Girder 273-01
Meuured Da1a- Ginier 273-ID
0 10 20 30
Length Along Girder (m)
(b) Deflected Shape
Figure 5 - Effect of Material Model on Initial Elastic Response at time t 1
e ACI 209 +Mix facto"'\

~lOO j_ModciB
~SO
:r~)~
,
"40
~ lO
f"\" Model A
CEBMC·90/ /
AASHTO
!!! •+---~----~----~--~----~----~--~----~
0 20 40 60 60 100 120 140 160
Time Under Load (Days)
Figure 6 - Effect of Model Codes on Predicted Mid-Span Deflection

Growth For Girder 273-lD

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- - Mt~l "9 • Prt:didi1.mt.•f"S.-.~~~ fl~vitow

• · · · • · M«cl n. "'"S<=-~ t<)rlr~~~ (ru~~t
-- M~JAv~:<::Ht.mo;fbPt~wdfk~}fflK
M·:«-t A· 'I)~~Coof~ lntc.rval
0 M"~d!~~
Figure 7 - Effect of Model Format on Creep Prediction and Prediction Confidence
tot) 1 y.., WOO w,-..., lOOt~)

Drying Tim!.! plus one day, t-t8+t (Oa~·s)
Figure 8 - Effect of Model Format on Shrinkage Prediction and Prediction Confidence
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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216 Paulsen et al.
;l80 ...-------------,
!
ioo
i 40
100 20 40 6l) eo
C~Sfrtllaiii(Mh)
(A) Compressi•e Strength G~ib {b) ModuiUB of Eiastldl)'
50 100 150 200

Time IJm!<r L..,d.l-~ IDo:n)
(c) Ct"-"'p- I Day Age atl.oadlng (d) Creep • 8 t>ay Age at l.oadlng
so 100 150 200 250

T-lind.. L>o4, 1-~ (Oar•>
(f) Creq~ • 84 l)fty Age all.oacling
MS!fl'()
ACl21l9
ACl~-tMi.lif~
50 100 150 zoo 250 jl)()

Dryiat. Tl~~~t,l-1, (Ooy•)
('R) Shri~ Strain
Figure 9 - Concrete Testing Results and Predictions from Code Models
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SP-227-10
Shrinkage of Virginia Transportation

Concrete Mixtures
by D. W. Mokarem, R. E. Weyers, and M. M. Sprinkel
Syonpsis: The study included A3 -General Paving (2 1 MPa at 28 days), A4- General
Bridge Deck (28 MPa at 28 days), and AS- General Prestress (35 MPa at 28 days) concrete
mixtures approved by the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). The study also
included a lightweight, high strength concrete mixture (LTHSC) used in the prestressed
beams of the Chickabominy River Bridge, and a high strength (HSC) concrete mixture
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
used in the prestressed beams of the Pinner's Point Bridge.

For the A3, A4, and AS portland cement concrete mixtures, the CEB 90 model
appears to be the best predictor. However, there is little difference in prediction
capabilities between the CEB 90, GL2000 and B3 models. For mixtures containing
supplemental cementitious materials, slag and fly ash, the GL2000 model appears to be the
best predictor. For the LTHSC concrete mixture, the CEB-C90 model appears to be the best
early age predictor, while the Bazant B3 model appears to be the best predictor a later
ages. And for the HSC concrete mixture, the Gardner/Lockrnan model appears to be the
best predictor.
Keywords: concrete; fly ash; high strength; lightweight; microsilica;

models; normal strength; shrinkage; slag
217
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218 Mokarem et al.
D. W. Mokarem is a Research Scientist at the Virginia Transportation Research Council,
Charlottesville, VA. His PhD in Civil Engineering was awarded by the Virginia
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Polytechnic Institute in Blacksburg, VA. His research interests include concrete

durability, shrinkage, and concrete aggregates.
ACI Fellow R. E. Weyers is the Charles E. Via Jr Professor at the Virginia Polytechnic
Institute. He is a member of ACI Committees 222 Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, 365
Service Life Prediction and 548 Polymers in Concrete. He is the current chairman of 345
Concrete Bridge Construction, Maintenance, and Repair.
ACI Fellow M. M. Sprinkel is Associate Director of Research at the Virginia

Transportation Research Council. He is a member of ACI Committees 345, 548 and 546
Repair of Concrete. He is the current chairman of 503 Adhesives.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete experiences volume changes throughout its service life. The total in-
service volume change is the resultant of applied loads and shrinkage. When loaded,
concrete experiences an instantaneous recoverable elastic deformation and a slow
inelastic deformation called creep. Creep of concrete is composed of two components,
basic creep or deformation under constant load without moisture loss or gain, and drying
creep. Drying creep is the time dependent deformation of a drying specimen under
constant load minus the sum of the drying shrinkage and basic creep. Deformation of
concrete in the absence of applied loads is often called shrinkage.
There are four main types of shrinkage in concrete; plastic, autogeneous,

carbonation, and drying shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage is due to early age moisture loss
from the concrete as the cement hydrates. Autogeneous shrinkage is associated with the
loss of water from the capillary pores due to the hydration of the cement (1). This type of
shrinkage tends to increase at higher temperatures and at higher cement contents. In
general, it is relatively small and is not distinguished from shrinkage caused by drying of
concrete. Carbonation shrinkage is caused by the chemical reaction of various cement
hydration products with carbon dioxide present in the air. This type of shrinkage is
usually limited to the surface of the concrete (2). Drying shrinkage can be defined as the
volumetric change due to moisture loss from hardened concrete.
Neville discussed the loss of water in concrete associated with drying shrinkage.
The change in volume of the concrete is not equal to the volume of the water lost. The
loss of free water occurs first, causing little to no shrinkage. As the drying of the concrete
continues, the adsorbed water is removed. The adsorbed water is held by hydrostatic
tension in small capillaries (< 50 nm). The loss of adsorbed water produces tensile
stresses which cause the concrete to shrink. The shrinkage due to the adsorbed water loss
is significantly greater than that associated with the loss of free water (3).

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PURPOSE and SCOPE
The objective of this study is two fold. The first objective is to observe the
magnitude of shrinkage of typical Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT)
concrete mixtures. The second objective is to assess the accuracy of existing unrestrained
shrinkage prediction models. The models are the ACI 209 model, the CEB 90 model
used in Europe, the Bazant B3 model, Sakata model, and the Gardner/Lockman 2000
(GIL 2000) model. For the high strength concrete mixture the ACI 209 Modified,
AASHTO-LRFD, and Tadros models were also used to predict shrinkage.
The study included A3 -General Paving (21 MPa at 28 days), A4- General
Bridge Deck (28 MPa at 28 days), and A5 - General Prestress (35 MPa at 28 days)
concrete mixtures approved by VDOT. The study also included a lightweight, high
strength concrete mixture (LTHSC) used in the fabrication of prestressed beams for the
Chickahominy River Bridge, and a high strength concrete mixture (HSC) used for the
fabrication of prestressed beams for the Pinner's Point Bridge. Some of the mixtures
included slag cement, and other mixtures included pozzolans such as fly ash and
microsilica. Chemical admixtures were an air entrainer (AEA), retarder (RA), water
reducer (WR), high range water reducer (HRWR), and corrosion inhibitor (CI). The
chemical admixtures were not a study variable, only one type and manufacturer of each
admixture was used.
METHODS
Aggregate Properties
For the A3, A4, and A5 mixtures, three types of #57 coarse aggregate,
limestone, gravel, and diabase were used. The coarse and associated fine aggregate were
obtained from various locations in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The lightweight, high
strength mixture had two coarse and two fine aggregates, a lightweight and a norrnal
weight aggregate. The lightweight aggregate was both a fine and #67 expanded slate (4).
The normal weight aggregate was a natural sand and a #67 crushed diabase. The high
strength mixture had a #67 crushed diabase stone aggregate, and a natural sand fine
aggregate (5).
Cement and Pozzolan Properties
The mixtures included a Type IIII portland cement and a ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBFS). The GGBFS was a grade 120. The pozzolans used were a class
F fly ash, and microsilica which is a relatively pure amorphous silica dioxide that is 100
times finer than portland cement.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mixture Proportioning
The mixture proportions for all mixtures are presented in Tables 1-3. Table 1
presents the mixture proportions for the A3, A4, and A5 portland cement concrete

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220 Mokarem et al.
mixtures. Specimens were cast from four batches for each mixture. Test specimens
included five concrete prisms (75mm x 75mm x 279mm) to measure length change,
compressive strength test cylinders (1 02mm x 203mm), and modulus of elasticity test
cylinders (152mm x 305mm). Table 2 presents the mixture proportions for the mixtures
using supplemental cementitious materials (SCM). Specimens were cast from three
batches for each mixture and included six prisms, as well as, compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity test cylinders. Table 3 presents the mixture proportions for the
LTHSC and HSC mixtures. LTHSC and HSC shrinkage prisms were cast from four
batches, three shrinkage prisms were cast from each batch.
Mixture proportions of interest relative to drying shrinkage characteristics are

cement, water, and aggregate volume proportions. As shown in Tables 1 and 2, there is
little difference between the cement, water, and aggregate proportions between the A3,
A4, A5, and A4 SCM mixtures. The maximum average difference between the batch
weights of these eight mixtures is 36 kg, 75 kg, and 14 kg for the total aggregate,
cementing materials, and water, respectively. These differences would have a small
impact on the drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures (6).
For the A3, A4, A5, and SCM mixtures the specimens were fabricated and then
covered with wet burlap and a 6 mil polyethylene sheet for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the
specimens were demolded and placed in lime saturated water for six days. Initial length
measurement were performed on the prism specimens before they were placed in the lime
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
saturated water. After six days, the specimens were placed in a controlled environment
of 23 oc and 50%± 4% in accordance with ASTM C157-98. Subsequent length change
measurements were conducted every seven days up to 90 days, and then at 120, 150, and
180 days.
The LTHSC and HSC mixtures employed a standard cure for two batches and
an accelerated cure for two batches. The standard cure method consists of a seven day
moist cure at 23 oc ± 1.7 °C. The accelerated cure consists of elevating the specimen
temperature to increase the rate of hydration. For this study, the standard cure batches
were used to fabricate and measure length change prisms. After the seven day moist
cure, the specimens were placed in a controlled environment of23 oc and 50%± 4%.
ASTM C157-98 requires an additional curing in lime saturated water for 27 days
after the first 24 hours after the addition of water to the concrete mixture. As stated
previously, specimens in this study were cured in lime saturated water for a period of six
days after the addition of water to the concrete mixture. The reason for the nonstandard
curing conditions is that VDOT specifications requires hydraulic cement concrete
structures to be cured for a period of 7 days (7). Thus, the shrinkage results presented are
more indicative of field concrete where drying shrinkage would begin after a seven day
curing period rather than the standard 28 day curing period. It is recognized that the
pozzolanic activity would be small after seven days of moist curing. However, as stated

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above the observed shrinkage would be more representative of field curing conditions
regardless of mixture type.
Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
Compressive strength and modulus of elasticity specimens were fabricated for

each concrete mixture in accordance with ASTM. C 192-98. Cylindrical specimens were
placed in the same controlled environments as the prisms and tested at seven, 28, 56, and
90 days.
llnrestrained Shrinkage Testing
Unrestrained shrinkage testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM C 157~

9&. The test method involves measuring the length change of 75mm x 75mm x 279mm
concrete prisms. Specimens were measured after curing every seven days up to 90 days,
then at 120, 150, and 180 days.
l,rediction Models
Five existing shrinkage prediction models were used to compare the shrinkage
measurements obtained in this study to the predicted values of each model. The
following presents the equations for the prediction models:
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
American Concrete Institute- ACI209 Code Model (8,9)
(t- t I )
s l (t, t ) = . s 1, o . I cure)
c , ( m01st [ll
Sr1 Stl,O
1
35 + (t- t h ) Sllt;t:j
s ,o
(t- t I )
s1 0
& ·1: ( t, t ·I
Sl S1,0
) = )5+(t-t
_ • )
c
1
S1!fJ
(steam I cure) [2]
1
SJ1,0
where: &m(t,t;;~-o.o) ""' shrinkage strain

t= time (days)
!sh.o""' time at start of drying (days)
t,11., "" ultimate shrinkage strain

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222 Mokarem et al.
Bazant B3 Model (10)
&
s
h(t,t )
0
= -s sh 00 KhS(t) [3]
2.1 I -0 28 ) -6
&shoo = -ala2 ( 26( w ) (fe) · + 270 * 10 [4]
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
K = 1- h 3 [5]
h
[6]
where: Esh(t,t.,) =shrinkage strain

Ssboo = ultimate shrinkage strain
a1 and az = 1.0
w = water content of concrete (lb/W)
Kh = cross-section shape factor
h =relative humidity(%)
t = age of concrete (days)
t 0 = age of concrete at beginning of shrinkage
S(t) =time function for shrinkage
Euro-International Concrete Committee- CEB 90 Code Model (8,9)
& =& (f )(fJ ) [7]

eso s em RH
6
s (/ ) = (160 + IO{J (9- f I 1450)) * 10- [8]
s em se em
fJRH = -1.55/} ARH [9)
3
fJ ARH = 1- (RH I 100) [1 0)
where: Scso = drying shrinkage of portland cement concrete

s, = drying shrinkage obtained from RH-shrinkage chart
~sc == coefficient depending on type of cement

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~RH = coefficient for relative humidity
fern = mean 28-day compressive strength (psi)
Gardner/Lockman Model ( 11)
[11]
112
eshu = 1000 * K * (
4350
, J * 10-6
[12]
fcm28
[13]
fJ(h) = 1- 1.18h4
[14]
fJ(t) =( (t- tc) 1/2J * 10-6
t- tc + 97(V IS)
where: Esh = shrinkage strain

Eshu = ultimate shrinkage strain
~(h)= correction term for effect of humidity on shrinkage
p(t) =correction term for effect of time on shrinkage
h =humidity
tc =age drying commenced (days)
t =age of concrete (days)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sakata Model (12)
[15]
&shoo = -50+ 78(1 -exp(RH/1 00) + 38 In W- S(ln(V /S)/1 0) 2* 1 o-s [16]
where: Esh(t,t,) =predicted shrinkage strain

Eshoo = ultimate shrinkage strain
3
W =water content of the concrete (kg/m )
RH = relative humidity (%)
V/S =volume to surface area ratio
t =time (days)
to= time drying started (days)
Table 4 presents the prediction model limitations. For the HSC mixtures three additional
prediction models were used, they were as follows:

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224 Mokarem et al.
ACI 209 Modified by Huo (13)
(st,a = 1.20- o.os•r c [17]
[18]
where: {&sh)1 = shrinkage strain

f c = 28-day compressive strength {ksi)
( &sh)u = ultimate shrinkage strain
K. = 45 - 2.5 * f c
AASHTO-LRFD Model (14)
For moist-cured concretes:
.
f ah = - ksk,( 35.0+t
t
r
\.5lx1 o-J
[19]
For steam-cured concretes:
fah=-kskh( 55.0+t
t h.5lx10-
J
3 [20]
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where:
t
e0.36(Y IS)+ t 1064 -94(VI S)]
ka= 26 [21]
t 923
45+1

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kb = (140- H)/70 forH<80% [22]
kb = 3(100- H)/70 for H>80% [23]
t= drying time (days)
Tadros Model (15)
6 [24]
f sh = 480* 1o- :./ah
:1sb = ktd k. kha kr [25]
t [26]
kld=
61-4/'a+t
[27]
khs = 2.00- 0.0143H
1064-94V IS [28]
ka=
735
[29]
kr = S/(1 +r ci) --`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
Tables 5 and 6 present the average compressive strength and modulus of

elasticity for the mixtures in this study. The compressive strengths for the A3, A4, A5,
and SCM mixtures complied with the relationship of a lower water to cement (w/c) ratios
produce higher compressive strengths. For the A3 and A4 mixtures the gravel mixtures
had the lowest w/c and the highest compressive strengths. For the AS mixtures, the
limestone had the lowest w/c ratio and the highest compressive strength. For the SCM
mixtures, the A4 mixtures had a w/c of0.43 and the AS mixture had a w/c ratio of0.39.
The AS mixture had the higher compressive strength. The LTHSC mixtures had a lower
compressive strength, which is expected for lightweight aggregate. The HSC
compressive strengths were the highest. The modulus of elasticity values agreed with the

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226 Mokarem et al.
compressive strength values. The modulus of elasticity increased with increasing
compressive strength.
Compressive strength is also of interest relative to drying shrinkage of concrete

mixtures. As shown in Table 5, the 28 day average compressive strength for the A3, A4,
and A5 mixtures were 40 MPa, 42 MPa, and 51 MPa. The difference in compressive
strength of II MPa is relatively small for its influence on drying shrinkage (6).
Unrestrained Shrinkage
Figures 1-6 present the average percentage length change and 95 percent
confidence limits for the A3, A4, and A5 portland cement concrete mixtures. These
figures also present the predicted values for the ACI 209, B3, CEB 90, and GL2000
shrinkage prediction models. The Sakata model was not presented in the figures because
of its relative poor prediction characteristic which is present in the Prediction Model
Analysis section. The measured shrinkage values for the A3, A4, and A5 portland
cement concrete mixtures are only slightly different. Considering the variability
associated with shrinkage measurements, there is no significant difference between the
three mixtures as indicated by the 95 error bars in the figures. The coefficient of
variation (COV) for the A3, A4, and A5 mixtures were relatively high at seven days
ranging from 7.6 to 19.7 percent which is to be expected for sma11 early age
measurements. From 28 to 180 days the COV were generally less than nine percent (6).
Figure 7 presents the average percentage length change for the SCM mixtures.
The COY of the SCM were similar to the A3, A4, and A5 mixtures indicating a higher·
variability at seven days than at 28 days to 180 days (6). The mixture containing fly ash
exhibited the greatest amount of shrinkage. The mixtures containing microsilica and slag
cement were not significantly different. The AS slag cement mixture had the same
diabase aggregate types as the A4 supplemental cementitious material mixtures.
The supplemental cementitious material mixtures exhibited greater drying

shrinkage than the associated portland cement concrete mixtures. This could be due to the
denser matrix produced by the fly ash, microsilica, and slag cement. The denser matrix
would create smaiier capillary voids, and the bulk of drying shrinkage in concrete occurs
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
from the loss of water from the smaiJer capiiJary voids.
Figures 8 - 13 present the average percent length change and the 95 percent
confidence limits for the LTHSC and HSC mixtures. These figures also show the
predicted values from the shrinkage prediction models.
Prediction Model Analysis
The percent shrinkage was calculated for each of the models at seven, 28, 56,
90, 120, 150, and 180 days after shrinkage had commenced. A residual value for each
measured unrestrained shrinkage specimen was calculated as folJows:

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Residual Value= Predicted Value- Measured (Experimental) Value [30)
The measured (experimental) value was an average value for each batch at seven, 28, 56,
90, 120, 150, and 180 days. Thus, if the residual value was positive, it indicated that the
model over estimated the shrinkage. If the residual value was negative, it indicated that
the model underestimated the shrinkage. The ACI 209 model is applicable for only Type
I General and Type III High Early Strength cements. Therefore, residuals were not
calculated for the A4-Diabase/Fly ash, A4- Diabase/Slag cement, and AS-Diabase/Slag
cement mixtures for the ACI 209 model, because these cementing materials hydrate at a
slower rate than a Type I or Type III cement. They are closer to a Type II cement.
The residuals are an indication of whether a model is generally overestimating

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or underestimating shrinkage. However, the residuals do not necessarily determine

which model is the best predictor. To determine which model is the best predictor an
error percentage analysis was performed. The error percentage was calculated as follows
for the residual values at seven, 28, 56, 90, 120, 150, and 180 days:
Error Percentage= (Residual* 100) I Experimental (Measured) Value [31]
An average error percentage for the seven time periods was calculated, a smaller error
percentage over the 180 day period indicates a better fit model. Table 7 presents the
average residuals and the average error percentage for the mixtures. The residual values
are also the average for the seven time periods. For example, the residuals for the A3
mixtures are the average residuals for the A3 limestone, gravel, and diabase mixtures at
seven, 28, 56, 90, 120, 150, and 180 days.
For the A3 and A4 portland cement concrete mixtures, the CEB 90 model was
the best predictor. The model had the lowest average residuals and lowest error
percentage values. The GL 2000 model was the next best predictor closely followed by
the Bazant B3 model. The ACI 209 and Sakata models were not as accurate as the other
three prediction models. For the AS portland cement concrete mixtures the CEB 90
model was again the best predictor. The Bazant B3 model was the next best predictor
closely followed by the GL 2000 model.
Overall, for the portland cement concrete mixtures, the CEB 90 model was the
best predictor, followed by the G/L 2000 and Bazant B3 models. Whereas the ACI 209
and Sakata models were not as accurate for the portland cement concrete mixtures as the
other three models. However for the A3, A4 ,and A5 mixtures, it is extremely difficult to
conclude that there is any significant difference in prediction capabilities between the
CEB 90, GL2000, and B3 models and thus these three models should be considered
equivalents.
For the fly ash and slag cement mixtures the Bazant B3, CEB 90, and GIL 2000
models were used in shrinkage prediction analyses because these cementing materials are
closer in hydration characteristics to a Type II cement rather than a Type I. The Bazant
B3, CEB 90, and G/L 2000 models include an adjustment factor for cement types,

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228 Mokarem et al.
whereas, the ACI 209 and Sakata models do not consider the influence of various
cementing materials. As shown for the A4 fly ash and the A4 and A5 slag cement
mixtures the G/L 2000 model was the best predictor, with the CEB 90 and Bazant models
being equivalent.
OveraJJ, for the error percentage analysis of the data, the models tended to
overestimate the shrinkage of the portland cement concrete mixtures and underestimate
the shrinkage of the supplemental cementitious material mixtures. One of the probable
reasons is that these models predict shrinkage largely based on the average 28-day
compressive strength of the mixture. Compressive strength does not directly account for
the pore volume and pore size distribution of the mixture, which greatly affects drying
shrinkage.
The rankings for the LTHSC and HSC mixtures are presented in Table 8. The
ran kings are based on the sum of the residuals. For the LTHSC mixtures, the ranking of
the models was inconclusive (Vincent, 2003). The ACI 209 model under predicts
initially, then over predicts after 50 days. The CEB 90 model is the best early age
predictor, then under predicts after 28 days. The Bazant model under predicts initially,
then is the best predictor after 80 days and the Gardner!Lockman model under predicts
throughout drying. However, considering the variability associated with concrete
shrinkage property, there appears to be little difference between the G/L2000, Bazant 83,
and ACI 209 models.
For the HSC mixtures, the compressive strengths exceeded the limitations of
some of the models, however, these models were sti)] used to see how they performed
outside of the limitations (5). The Gardner!Lockman model is the best predictor for the
HSC mixtures. The ACI 209 and AASHTO-LRFD models under predicted initially, then
over predicted after 50 days. The CEB 90, Bazant 83, Tadros, and ACI 209 Modified
models under predicted shrinkage throughout drying.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CONCLUSIONS
1. The A3, A4, and AS portland cement concrete mixtures exhibited about the
same amount of drying shrinkage which is to be expected for mixtures with
small differences in cement, water, and aggregate content and relatively
similar strengths.
2. The mixtures containing fly ash exhibited greater drying shrinkage than
those containing microsilica and slag cement which may be related to the
relatively short but field realistic curing period of seven days.
3. The CEB 90 model appears to be the best predictor of drying shrinkage for
VDOT Portland cement concrete mixtures. However, considering the
variability associated with shrinkage property of Portland cement concrete

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mixtures, there appears to be no significant difference between the
prediction property of the CEB 90, GIL 2000, and Bazant B3 models.
4. The GIL 2000 model appears to be a significant better predictor of drying

shrinkage for the fly ash and slag cement mixtures.
5. For the lightweight high strength concrete mixtures, the CEB 90 model
ranked higher at early ages, while the Bazant B3 model ranked higher at
later ages.
6. For the high strength concrete mixtures, the G/L 2000 model ranked higher
than the other models. However, there appears to be no significant
difference between the GIL 2000, Bazant 83, and ACI 209 models.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Virginia Transportation Research Council
for funding these projects. The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this-
report are those of the author and not necessarily of the sponsoring agency.
REFERENCES
1. Holt, E. and Janssen, D., Influence of Early Age Volume Changes on Long-
Term Concrete Shrinkage, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
1998.
2. Dilger, W.H. and Wang, C., Shrinkage and Creep of High Performance
Concrete (HPC) A Critical Review, Creep and Shrinkage - Structural Design
Effects, SP-194-11, ACI, pp. 361-379, Nov. 1997.
3. Neville, A.M., Properties of Concrete, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1998.
4. Vincent, E.C., Compressive Creep of a Lightweight, High Strength Concrete

Mixture, Masters Thesis in Civil Engineering, Virginia Tech, January 2003.
5. Townsend, B.D., Creep and Shrinkage of a High Strength Concrete Mixture,

Masters Thesis in Civil Engineering, Virginia Tech, May 2003.
6. Mokarem, D. W., Development of Concrete Shrinkage Performance
Specifications, Dissertation in Civil Engineering, Virginia Tech, May, 2002.
7. Virginia Department of Transportation, Bridge and Road Specifications,

Richmond, Virginia, January 1997.
8. Bhal, N.S. and Jain, J.P., Effect of Age at the Time of Loading on Creep of
Concrete, The IndianConcrete Journal, September 1995.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Daneshlink.com
230 Mokarem et al.
9. Bhal, N.S. and Mital, M.K., Effect of Relative Humidity on Creep and
Shrinkage of Concrete, The Indian Concrete Journal, pp 21-2 7, January 1996.
10. Bazant, Z.P., Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Model for Analysis and Design of
Concrete Structures- Model 83, Materials and Structures, v. 28, pp. 357-365,
1995.
11. Gardner, N. J., and Lockman, M. J., Design Provisions for Drying Shrinkage
and Creep of Normal-Strength Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, V. 98, March-
April2001, pp. 159-167.
12. Sakata, K., Prediction of Concrete Creep and Shrinkage, Creep and Shrinkage of
Concrete, Proceedings of Fifth International RILEM Symposium, 1993.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
13. Huo, X.S., A1-0maishi, N., and Tadros, M.K., Creep, Shrinkage, Modulus of
Elasticity of High Performance Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, v. 98, n. 6,
November-December 2001.
14. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,

"AASHTO-LRFD Bridge Design Specifications," Second Edition, Washington,
DC, 1998.
15. Tadros, et a1., "Prestress Losses in Pretensioned High-Strength Concrete Bridge

Girders," Final Report, 2002.
T a bl e 1: M"IXture Proportwns fior A3 A4 and A5 PortIand CementConcrete.

'
Limestone Gravel Diabase
Material
A3 A4 A5 A3 A4 A5 A3 A4 AS
Cement, kg/m3 349 377 415 335 377 418 349 377 419
Fine Agg. kwm> 810 763 781 685 584 640 716 667 670
Coarse Agg., kg/m 1029 1029 1043 1098 1098 1098 1138 1138 1138
Water, kg/m' 171 170 138 154 158 148 166 163 164
AEA ml 131 141 155 125 141 157 131 141 157
HRWR,ml 1740 1880 2072 1669 1880 2087 1740 1880 2090
Retarder ml 0 564 0 0 564 0 0 564 0
w/c 0.49 0.45 0.33 0.46 0.42 0.35 0.47 0.43 0.39
Table 2: M1xture Proportions for Sum: lemental Cementitous Material Concrete.

A4FlyAsh A4 A4 Slag A5 Slag
Material
Microsilica Cement Cement
Cement kg/m> 321 351 227 252
SCM,kg/m3 75 27 151 167
Fine Agg. kg/m> 641 669 667 670
3
Coarse Agg., kgfm 1138 1138 1138 ll38
Water kg/mJ 163 163 163 164
AEAml 148 141 141 157
HRWRml 1977 1883 1883 2090
Retarder ml 692 659 659 0
w/c 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.39

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Tba le 3: Mixture Proportions tior LmSCandH sCM"Ixtures.
Material Lmsc HSC
Cement kwffi> 268 303
Sla~r Cement: ki!Tm3 179 202
Coarse Agg. {ligbtweight), kg/m 3 413 0
Coarse Agg.(normalweight), kg/m3 359 1157
Fine Agg.Oightweight), fiZfmT 231 0
Fine Agg.(norma1weilibt), I(Jffil 321 586
Water J{g/m' 151 149
AEA,ml 355 580
WR,ml 651 1044
HRWR,ml 1656 6764
CI or Accelerator, L 11.4 19.8
Table 4· Model Limitations

Parameter ACI209 B3 CEB90 GL2000 JSCES
Fcm(MPa) - 17-69 20-90 20-69 :S 55
ale - 2.5-13.5 - -
Cement~m>) - - -
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
160-720 260-500
w/c - 0.30-0.85 - - 0.40-0.65
HumidM%) 40-100 40-100 40-100 40-100 45-80
Cement-tvoe I orill I II or III R, SL orRS lor ill -
to or t,
<: 7 Days t,:Sto t,:S 14Days <: 2 Days -
(~oist cured}
to or t,
(~earn cured) <: l-3 Days t.~to t,~ l4Days <: 2 Days -
Model includes No, but
lightweight considers No
Yes No No
concretes? aggregate
stiffness
Table 5: Average Comoressive Stren!rths (MPa).

Mixture 7Davs 28 Davs 56Davs 90Davs
A3 Limestone 34 41 42 46
A3 Gravel 37 41 45 47
A3 Diabase 35 39 41 45
A4Gravel 37 44 48 50
A4Diabase 34 41 45 46
AS Limestone 51 54 55 58
AS Gravel 46 50 53 56
A5Diabase 43 48 51 54
A4D/FA 48 53 55 58
A4D/MS 47 53 57 60
A4D/S 50 54 58 61
ASD/S 51 55 59 62
LTHSC 36 43 - -
HSC 71 91 97 91

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23 2 Mokarem et al.
Table 6: Average Modulus of Elasticity (GPa).
Mixture 7Days 28Days 56 Da_ys 90Days
A3 Gravel 28 30 31 32
A3 Diabase 27 29 30 30
A4 Gravel 29 30 33 35
A4Diabase 26 28 30 33
AS Limestone 34 36 37 39
AS Gravel 33 35 37 37
AS Diabase 32 34 36 36
A4D/FA 31 35 37 41
A4D/MS 30 36 39 42
A4D/S 33 37 39 42
AS DIS 33 38 40 45
LTHSC 20 20 21 20
HSC 42 46 46 47
Table 7: Summary of Residuals and Error Percentage for Limestone, Gravel,

Diabase, and SCM Mix.tures
Residuals A3 A4 AS SCM
CEB90 53 41 32 160
GL2000 59 46 37 103
BazantB3 61 51 33 148
ACI 209 110 115 122 --
Sakata
Error o/o
190
A3
172
A4
188
AS SCM
---
CEB90 13 15 11 39
GL2000 15 18 14 29
BazantB3 IS 18 12 39
ACI 209 27 28 29 --
Sakata 40 45 57 --
Table 8: Prediction Model Rankings for LTHSC and HSC Mixtures (from most
to least accurate).
LTHSC HSC
CEB90 GL2000
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bazant 83 BazantB3
ACI209 ACI209
GL2000 ACI 209 Modified
Tadros
AASHTO LRFD
CEB90

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0.061--~~---~------==~=::
0.05 ~---Jit""":;;....--.....-~""$""==:;~
&
; 0.04 -I---"C71'"--=--..-= c - - - - - - - - 1
....,._Prisms
ti
i 0.03 --ACI209
-......B3
.3
. 0.02 -1-b~---------------l
Time After Curing (Days)
Figure 1: Shrinkage Prism Data with ACI 209 and Bazant B3 Models
(A3 Portland Cement Concrete Mixtures).
0.06,----------------,
0.05
& 0.04
~ 0.03 +---#--cc:/---------------1 -+-Prisms

5 -+-CEB90
~ 0.02 +-f,.L---------------1 _.....Gl2000
!I
.. 0.01 -11----------------1
o._---------------1
50 100 150 2 0
-0.01 .L...--------------'
nme After Cure (Days)
Figure 2: Shrinkage Prism Data with CEB 90 and GIL 2000 Models
0.05 j------.:;ii~::::::==~==t===•---j
&
........_.Prisms
' 0.04
I. :::+-LF-------------------1
.--ACf209
...._.a3
0,01 jJ-----------------1
Time After Curing (Days)

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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234 Mokarem et al.
M6 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
.......-Prisms
....... cea so
....,._QL2000
100 150
.0.01'--------------'
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
f 005
u 0.04
0.07
0.06
_
f/
..
··~ ---
Jooa
'# 0.02
0.01
,,
/?-'
'
~-"···
50 100 150 210

Tlmo Aller Curing (llayl)
0.06
...
& 0.04
.- ........
;
6 0.03 LZ"
i 0.02
//_
!l
., Q.Q1 [_
50 100 150 2!0
-0.01
Time Aller Curing (llaYII
(AS Portland Cement Concrete Mixtures).

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0.0000
_.
.. 0.0000
"'fi 0.0400
.c
u
--~ --
.c 0.0000
~
!1 0.0200 /
';/!. 0.0100 r ----
O.CXXXJ
0 50 100 150 200
Time after curing (Days)
l-o-- A4DIFA -+- MDIMS --o-- MDIS -w- A5D/S ;

Figure 7: Average Percentage Length Change (SCM Mixtures).
uosoo
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
OO'!Oi.)
OOOC'O
0
i ~0$y"(l
1::;:. AC! ?<Bi
ti
iii 0(>400 1.-..C!W!<JJ
E'
,3
~
00~00 !=-~·-
OtQ-~
j
omoo ""'"''""~"'"""'"'""'"'"""""'"'""'""'"""'""""''"""""'""""'"""""'1
oo:.n1
() ~N 100 ~~ 2tC :.:tM 3.00 300
Tim-e After Curifti (days)
Figure 8: Shrinkage Prism Data with ACI 209 and CEB 90 Models (LTHSC).
o ~ 100 ~w 200 200 300 sso

Tl:m$- Arter Curing (at,ayS}
Figure 9: Shrinkage Prism Data with B3 and GL2000 Models (LTHSC).

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236 Mokarem et al.
1 t::r-:::::~
i o.oooo .... _....... ·• . . . . . " .,.
rr/i·:~.-~::
1
1
~ :: i:r./~
o.=
. . . -
r.-----....----·-----~------·--·~·-------·---"'··-·-----·
~
Time All&lt Curing (da)'ll
~
Figure 10: Shrinkage Prism Data with ACI 209 and ACI 209 Modified Models (HSC).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Time All&lr Cunno (da)'ll
Figure 11: Shrinkage Prism Data with CEB-MC90 and Tadros Models (HSC).
Tlmo Aflltr C:urino (daylll

[·-:.--;::~~----:;:.M~li:liO ...........::;_:::;;;;;;·]
Figure 12: Shrinkage Prism Data with GL2000 and AASHTO-LRFD Models (HSC).

