Aci sp-213-2003

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he Art and Science of

Structural Concrete Design
A Symposium Honoring Richard W Furlong
Editor:
®
S.AliMirza
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Copyright American Concrete Institute
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SP-213
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The Art and Science of

A Symposium Honoring
Richard W. Furlong
Editor
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S. Ali Mirza
®
international
SP-213

Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=University of Texas Revised Sub Account/5620001114, User=erur, ert
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DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium may be submitted in accordance

with general requirements of the ACI Publication Policy to ACI headquarters at the address
given below. Closing date for submission of discussion is December 2003. All discussion
approved by the Technical Activities Committee along with closing remarks by the authors
will be published in the March/April 2004 issue of either ACI Structural Journal or ACI
Materials Journal depending on the subject emphasis of the individual paper.
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The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in its publications.
Institute publications are not able to, nor intended to, supplant individual training,
responsibility, or judgment of the user, or the supplier, of the information presented.
The papers in this volume have been reviewed under Institute publication procedures by
individuals expert in the subject areas of the papers.
Copyright © 2003
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
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ISBN: 0-87031-114-X

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PREFACE
Integrity, honesty, and a strong desire to help others are guiding principles of Richard W. Furlong.
These personal qualities, combined with his professional philosophy that innovative research
ought to lead to solving real problems faced by practicing engineers, make him rather unique
among educators and researchers of structural engineering. This led a group of his colleagues,
friends, and former students to hold an all-day symposium at the American Concrete Institute
Convention in Detroit, Michigan. Lawrence G. Griffis, Franz N. Rad, and I served as
moderators for the symposium. The objective of the symposium was to honor Professor
Richard Furlong; to celebrate his outstanding contributions to research, education,
professional practice, and ACI; and to disseminate results of recent experimental and
analytical research and code development studies in structural concrete. The symposium
was very well attended and very well received. The papers included herein are mostly a
result of presentations made at the symposium.
This special publication offers technical papers on topics that include high-strength high-
performance concrete columns and biaxial bending, role of FRP reinforcement and strut-
and-tie models, use of precast prestressed concrete in building and highway pavements,
composite steel-concrete construction, and teaching of structural concrete design. In addition,
a biographical sketch of Dr. Richard Furlong highlights the volume. All papers were reviewed
using the ACI peer review process. In order to protect the anonymity of reviewers,
Timo K. Tikka handled reviews of the paper coauthored by myself, while I managed reviews
of the remaining 12 papers.
The work for the Richard W. Furlong Symposium: The Art and Science of Structural Concrete
Design and this volume started in October 2000. During different phases of the symposium
and special publication, I have received advice and assistance from Todd R. Watson as well
as several other ACI staff members and I thank them for that. An expression of thanks also
goes to Timo K. Tikka. And, of course, it goes without saying that this volume would not
have been possible without the authors and the reviewers of the papers. As a result of their
hard work, the quality of this volume is extremely high for which I acknowledge them
gratefully. I am also thankful to Edward G. Nawy and Richard N. White for sustained
encouragement they provided during the preparation of this publication. Finally, I wish to
take this opportunity to thank Richard Furlong for his extensive and varied contributions to
the structural engineering profession in general and the art and science of structural concrete
design in particular. I do so not just on my behalf but also on behalf of all of his colleagues,
friends, and former students.
S. Ali Mirza
Editor
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IN TRIBUTE TO RICHARD WILSON FURLONG:

AMALGAMATING RESEARCH WITH ENGINEERING PRACTICE
AND EDUCATION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
On Monday, April22, 2002, colleagues, friends, and former students of Dr. Richard W. Furlong
gathered for an all-day symposium at the American Concrete Institute Convention in Detroit,
Michigan. The symposium's aim was to honor Professor Richard Furlong for his outstanding
contributions to research, to engineering education and practice, and to ACI.
The symposium included 14 presentations recognizing and honoring the enormous

contributions made by Richard Furlong in advancing the state of the art and the state of the
practice for structural concrete design. The papers included in this special publication are
mostly a result of the presentations made at the symposium.
Richard received his early education inN orwalk, Ohio. He completed his BSCE at Southern
Methodist University in Dallas, Texas, while working as a co-op student involved in
construction and steel fabrication. In 1952, he enrolled at Washington University in
St. Louis, Missouri, to earn a Master's degree in 1957 while working full time. Integrating
the design experience he gained during his professional practice with his undergraduate as
well as graduate education helped him shape his philosophy of research, i.e. effective, useful
research ought to lead to solving real problems faced by practicing structural engineers.
His desire to learn and contribute more to knowledge in structural engineering led Richard
to begin in 1958 to pursue a Ph.D. degree at the University of Texas at Austin under the
tutelage of Professor Phil M. Ferguson, and to start his teaching career as an assistant
professor. That career spanned 40 years before he retired from the research chair of E. C. H.
Bantel Professor for Engineering Practice, and has included a rich mixture of teaching,
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supervising research, serving the profession, and consulting. Richard Furlong's research
has involved reinforced concrete columns, beams, and frames; composite columns and beams;
inelastic response analysis; and design aids. His research on framed columns developed
into building code provisions, and his pioneer works on composite columns and bridge bent
cap inverted T-girders continue to be used by the profession. He is author of over 100 refereed
articles, books, book chapters, and reports, and he has supervised 10 Ph.D. dissertations
and scores of M.S. theses. He has successfully completed numerous consulting assignments
on special industrial structures and rehabilitation of structures, and he is a forensic specialist
on structural failure investigations.
Richard Furlong has an outstanding record of serving the professional community. His
awards and accolades are too numerous to list, but the following serve as a sample: Honorary
Member, American Society of Civil Engineers (2001); W. C. Schoeller Award (2000); History
and Heritage Award, Texas Section, ASCE (2000); President, Texas Section, ASCE (1997);
Distinguished Engineer of Texas Engineering Foundation (1996); Engineer-of-the-Year,
Travis Chapter, Texas Society of Professional Engineers (1996); Award of Honor, Texas
Section, ASCE ( 1993); Raymond C. Reese Structural Research Award, American Concrete
v
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Institute (1990); Engineer-of-the-Year, Bexar Chapter, Texas Society of Professional

Engineers (1986); Engineer-of-the-Year, Texas Society of Professional Engineers (1986);
Fellow, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering (1986); Executive Secretary, Texas Section
ASCE (1979-85); Board of Direction, ACI (1979-82); Fellow, American Concrete Institute
(1976); John Erskine Fellowship, Canterbury University, Christchurch, New Zealand (1973);
Fellow, American Society of Civil Engineers (1973).
At the symposium in Detroit the authors of this tribute made a presentation entitled "Case
Studies on 'Solid-as-Concrete' Relationships Between Students and Mentor: Richard W. Furlong."
We examined our relationships with our mentor over the span of more than 35 years. We
acknowledged and cherished the technical and non-technical knowledge we gained from
Professor Furlong on structural analysis, reinforced concrete and structural steel behavior,
limit design, and even more importantly, knowledge on fostering relations with colleagues, and
undergraduate and graduate students who later became colleagues and friends.
We recalled the challenges of learning structural analysis; the real meaning of a "knife-
edge," a "roller," and a "fixed-end;" the approximations made in frame analysis, the Hardy
Cross moment distribution, and the "Two-Cycle" methods. Later, we learned from our mentor
how to design frames made of reinforced concrete; the real story behind "factors of safety;"
applicability of "elastic frame analysis" to inelastic nonlinear materials that crack, creep,
and shrink; and frames that distort, drift, settle, and behave in ways not well-understood.
Through the early works of A. L. L. Baker, L. Beedle, M. Z. Cohn, K. W. Johansen, and

others, we learned the basics oflirnit design, and were enticed as graduate students to pursue
a path of research in areas that are even more "gray" than the color of concrete itself! After
we completed an array of courses, the mentor chaperoned us into the practice of designing
with concrete by providing and supervising real-world projects.
In summary, in knowing Richard W. Furlong, what we have experienced over the past 35 years
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or so has been a non-fictional tale of exemplary teaching, mentorship, collegiality, and

friendship that fostered lasting relations between a master and his two former students,
Franz N. Rad, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon; and S. Ali Mirza, Lakehead
University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ............................................................................................................................... iii
In Tribute to Richard Wilson Furlong: Amalgamating Research with

Engineering Practice and Education in Structural Concrete .............................................. v
SP-213-1: Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement .......................................................... 1

by N.H. Bums, D. K. Merritt, and B. F. McCullough
SP-213-2: Improved Teaching of Structural Concrete Design ...................................... 19

by R. N. White
SP-213-3: Compressive Behavior of High-Strength High-Performance

Concrete Under Biaxial Loading ...................................................................................... 43
by E. G. Nawy, D. H. Lim, and K. L. McPherson
SP-213-4: Design of Rectangular HSC Columns for Ductility ..................................... 61

by 0. Bayrak and S. A. Sheikh
SP-213-5: Design of High-Strength Concrete Columns for Strength and Ductility ..... 83
by M. Saatcioglu
SP-213-6: Precast Concrete for High Seismic Regions ............................................... 103

by G. S. Cheok and H. S. Lew
SP-213-7: Shear Strength of Lightweight Concrete Beams with

Stirrups Near Code Minimum ........................................................................................ 119
by J. A. Ramirez
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SP-213-8: Design Rules for Composite Construction in Retrospect ........................... 135

by I. M. Viest
SP-213-9: Reliant Stadium-A New Standard for Football ........................................ 151

by L. G. Griffis, A. Wahidi, and M. C. Waggoner
SP-213-10: Composite RCS Space Frame Systems: Previous and Current Studies ... 167
by J. M. Bracci, S. Powanusom, and J.P. Steele
SP-213-11: Finite Element Analysis of Composite Steel-Concrete Columns ............. 185

by S. A. Mirza and E. A. Lacroix
SP-213-12: Flexural Ductility of CFRP Strengthened Concrete Beams-

Experimental Investigation ............................................................................................. 207
by R. S. Aboutaha, P. Wattanadechachan, and S. H. Kim
SP-213-13: My View of Richard W. Furlong-Colleague .......................................... 221

byN. H. Bums
Professional Contributions of Richard W. Furlong ........................................................ 235

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viii
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SP-213-1
Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement
by N. H. Burns, D. K. Merritt, and B. F. McCullough
Synopsis: With traffic volumes continuing to increase on a rapidly deteriorating

infrastructure, new methods are needed for expediting construction of durable, high
performance concrete pavements with minimal disruption to traffic. One method, which
has received significant attention in recent years, involves the use of precast concrete
panels. Precast concrete panels can be cast and cured in a controlled environment,
stockpiled, and set in place in a short amount of time, allowing for construction to take
place during overnight or weekend operations. In March 2000, the Center for
Transportation Research at The University of Texas at Austin completed a feasibility
study which investigated the use of precast prestressed concrete panels for pavement
construction. Following the feasibility study, a pilot project was initiated by the Texas
Department of Transportation to test and refine these concepts on an actual project.
Recently, construction of this pilot project was completed on a section of frontage road
along northbound Interstate 35 near Georgetown, Texas. Although it was constructed
without the time constraints and complexities that will eventually need to be considered
for precast pavement construction, the viability of the concept for precast prestressed
concrete pavement was clearly demonstrated and will ultimately lead to development of
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future precast prestressed concrete pavements.
Keywords: expedited construction; post-tensioned pavement;

precast concrete pavement; precast pavement panels; prestressed pavement;
user costs

1
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2 Burns et al.
Dr. Ned H Burns is a Zarrow Centennial Professor Emeritus at The University of
Texas At Austin where he has been involved in teaching, research, and consulting
in structural concrete for 40 years. He is an active member of ACI Committee
423 - Prestressed Concrete, and is a Fellow of ACI. He is a member of the
National Academy of Engineering.
David K. Merritt, ACI member, is a Research Associate with the Center for
Transportation Research at the University of Texas at Austin. He received his BS
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in civil engineering from Northern Arizona University in 1998, and MS in civil

engineering from The University of Texas at Austin in 2000. He has been a
researcher at CTR for four years specializing in precast and prestressed concrete
pavement.
Dr. B. Frank McCullough is the Adnan Abou-Ayyash Centennial Professor