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00000~--------------------------~
ooooo+---------------------------~
~~~~~
00000~----~----r-----·~----~--~
0
Figure 13: Shrinkage Prism Data with B3 Model (HSC).
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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238 Mokarem et al.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-11
Design Aids for the Evaluation of Creep

Induced Structural Effects
by M. Sassone and M. A. Chiorino
Synopsis: Many structural problems involving creep in concrete structures can be

solved in very compact closed forms through the fundamental theorems of linear
viscoelasticity of aging materials. This general approach requires the knowledge of three
basic functions: the compliance function J, derived directly from the creep prediction
models available in the literature and in technical guidance documents, and the relaxation
(R) and redistribution(~ functions, that can be calculated from J. This paper presents an
interactive web site for quick automatic calculation of these three basic functions, with
reference to the principal creep models presently considered by international civil
engineering societies.
Starting from the approach suggested by Bazant for the numerical solution of the
fundamental Volterra integral equation relating R to J, identically applied to derive qfrom J,
a complete procedure has been developed, including the user interface necessary for setting
input data and handling output results. The immediate availability of the basic functions
allows extended comparisons of the outputs ofthe different models and evaluation of the
influence that the selection of a particular model has on the assessment of structures.
The web site has a flexible architecture and will be progressively extended to include
calculation of other functions of interest for the creep analysis of structures, e.g. the aging
coefficient x of the age-adjusted-effective-modulus-method, and the reduced relaxation
functions R* that extend the field of application of the fundamental theorems to the analysis
of heterogeneous structures, such as e.g. cable-stayed bridges.
Keywords: compliance; concrete; creep; creep analysis; design aids;

numerical solver; prediction models; redistribution function; relaxation;
structural analysis; web site
239
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240 Sassone and Chiorino
Mario Sassone holds a PhD in strnctural engineering and currently he is research
assistant at the Politecnico di Torino. His doctoral thesis concerned inteiface problems
in steel-concrete composite strnctures. He is presently working on reliability evaluation
of reinforced concrete structures, with particular attention to long term creep effects on
the serviceability limit state.
ACI member and ACI Italy Chapter President, Mario A. Chiorino is Professor oj
Structural Mechanics at the Politecnico di Torino and a member of the Turin Academy oj
Sciences. He has been associated with CEB activities since I 968 as a member of the CEB
Advisory Committee, the .Committee for the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, various
technical committees, and as editor of the CEB Design Manual "Strnctural Effects oj
Time-dependent Behavior of Concrete
INTRODUCTION
Creep analysis of structures is normally performed on the basis of the linear theory of
viscoelasticity for aging materials. A large number of practical problems concerning the
influence of creep effects on the reliability and durability of concrete structures can be
solved exactly, and in very compact closed forms, through the four fundamental theorems
of this theory, as demonstrated by the second author in a parallel paper and in previous
works [Chiorino et a!. 1984; Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999, Chiorino 2000, 2005,
Chiorino eta!. 1997, 1999, 2002]. These compact formulations are particularly suitable
for codes and technical guidance documents CEB 1993, CEN 2003, and helpful in the
global assessment of creep induced structural effects in the preliminary design stages, as
well as in the control of the output of the ·final detailed numerical investigations and
safety checks.
The conditions to be respected are the homogeneity of the concrete structure and the
rigidity of the restraints. Under these assumptions, the compact solutions are
characterized by one of the three fUndamental jUnctions, depending on the type of
problem under consideration, i.e.:
- the compliance function J(t,t 0) for the problems of imposed loads;

- the relaxation function R(t,t0), for the problems of imposed geometrical actions,
- the redistribution function .;(t, to. t J), for the problems of change of static system.
J(t,t 0) represents the strain response at time t of the material to a constant unit
sustaine~ stress applied at different ages to at loading.
R(t, t0) represents the stress response at time t of the material to a constant unit
sustained strain applied at different ages to at loading .
.;(t,t0.t1) measures the creep induced stress redistribution following a change of static
scheme at t = t1 ;? to+ , ( with t0 + = age immediately after loading); it has the character
of a non dimensional factor whose values lie in the interval (0,1) (with .; = 0 fort= t1),
and measures at a given timet the creep induced part of the difference between the stress
distribution corresponding to an hypothetical application of the constant sustained loads
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to the structure in its final static scheme and the stress distribution in the structure in its
original static scheme, which is progressively transferred into the structure by creep.
A fourth function, termed the aging coefficient x and related by an algebraic equation
to J and R , can be used for the compact solution of many creep analysis problems, both
exactly or with different degrees of approximations depending on the type of problem,
adopting the age-adjusted-effective-modulus (AAEM) method [Bazant I 972b; see also
Chiorino et al. 1984; Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999, Chiorino 2000, 2005, CEN
2004].
Finally, a further group of functions, called reduced relaxation functions R*, allows
application of the fundamental theorems of the linear theory of viscoelasticity for aging
materials to the analysis of heterogeneous concrete structures with elastic restraints (like
e.g. cable-stayed bridges). The 'R* functions depend on the compliance J of the concrete
part of the structure and on some characteristic parameters of the heterogeneous structure
[Chiorino et al. 1986, Mola 1993, Giussani and Mola 2003].
The compliance as a function of time t and age at loading to can be obtained from
creep prediction models suggested by technical documents of international engineering
associations, or available in the literature, on the basis of the physical parameters
(material, ambient and geometrical parameters) characterizing the concrete and the
structure, or structural element, under consideration.
The relaxation and the redistribution functions R and ~, and the reduced relaxation
functions R*, can be obtained from J through the solution of the fundamental Volterra
integral equations relating R , ~ and R* to J. The aging coefficient X is then derived as
an algebraic function of J and R. For realistic forms of the compliance, like for instance
those suggested by the principal creep models considered by civil engineering societies,
integration of the Volterra integral equations for the determinations of the derived
functions R (and thus also x), ~, and R*, cannot be obtained analytically, and numerical
integration is necessary.
Design aids to speed up the computation of both the primary function J and the
derived functions are therefore needed by researchers and designers, and are essential for
a rapid application in the design activity of the compact solutions for creep analysis
problems indicated above.
Standard numerical procedures of integration of the Volterra equation have been

developed [Bazant 1972a], and incorporated in design manuals [Chiorino et al., 1984,
Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999
For the CEB 1990 model code creep prediction model (CEB MC90) [CEB 1993), an
extended set of charts of the primary function J, and of the derived functions R, x and ~,
for a wide range of influencing parameters, have been determined on the basis of these
numerical procedures and incorporated in the revised edition of the CEB Design Manual
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on Structural Effects of Time-Dependent Behaviour of Concrete [Chiorino and Lacidogna
1993].
The design tool offered to researchers and to the profession is in the format of a web
site incorporating a numerical solver, instead of traditional design charts. The numerical
solver can be included into Finite Elements codes, when dealing with structures not
exceedingly complex.
The paper discusses the problems concerned with the development of a computer
program for the automatic computation (both numerical and graphical) of the entire set of
functions that are of interest for the creep analysis of concrete structures, on the basis of
the physical parameters characterizing the structural problem under consideration, and
with reference to the three prevailing creep prediction models (CEB MC90, B3 1 [Bazant
and Baweja2000], and GL2000 [Gardner and Lockman 2001]) published in the literature
and presently under consideration in the revision of the ACI 209 document on creep and
creep structural effects [ACI 209 2004].
To make the software available to the scientific community a web page has been
developed, from which it is possible to download the setup files and run the application
on a computer. The web page is hosted by the web site of the Politecnico di Torino and
can be reached at the web address M-ww.polito.itlcreepanalysis. The Creepanalysis
Research Group at the Politecnico di Torino will develop and upgrade the design aids as
well as the web page architecture.
As a first step the computer program allows the computation of the three functions J,
R, and ~. permitting the compact and theoretically correct solution of the majority of
practical problems concerning the evaluation of the influence of creep effects on the
reliability and durability of homogeneous concrete structures. In the future developments
of the research the architecture of the web page will be progressively extended to include
the automatic calculation of the other functions of interest for the creep analysis of
structures, like x and R*.
In the implementation of numerical methods for the solution of integral Volterra

equations some problems have been encountered, and are discussed in the text, when
trying to represent the predictions of the different models for "equivalent conditions".
These difficulties arise in the definition of both the equivalence of these conditions, with
1
A web page has been already developed as a design tool for the quick evaluation of
J only for the B3 model. The page computes single numerical values of J at a given time t
for a given age at loading to, once the data concerning the characteristics of the concrete,
of the structural element and of the ambient have been inserted by the user [Kfistek et al.
2001].
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regard to the material parameters, and of equivalent "initial" (nominal elastic) or "very
short term" responses.
The immediate availability of the basic functions allows extended comparisons of the
outputs of the different models, and an estimation of the consequent influence that the
selection of a particular model has on the assessment of structures.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE PROGRAM
The Creep Beta 1.0 program is a C++ stand-alone compiled application, that can be
installed on computers running MS Windows. The choice to develop a stand-alone
routine, complete with all the interfaces and data output features, instead of a routine
running inside a given mathematical environment, allowed the creation of an easy to use
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tool for everybody who needs a quick print of the creep related curves.
By means of the input interface windows it is possible to input all the values required
by prediction models, as well as the initial and final time for each curve and all the
options related to calculation. The ouput consists of text files of the numerical values of
results and graphic bitmap files of the charts. Because the program is intended as a
working tool many options and settings are included.
The main window provides a graphic screen where the computed diagrams of the
different functions are drawn: all the parameters of the graphic screen can be edited by
the user, scaling, boundary and type of coordinates (linear or logarithmic). From the main
window it is possible to select what type of diagram to draw (compliance J, relaxation R
or redistribution q), the type of integration rule for the numerical solver of the integral
equation (rectangle or trapezoidal), and the number of time steps. It is possible to print
the diagrams as shown in the window.
Figures 1 to 6 present examples of the main window for both compliance and
relaxation functions, for the three creep prediction models: CEB MC90, B3 and GL2000,
for the set of parameters indicated and for selected values of the age at loading t0 • The
examples concerning the calculation of the redistribution function 4(t,t0.ti) for the three
models are presented in Figures 7 to 12, for the same set of parameters and for two
different values of the age at loading t0 , for selected values of the age t 1 at which the static
system is changed.
FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRAL EQUATIONS
The following Volterra type linear integral equations hold for the determination from
the compliance J of the relaxation function R and of the redistribution function ;,
respectively [Chiorino and Lacidogna 1993, 1999, Chiorino 2005, Dezi eta!. 1990, Dezi
and Tarantino 1991]:
t
1 = R(t 0 ,t0 ) J(t,t 0 ) + jJ(t, r)dR(r,t 0 ) (1)

to

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I
J(t,t 0 )- J(t 1 ,t0 ) = jJ(t, r)d~(r,t 0 ,t 1 ) (2)

II
NUMERICAL SOLUTION
The classical numerical algorithm first proposed by Bazant [Bazant 1972a] was
adopted for the approximate solution of eqs. (1) and (2). The algorithm is illustrated in
Appendix I, with reference to the determination of R by eq. (1) and using the
trapezoidal rule. Considering that the term J(t 1,to) at the left side of eq. (2) is constant by
respect to time, the numerical solution of eq. (2) can be easily obtained adopting the same
algorithm, provided that t ~ to and t1 c to.
Two options are available for the approximation of the integrals with finite sums: the
trapezoidal rule and the rectangle rule. The second option allows a quicker solution and
usually leads to acceptable approximations if the number of time steps is not too small.
However, computation time is not significant even when adopting the trapezoidal rule: of
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the order of seconds for the entire family of curves of R or ; appearing on one window.
The selection of the most convenient progressions of time steps, in terms of amplitude
of the first time interval and rate of the geometrical progression, or in terms of final time,
can be easily performed - thanks to the rapidity of the process - verifying the influence
of the refinement of the adopted subdivision of the time scale on the numerical results of
the computed function through repeated trials.
The following values are normally adequate for accuracy in the results up to third
digit for all the models:
- amplitude of the first time interval: L1 12 = tr t 1 = 0.01 day= 864 s,
- number of step per decade: m = 80,
- number of steps for I 05 days: := 550.
CREEP MODELS
The following models have been embedded in the program: CEB MC90, B3, and
GL2000. Their formulations are presented in Appendix 2, together with the input data
required by each model.
EQUIVALENT CONDITIONS FOR A COMPARISON OF MODELS
For a comparison of the predictions of the different models, equivalent conditions can
be established setting at the same values identical or equivalent parameters.
Some minor problems arise in this selection, as e.g. in the case of the parameters
related to the type of cement, due the different classification of cements in the CEB-FIP
Model Code and in American Standards. In the examples of the families of curves shown
in Figs. I to 12 the following equivalence has been adopted: normal (N) or rapid

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hardening (R) cements for CEB MC90 model, and Type I cement for B3 and GL2000
models.
One other minor difficulty is due to the fact that the reference concrete strength is the
characteristic strength at 28 days fck 28 (termed fck) for CEB MC90 model, and the mean
compressive strength at 28 days fcm 28 for the B3 and GL2000 models. The characteristic
strengthfck has been selected as one of the general input data in the present program. The
relationship fcm 28 = 1.1 fck28 + 5.0 (MPa), suggested by GL2000 model for an estimation
offcm28 from /ck28, has been extended also to the B3 model.
B3 and GL2000 models require the introduction of the additional parameter t c (age
when drying begins, end of moist curing, with tc"S t0 ). In the examples of the families of
curves shown in Figs. 1 to 12 a fixed value tc = 3 days has been adopted for all the
curves.
In this respect, it must be observed that model GL2000 specifies that to calculate
relaxation the correction term rJJ(tJ for the effect of drying before loading must remain
constant at the initial value throughout the relaxation period. This specification has been
extended to the calculation of the redistribution function. Therefore, when the solver
calculates for this model a curve of the relaxation function R(t,t0) or of the redistribution
function q(t,t0.fi) for a given t0 , the value of tP(tJ has been be set constant for all the
compliance curves involved in the calculation at the value calculated for t0 . On the
contrary, in B3 model the value of tc'S to is set constant for all the compliance curves
involved in the same type of calculations.
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Model B3 requires the introduction of further parameters related to the concrete mix
and to curing conditions. The following values were adopted for the curves shown in the
figures:
Aggregate content: a = I 820 kg/m 3

Cement content: c 400 kg/m 3
Water content: w 180 kg/m 3
Curing condition factor: a2 = 1,2 (normal curing)
Cross section factor: ks = 1
INITIAL (NOMINAL ELASTIC) VALUES OF STRAINS AND STRESSES
In creep prediction models the compliance function J(t,t 0) is normally conventionally

separated into an initial age dependent strain due to unit stress J(t 0 +L1,t0) with L1 = t- to
small, which is treated as instantaneous and elastic (nominal elastic strain), and
represented as the inverse of a nominal elastic modulus EJt0), and a creep strain C(t .to),
i.e.:
(3)

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1
J(t,t 0 ) = - - + C(t,t0 ) (4)
Ec(to)
By analogy, in the relaxation function the initial age dependent stress response due to
a unit imposed strain for L1 = t- t0 small is treated as instantaneous and elastic, i.e.:
R(to+ L1, to) =R(to, to) = Ec (to) (5)
as indicated in eq. ( 1).
This conventional separation is included directly in the formulations of the model for
CE8 MC90 and GL2000 models.
For CE8 MC 90 it is accompanied by the indication that the corresponding modulus

of elasticity "is defined as the tangent modulus at the origin of the stress-strain diagram",
and that "it is approximately equal to the slope of the secant of the unloading branch for
rapid unloading and does not include initial plastic deformation". As for the stress rate an
indication of IMPa!s is given [CE8 1993].
For GL2000 no specific indication is given on the stress duration for measuring the
initial strain and the corresponding elastic modulus EcmtO·
In model 83 this conventional separation is not applicable. The formulation of the

model includes an instantaneous strain due to unit stress, termed qi> which is age·
independent and represents the inverse of an asymptotic modulus for load durations t- t0
= 0. To be able to compare the graphical outputs of functions J and R of model 83 with
those of the other models, a conventional value of L1 = 10 seconds has been adopted in eq.
(3). It must be noted that the graphical representation of the relaxation curves requires
selecting a conventional initial (nominal elastic) stress due to the unit imposed strain.
COMPARISONS OF THE PREDICTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT MODELS
The immediate availability of extended sets of charts of the basic functions J, R and q,
for a wide range of material, geometrical and ambient parameters, allows easy
comparisons between the different models.
Although the reliability of creep prediction models must be evaluated with respect to
their agreement with the available experimental results (essentially concerning the
compliance J and gathered in the data bank [MOLLER 1993]), a comparison between the
predictions of the different models is not devoid of interest.
In fact, in the parallel paper [Chiorino 2005] it has been observed that, in spite of the
fair to good ratings - depending on the adopted statistical criteria and indicators -
attributed in the recent literature [ACI 2004, Al-Manaseer and Lam 2004] to all the three
models considered here, with regard to their agreement with the data bank, considerable
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differences can be observed between the predictions of the different models. In particular
the differences between on one side the CEB MC90 creep model and, on the other side,
B3 and GL2000 models, respectively, are noteworthy.
These differences concern both the shapes of the families of curves, and their long-
term values, for all the basic functions. In fact, the influence of both long elapsed times t
(e.g. for time ranges of the order of magnitude of the service life of a structure, that
largely exceed the extension of any experimental collection of data), and of almost the
entire range of ages to at loading or t1 at the moment of modification of the static scheme,
is evaluated in significantly different ways by the two groups of models. This can be
clearly observed e.g. in the set of Figures I to 3 for J, 4 to 6 for R, and of Figures 7 to 12
for q, for typical average values of the input parameters.
The reasons of these differences and their impact on design strategies, and on the
formulation of code provisions, have been discussed in the parallel paper.
The flexibility and immediateness of the program presented in this paper, allowing
extended parametric explorations, offer a valuable instrument for this kind of evaluations.
CONCLUSIONS
The general approach of creep analysis of structures based on the linear theory of
viscoelasticity and on the extended use of the four' fundamental theorems leads to very
compact and theoretically correct solutions for homogeneous structrures with rigid and
delayed restraints. The use of reduced relaxation functions allows the theoretical solution
to be extended to homogeneous structures with elastic restraints.
In this perspective the paper has presented a powerful design tool, conceived for
researchers and designers, consisting of a software application for a quick, automatic
calculation of the three basic functions (compliance function J, relaxation function Rand
redistribution function ;) characterizing these solutions, with reference to the principal
creep models presently considered by international civil engineering societies. The
computer program has been designed to be easy to use and to allow control on all the
parameters involved by the prediction models, It has a powerful graphic module for
handling and printing charts.
The three following models have been considered: CEB MC 90, B3 and GL2000. The
immediate availability of the basic functions allows extended comparisons of the outputs
of the different models, and the evaluation of the influence that the selection of a
particular model has on the assessment of structures.
To allow a large distribution of this design aid a web page has been created, from
which the software can be easily downloaded. The web page l'.rww,polito,itlcreepanalysis
is hosted by the web site of the Politecnico di Torino and will be upgraded by the
Creepanalysis Research Group with the aim of developing further automatic tools
devoted to the creep structural analysis.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The assistance of Dr. G. Lacidogna is gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX 1
Numerical solution of the fundamental integral equation for the determination of the
relaxation function R(t.t0 ) from the compliance function J(t.tv)_
The numerical procedure illustrated in the following consists in the step-by-step

solution of the Volterra integral equation (1) for the determination of the relaxation
function R(t,t0) from a given compliance function J(t,t0), and is based on the
approximation (with the trapezoidal rule) of the superposition integral with finite sums.
Subdividing time t by discrete times t 0, tb t 2, ... t;... tk into sub intervals L1t; = t; - 1;.1
(i=l,2, ... ,k) (with to= t1 and L1 11 = t 1 - t0 = 0, and consequently L1&co(t 1) = 1), eq. (1) may
then be written:
k I
1== I -(J(tk,t;)+J(tk,ti-l)]b.R(t;)
2
(Al.l)
i=I
Rewriting eq. (A 1.1) for t=tk-I (fork> 1):
k-1
1 ==I ~[J(tk-1' t;) + J(tk-1' t;_J)]b.R(t;)
i=I
(Al.2)
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and subtracting these equation from (A 1.1) one obtains:
for k>l
k-1
b.R(tk) = _
L [J(tk, ti) + J(tk, ti-l)- J(tk-I, t;)- J(tk-l, ti-l )]b.R(ti)
_,_i=::.!I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(AJ.3)
J(tk 'tk) + J(tk 'tk-1)
(A1.4)
In consideration of:
the particular prescribed strain history, which exhibits only an immediate
discontinuous change at time of loading to = t1 (L1Eco(tJ) = J) and remains constant
afterwards, and the corresponding stress history (relaxation function) showing a
corresponding initial instantaneous change followed by a variation (decrement) at a
decreasing rate,
- the particular shape of the creep curves described by the compliance function
J(t,to) which are characterized by significant slopes in the logarithmic time-scale for
elapsed times ranging from seconds to decades of years (rapid initial increments of the

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strain followed by increments at decreasing rate and limited, but non negligible, long-
term increments),
it is possible to gradually increase the time steps Lltk in order to reach the long-term
response with an acceptable number of steps, considering that the first interval should be
of the order of fractions of the day (due to the high initial slope of the creep curves, and,
correspondingly, ofthe calculated relaxation curve).
For practical computation it is most convenient [Bazant 1972a] to choose the discrete
time (tk- 10) in a geometric progression, that is (tk - to)/( tk-I - t 0) = constant = q. In the
log(t-t0) time scale the time steps appear as constant and putting q=l011m, i.e.:
(tk- to) = 1011m( tk-r to) or log(tk- t0)=1/m +log( tk-r to),
m represents the number of steps per decade logJO (discussion in [Chiorino and
Lacidogna 1993]).
APPENDIX2
In this appendix a compact summary of the formulations and the parameters involved
in numerical calculation is given; some problems related to different definitions of
parameters are discussed at the end of each model description.
A2.l CEB MC90 Model [CEB 1993]
I 1 r/J(t,tO)
J( t,t 0 , = +---
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. Ee(to) Eei
3
Eci = Eeo[(fck + f!.j)/ femot
E cO = 2.15 X 10 4
tif = 8
fcmO = 10
Ec(t)= j]E(t)Eci
5
fJE (f)= [flee (t)t·
p«(t) ~ expH1-(~~~' f]}

tl =1
r/J(t,to) = rPofle (t- to)
t/Jo = t/JRH fJ(fcm )fl(to)
1-RHIRH0
¢ - 1 +-----:--c':-
113
RH - 0.46(hl h0 )

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RH0 =100%
h == 2Ac I u
h0 = 100
5
fJ(fcm) == (/, 1) )o.s
em cmO
The input data necessary to perform calculation are:

fck concrete characteristic compressive strength at 28 days [MPaJ
s coefficient related to the type of cement
RH relative humidity expressed as percentage
Ac section cross area [mm 2)
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u section perimeter [mm]

age of concrete [days]
to age of concrete at loading [days].
A2.2 83 Model [BAZANT and BA WEJA 2000}
J(t,t 0 ) = q 1 + C0 (t,t 0 ) + CAt,t 0 ,tJ

q1 =0.6/ £""' 28
£cm28 =4734 .J fcm28 (*)
Co (t, t 0 ) = q 2 Q(t, t 0 ) + q 3 ln[I + (t- t 0 ) n] + q 4 ln(t It 0 )
q =185 4 X 10-6 c 05 I' -0.9
2 • J cm28
·[ (Q/(Io)Jr(t0)]-1/r(tO)
Q(t,t 0 ) = Q1 (t 0 ) 1 +
Z(t,t 0 )
Qf(to) = [0.086(to)219 + 1.21(to)4'9r'

Z(t,t 0 ) = (t0 fm ln[l + (t- t 0 Y]

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r(to) = 1.7(to)O.J2 + 8
q3 = 0.29q 2 (w/ c) 4
q 4 =20.3x10-6 (a/cr0·7
Cd (t, 10 ,tc) = q 5 [exp{-8H(t)}- exp{-8H(t 0 )} ] 112
q5 = 0.757 fcm28 -II &shoo X 10 6,-0.6

&shro :=::-a 1az[0.019w 2 .1jcmZS-o.2s +270]xl0-6
H(t) = 1- (1- h)S(t)
H(t 0 ) = 1- (1- h)S(t0 )
S(l)~mnh[('~:,rJ
S(t,Hanh[('',~ ' rJ 1
25 2
r sh = 0 •085t c --0.osf.cm28 -o. [2k s (VI S)]

fcm 28 concrete mean compressive strength at 28 days [MPa]
a aggregate content in concrete [Kg/m3]
c cement content in concrete [Kg/m3)
w water content in concrete [Kg/m3 ]
a1 coefficient related to the Type of cement
a2 coefficient related to the Curing method
h relative humidity express as a decimal
ks coefficient related to the Cross-section shape
VIS volume to surface ratio [mm]
t age of concrete [days]
to age of concrete loading [days]
fc age when drying begins, end of moist curing [days).
Notes:
The value of Ecm28 is computed from the formula (*) which is considered as a part of
the model formulation.
The program calculatesfcm28 from the characteristic strength at 28 daysfck28 according
to the same formula suggested by GL2000 model.
The exponent m and n are empirical quantities assumed to be equal respectively to 0.5
and 0.1.
The value of fc. representing the age when the moist curing of concrete ends and start
the drying, must be less than t0.
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When the solver calculates a curve of the relaxation function R(t,t0) or of the
redistribution function ;(t,t0,t1) for a given to, the value of tc is set constant for all the
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compliance curves involved in calculation.
A2.3 GL2000 (GARDNER and LOCKMAN 200 1]
J(t,to) =-1-+_t/J_
EcmtO Ecm28
Ecmt = 3500 + 4300~ fcmt

13/4
fcmt = fcm28 a+ bt314

fcm28 = 1.1fck28 + 5.0
=<t>(t 2 (t-fo) 0.3 ( )0.5(

+ '}_ t-to )0.5 +2.5(1-1.086h2 { t-to )0.5)
¢ c{ (t-t0 ) 03 +14 !0 t-t0 +7 t-t0 +0.12(V!Si
If to= tc
<D(tJ = 1
If to> fc
<D(t )=[1-( fo-tc Jo.s]0.5

c t0 - tc + 0.12(V I S) 2

fcm 28 concrete mean compressive strength at 28 days [MPa];
a,b coefficients related to the Type of cement;
h relative humidity expressed as a decimal;
VIS volume to surface ratio [mm];
age of concrete [days]
t0 age of concrete loading [days]
tc age when drying begins, end of moist curing [days].
Notes:
The value offcm2B is obtained fromfck2 8 according to the formula:
fcm28 = 1.1/ck28 + 5.0
which is considered as a part of the model formulation.
The value of tc, representing the age when the moist curing of concrete ends and start
the drying, must be less than t 0

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When the solver calculates a curve of the relaxation function R(t,to) or of the
redistribution function ;(t,t0,t1) for a given t0, the value of ([>(tc) is set constant for all the
compliance curves involved in the calculation.
NOTATION
t = time, representing the age of concrete, in days
to = age at loading, in days
to+ = age immediately after loading, in days
t 1 ~ t0+ = age at change of static scheme, in days
lc = age when drying begins, end of moist curing, in days
J(t,to) = creep or compliance function,
R(Uo) = relaxation function
q(t,to,/1) = redistribution function
For notations specific to the CEB MC 90, 83 and GL200 creep prediction models
refer to Appendix 2
REFERENCES
ACI 209 (2004), Guide to Factors Affecting Shrinkage and Creep of Hardened Concrete,
Chapter 5- Modelling and Calculation ofShrinkage and Creep, Draft Document.
Bazant Z.P. (1972a), Numerical Detennination of Long-range Stress History .from Strain
History in Concrete, Material and Structures, Vol. 5, pp. 135-141.
Bazant Z.P. (1972b), Prediction of Concrete Creep Effects Using Age-Adjusted Effective
Modulus method, ACI Journal, Vol. 69, p. 212-217.
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Bazant Z. P. and Baweja S. (2000), Creep and shrinkage prediction mode/for analysis
and design of concrete structures: Model B3. in: A. AI-Manaseer ed., A. Neville
Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage - Structural Design Effects, ACI Fall Convention,
1997, ACI SP-194, pp. 1-83.
Bazant, Z. P. (2000), Criteria for Rational Prediction of Creep and Shrinkage oj

Concrete, in: A. Al-Manaseer ed., A. Neville Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage -
Structural Design Effects, ACI Fall Convention, 1997, ACI SP-194, pp. 237-260.
Bazant, Z. P. (2001), Creep of Concrete, Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and

Technology, K.H.J. Buschow et., Eds., Vol. 2C, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1797-1800.
Bazant Z. P., Cusatis G. and Cedolin L. (2004), Temperature Effect on Concrete Creep
Modeled by Microprestress-Solidification Theory, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 6,June 1, 2004,pp. 691-699.
CEB (1993), CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, CEB Bulletin d'lnformation, W 213/214,
Thomas Telford, London, 437 pp.

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CEN EUROPEAN COMMIITEE FOR STANDARDIZATION (2004), European Standard,
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete stmctures, Part 2: Concrete Bridges, Design and
detailing rules (Annex K}, pr-EN 1992-2, Stage 49, July 2004, 120 pp.
Chiorino M.A. (Chainn. of Edit. Team), Napoli P., Mola F. and Kopma M., (1984), CEB
Design Manual on Structural Effects of Time-dependent Behaviour of Concrete, CEB
Bulletin d'lnformation N° 142/142 bis, Georgi Publishing Co., Saint-Saphorin,
Switzerland, 391 pp.
Chiorino M.A., Creazza G., Mola F. and Napoli P. (1986), Analysis ofAging Viscoelastic
Structures with n-Redundant Elastic Restraints, Fourth RILEM International Symposium
on Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete: Mathematical Modelling, Z.P. Bazant ed.,
Northwestern University, Evanston, 1986, pp. 623-644.
Chiorino M.A. and Lacidogna G. (I 993), Revision of the Design Aids of CEB Design
Manual on Structural Effects of Time-Dependent Behaviour of Concrete in Accordance
with the CEBIFIP Model Code 1990, CEB BuUetin d' Information W 215, 297 pp.
Chiorino M.A., Dezi L. and Tarantino A.M .. ( 1997), Creep Ana~vsis of Structures with
Variable Statical Scheme: a Unified Approach, in: A. Al-Manaseer ed., A. Neville
Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage - Structural Design Effects, ACI Fall Convention,
1997, ACI SP-194, 2000, pp. 187-213.
Chiorino M.A. and Lacidogna G. (1999), General Unified Approach for Creep Analysis
of Concrete Structures, ACI-RILEM Workshop Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete, March
1"998, Revue fran~aise de genie civil, vol. 3, N° 3- 4, 1999, pp. 173-217.
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Chiorino M.A., Dezi L. and Lacidogna G. (1999), Evaluation of Creep Influence on the
Modification of the Restraint Conditions in Concrete Structures, Proceedings of fib
Symposium 1999, Structural Concrete- The Bridge between People, Prague, October
1999, Vol. 2, pp.481-486.
Chiorino M. A. (2000), Principles for a Rational Viscoelastic Analysis of Concrete

Structures, Accademia deUe Scienze, Torino, Memorie Sc. Fisiche, 24 (2000), pp. 57-80.
Chiorino M.A., Lacidogna G. and Segreto A. (2002), Design Criteria for Long-tenn
PeJformance of Concrete Structures Subjected to Initial Modifications of Static Scheme,
in Concrete Structures in the 21'1 Century, Proceedings of the 1'1 fib Congress 2002,
Osaka, October 13-19, 2002, pp. 285-294.
Chiorino M.A. (2005), A Rational Approach to the Analysis of Creep Strnctural Effects,
in J. Gardner and J Weiss eds., Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete, ACI SP-. 2005.
Dezi, L., Menditto, G., and Tarantino (1990), A.M., Homogeneous Strnctures Subjected
to Repeated Structural System Changes, J. Engrg. Mech., ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 8,
August, 1990, pp. 1723-1732.

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Dezi, L., and Tarantino, A.M.(l991), Time-dependent Analysis of Concrete Structures
with Variable Structural System, ACI Mat. Joum., Vol. 88, May-June 1991, pp. 320-324.
Gardner N.J. and Lockman M.J. (2001), Design Provisions for D1ying Shrinkage and
Creep ofNormal Strength Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, March-April, pp.l59- I 67.
Giussani F. and Mola F. (2003), Long-term Behaviour of Cable-stayed Bridges, Part I-

Theoretical Approach, Studies and Researches, Vol. 24, 2003, Graduate School in
Concrete Structures- Fratelli Pesenti, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, pp.l53-187.
Kiistek V., Vojtech P. and Pilhofer H-W (2001), Creep and Shrinkage Prediction on the
Web, Concrete International, January 2001, pp. 8-9.
Mola F (1993), The Reduced Relaxation Function Method: an Innovative Approach to

Creep Analysis of non Homogeneous Structures, Int. Conf. on Concrete and Structures,
Hong Kong, 1993.
Muller H.S. (1993), Considerations on the Development of a Database on Creep and

Shrinkage Tests, Proceedings of Fifth Int. RILEM Symposium Creep and Shrinkage oj
Concrete, Z. P. Bazant and I. Carol eds., Spon, pp. 859-72.
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Fig. 1- CEB MC90 model: compliance function J(t,t0 ).
Fig. 2- B3 model: compliance function J(t,t0 ).
Fig. 3- GL2000 model: compliance function J(t,t0).

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Fig. 4- CEB MC90 model: relaxation function R(t,t0).
Fig. 5- B3 model: relaxation function R(t,t0).
Fig. 6- GL2000 model: relaxation function R(t,t0).
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Fig. 7- CEB MC90 model: redistribution function x(t,t0 , t1) for t0 = ?days.
Fig. 8- B3 model: redistribution function x(t,t0, t 1) for t0 = ?days.
Fig. 9- GL2000 model: redistribution function x(t,t0 , t1) for t0 =?days.
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Fig. 10- CEB MC90 model: redistribution function x(t,t0 , t1) for t0 =28days.
Fig. 11- B3 model: redistribution function x(t,t0 , t 1) for t0 = 28days.

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Fig. 12- GL2000 model: redistribution function x(t,t0 , t 1) for t0 =28days.

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SP-227-12
Effect of Modulus of Elasticity on Creep

Prediction of High Strength Concrete
Containing Pozzolans
by N. Suksawang and H. H. Nassif
Synopsis: The use ofpozzolanic material, such as fly ash and silica fume, is becoming
more popular in producing high performance/high strength concrete (HP/HSC) for various
structural applications. Many studies have addressed the mechanical properties as well
as durability ofHP/HSC, however, the effect ofpozzolans on the shrinkage and creep
behaviors are not clearly addressed. There is a need to understand and identifY how
changes in the composition and porosity of HP/HSC, and consequently the elastic
modulus, would affect its early age as well its long term performance.
The main objective of this paper is to examine the effect of using various models for
modulus of elasticity on the prediction of creep ofhigh strength concrete (HSC)
containing pozzolans. The study included an experimental program and a comparison of
available analytical models for predicting the compressive creep and modulus of elasticity
ofHSC. Results from creep tests performed on different mixes (with compressive strength
up to 90 MPa) were compared with those from prediction models available in the literature.
Three creep models, ACI 209, CEB 90, and GL 2000, were used. In addition, various values
of modulus of elasticity obtained from experimental calculation, ACI 318,ACI 363, CEB 90,
Gardner, and from an equation proposed by the authors were evaluated. Results show
that the modulus of elasticity has high impact on the accuracy of predicted creep and that
available modulus of elasticity models needs to be revised to reflect HSC containing
pozzolans.
Keywords: creep; fly ash; high strength concrete; mathematical models;

pozzolans; prediction; silica fume; trinary blended concrete
261
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262 Suksawang and Nassif
ACI member Nakin Suksawang is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. He received
his BS and MS from Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. His research interests
include durability of concrete, effect of curing on concrete, and shrinkage and creep of
concrete.
ACI member Hani H. Nassif is an Associate Professor in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. He is a
member of ACI 343 (Concrete Bridges), ACI 435 (Deflection). He served as Secretary
and currently as an associate member of ACI 209 (Creep and Shrinkage) and Chaired
ACI 348 (Structural Safety). His research interests include Creep and Shrinkage of High
Strength Concrete and Durability of High Performance Concrete.
INTRODUCTION
High strength concrete (HSC) is becoming a standard in today's construction

industry. HSC is needed to design and build taller and longer structures. It can be easily
produced by lowering the water-to-binder (w/b) ratio and/or by adding mineral and
chemical admixtures. The addition of mineral admixture such as silica fume and fly ash
alters the chemical reaction in concrete, making the concrete stronger and more dense.
One of the main contributions to this aspect is the densification of the transition zone.
The transition zone in concrete consists mainly of Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which
is a relatively weak compound that could also be easily attacked by acidic material such
as sulfate. The pozzolans (siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material) reacts with this
compound in the presence of water to form hydrate cement paste, Calcium Silicate
Hydrates gel (C-S-H gel). Other factors that are affected by the chemical reaction are
pores volume/size, the C-S-H gel product (i.e. change to Tricalcium Silicate (C~S),
Dicalcium Silicate (C 2S), Tricalcium Aluminate (C~A), and Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
(C4AF)), and self desiccation. As a result, the mechanical properties and durability of
concrete are very different from ordinary concrete ( 1-6). Despite the advancement in
concrete materials, the design calculations and prediction models are still based on
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properties of conventional (i.e., normal strength) concrete. Thus, there is a need to revise
and/or update these prediction models to reflect the newer and stronger materials.
Creep is one of the most important mechanical properties of concrete especially

for prestressed concrete and high-rise structures. Structural failure such as creep-induced
sagging has been previously observed in concrete structures and therefore need to be
properly accounted for during the design process. Creep is a very complex phenomenon
that is dependent on self desiccation, drying shrinkage, as well as modulus of elasticity.
Even for normal strength concrete and with its vast amount of experimental data
contained in the RJLEM databank (from Prof. H. Muller, Karlsruhe University), the
prediction of creep is still not very well defined. All available prediction models still
have high levels of inaccuracy (7). Hence, calculating creep for HSC is a more
complicated task since there are limited amount of experimental data to verify these
models (8-13). Moreover, the input parameters used in the models, specifically the
modulus of elasticity, are also based on normal strength concrete. There are several
available equations for calculating the modulus of elasticity of concrete, which makes it

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more confusing for designer to select the correct equation to use with the available creep
prediction models. Additionally, the accuracy in predicting creep depends on the use of
an accurate model for the elastic modulus. Therefore, the effect of using various elastic
modulus equations on the accuracy of the creep prediction models needs to be verified.
The main focus of this paper is on investigating the sensitivity of each creep
prediction model when using various modulus of elasticity equations. Nine HSC mixes
containing pozzolans were made and tested in the laboratory. These mixes consisted of
three mixes with varying percentage of silica fume, three mixes with varying percentage
of fly ash (Class F), and three mixes with different combination of silica fume and fly
ash. All mixes have a 28 days compressive strength between 70 to 90 MPa. Test data on
elastic modulus from these mixes as well as from other tests have been used to form the
basis of developing an elastic modulus equation for HSC. Three creep prediction models,
ACI 209 (14) and CEB 90 (15), and GL2000 (16) are considered in this study.
The properties of HSC containing pozzolanic material are very different from
those of normal strength concrete. Pozzolans react with the calcium hydroxide to form
cementing material that makes the concrete more dense and stronger. As a result, the
properties of HSC, specifically creep and modulus of elasticity, differ from those of
normal strength concrete. Therefore, the available creep prediction models and modulus
of elasticity equations need to be validated with new HSC experimental data. This study
investigates the effect of using various equations for modulus of elasticity on creep
prediction models ofHSC.
CREEP PREDICTION MODELS
There are several creep prediction models but there are only two main code
models that are most commonly used in the United States and Europe, ACI 209{14) and
CEB 90 (15), respectively. There are also other available prediction models; however,
the GL2000 (16) is also considered in this study since it contains input parameters that
are available to the designer.
All three models calculate the creep coefficient, <l>(t), that Js used for
calculating the creep strain as follows:
Creep Strain= &c = ~<I>(t)

Ec
where a is the applied stress in MPa and Ec is the average modulus of elasticity at the
day of loading in MPa. Thus, the accuracy of the prediction models when compared to
experimental data is, among other parameters, highly dependent on the modulus of
elasticity. The creep strain could also be calculated experimentally using the following:
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where &r is the total strain (i.e., strain measured from loaded specimens), &5 is the
shrinkage strain (i.e., strain measured from unloaded specimens), and C E is the elastic
strain (i.e., instantaneous strain measured from loaded to unloaded conditions).
ACI209
The ACI 209 model is based on the creep and shrinkage models proposed by
Branson and Christianson (17). This model has been incorporated in most building codes
in the United States, as well as other countries. It is a general-purpose model and does
not set any limitation on the strength of the concrete. However, one of the requirements
of this model is that the concrete must be moist-cured for a minimum of7 days or steam-
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cured for 1 to 3 days. The model takes the following parameters into account: 1) the
relative humidity, 2) the specimen size, 3) the type of curing method used, and 4) the age
at the end of curing duration. In addition, there are also concrete composition correction
factors that include concrete slump, fine aggregate percentage, cement content, and air
content.
CEB90
The CEB 90 model is adopted by the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 (Euro-
International Concrete Committee and International Federation for Prestressing) and it is
based on the work by Muller and Hillsdorf (18). The model is only applicable for
concrete with a 28-day compressive strength in the range of 20 to 90 MPa. The input
parameters for this model differ from those of the ACI 209 model in compressive
strength and type of curing method. The ACI 209 model does not consider the 28-day
compressive strength whereas the CEB 90 model considers only dry curing.
GL2000
The GL2000 model is a modified version of the GZ model proposed by Gardner

and Lockman (16). The GL 2000 model includes the type of cement as one of its input
parameter. The input parameters for this model are: 1) relative humidity, 2) specimen
size, 3) 28-day compressive strength, 4) cement type, and 5) age at the end of curing
duration.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
As mentioned earlier, creep is sensitive to the modulus of elasticity which in

turn can be obtained from experimental data or using available equations provided by
ACI, CEB, and other researchers. There are two main modulus equations provided by
the ACI code, 1) ACI 318 (19) and 2) ACI 363 (20). The modulus of elasticity provided
by ACI 318 is recommended for normal strength concrete with a compressive up to
41.37Mpa as follows:

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where we is the density of concrete in kg/m 3 and J: is the cylinder compressive

strength at 28 days in MPa.
For ACI 363, modulus of elasticity is recommended for J; in the range of 4 I .4

to 82.7 MPa. This model is based on the study by Carrasquillo et. a! (21) where they
developed the following equation based on best-fit model:
1.5
Ec = (3320.jJ: + 6895) ( ~)
2320
Other equations for modulus of elasticity consist of CEB 90 (I 5), Gardner (22),
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and Nassif et. a! (2004) (23) and are given as follows:
CEB 90:
where, Eco = 21500 MPa and f:O = 10 MPa.
Gardner:
Ec =3500 + 43oo.JJ:
Nassif et. al (2004) has recommended one equation that can be used for HS/HPC that
incorporates pozzolanic material as follows:
This model was developed similar to the Carrasquillo et. al (21) by obtaining the best-fit
curve of the modulus of elasticity, E c, versus the square root of the compressive
strength, .Jl: plot using various HPC data. A total of 30 HPC mixes containing silica
fume, fly ash and slag were used in developing the equation. For each of the mixes, the
modulus of elasticity at different curing ages was also considered. Fig. I shows all 168
data points as well as the 9 data points obtained from testing mixes used in this study.
Each data point represents results from tests performed on three (l02mm x 203mm)

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cylinders tested using ASTM C469 standard test. It should be noted that the aggregates
used for all mixes including the mixes in this study were crushed granite and concrete
sand.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Materials and Mix Proportioning
The materials used in this study were readily available resources in the State of
New Jersey. The binding materials consisted of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Type I,
silica fume (SF), and Class F fly ash (F). All mixes contained superplasticizer and air-
entraining agent in order to ensure good workability and freeze-thaw resistance,
respectively. River sand and crushed granite were used as the fine and coarse aggregate,
respectively. The fine a~gregate (FA) had a unit weight, fineness modulus, and water
absorption of 1621 kg/m, 2.56, and 0.36 %, respectively. The coarse aggregate (CA)
had a maximum size aggrefate of 10 mm with a unit weight, specific gravity, and water
absorption were 1572 kg/m, 2.81, and 1.0 %, respectively.
All mixes were made with a constant wlb ratio of 0.27. The mix proportions
used in this study are presented in Table I. All mixes had the same amount water, FA
and CA, however, in order to acquire a range of slump between 76 and 152 mm, variable
amounts of superplasticizer were used. Three mixes had varying SF content of 5, I 0, and
15%, while the other three mixes had varying F content of 10, 20, and 30%. The last
three mixes were trinary blended concrete that contained 5% SF and 10% F, 5% SF and
20% F, and 10% SF and 20% F. The concrete was made in accordance to ASTM CI92:
Slump and air content tests were also performed on the fresh concrete in accordance to
ASTM Cl43 and ASTM Cl73, respectively. After the concrete specimens were cast,
they were sealed with plastic wrap to prevent loss of moisture.
Creep Test
The compressive creep of concrete was performed in accordance to ASTM

C512 using a custom design creep rig shown in Fig. 2. The creep rig was designed to
accommodate three 152 x 305 mm cylinders. The sustained creep load was applied using
five double-coiled springs. The rig was designed to apply a maximum stress of 48.3 MPa