Emeritus of Civil Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin and former
Director of the Center for Transportation Research. Dr. McCullough has a
particularly strong interest and background in pavement design. During his
career, Dr. McCullough has supervised over 50 research projects involving
development of quality assurance and quality control specifications, planning,
design, construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of pavements.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
New methods are continually being developed for expediting construction of

durable concrete pavements. This paper describes one such method using precast
prestressed concrete panels. Although other methods for expediting construction,
such as fast-setting concretes already exist, precast concrete is presented as an
alternative to these methods. With the degree of quality control afforded at a
precast plant and the incorporation of post-tensioning, durability should be greatly
enhanced, making precast concrete an appealing alternative for transportation
agencies.
BACKGROUND
In response to an ever-increasing demand for methods to expedite pavement

construction, the Center for Transportation Research (CTR) at The University of
Texas at Austin completed a feasibility study, sponsored by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHW A), which examined the use of precast concrete panels to
expedite the construction of portland cement concrete pavements. From this
feasibility study, a concept for precast pavement was developed which
incorporated the use of prestressed precast panels.

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The Art and Science of Structural Concrete Design 3

A final recommendation from the feasibility study was a staged implementation
strategy for testing and refining the proposed concept, in order to develop design
details and construction specifications that will be acceptable to contractors and
transportation agencies and easily adapted to current practices. Staged
implementation begins with small pilot projects without stringent time constraints,
aimed at streamlining the construction procedures for use on future projects.
The first precast pavement pilot project was constructed by the Texas Department
of Transportation (TxDOT) during the fall and winter of 2001 on a section of
frontage road along northbound Interstate 35 near Georgetown, Texas. This
project incorporated precast concrete pavement panels into the reconstruction of
0.7 km (2,300 ft) of frontage road on either side of a new bridge, based upon the
proposed concept described below. Ultimately, this pilot project not only
demonstrated the viability of using precast panels to expedite construction of
concrete pavements, but also the benefits and viability of incorporating post-
tensioning.
PROPOSED CONCEPT
The proposed concept for a precast pavement, constructed on a section of frontage

road near Georgetown, Texas, uses full-depth prestressed precast panels. Based
upon the feasibility study mentioned previously, it was believed that full-depth
precast panels would be the most efficient way to expedite construction, and that a
sufficiently smooth riding surface could be attained using full-depth panels with
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occasional diamond grinding.
Previous experience with prestressed pavements has shown that prestress in both
the longitudinal and transverse directions is essential ( 1). Therefore, prestress is
incorporated in a precast pavement by pretensioning the precast panels during
fabrication (for transverse prestress), and post-tensioning all of the panels together
after placement (for longitudinal prestress). Pretensioning not only accounts for
in situ stresses but also counteracts lifting stresses. Post-tensioning not only
provides the necessary prestress in the longitudinal direction, but also serves to tie
all of the panels together so they act as a continuous slab.
Two key factors which must be considered when using full-depth panels are: 1)
base preparation so that the panels are resting on a flat surface and are fully
supported, and 2) method for ensuring vertical alignment of adjacent panels to
achieve satisfactory ride quality over the joints. With regard to base preparation,
profile measurements obtained from a newly placed asphalt pavement in Austin,
Texas revealed that it is possible to place a thin (25 - 50 mm) asphalt leveling
course smooth enough and flat enough that the panels can be placed directly over
the leveling course (2). This is not only an economical solution, but an efficient

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4 Burns et al.
solution in that the asphalt leveling course can be placed well in advance of the
precast panels, allowing traffic onto the leveling course prior to panel placement.
To ensure vertical alignment between adjacent panels, the proposed concept

features continuous shear keys cast into the edges of the panels which will
interlock the panels as they are set in place. Although shear keys along the panel
edges require strict casting tolerances, the panels can be set in place rapidly
without the need for additional measures to level-up adjacent panels. This was
demonstrated prior to construction by trial assemblies, described below.
A typical panel assembly for the proposed concept is shown in Figure 1. The
panels are oriented with the longitudinal axis perpendicular to the flow of traffic,
incorporating both traffic lanes and shoulders. There are essentially three types of
panels: base panels, joint panels, and central stressing panels, shown individually
in Figure 2. As mentioned above, all of the panels are pretensioned lengthwise
(transverse pavement direction), and post-tensioning ducts are cast into each panel
widthwise (longitudinal pavement direction) to allow the panels to be post-
tensioned together after they are set in place. The base panels (Figure 2a) are the
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"filler" panels between the joint panels and central stressing panels. The number
of base panels between the joint panels and central stressing panels will depend on
the post-tensioned slab length (between expansion joints). The joint panels
(Figure 2b) contain an armored expansion joint, similar to that used for bridge
decks, which will absorb the significant expansion and contraction movements of
the post-tensioned slabs. The joint panels also contain self-locking post-
tensioning anchors to receive the post-tensioning strands. Small access pockets
(150 mm x 300 mm) cast into the joint panel provide access to the strand prior to
insertion into the self-locking anchors. Finally, the central stressing panels
(Figure 2c) are similar to the base panels, with the addition of larger pockets (1.2
m x 0.2 m) cast into the panels at every post-tensioning duct. The purpose of the
pockets is to allow for post-tensioning to be completed from the center of the slab
rather than at the post-tensioning anchorage in the joint panel. This allows for a
more continuous pavement placement operation, as access to the anchorage is not
needed in order to tension the strands. The post-tensioning strands coming into
the stressing pockets from either side of the slab are coupled in the pocket, and
then tensioned, as shown in Figure 3.
In order to protect the post-tensioning strands crossing the joints between each of
the panels, epoxy is applied to the edges of the panels as they are assembled,
similarly to segmental bridge construction. This not only protects the strands
from water intrusion, but also prevents grout from leaking at the panel joints
during tendon grouting. The epoxy also serves to bond the panels together so that
they act more like a continuous slab, while also serving as a lubricant during
assembly of the panels.
In certain cases it may not be possible to replace the entire pavement width, but
rather one lane at a time. In this situation, it will be necessary to place two or
more "partial-width" precast pavement slabs adjacent to each other and tie them