on to the concrete specimens. Assuming that the applied load is 30% of the ultimate
strength of concrete, the rig is capable of testing concrete with a compressive strength of
158.6 MPa.
For each mix, eight 152 x 305 mm cylinders were made in order to perform the
compressive creep test. Two of the eight cylinders were used to determine the
compressive strength of concrete on the testing day. Five cylinders have embedded bolts,
which were used for attaching vibrating wire strain gages (VWSGs). Out of the five
cylinders, three cylinders were loaded and the other two cylinders were kept unloaded
and used as control specimens. The creep and shrinkage strains of the loaded and
controlled specimens were measured by the VWSGs. Three external VWSG customized
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by Rutgers University such that they could be externally bolted on to the specimens as
well as to accommodate high compressive strain (as high as 4000 ll~>), were installed
around the cylinder at 120° to account for eccentric loading effects. The average strain of
the three external VWSGs was used to calculate the total strain. The load was measured
using a 890 kN load cell located between the specimens and the steel loading plate. The
load was carefully monitored and adjusted (if necessary) on a regular basis, hourly for the
first 8 hours, daily for the first week, and weekly thereafter, to ensure that the load did not
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deviated more than 2%. The VWSGs as well as the load cell were attached to the data
loggers that automatically collect strain readings every 10-minute. However, data
collection is controlled from a computer terminal and can be adjusted depending on the
test duration. The last cylinder was cut in half and placed on top and bottom of the three
loaded cylinders. The two half cylinders were used for eliminating stress concentration
on the loaded specimens that can lead to localized failure of the cylinder. The loaded
specimens as well as the two half cylinders were covered with capping compound before
loading to ensure surface flatness. The compressive creep test was performed on moist
cured specimens at 28 days with the applied load ranging between 30 to 35% of the
ultimate load.
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity was performed mainly at 28 days in accordance to

ASTM C469. A standard 102 x 203 mm cylinder was used for the test. For each
cylinder a minimum of three repetitive tests were performed. In addition, the cylinder
was capped with high strength capping compound to ensure proper loading and flatness
of the cylinder surface.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity calculations are summarized in Table 2. A concrete

unit weight, We, of2464 kg/m 3 was used in all mixes. Table 3 shows the average errors
of each equation. The modulus of elasticity equation by Nassif et. al [7] gives an overall
best calculated modulus of elasticity with an average error of 5% in comparison with the
experimental data. This is expected since the Nassif et. al [7] equation was developed
using HPC mixes containing pozzolanic material as well as the same type of aggregates.
ACI 3 I 8 equation, [3] gives the worst accuracy in calculating the modulus of elasticity
with an average error of 25% .. ACI 363 [4] also gives good calculated modulus of
elasticity with an average error of 7%. Gardner [6]) and CEB 90 [5] have an average
error of 12 and 14%, respectively.
Creep
The effect of modulus of elasticity on the three creep prediction models is

shown in Figs. 3-1 I. In these figures, "Measured Creep" denotes the specific creep (i.e.,
creep per unit stress) that is obtained from the experimental data by dividing the creep

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strain [2} by the applied stress. The other notations are the calculated specific creep using
different creep models. For example, "EXP" is the calculated creep using the modulus of
elasticity obtained from the experiment at the age of loading while the other legend
symbols, namely ACI 318, ACI 363, CEB 90, Gardner, and Nassif et. al (2004), are
calculated creep using modulus equations [3], [4], [5], [6], and [7], respectively. Figs. 3-
11 illustrate that the modulus of elasticity can have an effect of about +/- 20% on the
calculated creep values at time t. In general, all creep prediction models using the ACI
318 under predict specific creep of concrete in this study. The reason for this is that ACI
318 gives higher values (i.e., stiff modulus) of modulus of elasticity. The other four
equations do give narrow band with a 15% deviation. In all models, with the exception
of mixes that contains 5% SF, 20%F, and 30%F, the calculated creep compares well to
measured creep. CEB 90 creep prediction model gives the best creep prediction using all
modulus of elasticity with the exception of ACI 318 in this study.
In order to quantify the best combination of modulus of elasticity equations with

the creep prediction models for this study, the percent prediction error need to be
evaluated. Figs. 12-14 show the percent prediction error of each modulus of elasticity
equation and creep prediction model plotted on a normal probability paper. The normal
probability plots illustrate the mean error and its distribution with respect to the mean
especially at the minimum and maximum values. For example, a zero at the normal
probability scale represents the mean value of the error. Using this type of plot, it can be
observed the data that has a mean closest to 0 as well as a low standard deviation
represents the best model. The mean and standard deviation of all plots are summarized
in Table 4. Table 4 shows that, for ACI 209 creep prediction model, EXP has the mean
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
percent error closest to 0 followed by Nassif et. al (2004) equation. Therefore, in the
absence of experimental results for modulus of elasticity, the equation by Nassif et. al
(2004) is recommended for calculating the modulus of elasticity for ACI 209 creep model
since it has a relatively low coefficient of variation. For CEB 90 creep model, the
modulus of elasticity equations by CEB 90 and Gardner performed the best. However, it
should be noted that these two equations do not take the concrete unit weight into
consideration and for concrete with lower unit weight, this may not be the case. Both
Nassif et al (2004) and ACI 363 modulus of elasticity equations also performed we11
when used in conjunction with the CEB 90 creep prediction model. The fact that "EXP"
does not improve the CEB 90 model shows that the model is not only dependent on
elastic modulus to predict the creep function for HSC. This is probably due to the fact
that the model was calibrated using CEB 90 modulus of elasticity rather than the actual
modulus of elasticity. As for GL 2000 creep prediction model, the "EXP" also has the
lowest mean value followed by Nassif et al. However, ACI 318 has the lowest the
standard deviation. Overall, the ACI 209 models do represents the best long-term creep
prediction model since the model has the lowest mean and standard deviation. Both ACI
209 and GL 2000 creep prediction models are more sensitive to the modulus of elasticity,
e.g. the model becomes more accurate as the modulus of elasticity improves.

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CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusion could be deduced from this study:

• The modulus of elasticity has an influence on the calculated creep and care must
be taken when selecting the correct equation especially for HSC with pozzolanic
material.
• Nassif et. at (2004) modulus equation represents the best equation for predicting
the modulus of elasticity of HSC with a 5% average error. ACI 363 equation
also gives good correlation with the experimental data with 7% average error.
However, Nassif et al. (2004) equation is also applicable for lower strength
concrete containing pozzolanic material.
• Overall, ACI 209 represents the best creep model for HSC since it has the
lowest standard deviation.
• CEB 90 creep model does not accurately represent the true nature of creep of
HSC.
• Overall, Nassif et. al (2004) modulus of elasticity equation can be used with all
three models with reasonable accuracy when compared to other modulus of
elasticity equations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This study was funded by the New Jersey Department of Transportation

(NJDOT) under a contract titled "Development of HPC Mix Designs for Transportation
Structures in New Jersey." The authors gratefully acknowledge their financial support
and the technical assistance of the NJDOT staff. The findings expressed in this article are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of NJDOT. In addition,
thanks are due to the assistance of graduate and undergraduate students, Amer
Mohammed, Jim Ordija, David Fusco, and Pat Jamieson. The authors also wish to
acknowledge Lafarge, Separation Technology, Inc., and W.R. Grace for providing the
raw materials
REFERENCES
1. Mehta, P. K., "Pozzolanic and Cementitious Byproducts as Mineral Admixtures

for Concrete- A Critical Review," ACI. SP-79, 1983, pp. 1 -46.
2. Mehta, P. K., "Pozzolanic and Cementitious By-Products in Concrete- Another

Look," ACI. SP 114, 1989, pp. 1 - 44.
3. Carette, G. G., Bilodeau, A., Chevrier, R. L., and Malhotra, V. M. "Mechanical

Properties of Concrete Incorporating High Volumes of Fly Ash From Sources in the
U.S.," ACI Materials Journal, Nov-Dec 1993, Vol. 90, No.6, pp 535-544.

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4. Nasser, K. W., and Al-Manaseer, A. A., "Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete
Containing 50 Percent Lignite Fly Ash at Different Stress-Strength Ratios," ACI. SP-
2.!. 1986, pp. 433 - 448.
5. Luther, M.D. and Hansen, W., "Comparison of Creep and Shrinkage of High-
Strength Silica Fume Concretes with Fly Ash Concretes of Similar Strengths," ACI.
SP-114, 1989, pp. 573 - 591.
6. Roy, D. M., "Fly Ash and Silica Fume Chemistry and Hydration," ACI. SP-114,
1989, pp. 117- 138.
7. Al-Manaseer, A. and Lakshmikantan, S., "Models for creep and shrinkage of

concrete", 2001 Second International Conference on Engineering Materials
Proceedings, California, August 2001, pp. 155-163.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. Brooks, J.J., "Elasticity, creep, and shrinkage of concretes containing

admixtures", ACl Publications, SP 194, The Adam Neville Symposium: Creep and
Shrinkage- Structural Design Effects, 2000, pp. 283-360.
9. Mokhtarzadeh, A., and French, C., "Time-dependent properties of high-strength

concrete with consideration for precast applications", ACI Materials Journal, Vol.
97, No. 3, 2000, pp. 263-271.
10. Khatri, R.P., Sirivivantnanon, V., and Gross, W., "Effect of different
supplementary cementitious materials ort mechanical properties of high performance
concrete", Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 25, No.1, 1995, pp. 209-220
11. Li, H., Wee, T.H., and Wong, S.F., "Early-age creep and shrinkage of blended
cement concrete", ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 99, No. 1, 2002, pp. 3-10
12. Maz1oom, M., Ramezanianpour, A.A., and Brooks, J.J., "Effect of silica fume
on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete", Cement & Concrete
Composites, Vol. 26, 2004, pp. 347-357
13. Jianyong, Li, and Yan, Y., "A study on creep and drying shrinkage of high
perfom1ance concrete", Cement and Concrete Research, VoL 31, 2001, pp. 1203-
1206.
14. ACI Committee 209, Prediction of creep. shrinkage and temperature effects in
concrete structures. Report No: ACI 209 R-92, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1992,47 pp.
15. Comite Euro-lnternational du Beton (CEB), CEB-FIP Model Code 1990: Design
Code. London, Thomas Telford, 1993, 480 pp.

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I6. Gardner, N.J., and Lockman, M. "Design provision for drying shrinkage and
creep of normal-strength concrete", ACI Material Journal, Vol. 98, Mar-Apr 2001,
pp. 159-167.
I 7. Branson, D.E., and Christianson, M.L. "Time-dependent concrete properties

related to design-strength and elastic properties, creep, and shrinkage", ACI
Publication, SP-76, 1982, pp. 257-277.
18. Muller, H.S. and Hillsdorf, H.K., CEB bulletin d' information, No. 199,
evaluation of the time dependent behavior of concrete, summary report on the work
ofgeneral task group 9. Sept. I 990, 290 pp.
19. ACJ Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI
318-2002, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2002, 443 pp.
20. ACI Committee 363, State-of-the-Art Report on High Strength Concrete, Report
No. ACl 363R-92, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1992,
55 pp.
21. Carrasquillo, R. L., Nilson, A. H., and Slate, F. 0., "Properties of High Strength
Concrete Subject to Short-Term Loads", ACI Journal, Vol. 78, No. 3, May-June
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1981, pp. 171-178
22. Gardner, N.J., "Design provisions for shrinkage and creep of concrete", ACI
Publication, SP 194, The Adam Neville Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage -
Structural Design Effects, 2000, pp. I 01-134
23. Nassif, H., Najm, H., and Suksawang, N., "Effect of Pozzolanic Material and
Curing Methods on Elastic Modulus of High-Performance Concrete," Cement,
Concrete, and Composites, Elsevier Publishing Co. 2004 (accepted).
UNIT CONVERSION
I lb/yd3 = 0.5933 kg/m 3

1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
1 in =25.4mm
1 oz = 29.5735 ml

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Table 1-Mix proportions used in this study.
(kg/m 3) OPC SF F CA FA Water w/b SP AEA

fm1)_ _{ml)
5SF 655 34 -- 1022 554 186 0.27 6186 756
lOSF 620 69 -- 1022 554 186 0.27 6873 756
15SF 586 103 -- 1022 554 186 0.27 7560 756
IOF 620 --
69 1022 554 186 0.27 4811 756
20F 552 --
138 1022 554 186 0.27 3093 756
30F 483 --
207 1022 554 186 0.27 3436 756
5SF10F 586.5 34 69 1022 554 186 0.27 6186 756
5SF20F 518 34 138 1022 554 186 0.27 5498 756
10SF20F 483 69 138 1022 554 186 0.27 7560 756
Table 2--Summary of modulus of elasUclty.
(MPa) t' EXP ACI318 ACI363 CEB90 Gardner Nassifetal

Eq. [31 Eq. [41 Eq. [S] Eq. [6] Eq. [71
5SF 71.4 33564 44238 38244 41393 39825 37093
10SF 85.2 34610 48346 41094 43917 43197 40537
15SF 87.9 34782 49104 41621 44375 43820 41173
!OF 82.3 41627 47509 40514 43409 42511 39835
20F 76.3 39444 45733 39281 42320 41052 38346
30F 14.5 39163 45196 38909 41989 40611 37896
5SF10F 90.7 39497 49877 42157 44840 44455 41821
5SF20F 86.7 40597 48770 41389 44174 43546 40893
10SF20F 89.5 41307 49536 41921 44635 44175 41535
Note. We-- 2464 kglm.3
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 3--Summary of percent error in prediction of modulus of elasticity for

various models.
Error ACI 318 ACI 363 CEB90 Gardner Nassif et. al

{o/o) Eq.Ql Fq. [41 Eq. [5] _Eg.l6l Eq. [7]
5SF 32 14 23 19 11
10SF 40 19 27 25 17
15SF 41 20 28 26 18
lOF 14 -3 4 2 -4
20F 16 0 7 4 -3
30F 15 -1 7 4 -3
5SF10F 26 7 14 l3 6
5SF20F 20 2 9 7 1
10SF20F 20 1 8 7 1
Average Error 25 7 14 12 5

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Table 4--Summary of mean and standard deviation of percent error.
Creep EcModel %Error

Model (35 < t < 365 days)
Jl CT
EXP -2.69 8.38
ACI 318 -8.28 5.58
ACI363 -3.83 5.47
ACI209
CEB90 -5.59 5.51
Gardner -5.13 5.34
Nassifet al -3.65 5.36
EXP 7.09 21.28
ACI 318 -12.61 10.15
ACI 363 2.36 I \.67
CEB90
CEB90 -4.50 7.85
Gardner -2.26 11.25
Nassifet a! 4.22 15.49
EXP -4.28 20.34
ACI318 -24.99 8.62
ACI 363 -11.25 10.56
GL2000
CEB90 -16.65 10.18
Gardner -15.84 9.82
Nassifet al -10.53 10.27
..
-- 60000 ,--.,---.,..----,...--......----,
~ 50000
....
~ 40000
] 30000
roil
~ 20000 " AI!Data

" Creep Data ·
= --ACI318
~ 10000 ----· ACI 363
0
::; -Nassif et al
0
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 1-Modulus of elasticity plot

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 2-Concrete specimens loaded in creep rigs.

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50····-~·-·•··········--·-···········--····---··
0~"'""'"'~~==~~~~~
0 80 160 240 320 400
Time (tlays}
50 ........ ,.... ,... , ..,... , .. 'J" .. ,, .. , ..., ...,.
,_ ' ACJ 209
:. 40 r
:£ '
t·
..
!30
... .
.
~ 20 [ [p}~:;;.;.;;.'-"'-~::.;..;;.;:;;.;.;;.:c..;;_"-"-"-"-::..·;,;.,;;-··\
c; · ~'~~~-- ccg%
i
<ll
I0 '
~ -+-,\CIJ6j
::-=- ~=:~~;:: ~t ,
0 "'--··~"-'-~---'--·"·--·--~---~'----'·--·'-~-'----~-----~ i
0 80 160 240 320 400
Time(Days)
so c···-----~--~-r··--·--··----,--·-------,.., ..,
";' f ACI209
~ 40 t· IS% SF, ·
....
t30 t···
,
U., 0 L
to~'... ~
~lJO :· ~(;;ttdU~t'
r.T.J .. --+- ,\Ct ll& · -:>- Nndr l!'t •'
~
() ,,._,,. __,,_ ,.,.,,... ACI363
0 100 200 300 400
Tlme(Days)
Fig. 3-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%, (b) 10%,
and (c) 15% SF using ACI 209 creep prediction model.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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50 • ·•·•··,.-··• ····················w•····
100 200 300 400

Time (Days)
so
s ACll09 (b)j
1:1.40
~
"'
-:!.
..
~30
u"... 20
=
1:!
~lO
{I)
o~·
, .-~c}.H&
····•·····ACfJ6J:
0 !00 200 300 40C

Time(Days)
50
-..
~ 40
""''<:::1.3
t
.
?;, 30
~20
"= ~10
"' '~ <.::
0"·······
0 lOO 200 300 400
Time (Oay~)
Fig. 4-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 10%, (b) 20%,
and (c) 30% Fusing ACJ 209 creep prediction model.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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so,~"···-~~4·--·-···"-~~~~-~~-·~-~~
....,.... ACI )I$ · "'' • N•nlftl•l

-+- ..\U:lb~
0~''"··'···1~~~~~~~
0 100 200 300 400
Time(Days)
so f.""''""'""'"'""'."'"'"~'-'"'"'';'""'""'""'"""T''"'"'""""'""'j
S' . ACI lO!I (b)j
;!:: 4() ~ ·I
E t
~30 [.
..
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
u.1!: 20 Lt
lto ·
"' _.._ACI:l6J
{I!;,.............,,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.
0 100 200 300 400

Tlme(Days)
•
c. 40
~
.;.30
t
';:; 20
s
itO --EXP ...,,..... Gordo<~'
~ ........,....._ACJ .H$ '""'-~"" Nus~ih>t.;d
0 ~.--·" - - ,\(:1 363

0 100 200 300 400
Tlme(Days)
Fig. 5-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%SF 10%F,

(b) 5%SF 20%F, and (c) I O%SF 20%F using ACI 209 creep model.

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····•··•·/tCJ.l6J
100 200 300 400

Time (J)ays)
100 200 300 400

Time (J)a~'~)
Fig. 6-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%, (b) I 0%

and (c) 15% SF using CEB 90 creep model.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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278
100 200 300 400

Ti.nte (Day1)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
·······<:Ui%
,...~.,.,..·V::mh~t::r
---<y.... ~-n~if f't al
!00 200 300 400

Time (Days)
50 ···..-···-~
i
··i
--------'---.. .., ..... ;...... CU\"H~ -i

.... .,., ..... (ltdJ~t't
~r- ~-IU:li.if tt at
· ..:....:....•....:....... J.......,.h .............. ;
100 200 300 400

Time (Days)
Fig. 7-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 10%, (b) 20%
and (c) 30% F using CEB 90 creep model.

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i
··~
'
l
oL
0 lOO 200 300 400
Time (l>ays)
-.-. (;ardntr
........,_......_ ~!l~si( ~t ;sf
oL.........~~~~~~~
0 100 200 300 400
Time(Days)
..
e:: 40
CEB90 (c)f
~
=-
';:30
~
U2()
5
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
i"' JQ a -.-..ACt 31S --:·:'l- Nn~~if t'"l .at

Y -+-AC1J6)
0 '·--·----
0 tOO 200 30() 400
Timt (Days)
Fig. 8-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%SF IO%F,

(b) 5%SF 20%F, and (c) 10%SF 20%F using CEB 90 creep model.

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50;··~··········, .., ....,,.,._. ...,... , .. , .. , .. ,... , .. ,...,.., ... ,
- - ACI318 -:>- ~a"l( ei •!

--ACIJ43
100 200 300 400

Tlme (Da~·s)
""i •• ·········~·········;····>
GLlOOO (b)j
IO%Sf
··~·~'""' Cf B ~fl
---- t~.ardtH''t
-::-Sa"»ihl al ~
ot.., .......... '~~~~~~~~

0 HlO 200 300 400
Time (D~ys)
........ ,, .. )
50!"' ····T···~····,--·~ ······~···v•••..,
. Gl.2000
l ~
::;:40 r·l5%SF-······
l l
';;;:30 ::··'
t .
.
020:.
!§
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- --~- (;lll:rdn('r
,g.10 ........ --ACBiti -">-i'i•S>iftUI
0
i --AW63
~-~-...-~--~-..·---··"''·""--~-~~-~--~---"'~·
j
{) 100 200 300 400
Time(D~ys)
Fig. 9-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%, (b) 10%
and (c) 15% SF using GL2000 creep model.

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(a)j
······'······ f f H- q~~
~(:!tr41.utr
-.--AOJI$ ........-;..-N"a:uifdat
--+- .~CI .\61
100 200 300 400

nme{Days)
-~(~~_r-dn:H
-::.-,u~iJ.et af
300 400
(c~
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. I 0-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 10%, (b) 20%
and (c) 30% Fusing GL2000 creep model.

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200 300 40(.)

Tlme(Days)
so;-~----~----~·"""'''""'"'"'"\"''"'"'~'"~';'"'"'"''"''-".]
.- , Gl.lOOO (bl.
e: 40 ~·-- 5% SF;20% F -• · · ·· ··· · · -~
w
11:: ':.
-;,Jo r .
:I. '
.. '
'
.;
'-~20 ;..
&
·;:;
~
~10
--<\Cillk
"" v -.-A(I36)
0 ;,,. .............' - - - - - - - - - -
0 100 200 300 400
Thue(Days)
0 ii,_,___,____,,.,.__ _ _ _ _ _ _...
--ACIJ1>.1
0 I00 200 300 400

Time (Days)
Fig. 11-Effect of modulus of elasticity on HSC containing (a) 5%SF 1O%F,

(b) 5%SF 20%F, and (c) 10%SF 20%F using GL2000 creep model.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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z:
-2
-3 ''···'······''""'.! ' " ' L••.... L .............., ...•.L ...., , , ; , '

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
%Error
Fig. 12-Normal probability curve of percentage error of long term creep

(35 to 365 days) using ACI 209 creep model.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2
.....,Go>
·;:
>""
.e
';
;z 0 ------~rli:llf----.--l
Q
-~o:xr
- a - A Cl 318
..,
'0 -+-ACI363
·············(~EB%
-g -1 -.:-. Gardner
-""
U ')
-::-Nassif eta!
-2
20 40 60 80 100
%Error
Fig. 13-Normal probability curve of percentage error for long term creep
(35 to 365 days) using CEB 90 creep model.

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3 '" " ' ' ' , , , , , .........., , , , , , , ,
2
Go
;
·c
"'
;>
-;
e -EXP
z""
o:> 0 'f--~,:...-~r::.....;+--1- ACI 318
.."'
"=
-ACI363
----"''"--CLH 90
-c~.. {;ardner
1-1
-"'
t"'
-:.>-Nassif et al
fJl
-2
. I GL 2000 I
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-3
-40 -20 0 20 40 60
%Error
Fig. 14-Normal probability curve of percentage error for long term creep
(35 to 365 days) using GL2000 creep model.

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SP-227-13
Shrinkage Behavior and Residual Stress

Development in Mortar Containing Shrinkage
Reducing Admixtures (SRAs)
by B. Pease, H. Shah, and J. Weiss
Synopsis: Concrete shrinks as a result of drying, self-desiccation, chemical reaction, or

temperature reduction. If this shrinkage is prevented by restraint, tensile stresses develop
which may result in cracking. Various alternatives have been proposed to reduce the
cracking propensity of a mixture including the use of commercial chemical admixtures
called shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA). To date however, little information has been
presented to describe how the performance of mixtures containing SRA's could be
predicted. In addition, little guidance exists to determine the dosage rate ofSRA that
should be used to achieve a specific level of performance. This paper describes initial
research results from a study that has been aimed at quantifYing the role of SRA at early·
ages. The surface tension of various solutions of water and SRA was measured. In
addition, free shrinkage measurements were conducted for specimens exposed to sealed
and drying conditions from the time of set. Results indicate that shrinkage can be directly
related to the concentration ofSRA. Restrained ring experiments were performed to
investigate the influence of a SRA on residual stress development and cracking in mortar.
It has been observed that the residual stress reduction is not directly proportional to the
reduction in free shrinkage since the specimens with SRA demonstrate less stress
relaxation.
Keywords: autogenous shrinkage; residual stress; restrained ring test;

shrinkage; shrinkage reducing admixture
285
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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286 Pease et al.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Brad Pease is a graduate research assistant in the School of Civil Engineering at Purdue
University. He earned his BSCE from Purdue University and is pursuing a MSCE.
Hardik Shah received his MSCE in Civil Engineering from Purdue University and his
BS from Nirma Institute of Technology, Gujarat University. He is currently continuing
his graduate studies at Purdue.
ACI Member Jason Weiss is an assistant professor at Purdue University. He earned his
BAE from Penn State and MS and Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He is chair of
ACI committee 123, secretary of committee 209 and 231, and a member of ACI 365,
446, and 522.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Concrete shrinks as a result of drying, self-desiccation, chemical reaction, or temperature

reduction. If this shrinkage is restrained, tensile stresses develop which may result in
cracking. While it is commonly thought that the increased strength of more modern
concretes automatically results in improved performance, recent research has indicated
that these concretes may be more susceptible to early-age cracking [1]. While this may
contradict conventional reasoning, the increased propensity for cracking can be explained
by: 1) higher early-age autogenous shrinkage, 2) higher material stiffness, 3) increased
brittleness, and 4) reduced relaxation (creep) [2].
Various alternatives have been proposed to reduce the propensity for cracking including
the use of concrete with a lower water to cement ratio (w/c ), increased attention to curing ·
practices that reduce evaporation or provide external water [3], and the optimization of
the mixture proportions to increase the aggregate volume fraction [4]. Alternative
methods are also frequently sought that go beyond 'good common practice' to reduce the
potential for shrinkage cracking. For example, saturated lightweight aggregates have
been proposed as one method that can provide internal curing [5,6,7] in low water-to-
cement ratio mixtures that exhibit substantial self-desiccation shrinkage. Other
researchers have used expansive additives to counteract shrinkage [8,9). This paper
focuses on the use of an alternative approach to counteract shrinkage cracking that uses
shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA) that are reported to change the surface tension of
the pore solution. SRA' s have been discussed in the literature for the last 10-15 years by
numerous authors [ 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. While several papers have demonstrated
experimental evidence to indicate the benefits of SRA, to date little information has been
presented to indicate how the effectiveness of mixtures containing SRA's could be
predicted [17].
Some attempts have been made to quantify the effects of SRA on free shrinkage. Berke
et al. proposed one series of equations to estimate the shrinkage for a series of field
concretes [14]. AI-Manaseer et al. proposed a correction to the more general Gardner-
Lockman equations to account for the addition ofSRA [18,19]. It was also proposed that
SRA could be accounted for when moisture gradients are considered by simply changing

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1
the shrinkage coefficient since SRA does not dramatically alter the moisture gradients
that develop on initial drying [20,21]. While these approaches provide some indication
of how shrinkage can be predicted, they do not provide information on the dosage of
SRA that should be used for a given mixture if we consider residual stress development
or cracking potential. This distinction is important since it has been reported that in
addition to altering free shrinkage, SRA can alter mechanical property development [22]
and reduce the effects of stress relaxation in a mixture [23,24].
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
This paper outlines the results of a research study which was intended to better document
how commercially available SRA's influence the early-age shrinkage and residual
stresses that develop when shrinkage is prevented. This paper begins with surface
tension measurements of water-SRA solutions for one commercially available SRA to
quantify how SRA's can be used to alter the surface tension of a pore solution. Length
change measurements were performed using non-contact lasers to measure the
autogenous length change of setting mortar. Free shrinkage was measured after 24 hours
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for sealed and drying mortar. In addition to free shrinkage measurements, this paper
describes how SRA influences the rate of mechanical property development as well as
the residual strength development. These measurements are related to the surface tension
of the SRA-water solution for the purpose of predicting shrinkage based on SRA addition
rates. Restrained shrinkage tests were performed to quantify both the elastic and residual
stresses for the restrained mortars. The effect of shrinkage, mechanical property
development, elastic stress, and relaxation are discussed.
Mixture Proportions and Specimen Preparation

Mortars were prepared using two different baseline conditions, a water-to-cement ratio
(w/c) of 0.30 and 0.50. All mixtures contained 55% fine aggregate by volume. All
experiments were conducted using mortar mixtures of varying SRA content (0%, 0.5%,
1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0% and 7.5% SRA, Tetraguard® AS 20). SRA is a water replacement,
therefore percentages given are by weight of water. Water reducer (MBT PS 1232®) was
added to the 0.30 w/c specimens with an addition rate of 1% by weight of cement. Type I
cement was used throughout the study with a Blaine fineness of 360 m2/kg and a
chemical composition of 58% C3S, 12% C2S, 8% C3A, and a Na20 equivalent alkali
content of 0.56%. The mortars were mixed using standard mixing procedures, placed in
the forms, rodded, and vibrated [ 25].
Multiple samples were prepared for the majority of tests including measurements of
surface tension, shrinkage, elastic modulus, and residual stress. Table 1 describes all the
test methods as well as the ages at which measurements were taken. For tests with
multiple measurements average values have been reported for each test age.
1
This shrinkage coefficient describes the relationship between shrinkage and the change
in relative humidity

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288 Pease et al.
Experimental Procedures
The surface tension of solutions of SRA and deionized water were measured using the du
Noiiy Ring Method [26]. The method is based on determining the force that is required
to detach a wire ring from the surface of a solution. Measurements were taken using a
Tensiometer as shown in Figure 1 on samples that were maintained at a temperature of
23 °C. The ring used was made of a platinum-iridium alloy and was cleaned in
accordance with ASTM D 971 prior to each measurement. A calibration factor for the
tensiometer was determined using deionized water at 23°C. The calibration factor is
represented by equation (I)
..... - rwater (1)
'-Vb - - -
re
where, Ywater is the value cited in the literature for the surface tension of water, 72.3
dyne/em [27] and YE is the measured value for surface tension of water. The calibration
factor is then multiplied by the scale reading to determine the surface tension of the
solution. The average of three measurements was found for each solution tested.
Length change was measured in the mortar tested in this study using two different
approaches. Before the specimens reached an age of 24 hours, the deformation of the
sealed specimens (i.e., autogenous shrinkage) was measured using two non-contact lasers
as seen in Figure 2 [28]. Specimens were cast in a 25mm x 25mm x 300mm (I in x 1 in
x 12 in) steel mold. The inner surface of the mold was lined with two thin sheets of
acetate to reduce friction/bond with the mold. The small cross-sectional geometry was
used to reduce the effects of temperature on the specimen. (Note: a temperature rise of
Jess than 1°C was observed in the mortar specimens used in this study). Openings were
located in the forms at either end of the mold to provide a path for the laser light beam.
The inner surface of the openings was covered with a clear thin plastic film for the
duration of the test. It should be noted that the top of the specimens was also covered
with a plastic sheet during the test to minimize moisture loss. Further details on the laser
units and the data acquisition system can be found elsewhere [28). After 24 hours, free
shrinkage was measured using mortar prisms with a 75 mm (3 in) square cross-section
and a 250 mm (10 in) gage length. For each mixture two specimens were prepared with
two opposing sides and the ends of the prisms sealed (i.e., drying prisms), and two
additional specimens that were completely sealed with two layers of aluminum tape (i.e.,
sealed prisms). This was done to ensure that free shrinkage from the prisms can be
compared directly to the ring specimens without the need for any geometric corrections.
Drying shrinkage specimen were stored at 50% relative humidity. Free shrinkage strain
measurements have been represented using equation (2).
8 sH -
- 8exp-24 +
cl (t - to)
( )+
c3Vt-
,;-;-
td
(2)
1+ c2 t -to
where Cj, C2, and C3 are material coefficients (Table 2), t is the age of the specimen, to
corresponds to the time of initial set, td represents the age at which drying was initiated,
and ~>exp-24 is represented by equation (8) for 0.30 w/c and equation (9) for 0.50 w/c. The
first term (~>exp.24 ) corresponds to the resultant movements from the time of initial set to 24
hours as determined using the non-contact lasers, the second term corresponds to
autogenous shrinkage and the third term represents the drying shrinkage. For each set of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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four specimens (two sealed and two with drying from two sides) the material coefficients
were determined by fitting the first component (the component including C 1 and C 2) to
the sealed specimens while the entire equation was then fit to the drying specimen. The
coefficients that were obtained from each mixture are shown in Table 2. Table 3 shows
the correlation coefficient (R2) for the free shrinkage strain equations and measurements
for each mixture.
Splitting tensile strength measurements were taken in accordance with ASTM C 496
using cylinders with a 100 mm (4 in.) diameter and a length of75 mm (3 in.). A 75 mm
length was utilized in order to correlate with the dimensions of the restrained rings.
Initial splitting tensile strength tests were taken when the specimens reached an age of 12
hours and continued to an age of 28 days. Testing was performed for all SRA contents
and both w/c's with two specimens at each age. The time-dependent development of
splitting tensile strength has been represented using equation (3) [29].
C4 (t-to)
() (3)
/sp t =fspao1+C4(t-to)
where C4 is a material constant that describes the rate of strength development and f spro is
the long term splitting tensile strength (Table 2). Elastic modulus measurements were
taken _on cylinders with a 100 mm (4 in.) diameter and a length of 200 mm (8 in.) in
accordance with ASTM C 597. (For further information on the fitting of mechanical
properties using this equation the reader is referred to the literature [29].) Initial dynamic
elastic modulus tests were taken when the specimens reached an age of 12 hours and
continued to an age of 28 days. Static measurements were taken at an age of seven days.
The time-dependent elastic modulus has been represented using equation (4)
Ec(t)=Eoo C4(t-to) (4)
l+C4 (t-t 0 )
where Eoo is the long-term elastic modulus (Table 2). Table 3 shows the R2 values for
equations (3) and (4) for each mixture.
The restrained ring specimen was used to assess residual stress that develops when the
concrete is prevented from shrinking freely. The rings have an outer concrete diameter of
450 mm (18 in), a height of 75 mm (3 in), and an inner concrete diameter of 300 mm (12
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in). The mortar annulus was cast around a steel ring with a 9.5 mm (3/8 in) wall
thickness. Four strain gages were connected to the inner surface of each steel ring at
mid-height and interfaced in a half-bridge configuration with a data acquisition system.
Strain data was collected at ten minute intervals beginning approximately 30 minutes
after water came in contact with the cement during the mixing process. The specimens
were completely sealed for the first 24 hours. At an age of 24 hours aluminum tape was
used to seal the outer circumference of the ring to allow it to dry uniformly along the
radial direction from the top and bottom of the ring. The specimens were then placed in
an environment with a constant relative humidity (50%) and temperature (23°C) for the
remainder of the test. The strain in the steel was used to compute the residual stress that
develops in the mortar ring using equation 5 (for the geometry described in this paper)
CTresidual-Max == -0.0303 · Ssteez(t) (5)

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290 Pease et al.
where, Esteel (t) is the average strain (in microstrain) measured at the inner surface of the
steel ring at time t. It should be noted that this equation is given in units of megapascals
(MPa) and that the coefficient changes with specimen or restraint geometry [29].
An expression for the maximum incremental tensile stress can be written by considering
the ring as a 'shrink-fit problem' as described in equation (6) [29]
_ MsH(t)·Ec(t)·0.70 (6)
flae/astic-max - E~!t) 2 .42 + 2 .60
where, ~Esh (t) is the incremental free shrinkage, Ec(t) is the elastic modulus of the mortar
and Es is the elastic modulus of steel (200 GPa). The equation is given in units of MPa
and the values of the constants vary with specimen or restraint geometry [29]. This
enables the computation of the theoretical elastic stress as the sum of the incremented
stress throughout the history of the specimen. The difference between the elastic stress
determined using equation (6) and the actual stress as determined using equation (5)
provides a measure of the stress relaxation (creep and cracking) that takes place in the
specimen.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Surface Tension of SRA-Water Solutions

Tensiometer measurements show that the addition of SRA decreases the surface tension
of the solution rapidly (Figure 3) with a 30% reduction in surface tension corresponding
to a I% concentration of SRA (CsRA in percent). The surface tension continues to
decrease until a I 0% replacement level is reached at which point the surface tension of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the water-SRA solutions is reduced by 54% and remains constant (Figure 3). These
measurements compare reasonably well to those previously reported for laboratory
SRA's [17,30]. The results reported in this paper for one commercially available SRA
can be represented by equation (7)
0 25
r SOLN = Ywater - 22(c SRA ) ' • if CsRA < 10 (7)
{ YsoLN=33.3 tfCsRA~lO
where CsRA is the SRA content in percentage (i.e., for I% SRA, CsRA = I). Table 4
indicates the R2 for this and other following equations.
Mortar Length Change (Free Shrinkage) Results

Figure 4a illustrates the movements that were measured using the non-contact lasers from
the time the mortar was placed in the forms to an age of 24 hours. It can be seen that
substantial movements can occur at very early ages. It should also be noted however that
movements during the first few hours are not always reproducible and these movements
do not tend to result in the development of substantial residual stress [28]. As a result the
time of initial set has been assumed to be the point where the shrinkage measurements
begin for modeling. The initial set of the mortars are similar for low SRA contents (0%
to I%), but mortars with higher SRA delay the time of setting as seen for the 0.30 w/c
and 0.50 w/c mortars (Figure 4b ). Figure 5 was constructed to show the movements of
the mortar after the movements were zeroed at the time of initial set. Extensive
autogenous shrinkage, caused by self-desiccation, is seen in the 0.30 w/c specimens

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within the first 24 hours, while minimal autogenous shrinkage is apparent in the 0.50 w/c
specimens. An initial shrinkage is seen in the 0.30 w/c mortar which continues to
increase until a net strain of -270t-.u:: is observed at 24 hours for the mixture containing 0%
SRA. Samples containing SRA deviate from the 0% SRA curve to show varying
reductions in shrinkage or even expansion. Expansion initiates between 10 and 13 hours,
causing a reduction in shrinkage of nearly 60% at 24 hours for the 2.5% SRA mortar for
example. The total movement at 24 hours found using the non-contact laser method is
represented by equations (8) for the 0.30 w/c mortar and (9) for the 0.50 w/c mortar.
t:cxp- 24 = -8.84(rSOLN )+ 345 (8)
t:exp-2 4 = -4.28(rsoLN )+ 306 (9)
Sealed and drying shrinkage was measured after 24 hours using mortar prisms. The total
shrinkage of the mortar is therefore the sum of the movement detected using the non-
contact lasers and the shrinkage measured in the mortar prisms.
The total shrinkage of each mixture was fit to equation (2) to obtain the coefficients as a
function of the SRA content. The fit was performed by setting C 3 to zero and determining
coefficients C 1 and C2 using the sealed specimens. After determining C 1 and C2 for the
sealed specimens, equation (2) was used to determine C 3 for the mixtures that were
allowed to dry from the top and bottom. For the 0.30 w/c mixtures, it was determined
that coefficient C2 remained essentially constant at 0.22 irrespective of the SRA content
while coefficients C 1 and C3 are represented using equations (1 0) and (11 ), respectively.
Cl =-0.89(YsoLN)-43.8 (10)
C3 =-0.62(rsoLN )-7.2 (11)
A similar observation was found for the 0.50 w/c mixtures with a C 2 value of 0.07 and
shrinkage coefficients C 1 and C3 which are represented using equations (12) and (13),
respectively.
C1 = -0.21(rsoLN )-14. 7 (12)
C 3 ::::- 1.23(ySOLN) + 22.5 (I 3)
Figure 6 depicts several estimated shrinkage curves as a function of time along with
experimentally determined points (for clarity only three mixtures were shown). The
model correlates well with the experimentally determined shrinkage values. Shrinkage
has also been plotted as a function of SRA content and various times (Figure 7) and again
a good agreement was observed between the model and experimental results.
Restrained Mortar Shrinkage Results- Stress Development

The residual stress development for the 0.30 w/c and 0.50 w/c mortar rings at early-ages
can be seen in Figure 8. It can be seen that the 0.50 w/c rings have a reduced rate of
stress development due to reduced stiffness and shrinkage at early ages. In the 0.30 w/c
rings, the 0% and 0.5% SRA begin to develop residual stress immediately after setting,
whereas a lag in the development of stress is seen in the rings with higher SRA contents.
Compressive (negative) residual stresses are seen during the first 24 hours for mixtures
with 1%, 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% SRA. This negative residual stress indicates an expansion
of the mortar ring, a behavior that is also observed in the laser measurements of
movements during the first 24 hours (Figure 4a). The expansion delays the age of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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292 Pease et al.
residual tensile stress development. Keeping in mind that the rings are completely sealed
during the first 24 hours, it is possible that high SRA content will cause expansive forces
if kept sealed. The current restrained ring method is able to quantity forces caused by
shrinkage, but not expansion. New experimental techniques are currently being
developed to modifY the ring test to treat expansion effects however in this paper any
expansion can not be quantified. The rate at which the residual stress develops is also
effected by the addition of SRA with the addition of SRA causing a reduction in the rate
of residual stress development.
One approach that can be used to assess the effectiveness of the SRA is to compare the
ratio of the residual stress in the specimens containing SRA to the plain mortar (0% SRA)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
as shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 depicts the relative residual stress until the age of
cracking of the 0% SRA ring (7.9 days). The 0.5% SRA ring maintains a relative
residual stress of 0.8 to 1 throughout nearly the entire time, suggesting a minimal effect
of SRA at such low dosages. Higher SRA contents ( 1% to 7.5%) all show significant
decreases in the relative rate of residual stress development. The 2.5%, 5% and 7.5%
SRA rings also show an overall reduction in the magnitude of residual stresses that
develop.
The rate of stress development in a restrained ring depends upon several mechanisms
including stiffness, shrinkage and relaxation. Elastic stresses (i.e., the theoretical stress
that develops if relaxation does not occur) is a function of the product of the elastic
modulus and the shrinkage of the mortar (Eq. 6). As previously mentioned shrinkage
decreases linearly with decreasing surface tension and a similar trend has been observed
for the strength development coefficient (C 4 ) for the 0.30 w/c (equation 14) and 0.50 w/c
(equation 15) mixture, respectively
C4 = 0.14(rsoLN )-1.76 (14)
C4 = o.o3{rsoLN )+ 1.04 (15)
where YsoLN is the surface tension of the water-SRA solution. The elastic stress can be
estimated simply by inserting the expressions for shrinkage (equation 2) and the
expressions for elastic modulus development (equation 4) into the equation for stress
development (equation 6). Results of this computation can be seen in Figure 1Oa and
Figure 11 a for the two different mixtures. The elastic stress is decreased by the presence
of SRA due to the reduction in shrinkage as well as the slight reduction and retardation in
stiffness development.
A relaxation coefficient was defined as the ratio of the residual stress to the elastic stress.
It can be seen that the relaxation decreased as the dose of SRA increased (Figures lOb
and 11 b). This can be attributed to two factors. First, the addition of SRA has been
observed to reduce the creep coefficient by approximately 20% [23,24]. Second, the
elastic stress level is relatively low and as a result it would be anticipated that any
inelastic deformations that may be attributed to non-linear creep or microcracking would
be low. The residual stress was found to increase with age and to decrease linearly with
the surface tension ofthe solution (Fig JOe and lie).

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This paper has demonstrated the effect of SRA on the shrinkage, early-age mechanical
properties, and residual stress of mortar. It has been shown that:
• SRA reduces the surface tension of water by up to 54%. Dosage rates of up to
10% result in a rapid reduction in the surface tension, beyond this concentration
level the addition of SRA does not alter the surface tension.
• SRA reduces the autogenous and drying shrinkage of mortar. It has been
observed that the reduction in shrinkage is linearly proportional to the change in
surface tension of the water-SRA solution. In addition, mixtures with higher
concentrations of SRA demonstrated expansion at early ages.
• SRA increases the time of setting and delays the development of material
properties, but little effect is seen on the ultimate strength or stiffness properties.
• SRA influenced the residual stress development. The addition of sufficient
levels of SRA decreased the rate of residual stress development while higher
levels of SRA reduced the overall magnitude of the residual stress as well.
• Comparing the elastic stress and residual stress indicates that more relaxation
occurs in the mixtures with lower concentrations of SRA.
NOTATION
c), c2, c3 Material Shrinkage Coefficients

c4 Strength and Stiffness Development Coefficient
CsRA SRA Concentration (Percent Water by Mass)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ec(t) Time-Dependent Elastic Modulus of Mortar

E, Elastic Modulus of Steel (200 GPa)
Eoo Elastic Modulus of Mortar at Time Infinity
f,p(t) Time-Dependent Splitting Tensile Strength of Mortar
fsp<, Splitting Tensile Strength of Mortar at Time Infinity
to Time of Initial Setting of Mortar
Specimen Age
td Time of Initial Exposure to Drying of the Mortar
~SsH(t) Incremental Free Shrinkage
~aelastic-max Maximum Incremental Tensile Stress
YE Measured Value for Surface Tension of Water
YsoLN Surface Tension ofSRA-Water Solution
Ywater Surface Tension of Water (72.3 dyne/em)
Eexp-24 Resultant Movement of Mortar from Time of Set to 24 Hours
EsH Free Shrinkage Strain
Ssteei(t) Average Strain Measured at Inner Surface of Steel Ring
<Jresidual-max Residual Stress in Mortar Ring
lllb Tensiometer Calibration Factor

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294 Pease et al.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge support received from Degussa Chemical

Corporation, Charles Pankow Concrete Material Laboratories, and the National Science
Foundation. This material is based in part on work supported by the NSF Grant No.
0134272: a CAREER AWARD granted to the third author. The contents of this paper
reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the accuracy of the data
presented herein.
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296 Pease et al.
Table I •• Tests Performed for 0.30 w/e and 0.50 w/e
Number of SBmp ..afMeuurementa AgeT.,.tedor
SRA Content (%! o.o 0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 M-unocl !Davs!
Surfac8 Tenaion 3 3 3 3 3 3 N/A
lallerM811SUnoment 3 3 3 3 3 3 N/A
Setting Tima 1 1 1 1 1 1 N/A
Drying Shrlnkaga 2 2 2 2 2 2 1,3,7,14,21,28
Sealed SMnkage 2 2 2 2 2 2 1,3,7,14,21,28
Splitting Tanaila 2 2 2 2 2 2 0.5,1,3,7,14,28
Dynamic Modulus 3 3 3 3 3 3 0.5.1.3.7,14.21.28
Static: Modulua 2. 2 2 2 2 2 7
Restrained Ring 2 2 2 2 2 2 N/A
Table 2 -- Re![ession Coefficients

0.30w/c
SRA Content (%) c, ~ Ca c4 fsp• (MPa) E. (GPa)
i
0.00 -101.76 -48.80 8.91 5.24 29.46
0.50 -96.38 -45.40 5.83 5.30 29.75
1.00 -97.67 -40.13 5.16 5.48 29.19
0.22
2.50 -84.11 -36.44 4.28 5.40 29.55
5.00
7.50
-75.30
-69.80 ! -27.81
-27.99
4.32
3.61
5.66
5.88
29.83
29.15
0.50w/c
SRA Content (%) c, ~ c3 c4 fsp• (MPa) E. (GPa)
i
0.00 -31.33 -63.11 3.21 3.76 26.41
0.50 -24.43 -51.11 3.28 3.39 23.90
1.00 -25.15 -42.40 2.46 3.44 23.90
0.07
2.50 -23.49 -26.04 2.35 3.30 24.51
5.00
7.50
-22.40
-24.60 ! ·22.50
-23.59
2.25
2.18
3.34
3.24
24.79
24.35
Table 3 ··Ace~ of Fits for Eguations 2- 4

Equation
2 3 4 2 3 4
Number
0.3wlc R' O.Sw/c Rz
O%SRA 0.96 0.81 0.61 O%SRA 0.99 0.76 0.81
0.5%SRA 0.95 0.98 0.63 0.5%SRA 0.99 0.82 0.79
1%SRA 0.94 0.96 0.79 1%SRA 0.98 0.80 0.82
2.5%SRA 0.98 0.97 0.89 2.5%SRA 0.95 0.92 0.76
5%SRA 0.98 0.97 0.87 5%SRA 0.99 0.93 0.80
7.5%SRA 0.98 0.96 0.83 7.5% SRA 0.98 0.92 0.85
Table 4 --Accuracy of Fits For Equations 7 - 15

Equation Rz
Regression Equation
Number
7 'YSOLN - Ywatsr - 22(CSRA t 25 1.00
8 =
Eexp-24 -8.84(YsoLN) + 345 0.91
9 Eaxp-24 = -4.28(YsoLN) + 306 0.82
10 =
C1 -0.89(')'SOLN) - 43.8 0.77
11 =
C3 -0.62(YsOLN)- 7.2 0.85
12 C1 =-0.21 (YsOLN)- 14.7 0.78
13 C3 =-1.23(')'SOLN) + 22.5 0.91
14 C4 =0.14(')'SOLN) - 1. 76 0.97
15 C4 : 0.03(')'SOLN) + 1.04 0.72
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Figure I -Tensiometer Setup for Measuring Surface Tension
Figure 2 - Non-contact laser measurement setup with LabView acquisition computer

(Note: Specimen not sealed for picture)
• Average Measurement
--Fitted Equation
0 20 40 60 80 100
SRA Concentration (%)
Figure 3 -Effect of SRA concentration on surface tension of water
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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298 Pease et al.
10
8
300 e
:I
0
] =.a
CD
c 0 E
! i=
Cll
c
4
i
-300 II)
2 -e-- 0.5 w/c- Initial Set
- 0.5 w/c- Final Set
-8-- 0.3 w/c -Initial Set
- 0.3 w/c- Final Set
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 2 4 6 8
Time (Hours) SRA Content (%)
Figure 4- Effect of SRA on (a) first 24 hours movement and (b) the time of setting for
the 0.30 w/c and 0.50 w/c mortars
200
100
! 0
"
!-100 0.3W/C
---O%SRA
---0.5%SRA
-200 ---.e.--1%SRA
-+-2.5,.SRA
-+-S%SRA
->I<- 7.5% SRA
-300
8 12 16 20 24
Time (Hours)
(a)
200
100
'll"
.:; 0
"
!-100 0.5W/C
---O%SRA
--0.5%SRA
-200 -..-1%SRA
--2.5%SRA
-+-5%SRA
-300
->I<- 7.5% SRA
0 12 16 20 24
Tlma (Houra)
(b)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 5 - Movements after time of initial set for (a) 0.3 w/c and (b) 0.5 w/c mortars

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200
0.3w/c
• Model Fits Experimental Data
-,~..
t ·----
=-=~~:~
----- 7.5% SRA
:
•
~~~~RA
7.5'• SRA
\ ~ --~~-------------1! ___________ !1__________ _