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together transversely. To accomplish this, an additional post-tensioning duct is
cast into each of the panels in the transverse pavement direction, as shown in
Figure 4. A flat, oversized duct will permit slight misalignment of adjacent slabs
and will accommodate any differential movement of the slabs.
Following assembly (Figure 1) and post-tensioning of the precast panels, the

pockets in both the joint panels and central stressing panels are filled with a fast-
setting concrete. If time constraints do not permit filling the pockets, the pockets
can simply be covered and filled during a subsequent operation. After filling the
pockets, the post-tensioning strands are grouted in the ducts. Grouting not only
bonds the strands to the pavement so that there will not be a significant loss of
prestress if a strand is cut, but more importantly, provides an extra layer of
corrosion protection for the strands, which is particularly important at the joints
between panels where the post-tensioning ducts are not continuous. Grouting,
also, can be completed during a subsequent operation if time constraints do not
permit immediate grouting.
Another aspect of the precast pavement concept is a friction-reducing medium

between the precast panels and the asphalt leveling course. A friction-reducing
medium is essential for minimizing prestress losses in the pavement due to
frictional restraint developed between the bottom of the panels and the leveling
course during post-tensioning and over the life of the pavement. Previous
research has shown a single layer of polyethylene sheeting to be a very effective
and economical material for use as a friction-reducing medium (3). This material
was used successfully for construction of a cast-in-place post-tensioned pavement
near West, Texas (4). In addition to the friction-reducing medium, the middle of
each post-tensioned slab must be anchored to the base. A mid-slab anchor forces
the slabs to expand and contract outward from the center, ensuring uniform
expansion joint widths. Dowel bars drilled and grouted into the base material at
the stressing pockets provide a simple and effective solution for the mid-slab
anchor.
DESIGN OF THE GEORGETOWN PRECAST PAVEMENT
Project Site
The precast pavement constructed near Georgetown, Texas was placed on a

section of frontage road along northbound Interstate 35. The project consisted of
700 m (2,300 ft) of precast pavement on either side of a new bridge, as shown in
Figure 5. The site for this project was ideal for several reasons. First, the frontage
road was closed to traffic during construction. This allowed initial problems to be
worked out without restrictive time constraints. Although the ultimate application ·
for precast pavement will be in urban areas, under extreme time constraints
(overnight or during weekends), the purpose of this initial pilot project was to test
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6 Burns et al.
and refine the panel details and construction procedures. Secondly, there are no
horizontal curves and very gradual vertical curves. Although horizontal curves
and superelevations must eventually be addressed, a roadway with a simple
geometric layout allowed for the basic details of the precast pavement concept to
be worked out first. Finally, the site for the Georgetown precast pavement was
ideal because it will eventually experience heavy traffic, particularly truck traffic,
as it will become part of an interchange for Interstate 35 and (proposed) State
Highway 130. Heavy traffic will provide a good test of the durability of the
finished precast pavement.
The precast panels were oriented transverse to the flow of traffic, as shown in the
panel assembly (Figure I). This required panels which would span the full 11 m
(36 ft) roadway width (two 3.7 m lanes, 2.4 m outside shoulder, and 1.2 m inside
shoulder). To accomplish this, both full-width (11 m) and partial-width (5 m + 6
m) panels were used, although partial-width panels were not required. The full-
width panels were placed on the north side of the bridge, and the partial-width
panels on the south side of the bridge, with the joint between the 5 m and 6 m
panels located at the center stripe of the road. A standard slab length (between
expansion joints) of 76 m (250ft) was selected based upon prior experience with
the post-tensioned pavement near West, Texas (4). To meet the project limits, a
longer slab length of 100 m (325 ft) for the partial-width panels, and a slightly
shorter slab length of 68 m (225 ft) for the full-width panels were also
incorporated. A standard panel width of 3 m (10 ft) was selected for all of the
panels based upon fabrication (casting bed width) and transportation (weight
limit) considerations.
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Prestress Requirements
The Georgetown pilot project was designed for an equivalent fatigue life, in terms
of expected 80 kN (18-kip) equivalent single axle load (ESAL) applications to
that of a 355 mm (14 in) continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP).
Although a 355 mm pavement is a much thicker pavement than needed for this
frontage road, the purpose of this pilot project was to simulate what might be used
on the main lanes of an interstate pavement.
The pavement was placed as a new pavement directly on the asphalt leveling
course over compacted subbase material. A 200 mm (8 in) pavement thickness
was selected primarily on the basis of handling considerations. Using layered
theory analysis, elastic design for fatigue loading was used to determine the
prestress requirements for a 200 mm precast pavement with an equivalent design
life to a 355 mm CRCP for the given subbase support conditions. Elastic design
for environmental and wheel loading was then used to determine the final
· prestress requirements. Elastic design for environmental and wheel loading takes
into account stresses generated from slab curling due to top-bottom temperature
differentials in the slab, prestress losses due to both frictional resistance at the

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bottom of the slab and strand relaxation, and stresses generated from wheel
loading (simultaneous to environmental loading).
Based on this design, the maximum required prestress (at the ends of the slab), for
a 200 mm (8 in) precast pavement, was found to be approximately 1.45 MPa (210
psi). This translates into 15 mm (0.6 in) diameter 1,860 MPa (270 ksi) post-
tensioning strands spaced at approximately 71 em (28 in) across the width of the
pavement (strands to be stressed to 80 percent of ultimate strength). However, for
the purpose of standardization of strand spacing for future projects, a strand
spacing of 61 em (24 in) was selected, which further increased the effective
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thickness of the pavement.
Elastic design for environmental loading was also used to determine the expected
minimum and maximum expansion joint widths for the given slab lengths (76 m,
100m, 68 m). Anticipated joint widths were checked to ensure that the expansion
joints would never be open more than .100 mm (4 in) and would never be
completely closed under extreme summer and winter temperatures relative to
weather typically experienced in Georgetown, Texas. Based upon these joint
widths limitations, a table was developed for the recommended initial joint width,
at panel placement, based on approximate ambient temperatures during panel
placement. The initial joint width was then set, prior to casting the joint panels,
by tack welding the armored joint together at the specified width.
In addition to longitudinal prestress requirements, transverse prestress