-200
]:
c
:£
"'
-400
-600 •
·-- --.__ __
-·---
-BOO
•
-1000
12 16 20 24 2B
Time (Days)
(a)
:~:~-~-}~---------:------------.-----------
]:
-200
----.__
j -400
-600
O.Sw/c
Model FilS Experimental Data
-BOO - - 0% SRA • 0% SRA
- - 2.5% SRA + 2.5% SRA
_ ----- 7.5% SRA • 7.5% SRA
1000
12 16 20 24 2B
Time(Days)
(b)
Figure 6 - Total free shrinkage with varying SRA content for (a) 0.30 w/c and
(b) 0.50 w/c mortars
200
• •
-200
];
c -400
£ -600 --- • 0.3wlc

Model Fits Experimental Data
--1Day • 1Day
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--3Day • 30ay
-----70ay • 70oy
_1000 +--.-----.--...---~_:-:..:_;·-~2~8Oay~....!·!!_~2B~O!!ayL...j...
4
SRA Content (%)
(a)
-200
~
c -400
e0
-600 0.5wfc
Model Fits Exper1mantal Data
-800
--1Day e
1Day
- - 3Day .... 30ay
----- 70ay + 7Day
-1ooo+-~---,-----.--r-__:-:_:,:--::....!2B!!..!D'"'"I---!•!!-~2B~o~av+
0 4
SRA Content (%)
(b)
Figure 7 - Total free shrinkage at varying time for (a) 0.30 w/c and (b) 0.50 w/c mortars

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300 Pease et al.
0.3 W/C. Residual Stress
~O%SRA
-e-o.5%SAA
3 ........-1%SRA
-+-2.5%SRA
i.
-
2
--+-S%SRA
-lft-7.5% SRA
i1
"'
-1+---~--,---~--.---~--~--~--T
•
Tlme(Daya)
(o)
0.5 W/C- Residu~tl Stress

.....-O%SRA
---0.5%SRA
3 -1%SRA
--+- 2.5% SRA
i 2
-+-5%SRA
....,.__ 7.5% SRA
=
!1
-1 +---~---.----~--.---~--~-~-+
4
Tlme(Daya)
(b)
Figure 8 -Residual stress development for (a) 0.30 w/c (rapid decrease in
stress indicates cracking of 0% SRA ring) and (b) 0.5 w/c mortars
1.2
~ 1
..'i
~
R 0.8
...
•&
0.6
0.4
__ .. _
0.3W/C
t
ll
&
0.2 __ ......
---0.5%SR.A
-1%SRA
-+-2.5%SAA
.............. 7.5%SAA
•
nme(Days)
(•)
1.2
{ 1
£
I'i
0.8
0.6
I 0.4
i 0.2
4
nme (Days)
(b)
Figure 9- Relative residual stress development for (a) 0.30 w/c and (b) 0.50 w/c mortars
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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10~~~~~~~._--~--~--~--~~--+
o~C:Rs ex;"~YOata ................... )
- - 1 Day • 3 Day ------- .... 0%
- -30ay + 7Day .......t ... - -- SRA
--:~:~"::·::·:.- ~
1~--\~-------
.!! 2
;
i1l 0
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
30 40 50 60 70 80
Surface Tension, r ...... (dynelcm)
(a)
0.3 w/c Model Als Experimental Data
108 •
.-::.,!-..,__
-
-----
-3Day.
7 Day •
3Day
7 Day
'ii
i 0.6
-..-:-._.,_~-;-----
j 0.4 ..... _'lt.::t-~-~
i 02
~ 04---~-,,-~---.--,---.-~---.--~--+
30 40 50 oo ro w
Surface Tension, Ysouo (dyne/em)
(b)
0.3 w/c Model Fla Experimental Data
--10ay. 10ay
- -30ay. 3Day
-~~:;.:~~-·-~--!~ .. -----------------·
• ._!... .. - - - - - - -
...... -- -~
-~--------
·•4---r--.--~--.-~---.--~-.,--r--1-
30 40 50 00 70 80
Surface Tension, YsOL.N (dyne/an)
(c)
Figure 10- Effect of surface tension on (a) elastic stress, (b) ratio between residual and
elastic stress and (c) residual stress for 0.30 w/c mortar specimens

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302 Pease et al.
0.5wko - F h ~DIIIa
.------·- .. -.-.- - -
--,Day • 1 Doy -----------·
--3Day. 3Doy. ----
-----7Day • 7~-----
......... -•~---· - - ....

'!-. .- • .._ ~--
•
30 ~ ro ~ ro ~
Surf- Tenoloft, y_., (dyne/em)
(a)
• 0.5wlc_~~T~Da1a
• 7[)ay
•
---------.-----•---;-----------------'
•
~ ro ~ ro ~
Surface Tension, y_,. (dyne/em)
(b)
_ 4 0.5 w/c Wadel F11a Experimenllll Dllla
.. --!Day • !Day ,
!:. 3
----- ----·----·f
- - 3 Day •
7 Day •
3 Doy
7 ~... ---------
--------
1
111
2 •
*----
_ _ _ .. - . . . ---- - -
..J
Jll
I 0 _..... • .....
_, +-..---.--.---..--...---.--.--..----..---+
30 ~ so ~ ro ~
Sclutfon Surfa~ Tenaian (dyne/em)
(c)
Figure 11 -Effect of surface tension on (a) elastic stress, (b) ratio between residual and
elastic stress and (c) residual stress for 0.50 w/c mortar specimens
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-14
Performance of Self-Consolidating Concrete

Under Restrained Shrinkage
by H. T. See and E. K. Attiogbe
Synopsis: With the increasing use of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) in the concrete
construction industry, its performance in restrained structural elements is of interest in
order to assess the resistance to restrained shrinkage cracking. A new standard test
method, ASTM C 1581, which uses an instrumented ring, is employed to assess the
cracking potential of various sec mixtures under restrained shrinkage on the basis of
either the time to cracking or the rate of stress development in the material. The
performance of the sec mixtures is compared to that of conventional concrete mixtures to
assess the effect of fluidity level on resistance to restrained shrinkage cracking. In
addition, the SCC mixtures are evaluated for the effects of sand-to-aggregate ratio (S/A),
paste content, aggregate shape, and use of a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) on
cracking potential. The results show that the cracking resistance of SCC is similar to that
of conventional concrete, indicating that the higher fluidity of sec is not detrimental to
performance under restrained shrinkage. The cracking potential of the sec mixtures is
found to be influenced by the mixture composition.
Keywords: cracking; cracking potential; cracking resistance; restrained

shrinkage; ring test; self-consolidating concrete (SCC); shrinkage;
shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA)
303
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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304 See and Attiogbe
ACI member Heather T. See is a Project Engineer at Degussa Admixtures, Inc.,
Cleveland, Ohio. She received her MS in civil engineering from the University of Akron,
Ohio. Her research interests include restrained shrinkage of cement-based materials,
engineering properties of high-performance and self-consolidating concrete and fiber-
reinforced concrete.
ACI Fellow Emmanuel K. Attiogbe is Director of Technical Services, Degussa

Admixtures, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. He received his PhD in civil engineering from the
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, specializing in structural engineering and
concrete materials. He is a member of ACI Committees 231, Properties of Concrete at
Early Ages; 236, Materials Science; Concrete Research Council; and the TAC
Technology Transfer Committee. He was awarded ACI's Wason Medal for Materials
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Research in 1995.
INTRODUCTION
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was pioneered in Japan in 1988 (1-3). Highly

flowable and stable concrete mixtures were produced by reducing the coarse aggregate
content, lowering the water-to-cementitious materials ratio and using superplasticizers (1-
3). These SCC mixtures utilized a coarse aggregate content of 50% of the solid volume,
a fine aggregate .content of 40% of the mortar volume and a water-to-powder ratio, by
volume, of approximately 1.0 for enhanced flow and stability. Recently, stable SCC
mixtures have been produced at normal levels of sand-to-aggregate ratio (S/A) (range of
0.34 to 0.43) by utilizing viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) (4-5). SCC has gained
widespread acceptance in precast concrete applications (5-6) and with many precast
members restrained by adjacent structural elements, its behavior under restrained drying
shrinkage is of interest.
In this paper, a standard instrumented ring test method, ASTM C 1581, was used to
quantify the restrained shrinkage behavior of several conventional concrete and SCC
mixtures. The instrumented ring test method involves the measurement of the strain
developed in a steel ring as the concrete shrinks (7-10). The strains are monitored from
the time of casting, when the concrete is plastic, to the time when the concrete specimen
cracks. The measured strain is an indication of the level of stress developed in the
concrete. The rate at which the stress develops in the concrete, as well as the time after
initiation of drying when the test specimen cracks, can be used to classify the cracking
potential of the concrete (1 0).
The use of SCC in precast concrete applications has increased rapidly in recent
years, with cast-in-place applications growing. With many concrete elements restrained
by adjacent structural elements, the ability of a concrete element produced with sec to
resist shrinkage cracking is of interest. In addition, SCC mixtures can be produced with a
broad range of mixture proportions and, hence, understanding how S/A, paste content,

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aggregate shape, and use of a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) affect the behavior
under restrained shrinkage is important.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The test program involved the evaluation of two conventional concrete mixtures
(Mixes 1 and 8) and twelve SCC mixtures (Mixes 2-7 and 9-14) under restrained
shrinkage using the ASTM C 1581 instrumented ring test method. All mixtures were
non-air entrained. The test specimens were cured in the molds for 24 hours and then
demolded. In line with the test procedure outlined in ASTM C 1581, the ring specimens
were sealed at the top surface and dried from the outer circumference in a temperature
and humidity controlled room at 23 ± 2°C (73 ± 3°F) and 50 ± 4 percent relative
humidity. The test specimen, shown in Fig. I, is monitored for strain development in the
steel ring from the time after casting. The concrete mixtures were produced with a Type
1111 cement at three cement contents, and at water-to-cement ratios (w/c) of 0.39 for
Mixes 1-6 and 8-14 and 0.35 for Mix 7. Two types of 13-mm (0.5-in.) maximum size
coarse aggregate, one crushed (angular) and one rounded, were used at three levels of
S/A to study the effect of aggregate shape on cracking potential. A high-range water-
reducing (HRWR) admixture was used to achieve the 175 ± 25-mm (7 ± l-in.) slump of
the conventional concrete mixtures, and a HRWR admixture and a VMA were used to
achieve the 660 ± 25-mm (26 ± l-in.) slump flow of the sec mixtures at a visual
stability index rating (4) of I or lower. The VMA was utilized to produce stable SCC
mixtures at normal levels of S/A (0.43 and 0.48). A commercially available SRA (II)
was used in Mixes 3 and 6 to determine its effect on the cracking potential of the SCC
mixtures. The mixture proportions and the· plastic properties of the concrete are
presented in Tables I and 2 for all mixtures.
For each ring evaluation, companion prismatic specimens of 75 x 75 x 285-mm (3 x

3 x 11.25-in.) size were used to determine the free drying shrinkage in accordance with
ASTM C 157. Shrinkage measurements were started upon demolding of the specimens
at 24 hours after casting. The compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and splitting
tensile strength were determined in accordance with ASTM C 39, ASTM C 469 and
ASTM C 496, respectively, using cylindrical specimens of 100-mm (4-in.) diameter by
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
200-mm (8-in.) length.
TEST RESULTS
Typical data for the strains developed in the steel rings, starting from the time after
casting the test specimens up to the time of cracking, and for the free drying shrinkage
are presented in Fig. 2 and 3, respectively. As shown in Fig. 2, the sudden decrease in
compressive strain in the steel ring indicates the point of cracking for each specimen.
The net time-to-cracking of each specimen is determined to the nearest 0.25 day as the
difference between the age when a sudden decrease in strain occurred and the age drying
was initiated. For each mixture, the net time-to-cracking is the average value for the
three specimens, with values ranging from 7.25 to 22.50 days for all mixtures. The
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity values at seven days after initiation of

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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
drying, and splitting tensile strength and drying shrinkage values at 28 days after
initiation of drying are presented in Table 3 for all mixtures. The 7-day compressive
strength of the mixtures range from 39 to 69 MPa, the 28-day splitting tensile strengths
from 3.3 to 6.1 MPa, and the 28-day drying shrinkage from 313 to 533 11-strain. The data
in Table 3 show that the drying shrinkage, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity
and splitting tensile strength of the sec mixtures are comparable to those of the
conventional concrete mixtures. This is consistent with the findings reported in an earlier
study (5).
The time-to-cracking and stress rate at cracking are presented in Table 4 for each
mixture. These results are used to compare the performance of SCC relative to
conventional concrete and to show the effect of SCC composition on the cracking
potential of the sec mixtures.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Effect of fluidity level on cracking potential
The test results for the two conventional concrete mixtures (Mixes I and 8) and the
two SCC mixtures (Mixes 2 and 9) provide the basis for determining the effect of fluidity
level on cracking potential. In this context, the fluidity of a mixture is quantified in terms
of slump or slump flow, with the sec mixtures having a higher fluidity than the
conventional concrete mixtures. The drying shrinkage, time-to-cracking and stress rate
data for these four mixtures are presented in Table 5. As seen in the table and in Fig. 4,
Mixes I and 2 cracked at approximately the same time; likewise for Mixes 8 and 9. ·
Therefore, the cracking resistance of sec is similar to that of conventional concrete,
indicating that the higher fluidity of sec mixtures is not detrimental to performance
under restrained shrinkage.
Effect of SCC composition on cracking potential
Sand-to-aggregate ratio fS/A) --Nine SCC mixtures were produced at three levels of
S/A (0.43, 0.48 and 0.54) to determine its effect on cracking potential. Table 6 presents
the drying shrinkage, time-to-cracking and stress rate data for these nine mixtures. A
comparison of the time-to-cracking results for Mixes 2, 4 and 5, Mixes 9, 10 and 11, and
Mixes 12, 13 and 14 shows the beneficial effect of lowering the S/A. This observation is
also illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows that Mix 12 (S/A = 0.43) took much longer to
crack than Mixes 13 and 14 (S/A = 0.48 and 0.54, respectively). The longer time-to-
cracking for the mixture with the lowest S/A could be explained by a lower rate of stress
buildup in the mixture, as shown by the stress rate data in Table 6. Hence, lowering the
S/A is effective in enhancing the cracking resistance of SCC under restrained shrinkage.
It has been shown that SCC mixtures with a lower S/A have a lower drying
shrinkage (5). However, for the SCC mixtures reported in Table 6, the paste contents are
the same for each group of mixtures, resulting in shrinkage values that are practically the
same in each group.

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Paste content -- The effect of paste content on cracking potential was evaluated
based on the mixtures with nominal cement contents of 430, 490 and 550 kg/m3 • Table 7
presents the drying shrinkage, time-to-cracking and stress rate data. As seen in the table,
Mix 2, which was produced at a cement content of 493 kg/m 3 and a paste content of 35%,
took longer to crack than Mix 7, which was produced at a higher cement content of 554
kg/m3 and a paste content of37%. Comparisons of the time-to-cracking results for Mixes
9 and 12, Mixes 10 and 13, and Mixes 11 and 14 show similar results. Furthermore, Fig.
6 shows that Mix 10 (paste content of 30%) took longer to crack than Mix 13 (paste
content of 35%). Hence, minimizing the volume of paste enhances the cracking
resistance of sec.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Aggregate shape -- A comparison of the time-to-cracking results in Table 8 shows

that the SCC mixtures produced with rounded river gravel (Mixes 12, 13 and 14)
performed significantly better than the mixtures produced with crushed angular limestone
(Mixes 2, 4 and 5). This observation is also illustrated in Fig. 7, which shows that Mix
13 (rounded river gravel) took longer to crack than Mix 4 (crushed angular limestone).
Internal stress concentrations would be expected to be developed by the angular
aggregate, resulting in microcracks that would eventually lead to failure. Extensive
microcracking was observed prior to failure on the outer circumference of the ring
specimens produced with crushed limestone. However, the results in Fig. 7 may not be
solely attributed to aggregate shape since differences in aggregate stiffness may also play
a role.
SRA effect -- The beneficial effect of SRA in enhancing cracking resistance is

shown by the results in Table 9 for Mixes 2 and 3, and Mixes 5 and 6. As seen in the
table and in Fig. 8, Mix 3 (with SRA) took longer to crack than Mix 2. A comparison of
the time-to-cracking results for Mixes 5 and 6 (with SRA) shows a similar result.
Therefore, an SRA can be used to enhance the cracking resistance of SCC under
restrained shrinkage.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The cracking resistance of SCC is similar to that of conventional concrete, indicating

that the higher fluidity of sec is not detrimental to performance under restrained
shrinkage.
2. Lowering the sand-to-aggregate ratio is effective in enhancing the cracking
resistance of sec under restrained shrinkage.
3. Minimizing the volume of paste enhances the cracking resistance ofSCC.
4. Coarse aggregate shape appears to affect cracking tendency, with rounded aggregate
showing a more beneficial effect on the cracking resistance of sec than crushed
angular aggregate.
5. A shrinkage-reducing admixture can be used to enhance the cracking resistance of
sec under restrained shrinkage.

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REFERENCES
1. Okamura, H., Ozawa, K. and Ouchi, M., "Self-Compacting Concrete," Structural

Concrete, Vol. l, No. l, March 2000, pp. 3-17.
2. Okamura, H., and Ouchi, M., "Self-Compacting Concrete. Development, Present

Use and Future," Proceedings of the 1'1 Intemational RILEM Symposium on Self-
Compacting Concrete, Sept. 13-14, 1999, Stockholm, Sweden,pp. 3-14.
3. Okamura, H., and Ozawa, K., "Mix Design for Self-Compacting Concrete,"
Concrete Library oftheJSCE, No. 25, June 1995, pp. 107-120.
4. Daczko, J. A. and Kurtz, M.A., "Development of High Volume Coarse Aggregate

Self-Compacting Concrete," Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
Self-Compacting Concrete, Oct. 23-25,2001, Tokyo, Japan.
5. Daczko, J. A. and Attiogbe, E. K., "Self-Consolidating Concrete," Structural

Engineer, Vol. 3, No. 12, Jan. 2003, pp. 22-25
6. Nasvik, J., "The ABCs of SCC," Concrete Construction, V. 48, No. 3, March 2003,
pp. 40-47.
7. See, H. T., Attiogbe, E. K. and Miltenberger, M. A., "Shrinkage Cracking

Characteristics of Concrete Using Ring Specimens," A CI Materials Journal, V. I 00,
No.3, May-June 2003, pp. 239-245.
8. Hossain A. B., Pease B. and Weiss J., "Quantifying Early-Age Stress Development
and Cracking in Low w/c Concrete Using the Restrained Ring Test with Acoustic
Emission," Proceedings of the 82"d Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board, 2003.
9. Whiting, D. A., Detwiler, R. J. and Lagergren, E. S., "Cracking Tendency and

Drying Shrinkage of Silica Fume Concrete for Bridge Deck Applications," ACJ
Materials Journal, V. 97, No. 1, January-February 2000, pp. 71-77.
10. See, H. T., Attiogbe, E. K. and Miltenberger, M. A., "Potential for Restrained
Shrinkage Cracking of Concrete and Mortar," Proceedings of the ASTM Symposium
on Early-Age Cracking of Concrete, Dec. 2003.
II. Nmai, C. K., Tomita, R., Hondo, F., and Buffenbarger, J., "Shrinkage-Reducing
Admixtures," Concrete International, V. 20, No. 4, April 1998, pp. 31-37.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Table 1 -- Mixture proportions and plastic properties for Mixes 1-7
Mix# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cement, kg!m3 495 493 497 496 500 499 554
Fine aggregate, kg!m3 712 709 714 795 904 901 690
Crushed limestone, kg!m3 1021 1016 1024 932 833 830 989
wlc 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.35
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Paste content,% 35 35 35 35 35 35 37
Sand-to-aggregate ratio 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.54 0.43
HRWR, mU100 kg 4.0 6.5 6.3 6.1 6.7 6.5 5.6
VMA, mUIOO kg 2.6 2.6 1.3
SRA, mL/100 kg 7.6 7.6
Slump, mm 165
Slump flow, mm 686 686 686 660 686 686
VSI 1 1 1 1 I 0.5
Air content, % L9 2.1 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.9 1.6
Notes: I kglm = 1.685 lb/yd3
1 mUkg = 1.54 ozlcwt
1 mm = 0.04 in.
Table 2 -- Mixture proportions and plastic properties for Mixes 8-14

Mix# 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Cement, kg!m3 430 428 426 425 494 497 500
Fine aggregate, kg/m3 756 753 836 936 709 796 901
Rounded river gravel, 1017 1013 919 809 944 866 770
wlc 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39
Paste content, % 30 30 30 30 35 35 35
Sand-to-aggregate ratio 0.43 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.43 0.48 0.54
HRWR, rnL/100 kg 2.1 3.9 4.4 4.7 2.6 2.2 1.8
VMA, mUIOO kg 2.6 1.3 2.6 1.3
Slump, mm 203
Slump flow, mm 686 686 660 635 641 635
VSI 1 1 I 1 1 1
1.6 1.3 2.2 1.8 2.2 1. 7

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Table 3 --Compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, splitting tensile
strenS!h and d!2:in!! shrinka!!e for all mixtures
7-day 7-day 28-day
28-day Splitting
Mix# Compressive Modulus of Drying
Tensile Strength,
Strength, Elasticity, Shrinkage,
MPa
MPa GPa !:!-strain
I 56 32 5.0 -493
2 61 33 5.9 -523
3 59 32 5.2 -353
4 61 32 5.4 -497
5 61 31 5.3 -510
6 59 31 5.2 -370
7 67 33 6.1 -533
8 39 33 3.3 -313
9 43 33 3.5 -313
10 44 32 3.8 -337
11 44 32 4.0 -347
12 39 31 3.6 -353
13 43 32 3.9 -333
14 45 32 4.2 -330
Note: I MPa = 145 psi
Mixes 1 and 8 are conventional concrete mixtures
Mixes 2-7 and 9"14 are SCC mixtures
Table 4 -- Time-to-cracking and stress rate for all mixtures

Stress Rate @
Mix# Net Time-to-
Cracking,
Cracking, days
MPa/day
1 9.50 0.33
2 10.50 0.29
3 17.50 0.17
4 8.75 0.34
5 8.00 0.30
6 16.75. 0.16
7 7.25 0.37
8 22.50 0.12
9 22.25 0.11
10 15.50 0.15
11 17.00 0.14
12 21.25 0.14
13 12.25 0.23
14 11.50 0.23
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Note: 1 MPa/day = 145 psi/day

Mixes 1 and 8 are conventional concrete mixtures
Mixes 2-7 and 9-14 are SCC mixtures

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. I
Table 5 --Effect of fluidity level on cracking potentia
28-day Net Stress Rate
Mix# Type of Cement, Aggregate Drying Time-to- @
Mixture kg/rn3 Shape Shrinkage, Cracking, Cracking,
1.1-strain days MPalday
I Conventional 495 Angular -493 9.50 0.33
2 sec 493 Angular -523 10.50 0.29
8 Conventional 430 Rounded -313 22.50 0.12

9 sec 428 Rounded -313 22.25 0.11
Notes. I kg/rn. J-- 1.685 lb/yd
1 MPalday = !45 psi/day
Table 6- Effect o fS/ A on cracking potential of Scc m1xtures

.
28-day Net Stress Rate
Paste
Mix# Cement, Aggregate Drying Time-to- @
S/A 3 content,
kg/rn Shape Shrinkage, Cracking, Cracking,
%
1.1-strain days MPalday
2 0.43 493 35 Angular -523 10.50 0.29
4 0.48 496 35 Angular -497 8.75 0.34
5 0.54 500 35 Angular -510 8.00 0.30
9 0.43 428 30 Rounded -313 22.25 0.11

10 0.48 426 30 Rounded -337 15.50 0.15
II 0.54 425 30 Rounded -347 17.00 0.14
12 0.43 494 35 Rounded -353 21.25 0.14

13 0.48 497 35 Rounded -333 12.25 0.23
14 0.54 500
_,
35
Notes. I kg/m - 1.685 Ib/yd
Rounded
., -330 11.50 0.23
1 MPalday = 145 psi/day
T able 7 -- Effiect of: paste content on crackin1g potentia. I ofSCC miXtures

.
28-day Net
Paste Stress Rate
Mix# Cement, Aggregate Drying Time-to-
content, S/A @Cracking,
kg/m3 Shape Shrinkage, Cracking,
% MPa/day
~-strain days
2 493 35 0.43 Angular -523 10.50 0.29
7 554 37 0.43 Angular -533 7.25 0.37
9 428 30 0.43 Rounded -313 22.25 0.11

12 494 35 0.43 Rounded -330 21.25 0.14
10 426 30 0.48 Rounded -337 15.50 0.15

13 497 35 0.48 Rounded -333 12.25 0.23
11 425 30 0.54 Rounded -347 17.00 0.14

14 500 35 0.54 Rounded -330 11.50 0.23
Notes. 1 kg/m-~-
.,
- 1.685 lb/yd
1 MPa/day = 145 psi/day
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. l o fSCC mtxtures
Table 8 --Aggregateshape e ffiect on crackin1g potentia .
28-day Net
Stress Rate
Mix# Aggregate Drying Time-to-
S/A @Cracking,
Shape Shrinkage, Cracking,
MPa/day
J.L-strain days
2 Angular 0.43 -523 10.50 0.29
12 Rounded 0.43 -330 21.25 0.14
4 Angular 0.48 -497 8.75 0.34

13 Rounded 0.48 -333 12.25 0.23
5 Angular 0.54 -510 8.00 0.30

14 Rounded 0.54 -330 11.50 0.23
Note: 1 MPa/day = 145 psi/day
Tabl e 9 -- EffiectofSRA on crack"mg PI tenf1aI ofSCC m1xtures

.
28-day Net
SRA, Stress Rate
Mix# Drying Time-to-
mU100 S/A @Cracking,
Shrinkage, Cracking,
kg MPa/day
J.!-Strain da_)'S
2 - 0.43 -523 10.50 0.29
3 7.6 0.43 -353 17.50 0.17
5 - 0.54 -510 8.00 0.30

6 7.6 0.54 -370 16.75 0.16
Notes: 1 mL!kg == 1.54 oz/cwt
I MPa/day == 145 psi/day
Fig. I -Test specimen.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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35
' .
---------- f---------- .... ---------_,_---------
.
15
..
:5 -5
j -25
.
.5
.
l:
"'
~
-45
-65
""'
~
-85
-105
-llS
0 8 1l 16 20
Time After Casting (days)
Fig. 2 - Steel ring strains and time of cracking for selected concrete mixtures.
_.Mb:4
~ ·100
~ -200
! ----.--- -:
' ''
I I t I
--,-----,----- -----,-----,-----
L ----I-----~----- . j - ' ' --1-----

' ' '
1... _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _
'
-700 -- ~---- ,--
'
o ro ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ ~ ~
Time After Initiation of Drying (days)
Fig. 3 - Drying shrinkage strains for selected concrete mixtures.
3~
I I I I
IS ---~-----,-----~------~-----~-----------------
'' ''
~ ·5
i... -25 '

-- .j_----
'
'
-1-----
'
-l--------
..
00
c
-45
~ -65 --'.-----~------
iii!
"
~
-85
"' -105 '

-,----
,Mix2(SCC)
-125
0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fig. 4 - Effect of fluidity level on time to cracking.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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30Tr--~----~----~--~----~----~---,
'
Mii 14 (SIA =0.54)
i 10
: : :
----L------~------~------~------~-------
I
b 0
-.b1-to
s
-30
i"' -50
j -70
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Time Mter Casting (days)
Fig. 5-- Effect of S/A on time to cracking of SCC mixtures.
30~----~----~------~----~----~-----.
10 _I_-------~-------
. '
-1------
.. . f-
~ '
.. ..
1.a
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
'
-10
.
- - - - - · - - - - - - - - -l- - - - - - - - _;- - - - - - -
'
~ -30
"'..,
a..
Ql
-50 -~--------
,......,__M_ix....JIO (30% paste

~ -70 . --------I--- ---- .(:(J~IerJt~----
~0~----~--------------~------------------~
0 4 8 u 16 20 24
Fig. 6 -- Effect of paste content on time to cracking of SCC mixtures.
30~------r-----~------~------~-----.
0 4 8 ll 16 20
Fig. 7 -- Effect of aggregate shape on time to cracking of SCC mixtures.

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20
=
..
;;
-20 '
i
._,
.s -40 - ~-------
~
.=
"-l
ii!
~ ---------
-80
1
"-l
-100
4 8 12 16 20 24
Fig. 8 -Effect of SRA on time to cracking of SCC mixtures.
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--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-15
Long-Term Creep and Shrinkage in

High-Strength Lightweight Concrete
by M. Lopez, L. Kahn, K. Kurtis, and B. Buchberg
Synopsis: Creep and shrinkage data for two high strength lightweight aggregate
concretes were collected over a two-year period. The concretes, with unit weight of 1922
kg/m 3 ( 120 pet), were developed using expanded slate as coarse aggregate. Strengths of
55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa ( 10,000-psi) were obtained at 56 days. Creep specimens
were loaded to 40 or 60 percent of the initial compressive strength at 16 or 24 hours after
casting. Based on this preliminary study, AASHTO-LRFD creep estimates of high
strength, lightweight aggregate concrete were within 20% accuracy for ages later than one
month. ACI-209 estimated creep of the 55.2 MPa lightweight concrete and shrinkage of
the 69.0 MPa concrete within 20% accuracy, but greatly underestimated shrinkage of the
55.2 MPa mix. When compared with normal weight, high strength concrete of similar
strength and similar cement paste content from previous research, the 69.0 MPa
lightweight mix experienced lower total strain after two years.
Keywords: creep; high-performance; high-strength; lightweight concrete;

modeling; shrinkage
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
317
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318 Lopez et al.
ACI member Mauricio Lopez is an Assistant Professor in the School of Civil
Engineering at the Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile. He received his MSc that
University in 1999, and he is currently a PhD candidate at the School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA. His
research interests include lightweight concrete, high performance concrete, long-term
properties and durability of materials.
FACI Lawrence F. Kahn is a Professor in the School of Civil and Environmental

Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA. He is a member of ACI
Committees 364, Rehabilitation, and 546, Repair of Concrete, as well as ACI's Concrete
Research Council (CRC); and TAC Repair and Rehabilitation Committee (TRRC). His
research interests include high strength/high performance concrete structures and
materials.
ACI member Kimberly E. Kurtis is an Assistant Professor in the School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA. She
received her PhD from the University of California at Berkeley in 1998. She is a member
of ACI Committees 236, Material Science of Concrete, E 802, Teaching Methods and
Educational Materials, and 201 Durability of Concrete. Her research interests include
microstructure and durability of cement-based materials.
ACI member Brandon S. Bucbberg, E.l.T., is an engineer with Simpson, Gumpertz, &
Heger located in Boston, Massachusetts. He is a graduate of the Georgia Institute of
Technology receiving his BSCE in 2000 and his MSCE in 2002. His interests include
high strength/high performance concrete structure systems, materials, and forensic
investigation.
INTRODUCTION
The advantages of high-performance concrete (HPC) have been recognized by

several authors (1-8). For bridge structures, the potential benefits include: (a) increasing
of span length for the same size pretensioned girder; (b) use of wider girder spacing for
the same size member; (c) improvement in durability and long-term service performance
under static, dynamic, and fatigue loading; and (d) overall cost reduction of highway
bridges.
Structural Lightweight Concrete (SLC) is usually defined as a concrete with an
air-dried density at 28 days in the range of 1442 kg/m 3 (90 lb/ft3) and 1842 kg/m 3 (115
lb/ft3) and a compressive strength above 17.2 MPa (2,500-psi) (9). Three key advantages
of SLC are: (a) reduction in structure dead load, which leads to a reduction in the
foundation size and seismic forces; (b) reduction in member size; and (c) development of
a precast technology as a result of self-weight reduction that facilitates the transport and
lifting of structural members.
High Performance Lightweight Concrete (HPLC) can be conceptualized as a
concrete possessing the characteristics of both HPC and SLC. In addition to the
advantages afforded by high performance and lightweight concrete, the use 55.2 MPa
(8,000-psi) to 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC for bridge construction would permit easier
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and more economic transportation of long-span precast girders (1 0). However, the use of
lightweight coarse aggregate may influence the mechanical properties and the
dimensional stability, as compared to normal weight HPC (11 ).
Currently, the design standards do not specifically consider HPLC. Hoff (12)
concluded that the use of HPLC will not expand unless designers have confidence on its
expected properties. High-strength and high-performance lightweight concrete is a
relatively new material, and its long-term performance, especially creep, has not been
extensively investigated yet. This might be one barrier to the use of HPLC as Hoff
alluded. The objective of this research was to investigate the time-dependent behavior of
high performance, lightweight concrete for its potential use in precast prestressed bridge
girders.
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE MODELS
According to Findley, Lai and Onaran (13), creep was first systematically
observed by Vitae in 1834, but Andrade in 1910 was the first to propose a creep law.
Since Andrade, several more models have been developed. Some models are general
mechanistic models, which include constants for different materials and properties, while
other models are more empirical for specific materials. The most used models for creep
in concrete fall in the second category - empirical models.
On the other hand, drying shrinkage of concrete was identified during the first
creep studies when a higher creep rate and strain in concrete were measured under drying
conditions. Since then, several investigators have proposed models in order to describe
and predict shrinkage.
Among the variety of methods proposed for creep and shrinkage in concrete
(14-30) two are considered herein. These are the methods proposed by the American
Concrete Institute Committee 209 (14) and by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (15). These are not models specifically developed
for lightweight concrete. However, creep and shrinkage prediction equations proposed by
the ACI-209 were based on research performed with both normal weight concrete (NWC)
and SLC. So, they are entirely applicable to normal weight, "sand-lightweight", and "all-
lightweight" concrete. Since the AASHTO-LRFD method is an updated version of the
ACI-209 method, its equations are also applicable to SLC.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM AND RESULTS
HPLCMixes
The high performance lightweight concrete (HPLC) mixes used Type III
portland cement, Class F fly ash, silica fume, 12.7 mm (1/2-inch) expanded slate as
coarse aggregate, natural sand, and high range water reducing admixture. The 56-day
design strengths were 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) with a unit weight
below 1922 kg/m 3 (120 pet). The mixture proportions are presented in Table 1.
Lightweight aggregate was kept above saturated surface dry condition (SSD) before
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320 Lopez et al.
mixing to obtain consistent results and to maintain an adequate workability during the
placement of the concrete. Further details regarding these concretes can be found in
references 10 and 31-34.
The 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69 MPa (10,000-psi) compressive strength HPLC
mixes were cast both in the laboratory and in the field. Field hatching was performed at
Tindall Corporation precast plant at Jonesboro, GA. Designations such as "8L" indicate
the 55.2 MPa concrete mix hatched in the laboratory and whereas "SF" was made in the
field. The laboratory mixes were studied to develop the initial mix proportions and to
characterize material properties, while the field mixes were cast to assure quality of field
production while fabricating six AASHTO Type II girders from these mixtures.
All testing was performed at the Georgia Tech Structural Engineering
Laboratory. The following tests were performed:
• Compressive Strength. Compressive strength was determined by testing 102.4 mm
(4-inch) x 203.2 mm (8-inch) cylinders according to ASTM C39,
• Modulus· of Elasticity. The chord modulus of elasticity was tested using 152.4 rom
(6-inch) x 304.8 mm (12-inch) cylinders loaded in compression according to ASTM
C469.
• Modulus of Rupture. Modulus of rupture was determined by testing I 01.6 rom (4-
inch) x 101.6 mm (4-inch) x 355.6 mm (14-inch) beams according to ASTM C78.
Creep and Drying Shrinkage were determined by testing 101.6 mm (4-inch) x
381.0 rom (15-inch) cylinders according the ASTM C512 guidelines. However, there
were four differences with respect to the ASTM procedure. The first difference is that
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the diameter of the cylinders was smaller than the recommended in ASTM because
bearing capacity of the creep frames was not enough for applying the required stress
levels to 152.4 mm (6-inch) x 304.8 mm (12'-inch) cylinders. The other three deviations
were the age of loading (24 hours instead of 2 days or greater), the use of an accelerated
curing regime, and the stress-to-strength ratio (up to 60% instead of 40%). The later
changes were adopted in order to match the actual conditions of the HPLC prestressed
girders which were loaded to 60% of the initial strength and at very early ages. The
accelerated curing used insulated boxes for 24 hours in order to maintain the heat
generated during the hydration as occurs within an AASHTO Type IV girder as
demonstrated in previous research (31 ).
SHORT-TERM PROPERTIES
Plastic Properties
Slump and air content (ASTM C173: volumetric method) were measured in
laboratory and field batches. From the workability results, the 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi)
HPLC slump was 165.1 mm ± 38.1 mm (6.5-inch ± 1.5-inch). The 69.0 MPa (10,000-
psi) mix had a slump of 101.6 mm ± 12.7 mm (4.0-inch ± 0. 5-inch). The air content, on
the other hand, averaged 4.25% for the 55.2 MPa mix and 3.8% for the 69.0 MPa.
3
Plastic unit weight of HPLC varied from 1826 kg/m 3 (114 lb/ft3) to 1954 kglm
3 3
(122 lb/ft ) with most of the values close to 1922 kg/m (120 lb!ft\ The 55.2 MPa mix
averaged a dry unit weight of 1874 kg/m 3 (I 17 lb/ft3) while the 69.0 MPa HPLC
averaged a dry unit weight of 1906 kglm 3 (119 lb/rt3). These values represent 75% to
80% ofthe weight of a typical normal weight HPC.

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Compressive Strength
Specimens used for mechanical testing were cured in two different ways:
ASTM C-39 (fog room and 22.8"C (73"F)) and accelerated curing in insulated boxes.
Compressive strength for laboratory mixes was measured using 101.6 mm (4-inch) x
203.2 mm (8-inch) cylinders at 16, 20 and 24 hours, and then at 7, 28, and 56 days. For
field mixes, strength was measured at 1, 7, 28, 56, and more than I 00 days after casting.
The average compressive strengths measured at these ages for the 8L, 8F, 10L, and lOF
mixtures cured by standard and accelerated methods are presented in Figure I.
At early ages, accelerated-cured specimens exhibited a higher strength than the
ASTM-cured specimens. However, at 28 days and beyond, the ASTM-cured specimens
exhibited the higher compressive strength.
The 69.0 MPa HPLC (laboratory and field) accelerated-cured specimens
overcame the lower limit of the FHWA HPC Grade 3 at 28 days. At 56 days, the average
strength was close to 75.8 MPa (11,000-psi) and did not change significantly after that
time. The 69.0 MPa HPLC accelerated-cured specimens had a higher strength at early
ages, but, like the 55.2 MPa mixes, exhibited lower strength than the ASTM-cured
cylinders after 28 days.
Modulus ofEiasticity
Modulus of elasticity was measured using 152.4 mm (6-inch) x 304.8 mm (12-
inch) cylinders made from each mix according to ASTM C469. Specimens with
accelerated curing were tested at 16 hours, 24 hours, and 56 days while the ASTM-cured
specimens were tested at 56 days. The average 56-day elastic modulus, for both curing
regimens, is shown in Table 2.
At the age of 56 days, ASTM-cured specimens exhibited higher modulus of
elasticity than the accelerated-cured specimens. The difference between the two curing
methods ranged from 1% to 9 %.
CREEP RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Creep was measured on 24 specimens stored at 50% relative humidity and

2l.l"C (70"F) for a period of620 days. Twelve 101.6 mm (4-inch) x 381.0 mm (15-inch)
cylindrical specimens were cast from 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC, and twelve from 69.0
MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC; both mixes were laboratory-hatched. Half of the specimens
were loaded to 40% of the initial compressive strength, and the other half to 60% of the
initial strength. Within each group, some specimens were loaded at 16 hours and others
at 24 hours after casting.
Creep Behavior of Laboratory HPLC vs. Field HPLC

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) of specific creep (sc, creep strain divided by
the applied stress) and creep coefficient (oc, creep strain divided by the initial elastic
strain) is shown in Table 3. The factors considered were time under load, stress level, and
whether the mix was prepared in the laboratory or field. Among these results, two
parameters are of special interest: (I) the relative contribution of each factor to the total
mean squared error (MSE), denoted as "Rei MSE", which ranges from 0.0 to 1.0; and (2)
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322 Lopez et al.
the P-value which represents the probability that the considered factor is not significant
in explaining the variance. A P-value less than 0.05 (generally adopted as the confidence
limit) means that there is more than a 95% chance that the factor is significant and should
be included.
The ANOV A between 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) mixes made in the laboratory (8L)
and field (SF) showed no significant difference between them for either of the creep
parameters (sc or 121c) (see Table 3). AN OVA between 69.0 MPa (I 0,000-psi) mixes
made in the laboratory (IOL) and field (!OF) also showed that the place of mixing
(laboratory or field) was not a significant factor for creep of the 69.0 MPa HPLC. Thus,
from ANOV A, it can be concluded that the place of casting (laboratory or field) was not
a significant factor for either mixture (see Table 3).
Creep Behavior of 55.2 MPa HPLC and 69.0 MPa HPLC

Following the same procedure described above, creep performance of 55.2 MPa
and 69.0 MPa HPLC were compared. Because the previous analysis showed that the
location of casting to be insignificant, the data for both laboratory and field batches from
the same mix design were considered together. The factors examined were time under
load, stress level (40% or 60% of initial strength), compressive strength (55.2 MPa or
69.0 MPa), and age of application of load (16 hours or 24 hours).
With none of the P-values exceeding 0.05 by ANOVA, it was concluded that all
four of these factors were statistically significant. However, age of application of load
and stress level could be dropped from ANOVA without increasing MSE by more that
4%. Thus, the most significant of these four factors in terms of influencing creep
behavior were time under load and compressive strength (mix design).
Figure 2 presents the average creep coefficient obtained from the 55.2 MPa and
69.0 MPa mixes in logarithmic time scale. As Figure 2 shows, the 620-day creep
coefficient was 1.684 and 1.143 for 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC, respectively. Fifty
and 90 percent of the 620-day creep coefficient were reached after 16 and 250 days
regardless the type ofHPLC.
Shrinkage Results and Analysis - Following the same procedure as for creep,
shrinkage performances of 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa (1 0,000-psi) HPLC were
compared. Shrinkage results are shown in Figure 3. The factors considered in the
ANOV A analysis were time, compressive strength (55.2 MPa or 69.0 MPa), and age at
the beginning of drying (16 hours or 24 hours).
ANOV A revealed that the place of mixing was not a significant factor for
shrinkage, like creep, of 55.2 MPa HPLC. The age at the beginning of drying (16 or 24
hours) was not a statistically significant factor either. Compressive strength of the mix
was a significant factor affecting shrinkage for the laboratory mix, but not for the field
mix. In addition, a significant difference was detected when comparing 1OL and 1OF
HPLC; the P-value was less than 0.05, and the relative MSE was 2.8% (see Table 4).
Therefore, the place of mixing (laboratory or field) appeared to have affected shrinkage
of the 69.0 MPa HPLC.
In Figure 3, the average shrinkage obtained from the 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa
mixes is presented in a logarithmic time scale. The 620-day shrinkage was 818 and 61 0
J..lE for 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC, respectively. At very early ages (less than one
day), shrinkage of the 69.0 MPa mix was considerably greater than that of the 55.2 MPa
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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mix. However, after one day, the shrinkage rate of the 69.0 MPa mix decreased, and
measured shrinkage was lower than for the 55.2 MPa HPLC. Shrinkage corresponding to
50% and 90% of the 620-day shrinkage was reached after 27 and 170 days for 8,000-psi
HPLC and after 55 and 170 days for 10,000-psi mix. Thus, after 620 days shrinkage of
the 10,000-psi HPLC was 610 !J.E which was about 75% of that of the 8,000-psi HPLC.
Creep and Shrinkage Test Results vs. Model Estimates

ACI-209 and AASHTO-LRFD models were used to predict creep of the 55.2
MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLCs. Since experimental measurements
were made to at least 620 days, Table 5 presents measured and predicted shrinkage and
creep coefficient at that age. Table 5 also presents the predicted values at 40 years,
which were taken as the ultimate creep and shrinkage states and were calculated as
discussed below.
The best estimate for 620-day shrinkage of the 55.2 MPa HPLC was given by
AASHTO-LRFD, which underestimated the experimental value by 5%. On the other
hand, the 620-day shrinkage of the 69.0 MPa HPLC was best estimated by ACI-209, with
12% overestimate. The creep coefficient for both HPLC mixes was best predicted by the
AASHTO-LRFD model, with an underestimate of 8% for 55.2 MPa HPLC and an
overestimate of 10% for the 69.0 MPa mix. The ACI-209 and AASHTO-LRFD models
were used to estimate the 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa ultimate strains, by modifYing the 620-
day estimates to yield the same shrinkage and creep coefficient as those measured. Based
on the modified relationships, the ultimate shrinkage would be 795 and 663 !J.E for 55.2
MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC, respectively. In addition, the ultimate creep coefficient would
be 1.925 and 1.495 for 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC, respectively.
CREEP MODELS COMPARED
Figure 4 compares the measured creep coefficient versus time and predicted
values using ACI-209 and AASHTO-LRFD models. Figure 4a shows results for 55.2
MPa HPLC and Figure 4b for 69.0 MPa HPLC. When comparing model performance
from Figure 4a, it can be concluded that ACI-209 model had the best overall
performance, closely followed by AASHTO-LRFD model.
Figure 4a shows that even though the ACI-209 model underestimated creep for
time under load less than 10 days and overestimated creep for times greater than I 00
days, this model showed the best overall agreement with the experimental data, of the
two models considered here. The AASHTO-LRFD model followed the same tendency as
ACI-209 at early ages, but continued underestimating creep at all ages. For 69.0 MPa
(1 0,000-psi) HPLC, AASHTO-LRFD model was in good agreement with experimental
data for any time under load between 1 and 600 days. The ACI-209 model tended to
overestimate creep coefficient for times under load greater than 30 days.
Table 6 presents the sum of squared error (SSE) and coefficient of determination
(R2) between experimental data and creep models for the 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0
MPa HPLC. This statistical comparison supports the conclusion obtained from
examination of the data in Figure 4 which indicated that the best model for estimating
creep of HPLC was the AASHTO-LRFD model. The largest R2 (0.895 and 0.927, for
55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC, respectively) was obtained with the AASHTO-LRFD
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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324 Lopez et al.
model. The ACI-209 model closely followed the AASHTO-LRFD performance for 55.2
MPa HPLC, but presented a relatively high SSE and low R2 (i.e., 3.9 and 0.295) for the
69.0 MPa HPLC.
The better relative performance of AASHTO-LRFD model might be due to the
use of the maturity of concrete at loading considered by that model rather than age at
loading used by the ACI-209 model. Due to the accelerated curing to which the
specimens were subjected, the 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC had a maturity after 24
hours equivalent to 147 and 158 hours (6.1 and 6.6 days), respectively, as computed
using ASTM C 1074 procedure (37). The maturity of concrete better captures the actual
hydration of the concrete than does age alone.
Figure 5a presents a comparison between measured and estimated shrinkage in
55.2 MPa HPLC, while Figure 5b presents the same comparison for the 69.0 MPa HPLC.
For the 55.2 MPa HPLC, the AASHTO-LRFD model gave the best shrinkage estimate
for any time greater than 30 days. Both models greatly underestimated shrinkage for less
than 3 days. While measured shrinkage after 3 days ranged between 100 and 150 Jlc, the
models gave estimates between 60 and 90 Jlc. A possible explanation of this poor
performance at early ages might be due to autogenous shrinkage, which is typically a
greater proportion of total shrinkage in concretes with lower water-to-cementitious ratios.
As seen in Figure 5b, ACI-209 gave fairly good estimates of shrinkage for any time
except for the first 24 hours. The AASHTO-LRFD model overestimated shrinkage
typically by 25 to 30% for drying periods longer than 10 days.
As shown in Table 7, the highest R2 value for 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) was 0.929,
and it was obtained by the AASHTO-LRFD model. On the other hand, the highest R2 for
the 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC was 0.887 which was obtained by the ACI-209 model.
When R2 values from each mix were averaged in order to obtain an overall performance,
the ACI-209 model had the highest R 2 average values with 0.811, indicating a better
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
correspondence with the experimental data.