requirements were also determined based on environmental and wheel loading.
However, it was determined that the governing factor in transverse prestress
design is the stress generated from lifting the precast panels. Therefore, a
minimum prestress (from pretensioning the panels during fabrication) of 1.4 MPa
(200 psi) was specified in order to prevent cracking in the 11 m (36ft) long panels
when lifted approximately at the quarter points.
Panel Details
The post-tensioning ducts were located at mid-depth of the precast panels. This
was to ensure that a camber was not introduced into the pavement during post-
tensioning. The pretensioning strands, likewise, were centered at mid-depth by
alternating them just above and just below the post-tensioning ducts. Flat, four-
strand post-tensioning ducts were cast into the partial-width panels (for transverse
post-tensioning) with two standard dead-end post-tensioning anchors at the ends
of the ducts.
Mild steel reinforcement in the precast panels was minimal. Although the
transverse pretensioning strands provided a significant amount of bonded
reinforcement, additional mild steel (13 mm, 414 MPa) reinforcement was
provided around the perimeter at the top and bottom of each of the panels. Mild

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8 Burns et al.
steel was also provided in the central stressing panels and joint panels, with two
reinforcing bars crossing though the stressing pockets and access pockets to tie
concrete in the pockets to the rest of the panel. Additional "bursting steel" was
added to the joint panels directly in front of the post-tensioning anchors and in
front of the transverse post-tensioning anchors in the partial-width panels.
To aid with assembly of the panels, sleeves were cast into the edges of each of the
precast panels, as shown in Figure 2. The edge sleeves provided a means for
pulling the panels together as they were lowered into place to get the joints
between panels as tight as possible before post-tensioning. Chain winches or
"come-alongs" linked between the edge sleeves were used to pull the panels
together.
The armored expansion joints cast into the joint panels were similar to those used
for the cast-in-place prestressed pavement near West, Texas, mentioned
previously (4). Figure 6 shows the expansion joint detail used for the Georgetown
precast pavement project. The seal receiver extrusion at the top of the expansion
joint is a standard receiver for bridge decks commonly used in Texas. A 6 mm
(0.25 in) thick steel angle was welded to the bottom of the steel extrusion to
provide encapsulation of the concrete and a bearing structure for the joint.
Deformed bar anchors, 0.6 m (2 ft) in length, were welded to the top and bottom
of the expansion joint to tie it to the precast panel and prevent rocking of the joint
under repeated wheel loading. The top and bottom anchor bars were alternated
over the length of the joint, spaced every 200 mm (8 in). Stainless steel plated
dowel bars were spaced at 305 mm (12 in) along the length of the expansion joint
with an expansion sleeve cast into one side of the joint to receive the dowel. The
self-locking post-tensioning anchors, discussed previously, were fastened to the
expansion joint with 13 mm (0.5 in) threaded studs spaced at 61 em (24 in) over
the length of the expansion joint.
PANEL FABRICATION
The panels for the Georgetown precast pavement project were cast on a "long
line" casting bed 122m (400ft) in length. Long line casting allowed for ten full-
width (11 m) panels, and up to twenty partial-width panels to be cast at one time
end to end. The pretensioning strands extended continuously the full length of the
casting bed passing through all of the panels. After release of prestress, the
pretensioning strands between each of the panels were cut and the panels were
removed from the forms. Long line casting did require special attention for the
side forms to make sure there were no imperfections or misalignment that might
prevent the keyed panel edges from matching up.
The mix design for the precast panels was similar to that used for precast
prestressed bridge beams. The mix contained seven sacks of Type III portland
cement per cubic yard, with a water/cement ratio of 0.42, and superplasticizer for
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increased workability. A mix of this nature, which is not typically used for
pavements, was necessary to develop sufficient strength for release of prestress
and removal from the forms the following day. The specifications for the precast
panels required that the concrete reach a minimum compressive strength of 24.1
MPa (3,500 psi) at release of prestress, and a 28-day compressive strength of 34.5
Mpa (5,000 psi). The mix was also required to be sufficiently fluid during casting
that a carpet drag finish could be applied at sheen loss.
Handheld concrete vibrators and a vibratory screed were used to ensure a flat
surface and proper consolidation of the concrete around the keyways, post-
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tensioning ducts, and pockets during casting. An intermediate curing compound
similar to monomolecular film was applied to the panels after screeding to
minimize water loss. After any necessary hand finishing, a carpet drag texture
was applied to the panels, transverse to the flow of traffic. Immediately following
the carpet drag, two coats of curing compound were applied to the panels to
minimize further water loss from the surface of the panels. Adequate curing was
particularly important as many of the panels were cast during the hot months of
July and August. The panels were generally cured in the forms overnight before
releasing prestress, then removed from the forms and stacked. Once the panels
were stacked, wet mats were applied to the stack of panels and a tarp was used to
cover the stack. The panels were allowed to cure in this condition until 48 hours
from the time of casting. In total, 123 full-width ( 11 m) panels and 216 partial-
width (5 m and 6 m) panels were cast.
PANEL ASSEMBLY
Trial Assemblies
Prior to actual construction on the frontage road, two trial panel assemblies were
conducted. The first trial assembly was conducted at Ferguson Structural
Engineering Laboratory at The University of Texas at Austin. For this trial
assembly, three panels were cast representing one half of a joint panel, and two
base panels. The panels were all 200 mm (8 in) thick and 3m (10ft) wide (half
joint panel was 1.5 m wide). However, due to the scale of the trial assembly, the
panels were only 1.5 m (60 in) long, as opposed to the full length of 11 m. The
panels were all cast with the same details, including edge keyway dimensions,
specified for the actual panels with the exception of pretensioning. The laboratory
trial assembly proved the viability of several aspects of the precast pavement
concept, including keyed panel edges, assembly the panels over the plastic
sheeting, edge sleeves used to pull the panels together, and self-locking post-
tensioning anchors.
The second trial assembly was carried out at the precast plant in Victoria, Texas.
The primary purpose of this trial assembly was to evaluate how well full-width

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10 Burns et al.
(II m) panels could be assembled using the same methods demonstrated in the
laboratory. For the second trial assembly, three full size panels were cast and
assembled using equipment available at the precast plant. The three panels fit
together tightly, as they did in the laboratory test, assuring the viability of
assembly on the frontage road.
Both trial assemblies proved to be very useful for evaluating the viability of some
of the aspects of the proposed precast pavement concept with only minimal
expense. After completion of these trial assemblies, approval was given for full-
scale panel production.
Frontage Road Assembly
As the pavement panels were being cast, the asphalt leveling course was placed on
the frontage road. To achieve the full 11 m roadway width, three sections of
asphalt were placed, being careful that ridges were not created at the joints
between the three sections. To ensure that the leveling course was placed as flat
and uniform as possible, a string line was staked to the subbase material as a depth
gauge approximately every 7.5 m (25 ft). After final compaction of the leveling
course, any obvious defects were marked and removed, and a laser profilometer
was used to check the smoothness.
After all of the full-width (11 m) precast panels had been cast, panel assembly
began on the frontage road. The panels were delivered to the site and placed one
section (between expansion joints) at a time. The panels were delivered to the site
one panel per truck due to weight restrictions. As each truck was waiting to
unload, epoxy was applied to the panel edges. The polyethylene sheeting was
rolled out prior to the placement of each panel. A 578 kN (65 ton) capacity crane
was then used to lift each panel off of the truck and set it directly in place. In
general, two 11 m panels could be set in place before the crane had to be moved.
This prevented excessive extension of the boom, reducing the amount of sway as
the panels were being set in place. To ensure that the lifting lines were nearly
vertical (to minimize bending stresses in the panels), lifting lines approximately 9
m (30 ft) in length were used. During placement of the first few sections,
approximately 25 full-width (11 m) panels could be placed over an 8-hour period.
This placement rate varied depending on the number of workers available. At the
end of the project 25 panels could be placed in approximately 6 hours.
As the panels were being set in place, the post-tensioning strands were cut to
length. Once all of the panels had been set in place, the post-tensioning strands
were fed into the ducts at the central stressing pockets and through the panels on
either side of the central stressing panels. The strands were each fed to the access
pockets in the joint panels where the end of each strand was inspected prior to
being pushed into the self-locking anchors. After all of the strands were anchored,
a coupler similar to that shown in Figure 3 was used to couple the strands coming
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from each end of the slab in the stressing pockets. Each tendon was then stressed
with a monostrand post-tensioning jack to 80% of the ultimate strength of the
strand, as specified in the design plans. After all tendons were stressed, the
stressing pockets and access pockets were filled in preparation for grouting.
Placement of the partial-width panels could be completed slightly faster than the
full-width panels due to the fact that more panels could be set in place before it
was necessary to move the crane. Initially, one section of 6 m (20 ft) panels were
set in place and post-tensioned, followed by the adjacent section of 5 m (16 ft)
panels. The purpose of this was to simulate the staging for a one-lane operation
that may be required on future projects. After it was determined that this would
work, each 6 m panel and matching 5 m panel were.set in place simultaneously in
order to expedite assembly.
After each set of partial-width panels were in place, two 13 mm (1,860 MPa)
strands were fed through each transverse post-tensioning duct. A diverter in the
duct directed each of the strands to separate anchors. The longitudinal post-
tensioning tendons were threaded through the ducts using the same procedure as
that described for the full-width panels. After all transverse and longitudinal
strands had been anchored, two longitudinal tendons on each of the 6 m and 5 m
slabs were stressed in order to pull the panels together as tightly as possible. Each
of the transverse tendons were then stressed, followed by the remaining
longitudinal tendons. All post-tensioning was completed within 24 - 48 hours
after placement of the panels while the epoxy was still pliable.
After all strands were stressed and the pockets were filled, the tendons were
grouted. Longitudinal tendon grout vents were located at the post-tensioning
anchors, at the central stressing pockets, and at approximately every 12 m (40ft),
or every fourth panel, in between. A standard cable gout mix with an efflux time
(ASTM C 939) between 15 and 20 seconds was used for grouting the longitudinal
tendons. Initially, grout was pumped into the grout vents at the anchorage
assuming it would flow out of the intermediate vents and the vent at the stressing
pockets. However, it was soon discovered that significant leakage was occurring
at the panel joints and grout was flowing between ducts as well as beneath the
slab. Therefore, it became necessary to pump grout into every gout vent,
including the intermediate vents, to fill the ducts as much as possible. Ultimately,
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it became very difficult to determine how well each tendon was grouted.
Unfortunately, an economical solution could not be developed in time for
ensuring complete grouting of the longitudinal tendons. This is an issue which
must be addressed in future projects, but should not have a significant effect on
the performance of this particular precast pavement as it is significantly over-
designed for a frontage road pavement.
The grout vents for the transverse tendons were located below the post-tensioning
anchors on the outside edge of the pavement. Grout was pumped from low side of
the pavement (as determined by the cross-slope of the pavement) to the high side.
Grout was pumped until it flowed out of the grout vent as well as around the