Comparison of Creep and Shrinkage ofHPLC with HPC
Creep and shrinkage of the 69.0 MPa HPLC were compared to existing creep
and shrinkage data (33) for one high performance normal weight concrete (HPC-6) of
similar mechanical properties (35). Mixture designs, fresh properties, and mechanical
properties of the 69.0 MPa HPLC and the HPC mixes are compared in Table 8.
HPC-6 as well as the 69.0 MPa HPLC might be classified as HPC Grade 3,
according to the strength limits given by the FHW A (36). The mix composition is quite
similar, with both containing many of the same constituent materials, with the exception
of the coarse aggregate. The HPC-6 mix had approximately the same paste volume and
total cementitious content as the HPLC mix. These are two key factors to consider when
analyzing the creep and shrinkage of concrete (38, 17-26).
Figure 6 presents a comparison of total long-term strain of the HPLC and HPC-6
after 620 days using a logarithmic time scale. The two sets of data were calculated by
adding actual elastic strain, shrinkage, and the specific creep times 34.5 MPa (5,000 psi).
The latter was used to account for the disparity in compressive strength at the age of
loading which lead to different applied stress on each concrete. The total strain of the
HPLC was lower than that of HPC-6 for any time greater than one day under load. Long-
term strain curves of HPC-6 and HPLC are not parallel which implies that the creep and
shrinkage rates for these two concretes are not the same. During the first 24 hours under

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load, the total strain in both mixes was similar, but after 10 days under load, the total
strain of HPLC was about 72% of that of HPC-6. After 600 days under load, the total
strain ofHPLC was approximately 75% of that ofHPC-6.
The relatively lower long-term strain experienced by the HPLC mix, with
respect to HPC-6, might be due to the use of saturated expanded slate aggregate. Highly
porous aggregate, like the expanded slate, when wet can provide additional moisture to
the hydrating matrix, affording internal curing condition. Several researchers (40-42)
have claimed that the internal curing provided by saturated lightweight aggregate
improves the cementitious matrix properties by increasing the degree of hydration and
decreasing autogenous shrinkage, among other factors.
CONCLUSIONS
Creep was measured on 24 specimens stored at 50% relative humidity and

21.1°C (70°F) for a period of620 days. Twelve 101.6 mm (4-inch) x 381 mm (15-inch)
cylinder specimens were made of expanded slate 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC, and
twelve of expanded slate 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC. Half of the specimens were
loaded to 40% of the initial compressive strength and the other half to 60% of the initial
strength. Within each group some specimens were loaded at 16 hours and some at 24
hours after casting.
Creep of the 55.2 MPa HPLC after 620 days under load was close to 1,650 !lE
for those specimens loaded at 40% of the initial strength and approximately 2,000 f.l€ for
those loaded at 60% of initial strength. Creep of 69.0 MPa HPLC after 620 days under
load was 1,160 f.lE for specimens loaded at 40% of initial strength and 1,500 !lE for 60%
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of initial strength. Fifty and ninety percent of the 620-day creep was reached after
approximately 16 and 250 days of loading, regardless the strength ofHPLC (55.2 MPa or
69.0 MPa).
The experimental creep coefficient was compared with two empirical models
provided by AASTHO-LRFD and ACI-209. Overall, the AASHTO-LRFD model most
accurately estimated creep of the HPLC. It is proposed that one reason for the improved
accuracy may be the incorporation of the maturity of concrete, instead of age of concrete,
in the AASHTO-LRDF model.
Shrinkage after 620 days of drying at 50% relative humidity was approximately
820 !lEfor the 55.2 MPa HPLC mix and 610 !lEfor the 69.0 MPa HPLC mix. Fifty and
ninety percent of the 620-day shrinkage was reached after approximately 30 and 260 days
of drying for both the 55.2 MPa and 69.0 MPa HPLC. The AASHTO-LRFD model
again gave the best overall shrinkage estimate of the 55.2 MPa HPLC. On the other
hand, for the 69.0 MPa HPLC mix, ACI-209 model gave the best overall performance.
In addition, the performance of HPLC was compared to that of a similar normal
weight HPC. The 69.0 MPa HPLC had a total strain after 620 days under load of about
75% of that of an HPC of the same grade and similar cement paste content. The better
smaller creep and shrinkage strains of the HPLC was noticeable after one day under load.
While these preliminary results show lower long-term deformation for HPLC, as
compared to HPC, it is emphasize that these results are preliminary and are limited to
only these concrete mixes. The creep and shrinkage of HPC mixes may vary widely
depending on the aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials, and admixtures.

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326 Lopez et al.
Further research is needed to substantiate these observations and to clarify the roles of
material characteristics and mixture proportions in determining long-term deformation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Georgia Department of Transportation sponsored the research reported

herein through Georgia DOT research project no. 2004, Task Order no. 97-22. For
laboratory phases of the overall research project, Lafarge Cement, Bora! Material
Technologies, and Grace Construction Products donated cement, fly ash, and concrete
admixtures, respectively. Carolina Stalite Company donated all expanded slate
lightweight aggregate. The support provided by the sponsors is gratefully acknowledged.
The findings and conclusions reported herein are those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the opinions, conclusions, specifications, or policies of the Georgia
Department of Transportation, or any other sponsoring or cooperating organization.
The authors would like to express their appreciation to the reviewers for their
thoughtful comments on the original manuscript.
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16. Comite Euro Intemacional du Beton and Federation Jntemationale de la
Precontrainte ( 1990) "Evaluation of the Time Dependent Behavior of Concrete", The
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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17. Bazant, Z. P., and Panula, L. (1978a) "Practical Prediction of Time-Dependent
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22. Bazant, Z. P., and Panula, L. (1979b) "Practical Prediction of Time-Dependent
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Scatter", Materials and Structures, V. 12 No.69: p. 175-83.
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24. Bazant, Z. P., and Baweja, S. (1995a) "Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Model for
Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures - Model B3, Rilem Draft
Recommendation", Materials and Structures, V. 28: p. 357-65.
25. Ba.:Zant, Z. P ., and Baweja, S. ( 1995b) "Justifications and Refinements of Model B3
for Concrete Creep and Shrinkage, I. Statistics and Sensitivity", Materials and
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26. Bazant, Z. P., and Baweja, S. (1995c) "Justifications and Refinements of Model 83
for Concrete Creep and Shrinkage, 2. Updating and Theoretical Basis", Materials and
Structures, V. 28: p. 488-95.

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27. Gardner, N.J., and Lockman, M. J. (2001) "Design Provisions for Drying Shrinkage
and Creep ofNonnai-Strength Concrete", ACI Material Journal, V. 98 No.2: p. 159-
67.
28. Sakata, K. ( 1993). "Prediction of Creep and Shrinkage, Creep and Shrinkage of
Concrete". Fifth International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, Spain, RILEM, p.
649-54.
29. Sakata, K., Tsubaki, T., Inoue, S., and Ayano, T. (2001). "Prediction Equations of
Creep and Drying Shrinkage for Wide-Ranged Strength Concrete". Creep Shrinkage
and Durability Mechanics of Concrete and Other Quasi-Brittle Materials,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, Elsevier, p. 753-58.
30. Le Roy, R., De Larrard, F., and Pons, G. (1996). "The AFREM Code Type Model
for Creep and Shrinkage of High-Perfonnance Concrete". 4th International
Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength!High-Perfonnance Concrete, Paris, p.
387-93.
31. Buchberg, B. S., and Kahn, L.F. (2002) "Mix Design and Properties of High
Strength-High Perfonnance Li_ghtweight Concrete", Structural Engineering,
Mechanics and Materials, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, pp. 453.
32. Meyer, K. F., Buchberg, B.S., and Kahn, L. F. (2003). "Development of High
Strength Lightweight Concrete Mix Designs: A Practical Approach". 49th Annual
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PCI Convention & Exhibition, the 3rd PCI/FHW A International Symposium on
High Perfonnance Concrete, and the National Bridge Conference., Orlando, Florida,
Precast I Prestressed Concrete Institute.
33. Lopez, M., Kahn, L.F., Kurtis, K.E., and Lai, J.S. (2003) "Creep, Shrinkage, and
Prestress Losses of High-Perfonnance Lightweight Concrete", Research Report
No.03-9, Office of Materials and Research, Georgia Department of Transportation.
Atlanta, GA, pp. 310.
34. Lopez, M., Kahn, L.F., and Kurtis, K.E. (2004) "Creep and Shrinkage of High
Performance Lightweight Concrete", ACI Material Journal, V. 101 No. 5: pp. 391-
399.
35. Slapkus, A., and Kahn, L.F. (2002) "Evaluation of Georgia's High Perfonnance
Concrete Bridge", Research Report No.03-3, Office of Materials and Research
Georgia Department of Transportation. Atlanta, GA, pp. 382.
36. Goodspeed, C. H., Vanikar, S., and Cook, Raymond A. (1996) "High-Perfonnance
Concrete Definition for Highway Structures", Concrete International, V. 18 No.2: p.
62-67.
37. ASTM C 1074 (1998) "Standard Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the
Maturity Method", American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
38. Neville, A.M., Dilger, W.H., and Brooks, J.J. (1983) "Creep of Plain and Reinforced
Concrete", Construction Press, London and New York.
39. Holm, T. A., and Bremner, T. W. (1994) "High Strength Lightweight Aggregate
Concrete", High Perfonnance Concrete: Properties and Applications (Ed, Shah, S. P.
and Ahmad, S. H.), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, pp. 341-74.

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40. Kohno, K., Okamoto, T., Isikawa, Y., Sibata, T., and Mori, H. (1999) "Effect of
Artificial Lightweight Aggregate on Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete", Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 29: pp. 611-614.
41. Jensen, 0. M., and Lura, P. (2003). "Techniques for Internal Curing of Concrete".
Advances in Cement and Concrete, Copper Mountain, Colorado, Engineering
Conferences International.
42. Lura, P., Benz, D.P., and Lange, D.A. (2003). "Measurements of Water Transport
from Saturated Pumice Aggregates to Hardening Cement Paste". Advances in
Cement and Concrete, Copper Mountain, Colorado, Engineering Conferences
International.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
HPC: high-performance concrete

SLC: structural lightweight concrete
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HPLC: high-performance lightweight concrete
NWC: normal weight concrete
Table 1. Mix design of high perfonnance lightweight concrete mixes

(SSD condition)
55.2MPa 69.0MPa
(8,000 psi) (10,000 psi)
design design strength
strength mix mix
Type III cement kg/m3(1b/ydj) 465(783)- 439(740)

class "F" fly ash kg/m3 (lb/yd-') 84(142) 89(150)
silica fume kg/m3(lb/yd3) 11(19) 59(100)
12.7 mm (1/2-inch) lightweight aggregate 562(947) 567(955)
kg/m 3(lb/yd3 ) SSD
concrete sand kg/mj(lb/vdj) 606(1022) 611(1030)
water kg/m 3(lb/yd3) 159(267.8) 135(227.3)
water reducer 1/m\fl oz/yd3) 2.2(57) 2.2(57)
superplasticizer l/m 3(fl oz/vd 3 ) 2.2(57.4) 5.1(131.8)
air entrainer l/m3 (fl oz/vd-') 0.4(9.5) 0.4(9.5)
water/cementitious ratio 0.284 0.230
cement paste content(%) 39 39
coarse/fine ratio 1.5 1.5
theoretical unit weight kg/m3 (lb/~) 1890(118) 1906(119)
1-day strength accelerated cure 52.4 (7 600) 67.4 (9,770)
56-day strength accelerated cure 67.3 (9,760) 73.1{10,600)

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330 Lopez et al.
Table 2. Modulus of elasticity of HPLC mixes MPa (ksi)
Mix
Cure Regime 8L SF IOL !OF
56-day E Accelerated 27.7 26.6 29.0 27.7
Cure (4020) (3863) (4210) (4015)
ASTM 30.2 27.0 29.9 28.0
(4387) (3917) (4330) (4060)
Table 3. ANOVA results for creep ofHPLC's
55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Factors Specific Creep

Creep Coefficient
Rei P- Rei P-
MSE value MSE value
Time 0.436 0.000 0.447 0.000
Stress Level 0.020 0.000 0.027 0.000
Lab/Field -
0.001 0.746 0.001 0.145
69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC

Factors Specific Creep
Creep Coefficient
Rel P- Rei P-
MSE value MSE value
Time 0.364 0.000 0.365 0.000
Stress Level 0.002 0.072 0.000 0.412
Lab/Field 0.003 0.024 0.000 0.492
Table 4. ANOVA results for shrinkage ofHPLC's
SS.2MPa 69.0MPa
(8,000-psi) (10,000-psi)
HPLC HPLC
Factors Shrinkage Shrinkage
Rei P- Rei P-
MSE value MSE value
Time under drying 0.472 0.000 1.028 0.000
Laboratory/Field -
0.002 0.675 O.o28 0.007

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Table 5. Long-term shrinkage and creep coefficient
Parameter 620-day 620-day creep

shrinkage coefficient
11£
HPLCmixMPa 55.2 69.0 5.2 69.0
(ksi) (8) (10)
Measured 763 610 1.661 1.289
AASHTO-LRFD 725 724 1.521 1.423
ACJ-209 644 639 1.965 1.852
Parameter 40-year 40-year creep

shrinkage coefficient
f.U:;
HPLCmixMPa 55.2 69.0 55.2 69.0
(ksi)
Measured
AASHTO-LRFD 755 755 1.764 1.651
ACI-209 698 694 2.305 2.173
Table 6. Sum of squared error and coefficient of determination of creep

coefficient models
55.2 MPa_(S,OOO-psi) HPLC 69.0 "MPa_(lO,OOO-p~i)HPLC

Model SSE Rz Model SSE Rz
ACJ-209 1.2 0.895 AASHTO 0.4 0.927
AASHTO 1.5 0.871 ACI-209 3.9 0.295
Table 7. Sum of squared error and coefficient of determination of

shrinkage models
55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC

Model SSE R~ Model SSE Rz
AASHTO 159118 0.929 ACI209 121631 0.887
ACI-209 598791 0.734 AASHTO 412376 0.617
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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332 Lopez et al.
Table 8. Mix design and properties ofHLPC and HPC (SSD condition)
69.0 MPa (10,000- HPC-6

JJsi}HPLC
Cement, Type I kg/m 3(1bs/yd3) none 472(796)
Cement, Type III kglm'(lbs/ydj) 439(740) none
Fly ash, Class F kg/m'(lbs/yd') 89(150) 58(98)
Silica fume, Force 10,000 59(100) 42(70)
kg/m3(lbs/yd3)
1/2-in. normal weight aggregate none 1090(1837)
kg/m3(lbs/yd3)
112-in. lightweight aggregate 567(955) none
kw'm 3(lbs/yd3)
Brown Brothers #2 sand 611(1030) 573(965)
kg/m3(lbs/yd3)
Water kg/m3 (lbs/yd3) 135(227.3) 141(237)
Water-to-cementitious ratio 0.230 0.246
Cement paste volume ratio 0.458 0.443
Air entrainer Vmj(oz/ydj) 0.4(9.5) 0.3(7)
Retarder Vm 3(oz/yd3) 0 0
Water reducer Vmj(oz/ydj) 2.2(57) 1.4(35)
High-range water reducer 5.1(132) 6.5(169)
Vm3( oz/yd3)
Water to cement ratio 0.230 0.246
Accelerated-cured 24-hour 57.2(8,300)- 58.3(8,455)
compressive strength MPa (psi) 76.5(11,100)
ASTM-cured 56-day compressive 70. 7(1 0,250)- 93.9(13,618)
strength MPa (psi) 79.3(11,500)
Accelerated-cured 24-hour elastic 24.5(3,550)- 23.5(3,410)
modulus{ksi)_ 23.9(4,250)
ASTM-cured 56-day elastic 27.9(4,050)- 34.3(4,973)
modulus (ksi) 29.9(4 330)
Slum_ll(in) 101.6(4)-152.4(6) 116.8(4.6)
Air content (%) 3.5-4.5 4.2
Unit weight (lb/ft') 1826(114)- 2355(147)
1954(122)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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'"' 80 11,000 ~
~ 70 10,000 ];
9,000 ~
8,000 !i
7,000 .iil
-~ 40 - - 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) Accelerated Cure 6,000 -~
130 -<>- 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) ASTM Cure

- - 69 MPa (10,000-psi) Accelerated Cure
5,000 ~
4,ooo e-
3,ooo 8
8w • -.lr • 69 MPa (I 0 000-nsi) ASTM Cure
2,000
10
1,000
0 0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63
Age(days)
Figure 1. Compressive strength vs. time of 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa
( 10,000-psi) HPLC mixes for accelerated and ASTM curing methods.
1.8
I
1.6
I
I I'
1.4
l!.2 t==
as5.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC II
.1.69 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC

'I
8 1.0 ''
u
808 '
I
(j 0.6
I
0.4
I
I
0.2 I.
0.0 ''
O.DI 0.10 1.00 10.0 100 1000
Time under Load (days)
Figure 2. Average creep coefficient of 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi)
HPLC in logarithmic time scale.
J j<
r-- I l1
700 I '
Ill
'"'600 t:: a 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC

~ f----
~500 .1. 69 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC
..,,,,
::
~ 400
"I.'
1; I I I"
]
I'
., 300
I'
200 ,,
II I • I
I'
II
II
100 "
I•
I
0
0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
Time under Drvin11: (days)
Figure 3. Average shrinkage of field and laboratory mixes for 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) and
69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC in logarithmic time scale.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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334 Lopez et al.
a 3.0
2.5 ACI-20
a 55.2MP•(8,000-psi)
ii i=
r- PL~ UTed
~ 20
"0
~1.5
~
u 1.0 AASHTO
~
0.5
0.0 '
0.01 0.1 10 100 1000 10000
b 3.0
2.5 -
a 69 MPa(lO,OOO-psi) ACI-20
d
-~ 2.0
IS
= 'IPT.r'
8
uQ, 1.5
!!
u 1.0 ..ASHTO
I.Rl
0.5
0.0
O.QI 0.1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 4. Comparison between measured creep coefficient and estimated from ACI-209
andAASHTO-LRFD models: (a) 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC,
(b) 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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a sou 1111
1111111
70 u AASHT .
LRFD ...... L...!
60
v ~~~ 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi)
.
0 HPLC measured .. ~Cl-209
20 v I
IIIII"
10u
.
0.1 I 10 100 1000 10000
Time under Drying (days)
u 1111
Jill
1111
60 u AASHTO
LRFD ACI-2 09
u~II69MPa(l0,000-psi)
HPLC measured
u
20 v
10v II
..-
0.1 l 10 100 1000 10000
Time under Drying (days)
Figure 5. Comparison between measured shrinkage and estimated from ACI-209 and
AASHTO-LRFD models: (a) 55.2 MPa (8,000-psi) HPLC,
(b) 69.0 MPa (10,000-psi) HPLC.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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336 Lopez et al.
5000
4500
4000 AHPLC
1-
j3500 OHPC-6
·~ 3000
"'2500
a
l2ooo
1500
1000
500
0
0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
Time under Load and Drying (days)
Figure 6. Comparison total strain of HPLC and HPC mixes in logarithmic time scale
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-16
Stress Relaxation of Concrete Under

Autogenous Early-Age Restrained Shrinkage
by M. Pigeon, B. Bissonnette, J. Marchand, D. Boily,

and L. Barcelo
Synopsis: This paper illustrates how stress relaxation can be used to obtain valuable
information regarding the behavior of concrete at early ages. Five concrete mixtures were
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
investigated using a so-called discretized restrained shrinkage (DRS) testing device,

allowing the determination (from the time of casting) of the increase in load induced by
autogenous shrinkage and the evaluation of the different strain components (free
shrinkage, elastic strain, creep). Test results indicate that the stress due to early-age
restrained autogenous shrinkage is quite variable, in good part due to the variation in the
relaxation capacity of the mixtures. Both the relaxation ratio, defined as the stress
generated divided by the theoretical stress, and the relative relaxation, defined as the
absolute value of stress relaxation divided by the average applied stress, can be used to
illustrate and analyze the variation of the relaxation phenomena as a function of the type
of mixture tested.
Keywords: autogenous shrinkage; concrete; creep; early-age; relaxation;

self-desiccation; strain; stress; test
337
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338 Pigeon et al.
M. Pigeon, FACI, is Rector at Laval University, Quebec, Canada. He previously held an
NSERC Industrial Chair on Shotcrete and Concrete Repairs at the Department of civil
Engineering. His field of expertise includes concrete durability, repair and maintenance
of concrete structures, and early-age behavior of cement-based materials.
B. Bissonnette is Associate Professor at the Civil Engineering Department of Laval

University, Quebec, Canada. He is member of ACI committees C223 Shrinkage-
Compensating Concrete, and C364 Rehabilitation. His research interests include concrete
repairs and rehabilitation, cracking, volume changes, self-consolidating concrete,
shrinkage-compensating concrete, modeling and test methods.
J. Marchand is Professor at the Civil Engineering Department of Laval University,

Quebec, Canada. He is member of various ACI and RILEM committees, notably RILEM
TCI95-DTD Recommendation for test methods for autogenous deformation and thermal
dilation of early age concrete. His research interests include durability of concrete,
numerical modeling, high-performance concrete, dry-concrete products, and service-life
prediction.
D. Boily is a Senior Engineer at SETRA - Groupe TS, Quebec, Canada. He formerly

worked as a Research Engineer at the Civil Engineering Department of Laval University.
L. Barcelo is a Senior product Engineer at Lafarge Canada. He formerly worked as a

Research Engineer at Lafarge Concrete Research Laboratory where his research works
primarily dealt with early age properties of cementitious materials.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
INTRODUCTION
Various systems have been developed in recent years to study the behavior of concrete
under restrained shrinkage at early ages (I), (II). In certain cases, these systems are used
to study the stress build up due to drying shrinkage (4), (7), (12), and in others the stress
build up due to autogenous shrinkage (1), (2), (3), (5), (6), (8), (9), (10), (II), (13). In
concretes with low water to binder ratios (i.e. lower than approximately 0.40),
autogenous shrinkage is considered as one of the main causes of early age cracking, and
many reports have been published on this topic (14), (15), (16).
The stress build up due to restrained shrinkage can be considered as being influenced by
two principal mechanisms: shrinkage (which is the basic cause of the stress build up), and
relaxation (which reduces the intensity of the stresses generated). Generally in these
systems, a companion specimen is cast to allow the determination of the free shrinkage.
Based on the hypothesis that the principle of superposition of stresses and strains apply,
various parameters can thus be calculated, especially those relating to the creep
deformation of the specimen under restrained shrinkage. Although these calculations are
not rigorously valid since part of the free shrinkage itself is due to viscous deformations
(17), they can provide interesting indications concerning the parameters that influence the
results obtained.

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There are two ways to study the viscous phenomena that are involved when concrete is
subjected to restrained shrinkage: in terms ofthe intensity of the viscous deformation, or
in terms of the stress relaxation. From the results obtained on five different concrete
mixtures subjected to early age restrained shrinkage, this paper illustrates how stress
relaxation can be used to obtain pertinent information regarding the viscous behavior of
concrete at early ages.
MATERIALS, MIXTURE COMPOSITION, AND EXPERIMENTAL

PROCEDURES
Five mixtures were prepared for this series of experiments, at a constant water to binder
ratio of 0.35. This value of 0.35 was selected as being representative of those of
cementitious systems for which self desiccation is known to have significant effects and
induce a significant amount of autogenous shrinkage (18). The same ordinary Portland
cement was used for all mixtures. Mixture OC (ordinary concrete) is the reference
mixture. In mixture SFC (silica fume concrete), 8 % of the cement by weight was
replaced by silica fume. In mixture FAC (fly ash concrete), 25 % of the cement was
replaced by fly ash. In mixture SC (slag concrete), 25 % of the cement was replaced by
slag. Mixture VAC (viscosity admixture concrete) is similar to mixture OC, but a
viscosity modifying admixture was added to it. All mixtures were prepared at a constant
30 % paste content (to better isolate the paste effect) and with the same fine and coarse
(siliceous) aggregates. The coarse and fine aggregates were saturated at the time they
were incorporated into the mixtures. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate was
fixed at I 0 mm, i.e. one fifth of the smallest dimension of the mould in the restrained
shrinkage test equipment. The characteristics of the cement, of the fly ash, and of the slag
are presented in Table 1. Table 2 presents the composition and basic properties of each
investigated concrete mixture. The amount of binder in the mixtures corresponds
relatively well to that found in typical concretes with such a water to binder ratio. With
the exception of the viscosity modifying admixture, the only admixture that was used was
a sulphonate-based superplasticizer. The dosage was selected in order to obtain an
adequate slump for a sufficient period of time after the first contact between cement and
water, to allow proper placement operations in the test devices.
For each mixture, in addition to the two specimens required for the measurements under
free and restrained autogenous shrinkage, 9 cylinders of I OOx200 rom were cast to
determine the strength in tension (by splitting) and in compression after 7 days, and in
compression at 28 days. The cylinders used for the 7-day tests were kept sealed until
testing, while those used for the 28-day tests were cured in standard conditions.
The equipment used for the early age restrained shrinkage tests is a somewhat improved
version of that described in detail in a previous publication (5) (these improvements are
linked particularly to the deformation measurement system and to the computer program
that controls the system). It consists of two devices: the first one is used to determine the
free autogenous shrinkage from time t = 0, and the second one, which is equipped with a
movable head, is used to determine the increase in load due to autogenous shrinkage, also
from time t = 0 (Figure 1). In both set ups, the specimen is cast directly into the mould
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340 Pigeon et al.
after mixing, and is then sealed, in order to analyze only the influence of self-desiccation.
The moulds have a 50x50 mm section and an active length of 1000 mm. In the set up
with a movable head, the specimen is allowed to shrink (or swell) freely until it reaches a
predetermined strain, at which time a force is applied to pull (or push) it back to its
original position. It is then left again to shrink (or swell) while the force that was applied
is maintained constant until the predetermined threshold strain is once more reached, at
which point the force is increased in order to pull (or push) it back to its original position.
Such a procedure, first suggested by Kovler (4 ), allows the determination of the stress
build up and the corresponding elastic and creep strains in the specimen as a function of
time.
The use of two parallel specimens, one under free shrinkage and the other under
restrained shrinkage, allows the calculation of certain parameters which are helpful to
study the influence of different variables (such as mixture composition) on the viscous
phenomena involved. From the stress and strain data generated in the restrained
shrinkage set up, it is possible to calculate the modulus of elasticity as a function of time
(in fact, the value of the elastic chord modulus can be obtained each time an additional
force is applied to bring the specimen back to its original position). This in tum allows
the calculation of the theoretical stress due to shrinkage, i.e. the stress that would result
from restrained shrinkage if the concrete had no relaxation capacity. Considering the
actual stress generated in the restrained shrinkage set up, the intensity of relaxation can
thus be evaluated.
It is also possible to calculate the creep deformation in the restrained shrinkage specimen
by subtracting (at any given point in time) the cumulative sum of the strains in the
restrained shrinkage specimen from the free shrinkage in the companion specimen. This
can be explained as follows. If concrete had no creep or relaxation capacity, the stresses
in the restrained specimen would be purely elastic and the cumulative sum of the strains
would be equal to free shrinkage (assuming that shrinkage deformations and elastic
deformations do not influence one another, i.e. that the principle of superposition of
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stresses and strains applies). However, the cumulative sum of the strains is not equal to
free shrinkage because the specimen that is restrained is under load and undergoes a
creep type deformation in addition to the shrinkage deformation.
TEST RESULTS
The results obtained for the five mixtures tested are presented in Figures 2 to 6. In each
figure, the following data is presented for a given mixture: the free autogenous shrinkage
versus time, the stress generated in the restrained specimen versus time, the modulus of
elasticity versus time, and the theoretical elastic stress versus time. The first two values
(shrinkage and stress) are direct experimental measurements, whereas the two others are
calculated values. The theoretical elastic stress was calculated as follows, using the
modulus of elasticity (E(tn)) values obtained from the curve fit of the computed data
plotted on the figures:

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i
0 el.th.(ti)== :L(~~:shfree(tn) X E(tn)) (1)
n=O
To illustrate how the restrained shrinkage system is operated, Figure 7 shows the
deformations and stress measured in the restrained shrinkage set up for mixture SC.
The values of the tensile strength at 7 days (sealed conditions) and the compressive
strengths at 7 days (sealed conditions) and 28 days (standard conditions) are given in
Table 2.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
As mentioned in the introduction, stress relaxation can be an interesting way to illustrate

and analyze the viscous phenomena in concrete specimens under restrained shrinkage at
early ages. Table 3 was prepared for this purpose. It shows for each of the five mixtures
tested the stress generated after 20 hours (when it can safely be considered that concrete
is a hardened and stiff material) and after 120 hours, together with the theoretical stress
after the same number of hours. It also shows the ratio between the stress generated and
the theoretical stress after 20 hours, and the ratio between the increase in the stress
generated from 20 hours to 120 hours and the increase in the theoretical stress during the
same period. These two ratios are direct indicators of the intensity of stress relaxation
during the first 20 hours and in the following 100 hours. They will be referred to in the
following paragraphs as relaxation ratios. Two values of the relaxation ratio after 20
hours are not given in the table. In these two cases, the stress generated and the
theoretical stress are both very small, and the ratio thus has no real significance.
The free shrinkage strains after 20 and 120 hours, which represent the intensity of the
stress generating mechanism, is also given in Table 3. As can be seen, the theoretical
stress after 120 hours is strongly related to the shrinkage value, since the variation of the
modulus of elasticity with time is quite similar for all five mixtures (see Figures 2 to 6).
However, on the contrary, the effective stress generated after 120 hours is not directly
related to the shrinkage value. As a matter of fact, the highest value of the stress
generated in the group of five mixtures corresponds approximately to the median
shrinkage value.
A number of quite significant global observations concerning the phenomenon of

relaxation can be made from the results in Table 3. Firstly, the relaxation ratios are
generally much lower between 20 hours and 120 hours than in the preceding period. This
shows that, contrary to what might be inferred, the viscous phenomena are much less
important during the first 20 hours (although this includes the period during which
concrete gradually changes from a plastic to a hardened material) than during the next
100 hours. Secondly, the relaxation ratios from 20 hours to 120 hours are quite variable,
the values ranging between 0.17 (i.e. 83% of the theoretical stress increase due to
shrinkage being relaxed) and 0.47 (i.e. 53% of the theoretical stress being relaxed). This
explains why there is no direct relationship between the stresses generated and the

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342 Pigeon et al.
shrinkage values. Thirdly, relaxation is an extremely significant phenomenon, which can
offset in certain cases a very large percentage of the stress that shrinkage would cause in
its absence. The results for the mixture containing silica fume are particularly clear in this
respect.
Relaxation, as creep, can be considered dependant on the average stress level to which
the specimen is subjected. It is thus interesting to analyze the test results taking this more
directly into consideration. Table 4 was prepared for this purpose. It shows, for each
mixture, the average stress level between 20 hours and 120 hours, together with the
relative relaxation, i.e. the difference between the increase in the theoretical stress and the
increase in the stress generated between 20 hours and 120 hours, divided by the average
stress during the same period. The relative relaxation can be simply viewed as the
absolute relaxation (in MPa) divided by the average stress during the same period.
Globally, the results in Table 4 are in good agreement with those in Table 3. The relative
relaxation is high when the relaxation ratio is low, and it is low when the relaxation ratio
is high. The global observations made on the basis of the relaxation ratios between 20
hours and 120 hours can thus be considered valid.
It is not possible, with the information presently available, to determine, for the five
mixtures tested, the mechanisms which are the main cause of the observed variation of
the relaxation capacities. Creep in tension has been linked to interfacial phenomena (19).
It could thus perhaps be hypothesized that there is a link between the use of mineral
additives and the relaxation capacity of a mixture, due to the influence of such additives
on interfacial phenomena.
CONCLUSION
The results presented in this paper indicate that the stress due to early age restrained
autogenous shrinkage is quite variable, in good part due to the variation in the relaxation
capacity of the mixtures. Both the relaxation ratio, defined as the stress generated divided
by the theoretical stress, and the relative relaxation, defined as the absolute value of stress
relaxation (the difference between the theoretical stress and the stress generated) divided
by the average applied stress, can be used to illustrate and analyze the variation of the
relaxation phenomena as a function of the type of mixture tested.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was funded by Lafarge, by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada (NSERC) and by the Fonds pour Ia Formation de Chercheurs et
/'Aide ala Recherche (FCAR) of the government of the province of Quebec.
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REFERENCES
1. Springenschmid R, Breitenbiicher R, Mangold M. Development of the cracking

frame and the temperature-stress testing machine. In: Thermal Cracking in Concrete
at Early Ages. R. Springenschmid, editor. London, U.K.: E & FN Spon, 1994. p.
137-144.
2. Paim:re AM, Buil M, Serrano JJ. Effect of fiber addition on the autogenous
shrinkage of silica fume concrete. ACI Mater J 1989; 86(2): 139-144.
3. Bloom R, Bentur A. Free and restrained shrinkage of normal and high-strength

concrete. ACI Mater J 1995; 92(2):211-217.
4. Kovler K. Testing system for determining the mechanical behaviour of early-age

concrete under restrained and free uniaxial shrinkage. Materials and Structures 1994;
27(170):324-330.
5. Pigeon M, Toma G, Delagrave A, Bissonnette B, Marchand J, Prince JC. Equipment

for the analysis of the behavior of concrete under restrained shrinkage at early ages.
Magazine of Concrete Research 1999; 52(4):297-302.
6. Bj0ntegaard 0. Thermal dilation and autogenous deformation as driving forces to

self-induced stresses in high performance concrete. PhD thesis. Trondheim, NTNU
Trondheim, 1999.
7. Altoubat SA, Lange DA. Creep, Shrinkage, and Cracking of Early Age Concrete.
ACI Mater J, 2000; 98(4):323-331.
8. Sato R, Xu M, Yang Y. Stresses due to autogenous shrinkage in high-strength

concrete and its prediction. In: Autogeneous Shrinkage of Concrete. London, U.K.: E
& FN Spon, 1998. p. 327-338. .
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9. Matsuhita H, Tsuruta H. The influences of quality of coarse aggregate on the

autogenous shrinkage stress in high-fluidity concrete. In: Autogeneous Shrinkage of
Concrete. London, U.K.: E & FN Spon, 1998. p. 339-350.
10. Ohno Y, Nakagawa T. Research of test method for autogenous shrinkage stress in
concrete. In: Autogeneous Shrinkage of Concrete. London, U.K.: E & FN Spon,
1998. p. 351-358.
11. Japan Concrete Institute. JCI Research Report of Autogenous Shrinkage, 1996. p.
199-201.
12. Shah SP, Ouyang C, Marikunte S, Yang W, Becq-Giraudon E. A method to predict

shrinkage cracking of concrete. ACI Mater J 1998; 95(2):339-346.