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12 Burns et al.
wedges in the anchors. No problems were experienced with grouting the
transverse tendons.
After tendon grouting was complete, any areas that needed to be patched, due to
minor spalling that occurred during panel placement, were sawcut and chipped out
to a depth of 50 mm (2 in). Epoxy was spread over the interior faces of the patch,
and normal strength concrete was used to fill the patch. The recesses in the top of
the panels from the lifting devices were, likewise, coated with epoxy, then filled
with a non-shrink grout.
No additional measures were required to improve the ride quality of the finished
pavement. A smooth enough riding surface was provided and diamond grinding
was not necessary.
COST COMPARISON
As stated at the beginning of this paper, the biggest benefit of precast pavement is
expedited construction. Using precast pavement panels, additional time is not
required for the concrete to reach sufficient strength before traffic is allowed onto
the pavement. Precast panels can be set in place quickly and the pavement can be
opened to traffic almost immediately. This will allow for construction to take
place during overnight and weekend operations when traffic volumes are low.
Construction during off-peak hours will result in a significant reduction in user
delays caused by pavement construction using conventional paving methods. This
reduction in user delays translates into a significant savings in user costs, which
are costs incurred by the users of the roadway due to the presence of construction
activities, such as increased fuel consumption and lost work time.
During the feasibility study, completed prior to the Georgetown pilot project, a
sample user cost analysis was conducted to compare the user costs of
conventional concrete pavement construction versus precast pavement
construction. For a typical 8 km (5 mi) urban interstate pavement reconstruction,
a 24-hour traffic diversion was assumed for conventional pavement placement,
while an 8 PM - 6 AM traffic diversion was assumed for precast pavement
placement. With this traffic diversion scenario, user delay costs of approximately
$383,000 per day can be expected for conventional pavement construction, as
opposed to only $1,800 per day for precast pavement construction (2). Although
it may not be possible to place as much precast pavement as conventional
pavement in a daily operation, this savings in user costs will generally always
outweigh any additional construction time. For a more detailed explanation of
this example analysis and for more information on the user cost model, the reader
is referred to reports by Wilde eta! (5) and Merritt et al (2).
With the implications of user costs in mind, construction costs should be

evaluated accordingly. The total cost of the Georgetown precast pavement,
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including panel fabrication, placement of the leveling course, and panel placement
was estimated to be approximately $203/m2 ($170/yd 2). Although this cost is
significantly higher than what might be expected for an equivalent 355 mm CRCP
($36 - $481m2), there are several factors which greatly contribute to this higher
cost. First, the Georgetown precast pavement was a relatively small (0.7 km)
project, and as with any construction project, there are economies of scale. A
much larger project would, most likely, have resulted in a significantly lower unit
cost. Secondly, the Georgetown precast pavement project was experimental in
nature. Neither the contractor nor the precast supplier were familiar with precast
paving techniques and therefore likely submitted higher bids to cover any
unexpected problems. It is important to remember that, as with any new
construction method (such as the first continuously reinforced concrete
pavement), the initial costs will be higher until contractors and transportation
agencies become familiar with the techniques. Despite these factors, as shown
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above, the significant savings in user costs with precast pavement will far
outweigh higher construction costs. Although user costs are not yet tangible costs
to transportation agencies, these are costs that the general public understands.
CONCLUSIONS
The precast pavement pilot project near Georgetown, Texas is just the beginning
for precast pavement construction. While this project did not include all of the
intricacies of anticipated future precast pavements, such as stringent time
constraints and geometric complexity, it demonstrated the viability of the basic
concepts proposed by CTR for precast prestressed pavements.
This pilot project also demonstrated the numerous benefits of precast pavement
over conventional concrete pavement. Expedited construction is perhaps the most
obvious benefit. Using precast panels, pavement construction can take place
during overnight or weekend operations, minimizing the impact on the motoring
public, thereby significantly reducing user delay costs. Although this was not a
factor for the Georgetown pilot project, the project did demonstrate the how
quickly precast panels can be set in place and post-tensioned. As a result, future
pilot projects with stricter time constraints will employ more streamlined
construction procedures.
In addition to savings in user costs, increased durability and long-term

performance will be realized with precast pavement. Controlled fabrication
conditions at a precast plant will ensure a consistent concrete mix and proper
curing of the panels, and will allow for the use of high performance and
lightweight concretes. Post-tensioning will not only reduce required slab
thickness, but also improve durability by reducing or even preventing cracking,
that eventually leads to pavement failure, from occurring.

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14 Burns et al.
The Georgetown pilot project presented many challenges for precast pavement
implementation. Perhaps the most difficult aspect was meshing precast concrete
and concrete pavement specifications. This required flexibility on the part of both
the precast supplier and TxDOT. This project also represented unknown territory
for the contractor, precast supplier, and TxDOT. Flexibility and a willingness to
develop new techniques on the part of all parties were essential for the success of
this project.
This project led to the development of streamlined fabrication and construction

procedures, which will be very useful for future projects with stricter time
constraints. Ultimately, it is hoped that precast pavement will be used where it is
needed most, on urban freeways, intersections, and even airport runways where
construction must have virtually no impact on traffic; this is where the true
benefits of precast concrete pavement construction will be realized.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper represents part of an implementation study sponsored by the Federal

Highway Administration and the Texas Department of Transportation. The
following project directors and other individuals involved with the Georgetown
pilot project are acknowledged for their assistance in the successful completion of
this project: Sun eel Vanikar (FHWA), Mark Swanlund (FHWA), William
Garbade (TxDOT), TxDOT Georgetown Area Office, TxDOT Bridge Division,
TxDOT Materials and Test, TxDOT Pavement Design, TxDOT Victoria Field
Office, Granite Construction, and Texas Concrete Company.
REFERENCES
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1) Cable, Neil D., B.F. McCullough, and N.H. Bums. New Concepts in
Prestressed Concrete Pavement. Research Report 401-2. Center for
Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, December 1985.
2) Merritt, David K., B. Frank McCullough, and Ned H. Bums. The Feasibility
of Using Precast Concrete Panels to Expedite Highway Pavement Construction.
Research Report No. 1517-1. Center for Transportation Research, The University
of Texas at Austin, February 2000.
3) Chia, Way Seng, B.F. McCullough, and Ned H. Bums. Field Evaluation of
Subbase Friction Characteristics. Research Report 401-5. Center for
Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, September 1986.