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344 Pigeon et al.
13. Igarashi S, Bentur A, Kovler K. Autogenous shrinkage and induced restraining
stresses in high-strength concretes. Cern Concr Res 2000; 30(1I ): I 701-1707.
I4. MacDonald DB, Krauss PD, Rogal1a E. Early-age transverse deck cracking 1995,
Concr Int; 17(5):49-51.
15. Burrows RW. The visible and invisible cracking of concrete, Monograph N° II,
American Concrete Institute, 1998. 71 p.
16. Bissonnette B, Marchand J, Delagrave A, Barcelo L, Charron JP. Early-age behavior

of cement-based materials. In: Material Science of Concrete VI, Skalny JP, editor.
American Ceramic Society, 200I.
17. Hua C, Acker P, Ehrlacher A. Analyses and models of the autogenous shrinkage of
hardening cement paste - Part I: Modelling at macroscopic scale. Cern Concr Res
1995; 25(10):1457-1468.
18. Charron, J.-P., Zuber, B., Marchand, J., Bissonnette B, Pigeon M. Influence of
temperature on the early-age behavior of concrete. Proceedings of the International
RILEM Symposium ,Evanston, USA, 24 March 2004, Edited by K. Kovler, J.
Marchand, S. Mindess and J. Weiss (RILEM Publications), 263 pp.
I9. Bissonnette B, Pigeon M. Tensile creep at early ages of ordinary, silica fume and
fiber reinforced concrete. Cern Concr Res 1995; 25(5):1075-1085.
Table I -- Binder composition
Binder
Content
CSAType 10
Silica fume Fly ash Slag
Cement
Chemical(%)
Si<h 20.33 92.66 36.07
Ah03 4.10 0.56 10.16
Fe203 2.87 1.51 0.74
CaO 61.86 0.70 35.60
MgO 2.74 0.63 12.71
803 3.12 0.25 3.50
Alkalis 1.09 1.21 0.83
LOI 2.77 3.16 0.00
Mineralogical(%)
c3s 57
c2s 15
C3A 6
CJ" 9
PSD (% passing)
75 llffi 99.1 100
45J.lm 90.7 96.9
10 lliD 35.2 40.4
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Table 2 -- Concrete mixture composition and basic properties
Concrete mixtures
oc SFC FAC sc VAC
Constituents
Type 10 cement (kg/m 3) 447 407 317 292 446
Additive s.fume fly ash slag VA 1
(addition rate by weight of binder) (8%) (25 %) (35 %}
(kg/m3) 35.4 lOS 157 0.178
Water (kglmJ) 156 155 148 157 156
10-mm crushed granite (kglm3) 800 797 797 797 798
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0-5 mm granite sand (kg/m3) 976 971 972 972 973

HRWR (L/m3) 5.0 6.5 4.8 5.2 10.0
Fresh concrete properties
Slump (mm) 110 85 IS 55 90
Air content (%) 3.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 5.0
Hardened concrete properties
f.:7-<lay (MPa) 48.9 58.1 38.9 44.7 52.4
fc 28-<lay (MPa) 55.3 73 53.0 62.0 62.9
fst7-<lay (MPa) 3.3 3.9 3.2 3.7 3.7
1
VA: viscosity agent
Table 3 - Restrained shrinkage tests results- shrinkage-induced stress data
t=20h t = 120 h Ll.t = 20 h to 120 h

Concrete
mixture ]-f" ...""""
;~
-~
.I ~ ]'f'"' -~~
~~
--;;;-- lt~
~I ~ cl'~ -5 ~ li-1-5
ID -;;~
w '-' J~ b._, J~ iiS:
w '-' b~ ~-- ~ ~ <!__. ~~
<I'-' ~ <!~
---
oc 2 0.15 0.08 - 74 0.64 2.10 0.31 0.49 2.02 0.24
SFC 44 0.39 0.65 0.60 151 1.01 4.25 0.24 0.62 3.60 0.17
FAC 8 0.20 0.30 0.67 50 0.65 1.50 0.43 0.45 1.20 0.38
sc -7 0.02 0.02 - 82 1.42 3.00 0.47 1.40 2.98 0.47
VAC 66 0.37 0.87 0.43 199 1.34 5.25 0.26 0.97 4.38 0.22
em free: free shrinkage strain; crexp.: recorded stress; crel th·: theoretical elastic stress
1
Tests with the FAC mixture had to be stopped after 100 hours; the data at 120 hours
were extrapolated

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346 Pigeon et al.
Table 4 •• Restrained shrinkage tests results- specific relaxation data between 20 h and
120h
t=20hto 120h
Concrete mixture ID .1.tsJ,frto Gexp. avg. . .1.crel.lh.- acr••p.
(10"6) (MPa) CJ'exp. avg.
oc 72 0.40 3.83
SFC 107 0.70 4.26
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FAC1 42 0.43 1.74

sc 75 0.72 2.19
VAC 133 0.86 3.96
1
Tests with the FAC mixture had to be stopped after 100 hours; the data at 120 hours
were extrapolated
load cell guiding rail moving head fixed head
Fig. 1-Discretized restrained shrinkage (DRS) test apparatus
l1.5
~
~ 1.0
"'
~,.;,;,;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.L.......J--..J
0
0 24 48 72 !Ill 120 144 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time elapsed since cas11ng (h) Time elapsed since casting (h)
Fig. 2-DRS test results for concrete mixture OC: a) Shrinkage strains and Young's
modulus; b) Shrinkage-induced stress

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0 24 48 72 96 120 24 48 72 96 120 144

Time elapsed since casting (h) Time elapsed since casting (h)
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 3-DRS test results for concrete mixture SFC: a) Shrinkage strains and Young's
50 1.5
400
w;;
-10
30"
~
..
_1.0
0..
~ ~20 ~
£
~
g - 20 fi ~
Iii 0.5
"' -30 .,
Gi
1oe
~~~~~~~~0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time eJapsed since casting (h) Time elapsed since casting (h)
Fig. 4-DRS test results for concrete mixture FAC: a) Shrinkage strains and Young's
40 0 3.0
5
300. ...
"-
[ ~2.0
20 ~ !
., "'
Gi
1.0
10.!.
24 48 72 96 24 48 72 96 120 144
Fig. 5-DRS test results for concrete mixture SC: a) Shrinkage strains and Young's

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348 Pigeon et al.
24 48 72 96 120 144
Fig. 6--DRS test results for concrete mixture VAC: a) Shrinkage strains and Young's
2.5
0
2
'b
~
-25
1.5 ~
c -50 "'"'
~
~ _;:~ ···::;:~:T····
-o
0.5 .e.
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time elapsed since casting (h)

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 7 - Raw DRS test results for concrete mixture VAC

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SP-227-17
Modeling Early Age Tensile Creep and

Shrinkage of Concrete
by M. D. D'Ambrosia and D. A. Lange
Synopsis: Creep and shrinkage of concrete were studied under constant load and
restrained conditions during the first week after casting. Concrete behavior was
characterized by a uniaxial test that measures shrinkage deformation and restrained
shrinkage stress. The extent of stress relaxation by tensile creep was determined using
superposition analysis. The experimental measurements were compared with current
creep and shrinkage models to assess their validity for early age prediction. The ACI 209
equation for creep is currently not applicable to early age, but modifications are proposed
that fit a database of early age behavior. The B3 model has been previously modified to
accommodate early age creep, and this modification was employed in the current study.
Test results for normal concrete with different w/c ratios are discussed.
Keywords: creep; early age; modeling; restrained drying; shrinkage
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 349
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350 D'Ambrosia and Lange
ACI member Matthew D. D'Ambrosia is a PhD candidate at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign. His research interests include early age creep and shrinkage of
concrete, early age stress and cracking, high performance concrete, shrinkage reducing
admixtures, and self-consolidating concrete.
ACI Fellow David A. Lange is an associate professor of civil engineering at the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He received his PhD from Northwestern
University. He is a member of ACI Committees E 802, Teaching Methods and Materials;
E 803, Faculty Network Coordinating Committee; 544, Fiber Reinforced Concrete; and
549, Thin Reinforced Cement Products. He has served as the chair of Committee 236,
Materials Science of Concrete. His research interests include early age properties of
concrete, microstructure of porous materials, water transport in repair and masonry
materials, and industrial applications of high-performance cement-based materials.
INTRODUCTION
The volumetric instability of concrete at early age is a cause for cracking in numerous
concrete pavements and structures. Recent use of high performance concrete materials
increases the risk of cracking at early age. Volumetric deformation is attributed to drying
shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, and thermal dilation. These changes are critical in
young concrete when it is most vulnerable to cracking. Drying shrinkage and tensile
creep are especially important if concrete is restrained. Tensile stress will develop due to
restrained shrinkage and may cause cracking. Tensile creep is beneficial as a stress
relaxation mechanism, relieving part of the tensile stress that develops due to shrinkage.
Autogenous shrinkage may be significant at early age in low w/c ratio materials, thus
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
adding to stress development. A uniaxial experiment that provides early age

measurements of deformation and stress development was used to characterize the early
age behavior of different concrete materials. Uniaxial experiments are common in the
literature and have been used by several researchers [1-6]. The advantage of this
experiment is that it must be highly sensitive to capture small changes in deformation.
LVDT measurement systems that are feedback controlled are often used to obtain high-
resolution strain measurements.
The accurate prediction of early age cracking in concrete is essential for evaluating the
durability of concrete structures. Cracking reduces durability by providing a path for
water and aggressive ions to penetrate the material and induce corrosion of reinforcing
steel. To predict cracking, it is necessary to understand how early age volume changes,
such as drying shrinkage, induce stress and how creep mechanisms act to relax part of the
stress. Models have been developed that evaluate the creep and shrinkage behavior of
concrete. Current models include ACI 209 and RILEM Draft Recommendation B3 [7,
8]. The experimental data used to construct and validate these models was primarily
based on compressive creep results from constant load tests on mature concrete.
However, to predict early age cracking in concrete, we should consider tensile creep of
early age concrete under restrained conditions. In the following paragraphs, we examine
the usefulness of the ACI and B3 models for evaluating early age tensile creep at variable
stress levels.

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EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
A uniaxial test technique was used to provide simultaneous measurement of free

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shrinkage and deformation under restrained conditions or under constant load [6]. The
materials tested in this study were concretes with w/c ratio of 0.40, 0.44, and 0.50 with
the same aggregate type and cement source. The mixture proportions are shown in Table
1. The 0.40 and 0.44 mixtures were used to study restrained drying conditions and a w/c
of 0.50 was used to study creep under constant stress. For each test, two companion
specimens were cast in a temperature and humidity controlled environmental chamber.
The conditions during testing were 23°C (±0.5° C) and SO% (±S %) relative humidity.
The dimensions of each specimen are given in Figure I. The steel end grips, which
transmit the applied load, remained in place for the duration of the test. Steel form work
was removed from the sides of the specimen at 23 hours. To avoid early load application
from evaporative cooling associated with formwork removal, the specimens equilibrated
to room conditions for one hour before a restraining force was initiated. Evaporative
cooling may cause significant deformation during early age testing, which can then lead
to misinterpretation of test data [6, 9]. A sealed barrier of self-adhesive aluminum foil
was used to impose a condition of symmetric drying from only two sides. A rounded
transition in specimen geometry minimizes stress concentrations and interactions
between the specimen and the end grip [10]. To minimize friction between the specimen
and the table surface, a 3mm (1/8") thick Teflon™ sheet was used. Deformation was
measured using an extensometer consisting of a linear variable differential transformer
(L VDT) and a steel rod positioned on the top of the concrete specimen for a total gage
length of 622.3 mm (24.5 in). Steel brackets with bolts anchored into the concrete
specimen supported the measurement assembly. The test measurements began at 24 hrs
for this study, but previous work has included successful measurements as early as I0
hours [6]. A 20 kN (5 kip) load cell in line with a 90 kN (20 kip) servo-hydraulic
actuator controlled the load applied to the specimen.
The unrestrained specimen, shown in Figure 2, was used to measure free shrinkage. The
second specimen, shown in Figure 3, was connected to the actuator and tested in a
computer controlled closed-loop configuration. Two different load scenarios were used
in this study. First, a constant load test was performed with a stress/strength ratio of 0.4
based on the 1 day indirect tensile strength measured using the split tensile method
according to ASTM C496. The second test simulated a restrained load condition
whereby the specimen was allowed to undergo shrinkage within a very small threshold
strain value. A restraining force was then applied to compensate for this deformation
once the threshold value was reached. The load was applied at a constant rate until the
specimen returned to its original length. A threshold value of 0.005mm (8 f.u;) was
determined experimentally to be the minimum effective value within the limitations of
the measuring equipment.
Strain measured from the unrestrained specimen was compared to the restrained or
constant load specimen to ascertain creep deformation. Typical test data is displayed in
Figure 4. The difference in deformation between the unrestrained specimen and the
cumulative strain in the restrained specimen is attributed to creep. The total tensile creep

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strain is calculated as the difference between the accumulated restrained deformation and
the free shrinkage according to
where Ec is the total creep strain, Er is the cumulative restrained deformation and ~:, is
unrestrained shrinkage. Creep compliance, also referred to as specific creep or creep per
unit stress, can then be calculated from the experimental measurements according to
where ais the measured stress in the specimen.
MODELING OF CONCRETE CREEP AND SHRINKAGE AT EARLY AGE
The ACI 209 and B3 models were developed to predict drying shrinkage and
compressive creep in mature concrete. The prediction of tensile creep at early age due to
restrained drying and autogenous shrinkage requires careful reexamination of these
equations. The amount of available experimental data from early tensile creep and
shrinkage is increasing, and this allows for modification of these models to account for
early age behavior.
The one-dimensional total strain in concrete can be computed as
where &e is the elastic strain, &c is the creep strain, &, is the shrinkage strain and aLiT is the
thermal dilation. Elastic deformation and creep are dependent on the stress, cr, therefore
the elastic and creep strain are written in terms of a compliance function J, given as
This relationship assumes that creep is linearly dependent on stress, which has been
validated at stress levels up to 40% of the ultimate strength. for mature concrete in
compression [11]. However, this may not be the case in early age concrete subjected to
tensile stress, hence the need for improvement of the current prediction models. Tensile
creep may include microcracking, which contributes to nonlinear behavior. Generally
microcracking is thought to occur only at high levels of applied stress, but it has been
shown that due to the presence of a drying gradient, microcracking can occur at the
surface even in unrestrained shrinkage specimens [12,13].
The ACI model recommended by committee 209 is based on the model developed by
Branson et a/. [14]. It uses empirical creep correction factors for curing, relative
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humidity, load duration, slump, aggregate, and air content to modify the ultimate creep
coefficient, Vu. The compliance function J(t,t') at timet can then be calculated from the
ultimate creep coefficient Vu according to
J t t' = -1 - ( 1+ (t-t')'~' v
(,) E(t') d+(t-t')'l' " '
J
where E(t') is Young's modulus of elasticity at the loading time t', and d and 1f1 are
constants.
The shrinkage strain &5 (t,t0) is modified by correction factors for relative humidity,
duration of drying, slump, cement content, aggregate, and air content and is given by the
equation
( t t 0 )a
&
s
(t t ) =
'o fc+(t-tJa <'
where ! 0 is the time at which drying begins, fc and a are constants, and c,,' is the ultimate
shrinkage. Recommendations are given for each constant, based on standard test
conditions. Recommended equations for each parameter account for deviations from
standard conditions.
The B3 model developed by Bazant et al. [8] is based in part on the solidification theory
for concrete creep [ 15]. Total strain is calculated according to
l(t) =J(t,t')a+ Csh(t) + aL1T(t)
where J(t,t') is the compliance function, tis the age of concrete, and t' is the age at
loading. J(t,t ') can be subdivided further into
J(t,t') = q, + C0 (t,t') + CJ..t,t')
where q 1 is the instantaneous compliance, Co(t,t') is the basic creep component, and
CJ..t,t') is the drying creep component. Co(t,t') and CJ..t,t) are given by
Co(t,t) = q2Q(t,t) + q3ln[1 +(t-tY]+ q 4ln(t/t)
CJ..t,t') = q5[exp{-8H(t)}- exp{-8H(t')}] 112
where H(t) = 1- (1-h)tanh [(t-to)l r 5 , ] ,
q1 through q5 are constant parameters, <sh is the shrinkage half-time, and H(t) represents
the average relative humidity of a cross section as a function of time. A detailed
explanation of the model and it's parameters is given in reference [8).
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354 0' Ambrosia and Lange
The B3 model is attractive for describing early age tensile creep because is it based on a
phenomenological approach for aging of concrete. However, application of the basic
creep portion of this model to experimental results by 0stergaard eta/. has shown that the
unmodified B3 model does not give accurate prediction at loading ages of one day or less
[16]. To account for this discrepancy, an additional parameter was proposed in his work
to capture very early creep. The additional term was incorporated into parameter q2
according to
[Note: The new coefficient was called q 5 in the original reference but has been renamed
q6 here to avoid confusion with the drying creep parameter q5]. 0stergaard demonstrated
the improvement of fit in his study, where he considered wet-cured samples and altered
only the basic creep component of the prediction model to produce successful results.
The ACl equations were applied to a concrete mixture with a w/c of 0.50. A comparison
between creep strain measurements from a constant load test and the ACI model
prediction is shown in Figure 5 using two different values for Vu, the ultimate creep
coefficient. The lower curve reflects the ACI recommended constants modified for test
conditions, and the other uses an ultimate creep coefficient Vu of 13.5, which is beyond
the recommended range of the parameter. The prediction fits the experimental data quite
well - demonstrating that even early age creep can be modeled with the ACI equation -
but only after the vu parameter has been modified beyond a realistic range. This finding
confirms the limitation on the ACI model of a loading age of 7 days, which is reasonable
for structural loads. For earlier loading ages from deformation due to drying and
autogenous shrinkage or temperature change, modifications of some kind are necessary to
apply this prediction.
The following modifications are suggested, in the form of additional creep and shrinkage
correction factors for early age. For creep, the equation has the form
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where tis time, t' is the loading time, and sis the setting time, in days. The parameter r
was obtained from fitting experimental data and was determined to be 1.4 for normal
concrete. The parameter depends on the rate of early strength gain and should be reduced
for high early strength concrete. The values of this correction factor equation are shown
over time and for different loading ages in Figure 6. It can be observed that the function
approaches one as the loading time exceeds 7 days, thereby reducing the model to its
original form.

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A shrinkage correction factor for early age was also determined and is given by the
equation
where t is time, 10 is the length of curing, and s is the setting time, all given in days. The
parameter z was obtained from fitting experimental data and was determined to be 5.6 for
normal concrete. The parameter depends on the diffusion rate, which is dependent on the
degree of hydration and should probably be reduced for high early strength or steam
cured concrete. This equation approaches one as the curing time exceeds 7 days,
reducing the model to its original form, as shown in Figure 7.
The shrinkage constant fc in the original ACI model needs to be reduced for early age
concrete. The recommended values according to ACI are 35 for normal concrete and 55
for steam cured concrete, suggesting that the parameter is dependent on degree of
hydration or rate of strength gain. For early age, this parameter should be adjusted to
account for young concrete. In this study, a value of 25 was used for normal strength
concrete at early age.
The modified B3 (MB3) and modified ACI (MACI) models were used to predict creep
and shrinkage for concrete mixtures with 0.40, 0.44 and 0.50 wlc ratios under restrained
drying conditions. The elastic modulus for this material was approximated using the ACI
equation [7]. The model predictions for shrinkage at early age closely fit the
experimental data after the proposed modifications are made, as shown in Figure 8
through Figure 10. No modifications were needed for the original B3 model to account
for early age drying or autogenous shrinkage in this study. However, it is reasonable to
be cautious about applicability of the model to materials with lower w/c ratio beyond the
range of the study. Lower wlc ratio materials with high autogenous shrinkage were not
considered in the current study. The model predicted shrinkage decreases in proportion
to the w/c ratio, as it is known that the drying rate decreases with diffusion rate for
smaller pores. Autogenous shrinkage at early age will increase for lower w/c ratios in the
first few days. Figure 11 shows the effect of autogenous shrinkage at early age as w/c
decreases. It can be seen that the early shrinkage of the 0.25 wlc material is 5 times
greater than the 0.50 material in the first hours of drying. The timing of early age
shrinkage measurements is important because after one week the low wlc ratio materials
are no longer shrinking rapidly. The current model does not account for cases where
autogenous shrinkage dominates behavior.
The model predictions of tensile creep agree with experimental data, as shown in Figure
12 through Figure 14. The original models without modifications are also shown for
comparison. The MB3 model incorporates equations from [8] and early age parameter
values used by 0stergaard et a/. No additional terms were used to account for drying
creep at early age. After several days of drying, the restrained stress will exceed 40% of
the material strength, causing microcracking damage to occur. After 4-6 days, the creep
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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prediction diverges from experimental data and the assumption of a linear relationship
between creep and stress is not valid in this region. To further understand the amount of
damage that occurs in fully restrained drying conditions, the stress strain relationships
were examined at each load increment during the test. It can be seen in Figure 15 that
damage is observed as the stress-strain curve begins to exhibit softening in the higher
stress regions. A comparison of the stress-strain ratio with the elastic Young's modulus
E predicted by ACI equations is shown in Figure 16. The ACI equations were intended
for mature concrete in compression, and are shown to demonstrate the evolving nature of
the stress-strain relationship. The measurement of stress-strain ratio from this experiment
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is not equivalent to the elastic modulus, since the stress increments are not equal for each
step and concrete at early age is not a well-behaved linear elastic solid. However, the
comparison does reveal both the influence of aging (i.e. increase in stiffness) and
softening (i.e. microcracking).
Creep behavior under restrained conditions was analyzed using an incremental

application of each model where the stress was increased at each load step. Figure 17
through Figure 19 show the model results and experimental data for the 0.40, 0.44, and
0.50 mixtures respectively. The results show good agreement for restrained creep
deformation, indicating that after the proposed modifications, the models can be applied
incrementally for structural predictions, and that they are valid for early age tensile creep
in addition to mature compressive creep.
CONCLUSIONS
The study considered constant load and incremental restrained load cases for
measurement and modeling of early age tensile creep and shrinkage of concrete. An
experimental program measured early age tensile creep and shrinkage and the results
were used to develop suggestions for improving existing models. The experimental
results were compared to the ACI 209 and B3 prediction models. The following
conclusions were drawn:
• Suggested changes to the ACI 209 model enable the prediction of early age
creep and shrinkage. The changes are in the form of correction factors that can
be employed in the same manner as other factors that are already in the model.
• The B3 model predicted early age shrinkage with reasonable accuracy without
any changes in its original formulation. However, to account for autogenous
shrinkage, lower w/c ratios should be investigated at early age.
• The B3 model, modified by 0stergaard for basic creep, was successfully used
for early age tensile creep under both constant load and restrained drying
conditions. No further modifications were made to account for drying creep at
early age.
• A stepwise application of the modified B3 and ACI models effectively predicted

creep strain under restrained drying conditions at early age.

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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Illinois Department of Transportation for their
generous support of this work as part of Project IHR-R29 of the Illinois Cooperative
Highway Research Program.
REFERENCES
Pailh~re,
A. M., Buil, M., Serrano, J. J., "Effect of Fiber Addition on the Autogenous
Shrinkage of Silica Fume Concrete," ACI Mat. J., V. 86, No.2, 139-144, 1989
Bloom, R. and Bentur, A., "Free and Restrained Shrinkage of Normal and High Strength
Concretes," ACI Mat. J, V. 92, No.2, 211-217, 1995
Kovler, K., "Testing System for Determining the Mechanical Behavior of Early Age
Concrete under Restrained and Free Uniaxial Shrinkage," Materials and Structures, V.
27,324-330, 1994
Pigeon, M., Toma, G., Delagrave, A, Bissonnette, B., Marchand, J., and Prince, J. C.,
"Equipment for the Analysis of the Behaviour of Concrete Undere Restrained Shrinkage
at Early Ages," Mag. Con. Res., V. 52, No.4, Aug., 297-302,2000
Springenschmid, R., Breitenbiicher, R., and Mangold, M., "Development of Thermal

Cracking Frame and the Temperature-Stress Testing Machine," in Thermal Cracking in
Concrete at Early Ages, Proceedings of the International RILEM Symposium, Ed. By R.
Springenschmid, Munich 1994, 137-144, 1995
Altoubat, S. A., "Early age stresses and creep-shrinkage interaction of restrained

concrete", Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2000
American Concrete Institute (ACI) 209R-92 (Re-approved 1997). Prediction of Creep

Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures, Farmington Hills, Ml
RILEM Draft Recommendation, TC 107-GCS Guidelines for the Formulation of Creep

and Shrinkage Prediction Models, "Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Model for Analysis
and Design of Concrete Structures - Model B3", prepared by Ba.zant, Z. P. and Baweja,
S., Materials and Structures, V. 28, 357-365, 1995
K. Kovler, "Shock of evaporative cooling of concrete in hot dry climates", ACI Concrete
International, V. 10,65-69, 1995
Altoubat, S. A. and Lange, D. A. "Grip-specimen Interaction in Uniaxial Restrained

Test," ACI SP-206, Concrete: Material Science to Application- A Tribute to Surendra P.
Shah,2002
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"Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Structures," Z.P. Bazant, F.H. Wittmann eds., Wiley,
New York ( 1982).
Grasley, Z.C., Lange, D.A., D'Ambrosia, M.D. "Drying Stresses and Internal Relative
Humidity in Concrete," Materials Science of Concrete VII, ed. Jan Skalny, submitted
October (2003).
Bisschop, J. "Drying Shrinkage Microcracking m Cement-Based Materials," Ph.D.

Thesis, Delft University Press (2002).
Branson, D.E. Deformations of Concrete Structures, McGraw Hill, New York, 1977
Bazant, z. P. and Prasannan, S., "Solidification Theory for Concrete Creep 1:

Formulation and II: Verification and Application," J. of Eng. Mech. (ASCE), V. 115, No.
8,1691-1725,1989
0stergaard, L., Lange, D A., Altoubat, S A., Stang, H., "Tensile basic creep of early-age
concrete under constant load," Cement & Concrete Research, V. 31, No. 12, 1895-1899,
2001
Table 1. Concrete mixture proportions

w/c
Material SG 0.40 0.44 0.50
Cement (Type I) 3.15 635 655 710
Coarse Aggregate (SSD) 2.67 1866 1863 1560
Fine Aggregate (SSD) 2.6 1130 1130 1250
Water 1 279 279 355
Type F Superplasticizer 1.2 0.3
Note: Batch weights are lblyd~ for dry ingredients and water, gaVyd3 for chemical admixtures
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P P=O
a--~-'.1--.---'----.~-~---- --
38.4" (1.0 m}
3.5"(90mm}
Figure 1. Companion specimen diagram
Figure 2. Unrestrained shrinkage specimen and extensometer
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Figure 3. Restrained uniaxial test specimen with servo-hydraulic system

200 "'·---·~···-··'··'··-'···-·-·'···-··-·-·~,
150 '!==:~===menl··· w r··· . . . Cieep'
100 -Load (I<N) l··~-:··:;··~:;:;-··:;;;l-. . . . . . ._~,;~~=f.· a
····'':""""'""""'"'""~·">"•"'"'"'"
so; 7
·~ -60
I
~ -100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 2 3 4 5
Time(daY$) 7
Figure 4. Typical restrained test data

100
-Control w/c=0.50
90
- • ACI 209 • Fit
60
0 0 0
ACI209 - Original parameten; "• = 13.5
70
~ 60 ~
.!$.
<:
-~ 50 ~
iii
.,
a. 40 f--
/o"
I!!
(.) 30 £
20 'L
10
i/ - 0 - 0 ••• ~-~ - ••• - ••••• - ••• - ••• "· ~ 2.35
0 1·
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (days)
Figure 5. Prediction of creep strain with ACI 209 equation
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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,
3.5 .,..... .
.
.,
<
3.0 t ., .
~ l '
"' 2.51 ... \ ·········-i
~ ' I
:tz.o! \ ...... 1
~ ' .\
~ 1,$ + ·. . _ , ~---"-7
f 1.a 1 ... ~ ~~~;~:~b.0·Z:'!"7::~o!l~~!E•"""·'~~,::.:~..'"'"'~
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
() '<
0.5 +
''
0.0 ~-•w·,,,w..,.~'<~'''f-W.W"-"'"~"'"""=...........ww•:"-"''....."~'"''"'<W'"~''""'W "'"''""""'· •·..,-··••w'Y~.....,..,._"'"'''·'"-"•~
0 10 15
Ti""'(~)
Figure 6. Creep correction factor values versus time for different loading
times at early age
9 ~ I
Cu<ingT...,(I.}
.~ 8 +·.I .. ·=·:·;····]··
i :L\·
,§ \
·····1.5
····2
-·5
L. l
... ,
-~sf-- T .. ~
- "'I \\
' :r .·,~~"[,~'t"i±c::'i,~~!
0 · ··• .. ,, ... ; ... ,.,.. ,.... _. ...... ~....... .,. ...... .,.. .,.. ..,, .... ,_.,,,,,,"<''''''': .... j
0 10 15
Time(OB)'II)
Figure 7. Shrinkage correction factor values for different curing times at early age
1-2®1··
f 250 i · :.: ~=e.4e
i :300f.J
'
=~:=
···--">
--350 ~- ··-·· . ·················:~ .
.i
-400 ~..._...., ...,.......;. .. ,...,....,...,..+··············,••·i•••••••!'''''''''''; ., ..••••., •. ,,,,-i:···~··~·-..-··.,-·•.; •• ._. ...,.•• ~··•v••f••..,.··•···•·••••··'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
Age(days)
Figure 8. Shrinkage measurements compared with ACI and B3 models for w/c =0.40

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t",..·A......
. '~
,·~
,.x ..
e .1ool <~~.:_.;r ...
l
'9
~
l
"~
: q : . .
~ ·150 i· ' ""' ' "" .~
l ·• . ·
e .j , "'%,..
~: ,~ ,~"''" ~~,, ~'-'·>,o:"~·.~~l

-350 Jj J.L .. :·=~~=
. .........,>.CJ ;· . . . , ....... ··;
--400 .1...,...,...,,,.,...;..., . . ·:••·:••·:•••:··········-.··•• •:•··~··-.··-.···~··v·•4••..,••v••y••v··+··.,..··.,.•·v··v·•f··v··y·•,..••,.-•·f
0 2 3 4 5
Age (d8)11)
-~ I--··:·x:~~:r:~·~=r·-·---·----~---·---·-
1 \ ', X
f100t .
'·; ~1:
,~~,'X
'
~
....
~ -1so; >:.:x:;:~ ·
~ ~ "'--!'~
e -:1.00 i ' ;',:..·,~-
~ j . ...~.... . .
f -250 i '. . ''-
:e j r--·~x. . .dA~o_·Kl·--:...._. · ~ ..~"" ·
"'.JOI)r.,····1 - -··....... -"·"·---~-----------""'1··.::.:~:-.
~ ~ ,..... .. ACI~ j
·350 i••• l. . :.:.:.~.".:"'. . .! .... '········· .......... .
-- -·~·····. --.
.
...COO -1·-·:•··: , .....,...,... j ...••..,.. ..,•.., .•.~ ·········.-··.···+· ···•···•···r·-t···•··•r······ ... -•.;. ...,.,._ .. .,. ...,... .j. •••, .................~
0 2 3 4 5 6 8
Age (days)
I
\ ·lOOt------r··--
'l! ·!
l! -1so ·i .. c· ::;:;:;i~;o:25
l ll
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
.-wJc=0.32 •..
'
·200 1· -i -o-wfc=0.40 .
J I -~~t:::~~
·250 ..............;..._.,.,..t.............;_..•.~.,•...:.....-.-·;-~·-···~~----..···•·-··~~-
1.0 1.5 2.0 2..5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
~{days)
Figure 11. The effect of autogenous shrinkage at low w!c ratio on

early age shrinkage rate

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0.8 ·-r·w.•w.·.=·=)'V""-"'"'"~~"~'"-"'""'·'" ··"~·.•.•.w.··.w•·.••·.w-w.w····•w•··.·.·.w.••w"'"~"W'-'"""~"""V.v_. w•.W'•"•"'""'"·"'"·"";
l ' • w!C~~.49
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.7-f· -83"""""
0.1 j
ooL
'
' .... : .
., .••, .. ._ ..._. .., •. , ........, •• .,. ..., .. .,. ...... .,. •• ,_. •• ._. •• ,_. •• ._. ••
. 1
~··••••v••v•·..-···
0 2 6 7 8
Figure 12. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for tensile specific creep, w/c =0.40
<'
oe H
i ~ l
t 0.5 _j -~
c j
~Q.4i
u 1
iJi 03 'j
"' 0.2.~
0.1 j'
0 2 l 4 5 6 7
Age(days)
Figure 13. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for tensile specific creep, w/c =0.44

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.. .-.........................,..................,...... ,. ..................... ~··----·~
X l
00 l ....... ,;,.............,........,...........................................,........,. , .............~.............;

() 2 3 4 s 6 7
Age(days)
Figure 14. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for tensile specific creep, w/c = 0.50
400 T ••••·····••••••••••••••·• .•
l
3501
-=l
!
:: 2001
;
~ l ~ r=;:~-;-~_l;f ~-\~
1Sil"'" 1j
l:r
~ ---~~ti.3711U
0
1
. . . . . :l~~.~~~l
0 20 40 00 80 100 120
Stlilln (lO"miM) --`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 15. Stress-strain relationship during the restrained drying test
! 7
"b
~ 6
~
i 5
~ ~
I 3
2
4 5 II
Agc{dnys)
Figure 16. Stress-strain ratio over time under restrained drying conditions

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200 j''
180 t . -r"""w·;·_.·;::::="--·""'··"1 ·: ...... ,:·······-···.
<
160 :.~· · •
~
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l ~ "--~-~-~~-------·'
~
x_. . . .:..~.-.,., ""'c.:-.:-:.--:c-:::;. -:-. ~.~·

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,....... ..~···-··-:· .I
40 t .j{ i
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: t. ~-·L=~J ~··.:: .·.~~-~·w~--..--. ~.~~~ ·~~··· J
012 3 4 56
..... ..
7
...
a:
Age (da)..)
Figure 17. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for early age tensile creep strain
under fully restrained conditions, w/c =0.40
.1
180
160
i. 140
E
~120
~ 100
Ill 80
!oo
40
20
2 6 7
Figure 18. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for early age tensile creep strain
under fully restrained conditions, w/c = 0.44
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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200 !"' --::==='====:;---;--;---;· --=-=· ~=::;:
.:
180 t--~
: :t: wfc:O.SO
-B3Model -------- ).__ ---- -~-: ---- -l~-~-:::::::::_ j'
"-: .:· : I
__ ~ - -Mod!f.ed B3
~
160
j 1 - • ACI Model
I 140t---'~ifled~CI
E ~ '
___ T __ _
'
80 t--- ---:
' '
, , t' .· , . . , I
20 t------ t-- -~'-~' /.--- --- ->---- --:----- -<------ ~ ----- -l
0~'~~~·~~~~-+~~~~~·~~+·~~+-~~1
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age (days)
Figure 19. Modified ACI and B3 model prediction for early age· tensile creep strain
under fully restrained conditions, w/c = 0.50
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SP-227-18
Evaluation of Thermal Warping in Pavements

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by M.A. Miltenberger, E. K. Attiogbe, and A. R. Stoddard
Synopsis: Temperature effects are the predominant cause for volume change in concrete
pavements. This paper describes an experimental investigation of thermal volume change
conducted to improve the understanding of joint movement in concrete pavement. Four
slab strips containing embedded strain gauges and thermocouples were monitored in a
controlled environment under four heating rates. Each strip was monitored for translation,
rotation, and warping height. Key findings of the experiment include the internal strain
distribution and non-linear thermal gradients produced by asymmetrical heating. The
laboratory data are compared with long-term data from an instrumented parking lot
pavement. Analysis of the data provides insight into the prediction of thermal movements
and determination of thermal stress development in pavements.
Keywords: curling; pavement; slab on grade; thermal expansion; warping
367
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368 Miltenberger et al.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH:
ACI member Matthew A. Miltenberger, is a Business Development Manager
with Vector Corrosion Technologies, Inc. He holds an MS in structural engineering, and
a BBA in construction management. He is a member of ACI Committees 222, Corrosion
of Metals in Concrete; 355, Anchorage to Concrete; and 365 Service Life Prediction.
Matt was a co-recipient of ACI's Wason Medal for Most Meritorious Paper in 2000.
ACI member Emmanuel K. Attiogbe, is the Director of Technical Services at
Master Builders, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. He received his PhD in Civil Engineering from
the University of Kansas specializing in structural engineering and concrete materials.
He is a member of ACI Committees 231, Properties of Concrete at Early Ages; 236,
Material Science of Concrete; the T AC Technology Transfer Committee, and the
Concrete Research Council. He was awarded ACI's Wason Medal for Materials Research
in 1995.
Anthony R. Stoddard is a Systems Development Technician at Master
Builders, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. He is certified as ACI Laboratory Technician Level 1
with over I 5 years experience in electronics and instrumentation.
Volumetric changes of concrete slabs on grade in response to environmental
changes have been recognized for decades, but are still not well understood. (1-4)
Numerous investigations into drying shrinkage induced curling of slabs on grade and
thermal warping of pavements have been performed, but a procedure for pavement
design that links structural analysis and environmental behavior is Jacking. (5-12) This
study describes the behaviors and presents a theoretical framework for unraveling the
complex nature of pavement response to the environment.
CONCEPTUAL BASIS
Curling of slabs on grade and warping of pavements are similar phenomena in
as much as the concrete reacts to the environment by changing shape. Curling is the
positive curvature that results from drying shrinkage at the top surface of a slab on grade
or pavement, causing slab edges to lift. Thermal warping can be characterized as the
positive curvature caused by rapid cooling of the pavement surface, or as the negative
curvature caused by heating of a pavement surface from solar radiation. In both curling
and warping, the concrete reacts to the environment by changing shape. This shape
change is the concrete's response to the non-linear strain profile produced by the
environment.
For curling, the non-linear strain profile is caused by moisture loss from the
concrete to the environment. Moisture loss from a slab is a process whereby the water
vapor pressure inside the concrete equilibrates with the water vapor pressure of the
ambient environment. At the interface between the air and concrete, this equilibration
occurs rapidly, but as the drying front progresses inward the equilibrium moisture content
is controlled by the rate of vapor permeation. This results in a transient moisture profile
that begins as a very sharp moisture profile and progressively becomes more gradual over
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time, eventually approaching linearity. This moisture profile can be translated directly
into a free strain profile using the relationship between ultimate shrinkage and relative
humidity developed by Hansen and Almudaiheem (13).
For warping of concrete pavements, a non-linear strain gradient is typically
caused by solar radiation, or rapid cooling of the surface by cold precipitation. In both
scenarios the temperature of the surface changes rapidly, and the temperature of the
interior slowly changes due to heat transfer. The temperature changes can be translated
into a free strain profile through the coefficient of thermal expansion.
In both curling and warping, the free surface strain is resisted by interior regions
with lower free strain values, producing residual compression and tension stresses in the
slab as well as geometric distortion. This distortion is essentially a stress relief
mechanism that minimizes internal stress while maintaining internal force and moment
equilibrium. These movements can be characterized as having components oftrans\ation
and rotation.
To illustrate this concept, consider a 200 mm thick slab strip element in contact
with a moist subgrade and exposed to solar heating at the surface. As the surface
temperature increases, the interior temperatures slowly rise from heat flow in the slab.
Initially the temperature profile is steep, and gradually the profile approaches linearity
after the surface temperature stabilizes. Fig 1 represents a series of hypothetical
temperature profiles that have been transformed into free strain profiles by taking the .
product of the coefficient of thermal expansion, ac. of lOJ.u:/"C and the change in
temperature at each depth.
Assuming that plane sections remain plane, Fig. 2 illustrates the net strain
produced by balancing internal forces and moments. Internal restraint produces residual
compressive stress at the top and bottom surfaces and residual tension stress in the center.
The residual strain profile is shown in Fig. 3. One of the more interesting behaviors
caused by these non-linear residual stresses is that free expansion of the surface causes
contraction at the base; and free shrinkage at the surface causes expansion at the base.
Also, free expansion at the surface causes a positive translation strain, as indicated by the
strain at mean height (1 00 mm), in Fig. 2 or 3.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
To model this behavior mathematically, it is assumed that the temperature

profile is known. The non-linear free strain profile is described as a power function using
Eq. I, and the net shape is modeled as a linear function using Eq. 2, and is illustrated in
Fig. 4. Force and moment equilibrium are described by Eq. 3 and 4, respectively. The
free strain at the top, S 1t. and bottom Efb, are determined using the coefficient of thermal
expansion; and the shape of the free strain profile is determined by curve fitting for the
power term, n. Knowing the free strain profile parameters, Eq. 3 and 4 are solved
simultaneously to obtain Eq. 5 and 6, expressions for the net strain at the top, c:" and net
strain at the bottom, Eb, respectively.
(E -E )
E
f
= ft
hn
fb yn + E
fb
(1)

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(E -&)
E = I b y+E (2)
n h b
LFx = 0 =Ecb jCcn -&1 )dy (3)

0
LMo = 0 = Ecb fCcn -&1 )ydy (4)

0
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2·(& -& ·n)

E = ft fb -E (5)
I (n + 1) b
C'-
2·&ft ·(1-n)+&jb ·(n 2 +5n)
"b- (6)
(n+l)·(n+2)
where:
b Slab element design width
Ec Elastic modulus of the concrete
Fx Force in the horizontal direction
Mo Moment about the slab base

h Height, or thickness of the slab
11 Power term, defines the shape of the temperature profile
y Distance above the bottom surface
&b Net strain at the bottom surface
&[ Free strain
&fb Free strain at the bottom surface
E:ft Free strain at the top surface
&,, Net strain
&t Net strain at the top surface

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure used to evaluate thermal warping involved casting
electrical resistance cables, thermocouples and vibrating wire strain gauges, (VWSGs),
into four concrete beams 260-mm wide x 184-mm deep x 2.36-m long, as shown in Figs.
5 and 6. One beam contained no reinforcement, and the other three contained one
continuous No.3 (-10-mm diameter) reinforcing bar located at 47, 92, or 143 mm from
the top surface. Mixture proportions are provided in Table 1.
Fig 5 shows that the beams were inverted when cast so that the electrical
resistance cable could be carefully located at the top surface of the beam. A 7.62 m (25
ft) length of 65.6 watt/m (20 watt/ft) cable, fitted with a grounded plug, was cast into
each beam. Six thermocouples and five VWSGs, were also placed in each beam.
Horizontally, the thermocouples were located 125 mm (5 in.) from each end along the
center line of the beam; the strain gauges were centered approximately 1.18 m (46.5 in.)
from each end. Vertically, the thermocouples were located at mid-height and
approximately 5 mm from the top and bottom surface; the VWSGs were located 30, 62,
92, 122, and 154 mm from the top surface. Each VWSG was individually calibrated and
contained .a thermistor for temperature measurement. The combination of thermocouples
and VWSG thermisters produced seven temperature measurements through the depth of
each beam producing a complete temperature profile.
In addition to the beams, eight 102-mm diameter x 203-mm high concrete
cylinders and four 75 x 75 x 286 mm length change prisms were cast for determination of
compressive strength in accordance with ASTM C 39, modulus of elasticity in
accordance with ASTM C 469, and the coefficient of thermal expansion in accordance
with CRD C-39. Test results are provided in Table 2.
The beams were maintained in a moist condition using wet burlap and plastic
unless placed in the test apparatus. The concrete was at least I4-days old prior to testing.
The test apparatus is shown in Figs. 7 to 9. The test apparatus consisted of a pan
with a cooling coil connected to a heat exchanger; roller supports with one "fixed end"
and one "free end"; a bridge for mounting five micron-resolution digital deflection
gauges for vertical displacement measurements; and two laser displacement gauges with
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
± lmm range for horizontal displacement measurements of the top and bottom of the
beam. The "fixed end" of the apparatus had a 25-mm diameter rod located at mid-height
of the beam to force horizontal movement to occur at the "free end". The entire
apparatus was rigidly attached to the laboratory concrete floor using grouted screw inserts
and leveling bolts. Once leveled, the apparatus was grouted in place using a precision
non-shrink grout to provide a stable base and heat sink. The floor and base of the pan
were oiled prior to installation to facilitate subsequent removal and cleaning.
The testing sequence consisted of an overnight initialization period at room
temperature, a five to six-hour heating period followed by an overnight cooling period,
and subsequent heating and overnight cooling cycles. The temperature of the water in
contact with the bottom of the beam was maintained at 20 ± 1 "C by the heat exchanger at
all times. Vertical and horizontal displacements were recorded manually, while the
thermocouples and VWSGs were recorded digitally. A five-minute time increment was

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37 2 Miltenberger et al.
used as the measurement frequency. Fig. 10 shows the VWSG data for the control beam
throughout the initialization period and the three heating cycles. Fig. 11 shows the
2
measured deflection for the control beam during the 821 W1m heating cycle.
The three heating cycles were produced by varying the input voltage supplied to
the heating cable. The energy delivered to the slab was calculated from line voltage and
current measurements. In Fig. 10, the first heating cycle used a line voltage of 120 VAC
and delivered 821 W/m 2 ; the second heating cycle used 60 VAC and delivered 209
W1m2 ; and the third heating cycle used 90 VAC and delivered 484 W /m 2 • It should be
noted that the control beam was placed in the test apparatus one time for all three heating
cycles as shown in Fig 10. The reinforced beams were placed in the testing apparatus
twice, with the nominal 120 VAC and 60 VAC cycles being performed first, and the 90
VAC cycle on the second installation.
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS

The data generated for each heating cycle are summarized in Table 3 and Table
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. The translational strain in Table 3 was calculated as the mean horizontal movement
recorded by the non-contact transducers divided by the beam length, 2362 mm. The data
in the column labeled "Mean Temperature Change" were calculated as the change in the
mean ofthe top and bottom surface temperatures. The data in the column labeled
"Middle Temperature Change" were calculated as the change in the middle thermocouple
measurements. The free strains were calculated by multiplying the temperature change
by the coefficient ofthermal expansion from Table 2.
The equivalent rotational stress and strain at the top surface were calculated
from deflection measurements using Eq. 7 and Eq. 8, respectively. Eq. 7 was derived
from basic mechanics principles (14) assuming a uniformly loaded beam and a
rectangular cross section. The measured rotational strain was calculated as the difference
between the laser measurements and the height of incidence on the specimen, using a
gage length of 1181 mm. One-halfoftbe slab element length was used as the gage
length because the test apparatus allows rotation ~n both ends of the specimen, but the
laser only measured the rotational displacements on one side.
()" = 384·6·h·E
2
c (7)
I 80·L
384 ·6 ·h
& =---,.--
2
(8)
1 80·L
where:
a, Top surface stress
c, Top surface strain
8 Mid-span deflection
L Length of the slab element, (2363 mm)

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The translational strain data in Table 3 are presented graphically in Fig. 12, and
the rotational strain data in Table 4 are presented graphically in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14. The
linear regression fit to the data shown in the figures indicates a relationship exists
between thermal movement and temperature change, but it also indicates that the data
contain significant unexplained variability.
The correlation coefficient, R 2 , was highest for the relationship between the
maximum deflection strain and end rotational strain in Fig. 13, indicating internally
consistent displacement data. However, the correlation coefficients for Fig. 12 and Fig.
14 indicate significant variability in the relationships between temperature and
displa~.:t:ment measurements. Some of the variability can be attributed to the reinforcing
steel having a different coefficient of thermal expansion, but it is believed that the
majority of the variability is associated with the loss of moisture from the concrete and
variation in the coefficient of thermal expansion. The correlation with translational strain
was the most variable. The translational measurements contain seating effects at the
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
"fixed end" and friction at the roller supports. In hindsight, it would have been better to
design the apparatus with two "free-ends", using four lasers to measure horizontal
displacements.
The cross-sectional area ratio of reinforcement to concrete was less than 1% in
this experiment. This quantity of steel reinforcement did not produce clear performance
differences, so all the beams were treated in a similar manner.
It is well documented ( 15, 16) that the coefficient of thermal expansion varies
with moisture content. The beams in this experiment were maintained in a moist
condition until placing on the test apparatus, and then were exposed to an ambient
environment of 20 'C and 40% relative humidity on the top and sides, and were in
contact with a water bath on the bottom. Also, the top surface was heated during the
testing program that accelerates the rate of drying. Differential drying of the top surface
induces curling, as illustrated in Fig. 10 by the progressive increase of negative strain
(contraction) at the top surface and positive strain (expansion) at the bottom surface.
Creep may also play a role in the progression of strain at constant temperature in Fig. I 0,
but is not incorporated in the data of Table 3 and Table 4 because all gauges were tared
prior to each heating event.
The relationships represented in Fig. 12 to Fig 14 indicate:
1. The free deflection and rotational strain of concrete exposed to a thermal
gradient can be estimated by multiplication of the difference between the
top and bottom temperature and the coefficient of thermal expansion.
2. The translational strain of concrete exposed to a thermal gradient can be
estimated by multiplication of the temperature change at the centroid and
the coefficient of thermal expansion. Similar behavior has been
documented in instrumented pavement sections. (17)
In addition to these two relatively obvious relationships, the data from this
experiment clearly indicates that geometric distortion caused by one-sided drying or
heating at the surface of slabs will produce movement in the opposite direction at the
base. This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 10 by the sharp change in the bottom surface

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37 4 Miltenberger et al.
strain at the beginning and end of each heating cycle. This behavior occurred in every
test and is consistent with the conceptual basis presented. In order to verify the concept
presented, temperature profiles for all 13 heating cycles were fit to determine the power
term, n, ofEq. 1 at 20-min intervals. Surprisingly, all of the power terms determined fell
in a relatively narrow range, independent of the range of heating. The mean values of n
for all 13 tests conducted are illustrated in Fig. 15.
It should be noted that the combination of translational and rotational strain can
be used to estimate the axial and flexural stress acting on a pavement during heating if the
horizontal displacements are not accommodated. For example, the 209 W/m 2 tests
produced an average surface temperature increase of 6.6 'C, an average translational
strain of 57 IJE and a total strain of87 IJE at the top surface, as measured by the lasers. If
this movement were restrained it would produce a compressive stress at the surface of 2.4
MPa, and 0. 75 MPa at the base. Likewise, the highest heating rate would produce
approximately 6 MPa at the top surface and 0.25 MPa at the bottom.
In addition to this series of laboratory controlled experiments, a 200-mm thick
parking lot slab adjacent to the laboratory in Cleveland, OH, USA was monitored using
embedded VWSGs and a Whitmore gauge for joint opening measurements. The area
monitored was 33 m x 18 m. The parking lot was cast monolithically on July 27, 2001
and was saw-cut into 5.5 m x 6 m panels. The joints were filled with a polyurethane
caulk after approximately two months. The VWSGs were placed in one panel, and
located near the top and bottom of the slab adjacent to the joints. The joint opening
gauges were installed within 24 hours of casting, using recessed brass screw inserts to
protect the insert from snow removal equipment and debris. Each joint was monitored
using two sets of inserts.
The joint movement and surface temperature are presented in Fig. 16 and 18;
and the VWSG movement and surface temperature are presented in Fig. 17 and Fig. 19.
The joint movement was converted to units of strain by adding the joint movement for
each line and dividing by the original distance from edge to edge. Fig. 16 and Fig. 17
show the slab movements during the first two weeks. Fig. 16 shows that the joints open
each morning (lower temperature) and close each afternoon (high temperature). It also
shows that the minimum joint strain increases with each cycle. In contrast, the embedded
VWSG data in Fig. 17 indicate that both the bottom and top surface move in concert with
the slab temperature, and that the average value for the top and bottom gauges start to
separate after only a few days. This behavior was caused by drying of the surface. It
should also be noted that the daily surface temperature change was approximately 15 ·c
during this period.
Fig. 18 and Fig 19 show the behavior of the pavement over 3 winters. After the
first two weeks, measurements occurred in the morning during the first week of every
month. Fig 18 shows that the joints in the pavement continued to open throughout the
first year, and then began to cycle with the seasons after the second summer. It is
believed that this behavior was due primarily to collection of grit in the joints, because
the joint filler cracked during the first winter when the temperature dropped. The joint
opening continued during the first spring and summer as the temperature increased,
indicating that the daily and seasonal thermal volume changes produced sufficient force
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to slide the individual slab panels apart. In contrast, the embedded gauge data in Fig. I 9
shows that the concrete continued to move in concert with temperature. It also shows
that the top and bottom gauges have separated by approximately 100 to 300 1.!£, with
smaller differentials during the wet weather of winter and spring; and larger differentials
during the dry periods of summer and fall.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
• The movement of concrete pavement in response to the environment is
very complex. Thermal warping, curling, and sliding of panels across
the ground occur simultaneously.
• Light reinforcement does not appear to produce a discemable
difference in thermal movement.
• Thermal translation can be estimated by the product of change in
temperature at mid-height in the slab and the coefficient of thermal
expansion.
• Thermal rotation can be estimated from the difference between the top
surface and bottom surface temperature.
• When restraint from adjacent slabs or structures is present, thermal
expansion can produce forces sufficient to slide slabs across the
ground, permanently widening the joints.
• If grit enters joints, daily thermal cycles can continue to shove the slabs
apart. Most of this behavior occurred in the first year.
REFERENCES
1. Thomlinson, J., "Temperature Variations and Consequent Stress Produced by Daily
and Seasonal Temperature Cycles in Concrete Slabs", Concrete and Constructional
Engineering, Vol. XXXV, No.6, June 1940, pp. 298-307.
2. Thomlinson, J., "Temperature Variations and Consequent Stress Produced by Daily
and Seasonal Temperature Cycles in Concrete Slabs", Concrete and Constructional
Engineering, Vol. XXXV, No.7, July 1940, pp. 352-360.
3. Burke, M.P., "Reducing Bridge Damage Caused by Pavement Forces, Part 1: Some
Examples", Concrete International V 26, No. 1, Jan. 2004, pp 53-57.
4. Burke, M. P., "Reducing Bridge Damage Caused by Pavement Forces, Part 2: The
Phenomenon", Concrete International V 26, No.2, Feb. 2004, pp 83-89.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Armaghani, J.M., Larsen, T.J., Smith, L.L., "Temperature Response of Concrete

Pavements", Transportation Research Record 1121, Effects of Temperature and Water
on Pavement Performance, TRB, National Research Council, 1987, pp. 23-33.
6. Thompson, M.R., Dempsey, B.J., Hill, H., Vogel, J., "Characterizing Temperature
Effects for Pavement Analysis and Design", Transportation Research Record 1121,

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Effects of Temperature and Water on Pavement Performance, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C. 1987, pp. 14-22.
7. Richardson, J.M., and Annaghani, J.M., "Stress Caused by Temperature Gradient in
Portland Cement Concrete Pavements", Transportation Research Record 1121, Effects oj
Temperature and Water on Pavement Performance, TRB, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1987, pp. 7-13.
8. Hansen, W., Smiley, D.L., Peng, Y., Jensen, E.A., "Premature Transverse Slab
Cracking of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement - Environmental and Traffic Effects"
Concrete: Material Science to Application, SP206-16, American Concrete Institute,
Fannington Hills, MI, 2002, pp. 259-270.
9. Choubane, B., and Tia, M., "Analysis and Verification ofThennal-Gradient Effects on
Concrete Pavement", Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 121, No. 1, Jan./Feb.
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1995, pp. 75-81.
10. Mohamed,A.R., and Hansen, W., "Effect of Nonlinear Temperature Gradient on
Curling Stress in Concrete Pavements" Transportation Research Record 1568, Pavement
Rehabilitation and Design, TRB, National Research Council, 1997, pp. 65-71.
11. Jeong, J., Zollinger, D.G., "Insights on Early-Age Curling and Warping Behavior
From a Fully Instrumented Test Slab System", TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM,
Washington, D.C.
12. Lim, S., Jeong, J., Zollinger, D.G., "Moisture Profiles and Shrinkage in Early-Age
Concrete", TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM, Washington, D.C., Paper 04-4968
13. Hansen, W. and Almudaiheem, J.A., 1987, "Ultimate Drying Shrinkage of Concrete-
Influence of Major Parameters, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 84, No.3, pp. 217-223.
14. Gere, J.M. and Timoshenko, S.P., 1990, "Mechanics of Materials - Third Edition",
PWS-Kent Publishing Company, Boston, MA.
15. Mindess, S. and Young, J.F., 1981, "Concrete", Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., pp. 521 -525.
16. Neville, A.M., 1981, "Properties of Concrete: Third Edition", John- Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, NY, pp. 491 - 498.
17. Mandel, E.D., Bums, N.H., McCullough, B.F., "Prestressed Concrete Pavement:
Instrumentation, Behavior, and Analysis of Horizontal Movements", Transportation
Research Record 1286, Design and Evaluation of Rigid and Flexible Pavements, TRB,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1990, pp. 38-48.
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Table l - Mixture Proportions
Ingredient Proportion
Portland Type IIII Cement 335 kglm3 (564lbslyd3)
W/CRatio 0.5
3
Coarse Aggregate 891 kglm3 ( 1962 lbs/yd )
(#57 Limestone)
3
Fine Aggregate 515 kglm3 (1133 lbs/yd )
(C 33 Manufactured silica sand)

SIA Ratio 0.38
Air Content(%) 4.5-5.5
Slump (in.) 100-150 mm (4- 6 in.)
Batch size (one for each beam) 144 L (5.1 ft 3)
Table 2 - Hardened Concrete Properties

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Property Test Result

Compressive strength, ASTM C 39 37.9 MPa (5500 psi)
Modulus of Elasticity, ASTM C 469 27.67 GPa (4.01xl06 psi)
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, 10.62 11s1·c (5.91 11 e~·F)
CRDC-39
Table 3- Maximum mean temperature and translational strain data

Laser Mean Mean Middle Middle
Heating Translational Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
Rate, Strain, Change, Strain, Change, Strain,
SJ!ecimen W/m
2
~
·c ~ ·c 1!&
Control 209 48 4.7 49.9 4.3 45.7
484 72 11.6 123.2 11 116.8
821 120 19 201.8 17.9 190.1
Top
Reinforced 209 61 3.7 39.3 3.8 40.4
484 74 8.9 94.5 8.8 93.5
821 146 14.2 150.8 14.1 149.7
Middle
Reinforced 209 64 4 42.5 3.7 39.3
484 87 9.4 99.8 8.7 92.4
821 96 14.7 156.1 13.5 143.4
Bottom
Reinforced 209 56 3.4 36.1 3 31.9
484 75 8.4 89.2 7.5 79.7
821 151 12 127.4 10.8 114.7
821 Ill 13.2 140.2 12.1 128.5

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Table 4 -Maximum deflection, temperature differential and rotational strain data
Equivalent Equivalent Laser Top Temperature
Heating Bending Bending Rotational Temperature Temperature Differential
Rate, Deflection, Stress, Strain, Strain, Rise, Differential, Strain,
S£ecimen W/m2 mm MPa ~i~ I;!S !!!: ·c ·c !!!:
Control 209 0.184 0.82 (119) 29.8 32 7.4 7.3 38.8
484 0.467 2.09 (303) 75.6 59 19.6 16.4 87.1
821 0.694 3.11 {451) 112.3 109 30.5 23.8 126.4
Top Reinforced 209 0.154 0.69 (100) 24.9 23 6.6 6.7 35.6
484 0.334 1.50 (217) 54.1 56 14.4 11.4 60.5
821 0.747 3.34 {485) 120.9 97 22.4 17.1 90.8
Middle
Reinforced 209 0.163 0.73 (106) 26.4 27 6.6 6.2 32.9
484 0.206 0.92 (134) 33.3 15 14.7 11 58.4
821 0.589 2.63 (382) 95.3 85 22.8 16.8 89.2
Bonom
Reinforced 209 0.241 1.08 (156) 39 37 5.8 4.9 26.0
484 0.354 1.59 (230) 57.3 53 12 7.7 40.9
821 0.778 3.48 (505) 125.9 81 18.5 13.2 70.1
821 0.824 3.69 (535) 133.5 105 19.9 13.8 73.3
200
160
~ 160
e 14o
im 120
100
e
,g 80
1: 60
..
.!iP 40
:z: 20
0
·50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Free Strain, IL&
Fig. l - Hypothetical free strain profiles for a pavement exposed to solar radiation.
A) morning, B) mid-day, C) afternoon, D) evening.
-------~--------
! : &f :
~~~~~~~~: J~),~~~ ~~~~~~~r=~=~~~-St~~~~-
_______ _ ----X-------~- -NetStraln
:on : ;
--------- ------.--------;--------,--------
1
_________________ J ________ J ________ o j I _______ _
I o I
' '
-------~--------~--------~--------
'
'I '0 'I
-------~--------~--------~--------
' o I
-50 0 50 100 150 200

Strain,1.1s
Fig. 2- Net strain, e., resulting from free strain profile A, ef' from Fig. 1, showing
rotation and regions of residual compression (-), and tension (+)"stress.
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200
E 180
E 160
E 140
'
'
~0
-----------------~-----,-----
'
120 ------------ _l----- .J----- _]_----
'
Dl '
E 100 -----------------------~-----
''
,g
- BO '
-----~-----------------~-----
60 -----------------~-----~-----
'
.c ' '
Cl
40 ' '
-------.-----
"ii '
::t 20
0
-125 -100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50
Strain, 111:
Fig. 3 - Residual strain profil~ resulting from free strain profile A in Fig. 1.
&tb
Fig. 4 - Schematic of free, er and net, e", strain profiles with nomenclature
used in Eq. 1 through Eq. 4.
Fig. 5 - Forms with instrumentation prior to casting concrete.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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11:~ ~:11
~ermocouple location~
Side View
Fig. 6 - Heat cable and thermocouple layout

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 7 -Overall view of testing apparatus
Fig. 8 - Photograph showing roller on "fixed end" of test frame and water bath

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Fig. 9 - Photograph showing "free-end" of test frame and laser transducers
-TopS..r.•«>
··--·SQ!tornSti~.:e
150
-tOO ! , ....... ,., ..... , .. ··· '"" · ,...... ,... ~---·······--....... ,,. ............-,.......__.,,""'"''"'""·-··
0 eo 60 100 120 14() 160
Tim&,hr
Fig. 10- Response of control beam to curling and the 821, 219,
and 484 W/m2 heating cycles, respectively
1.0-r--------------------,
09 -------------------------------------------------
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
nme, hr.
Fig. 11 - Deflection of control beam during the 821 W/m 2 heating cycle
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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210 ,---.-Control-----------.---y.-1-.1-0x_ _ _ _ _'?I_..-
CTcp- R'=0.59 .... /··

180 · bMiddlerainforced -------------------------.~.::·"'------
{: 0--~= ~;//~/
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
! 90
I 60 ---------- -_ ... ~<·~-~-~ ------------------------------

30 ----- ,..:·~·~·: - Ot:_ - ----- - -- - -- --- --- -- - --- -- - -- ---
.Il.
...............·····
30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Measured Translation Strain, ps
Fig. 12 - Relationship between center temperature and translational strain data
:. . ~-~-=: ~.>'c --------------------------------------
0 ~ ~ 60 60 ~ ~ ~
MeasUI'II!d Rotational Strain, a.aa
Fig. 13 -Relationship between maximum bending strain calculated from mid-span

deflection and maximum laser rotational strain
14Dr--------------------~_..
. :: -;~ --:-- ----- -;:~::z::::"

1
• ...-c
t....
~ ·--------------------------·-------------------
Point 0
Excluded
80 -- -@------------ .Q. --------------------------
---------or- ---~----------------------------
0"
2: --~-~--~-->""- ---------------------------------------
20 4D eo so 100 120 140
Measured Rotational Strain, pa
Fig. 14 - Relationship between temperature differential and rotational strain data

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4.5
1
7.2
4.0
3.5
1:
§ 30
"
': 2.5
I
-~----------------------~------------------
; 1
_________ Heating __ .:_ Cooling. ______ -----
~ 2.0
1:
1 1.s
lii
1.0 ------------~---- ---------- _1 __ _
I
0.5 ------------------------------~-----------
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Time, hr
Fig. 15- Mean power term (line) and range of values determined
from temperature profiles.
r--------------------------------------.~
140 - - - - - - -- - -- - --- - -- -- -- - - - - - ---- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - --
120 "
! u
r:."'lOO ... I!
I.. so
.!!
~60
3S
..i!
!l
30~
~
., 40 --
"'
20 "
20
10 ll 14
Time from CastiDg, Days

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 16 - Mean joint opening strain for a 200-mm thick parking lot pavement in
Cleveland, OH showing daily fluctuations
I~
! 100
l
~ -~
-100
·150 -1----------~----------~----------------+ 15
0 10 12 14
Time from Casting, Days
Fig. 17 - VWSG data for gauges located near sawn joints in a 200-mm thick pavement in
Cleveland, OH, showing daily fluctuations.

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..
u
,. f
--i -_:~~-- -------~-~-~~-\------- +--

• ,._
··~~-----~-----·~~------L·~-----:t _____ ~-
•• ,. '
20 l
(oo
· ·. . ~ ·.:: r ~: ~: 10 lI
--~·.:-.--- -:~·~- ------~~- . -.-/------- ~ 1-- -f.!~---
•, \I ~ =.~ !-' '•, ...... • \
---- -: . ·~~- ------7S•~ ~·-•-- -------"" -:--""""-"""" "
E-~-~-T:..:empentll~::.::;::.n:.__~~-~-~~-~-~--t-•o
~ oo m ~ ~ ~ ~ m m ~ * -
Time from CasliDg, Days
Fig. 18- Mean joint opening strain for a 200-mm thick parking lot pavement in
Cleveland, OH, showing seasonal effects.
~ ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~ m m ~ m -
Time from Casting, Days
Fig. 19 - VWSG data for gauges located near sawn joints in a 200-mm thick parking lot
pavement in Cleveland, OH showing seasonal effects.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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CONVERSION FACTORS-INCH-POUND TO SI (METRIC)*
To convert from to multiply by
Length
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inch millimeter (mm) 25.4E+

foot meter (m) 0.3048E
yard meter(m) 0.9l44E
mile (statute) kilometer (km) 1.609
Area
square inch square centimeter (cm 2) 6.451
square foot square meter (m2 ) 0.0929

square yard square meter (m 2) 0.8361
Volume (capacity)
ounce cubic centimeter (cm 3) 29.57
gallon 3 0.003785
cubic meter (m ):1:
cubic inch cubic centimeter (cm 3) 16.4
cubic foot cubic meter (m 3) 0.02832
cubic yard cubic meter (m 3):1: 0.7646
Force
kilogram-force newton (N) 9.807
kip-force newton (N) 4448
pound-force newton (N) 4.448
Pressure or stress
(force per area)
kilogram-force/square meter pascal (Pa) 9.807
kip-force/square inch (ksi) megapascal (MPa) 6.895
newton/square meter (N/m 2 ) pascal (Pa) I.OOOE
pound-force/square foot pascal (Pa) 47.88
pound-force/square inch (psi) kilopascal (kPa) 6.895
Bending moment or torque

inch-pound-force newton-meter (Nm) 0.1130
foot-pound-force newton-meter (Nm) 1.356
meter-kilogram-force newton-meter (Nm) 9.807

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386 Conversion Factors-Inch-Pound to Sl (Metric)
To convert from to multiply by
Mass
ounce-mass (avoirdupois) gram (g) 28.34
pound-mass (avoirdupois) kilogr.1m (kg) 0.4536
ton (metric) megagram (Mg) I.OOOE
ton (short, 2000 Ibm) megagram (Mg) 0.9072
Mass per volume

pound-ma<s/cubic foot kilogram/cubic meter (kgtm 3) 16.02
pound-ma<s/cubic yard kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m 3) 0.5933

pound-ma<slgallon kilogram/cubic meter (kgtm 3) 119.8
Temperature§
deg Fahrenheit (F) deg Celsius (C) fc =(If - 32)/1.8
deg Celsius (C) deg Fahrenheit (F) tF = 1.8tc + 32
* This selected list gives practical conversion factors of units found in concrete technology. The reference
source for information on SI units and more exact conversion factors is "Standard for Metric Practice" ASTM E
380. Symbols of metric units are given in parentheses.
t E indicates that the factor given is exact.
:j: One liter(cubic decimeter) equals 0.001 m 3 or 1000 cm 3.
§ These equations convert one temperature reading to another and include the necessary scale corrections. To
convert a difference in temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius degrees, divide by 1.8 only, i.e., a change from 70
to 88 F represents a change of 18 For 1811.8 = 10 C.
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Index
A creep recovery, 67
aging, 107 curling, 367
Alexander, S.D. B., 195
Alexander, S. 1., I D
Al-Manaseer, A., 41 D'Ambrosia, M.D., 349
Arockiasamy, M., 85 deflection, 1
Attiogbe, E. K., 303, 367 deformational characteristics, 21
autogenous shrinkage, 285, 337 delayed restraints, 107
design, I
B design aids, 239
Barcelo, L., 337
Bissonnette, B., 337 E
Boily, D., 337 early age, 67, 337, 349
bridge, 67 early age contractions, 1
bridge monitoring, 143 elastic modulus, 21
Buchberg, B., 317 Espion, B., 67
c F
camber prediction, 195 fly ash, 217, 261
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Carreira, D. J., 163

case study, 195 G
Chiorino, M.A., 107, 239 Gilbert, R. 1., 21
compliance, 107, 239
composite beams, 1, 67 H
concrete, 107, 217, 239, 337 heat curing, 67
continuous composite structures, 85 high-performance, 317
cracking, 1, 303 high strength, 217, 317
cracking in columns, 163 high strength concrete, 21, 261
cracking potential, 303
cracking resistance, 303
creep, 1, 21, 85, 143, 163, 195, 239, 261, instrumentation, 143
317, 337, 349 integral abutment bridges, 85
creep analysis, 107, 239
creep coefficient, 21 K
creep properties, 67 Kahn, L., 317

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388 Index
Kurtis, K., 317 relative humidity, 41
relaxation, 105, 239, 337
L residual stress, 285
Lange, D. A., 349 restrained drying, 349
Li,X., 143 restrained ring test, 285
lightweight, 2I7 restrained shrinkage, 303
lightweight concrete, 3I7 restraining moment, 85
loading history, I63 restraint, 1
longitudinal cracks, I63 ring test, 303
long-term deflection, 143 Ristanovic, S., 4I
Lopez, M., 317 Robertson, I. N., I43
Rowgowsky, D. M., I95
M
Marchand, J., 337 s
material properties, 2I Sassone, M., 239
mathematical models, 26I See, H. T., 303
microsilica, 2I7 self-consolidating concrete (SCC), 303
Miltenberger, M. A., 367 self-desiccation, 337
modeling, 317, 349 sensitivty, 41
models, 217 serviceability, 1
Mokarem, D. W., 2I7 Shah, H., 285
shortening, I
N shrinkage, I, 21, 4I, 67, 85, I43, I63,
Nassif, H. H., 261 . 2I7, 285,303, 3I7, 349
normal strength, 217 shrinkage reducing admixture, 285, 303
numerical solver, 239 shrinkage variabilty, I95
silica fume, 261
0 Sivakumar, M., 85
overlays, I slab on grade, 367
slag, 2I7
p Sprinkel, M. M., 2I7
Paulsen, M. W., 195 static system, I 07
pavement, 367 Staquet, S., 67
Pease, B., 285 Stoddard, A. R., 367
Pigeon, M., 337 strain, 337
pozzolans, 26I strength, 4I
prediction, 143, 261 stress, 337
prediction models, 107, 239 stress redistribution, 107
prestressed, 195 structural analysis, I, I 07, 239
prestressing, 67 Susksawang, N., 261
prestress loss, 67
T
R temperature variations, 163
redistribution function, I07, 239 tensile strength, 21
reinforced concrete, 1 test, 337
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thermal expansion, 367
transverse cracks, 163
trinary blended concrete, 261
type of cement, 41
type of curing, 41
v
viscoelasticity, l 07
w
warping, 367
web site, 239
Weiss, J ., 285
Weyers, R. E., 217
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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390
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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American Concrete Institute•
--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Advancing concrete knowledge

Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS SP· Licensee=UNI OF NEW SOUTH WALES/9996758001
Not for Resale, 08/10/2015 01:24:03 MDT
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American Concrete Institute•

--`,```,,``,,,`,,,``````,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- Advancing concrete knowledge

Copyright American Concrete Institute

DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium may be submitted in accordance

Printed in the United States of America

Editorial production: Lindsay K. Kennedy

Library of Congress catalog card number: 2005922742

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Preface .................................................................................................................................. iii

SP-227-1: Managing Deflection, Shortening and Crack Arising from Restrained

SP-227-3: Sensitivty of the Models for Predicting Shrinkage of Concrete ................... 41

SP-227--4: Deviations from the Principle of Superposition and their Consequences on

SP-227-5: Design Implication of Creep and Shrinkage in Integral

SP-227-6: A Rational Approach to the Analysis of

SP-227-8: Tension Cracking in Columns Under Compression Loads ......................... 163

SP-227-9: Estimating Time-Dependent Deformations of Prestressed Elements:

SP-227-10: Shrinkage of Virginia Transportation Concrete Mixtures ........................ 217

SP-227-11: Design Aids for the Evaluation of Creep Induced

SP-227-13: Shrinkage Behavior and Residual Stress Development in Mortar

SP-227-14: Performance of Self-Consolidating Concrete Under

SP-227-15: Long-Term Creep and Shrinkage in High-Strength

. SP-227-16: Stress Relaxation of Concrete Under Autogenous Early-Age

SP-227-18: Evaluation of Thermal Warping in Pavements ......................................... 367

Managing Deflection, Shortening and

Synopsis: Concrete shrinks. Steel doesn't, and the resistance of reinforcement to

Restraint by differential contraction between an insitu concrete overlay and an

External testtaint to contraction induces tensile stresses, and a rational approach to

Keywords: composite beams; cracking; creep; deflection; design; early age

LIFE CYCLE OF CONCRETE

Concrete typically goes through the following life cycle:

It is important to recognise the cumulative effect of all the contractions, that is

Copyright American Concrete Institute

European guidance on creep and shrinkage is published in BS 5400-4 (3), but

RESTRAINT FROM EMBEDDED REINFORCEMENT

The easiest way to understand the restraining effect of reinforcement is to

Symmetrically reinforced sections

If the reinforcement is symmetrical and the compressive strain in it is &5, the

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Each increment of shrinkage occurs at a different age before being subsequently

Shrinkage deflection in reinforced members

If the section is reinforced asymmetrically - as is usual in a beam or slab - the

Kun = &cs m s, I (lg + m Pn fc) (2)

Kcr = Ccs / (d- c/2) (3)

Copyright American Concrete Institute

The method recommended in the US is equation 2.26 in ACI 435R-95 (7):

In order to compare the shrinkage curvatures obtained by different methods,

fet = Kun Eeff (h- c) (6)

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Deflection is obtained from curvature by the relationship

Shrinkage deflection calculated by the ACI method is typically L/1250 or less,

CONTRACTION OF INSITU CONCRETE OVERLAYS

Copyright American Concrete Institute

F= lD I [11E.,A. + 1/E!Ab + z(z-e)IEtfb] = lD Eb Ib I [Et/JE.,A. +!JAb+ z(z-e)] (9)

The eccentricity e can be found by equating the curvatures (= MIEI) of the

z-e = z I (1 + EJ.IEtfb) (12)

lD is the net contraction ie the difference in contraction between the

Copyright American Concrete Institute

CONTRACTION OF INSITU SLABS IN COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

In composite construction, contraction of the insitu concrete slab can be

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Cracking in composite concrete slabs

This section uses a rational approach to give guidance on providing sufficient

If increasing axial tension is applied to a section it will eventually crack