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4) Mendoza Diaz, Alberto, Ned H. Bums, and B. Frank McCullough. Design of
the Texas Prestressed Concrete Pavement Overlays in Cooke and McLennan
Counties and Construction of the McLennan County Project. Research Report
No. 555/556-1. Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at
Austin, February 1986.
5) Wilde, James W., Steve Waalkes, and Rob Harrision. Life Cycle Cost
Analysis of Portland Cement Concrete Pavements. Research Report 1739-1.
Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, September
1999.
tr:7·-4:7 -~- 4:7··4::::7

~·--~- • ~-· ......... ·4:::7··-~
4'-'7··~ -~- <£::7••4:7
tr:7••tr:7 -~- 4::::1··4::::7'
4:7 ~- ~ -~ ~ - • ~- - - -~ • - «=' ~- _. -~ 4::7
~~----~---~~
JOINT PANEL BASE PANELS CENTRAL STRESSING BASE PANELS JOINT PANEL
(MULTIPLE) PANEL(S) (MlJL TIPLE)
FIGURE 1. Typical Panel Assembly.
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16 Burns et al.
(a)
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POST-TENSIONING DUCTS
CONTINUOUS SHEAR KEY
STRAND ANCHORAGE POCKETS

(b)
EXPANSION JODi!
STRESSING POCKETS
(c)
·A /. POST-TENSIONING DUCTS
FIGURE 2. Three types of panels used for precast pavement: (a) typical Base Panel,
(b) typical Joint Panel, (c) typical Central Stressing Panel.
(Typical dimensions: 11 m x 3 m x 200 mm)

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Approximate Position of Coupler
e Start of Stressing Operation
Axed-End Tendon Anchorage

L
Approximate Position of Coupler
Aller Final Stressing
Couplor Segment 1 ol the Tendon

Segment2 of
Poat~tensionlng
Duct
FIGURE 3. Coupler used for the post-tensioning strands in the stressing pockets (2).

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EDGE SLEEVES
lRANSVERSEPOST-TENSIONINGDUCT
FIGURE 4. Typical "partial-width" base panel with additional transverse post-tensioning

duct. (Typical dimensions: 5 m or 6 m x 3 m x 200 mm)

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18 Burns et al.
Full Width Panels
4Siabs @16m
1Siab@68m
FIGURE 5. Location and layout of the Georgetown precast pavement pilot project.
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NEOPRENE EXPANSION SEAL
0.~ IN THREADED STUDS 1-1/4 IN STAINLESS STEEL

FOR ANCHORAGE PLATED DOWEL
FIGURE 6. Armored expansion joint cast into Joint Panels.

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SP-213-2
Improved Teaching of
by R. N. White
Synopsis: This paper provides discussion and suggestions on the very difficult question
of how to best teach the design and construction of concrete structures at the
undergraduate level and beyond. The end goal remains unchanged-to provide the best
possible constructed facilities for the public and private sectors. After presenting the
background and scope of coverage, important issues in structural design are discussed,
including a definition of the three types of knowledge bases needed in performing any
design. Expectations of new graduates as they enter the work force are covered, and
implications for professional registration are discussed. The paper continues with
extended discussion on a host of important issues that need coverage to varying degrees
in the curriculum. The critical importance of proper integration of materials selection into
the overall design process is explored. Given that learning must be a life-long process,
professional post-B.S. education approaches (both "conventional" and internet-based) are
presented, along with comments on the ASCE position that the professional Master's
degrees should become the degree of entry into the profession. The paper concludes with
suggestions and recommendations.
Keywords: analysis; civil engineering curricula; construction; design;

professional education; professional registration; structural concrete
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19
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20 White
Richard N. White, F.ACI, is the James A. Friend Family Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering Emeritus, at Cornell University, Ithaca NY. He has
held many ACI leadership positions, including Chair of the Technical Activities
Committee, and President in 1997-98. He is the recipient of ACI's Joe Kelly
Award and co-recipient of the Wason Most Meritorious Paper Award andthe
Structural Research Award. He is a member of NAE and an Honorary Member
ofASCE.
INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF COVERAGE
This paper explores how education can be shaped to achieve improvements in

designing and building structures. "Improvements" should be measured from
the multiple perspectives of overall quality, safety, serviceability, economy of
materials usage, durability, constructability, impact on the environment,
aesthetics, and initial and lifetime costs. Discussion is aimed at new facilities as
well as the rehabilitation of existing facilities.
This paper is based on the premise that improved and expanded education is
more critical than ever before as we cope with construction needs in our crowded
urban areas, utilizing a mix of new construction and rehabilitated existing infra-
structure, with both types of construction utilizing improved "conventional"
materials and a host of new materials. Owners face increasingly complex
alternative scenarios with optimal solutions dependent upon a complex set of
technical, technological, financial, social, environmental, and aesthetic issues.
Some of these parameters complement each other and some are in direct
contradiction. Hence the challenges to the project team -- engineer, architect,
materials supplier, contractor, sub-contractor, quality control and quality
assurance personnel, maintenance organization, and owner -- are daunting.
Meeting these challenges during the coming decades will provide almost
unlimited opportunities for our young people, and we bear the responsibility of
informing them about the excitement and challenges in the planning, engi-
neering, and construction of tomorrow's infrastructure. Unfortunately, our
ability to attract the best and brightest young people into the civil engineering
business seems to have suffered from the perception that we are an old-fash-
ioned, overly mature industry. I believe this is a false impression, but it is up to
us to change how people think of concrete structures and the fields of concrete
engineering and construction.
We need to capitalize on the following facts: (1) concrete and masonry will
continue to be the most widely used construction materials into the indefinite
future (2) research and development efforts in the past two decades have
produced tremendous advances in cement-based materials, and {3) the future
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holds great promise for many technological developments, such as more envi-
ron mentally acceptable cement production and usage, new families of high
performance concretes with greatly enhanced durability and with high efficiency
in transmitting loads, and exciting combinations of concrete with structural steel
and with new non-metallic, composite reinforcements.
Coverage in this paper builds on my February 1998 ACI Presidential Memo on

Concrete Education in the 21st Century published in Concrete International (1),
and on a paper presented in Hawaii at the First International Structural Engi-
neering and Construction Conference (2). My comments are directed primarily
at four year B.S. degree programs in civil engineering in North America, but
some also may be applicable to our many excellent technology programs leading
to Associate degrees or to the Bachelor of Technology. Space limitations do not
permit coverage of overseas educational trends and practices, other than to
comment on the fact that many foreign civil engineering and construction pro-
grams are very strong. It should be noted that the separate discipline of con-
struction engineering, available at a number of schools and universities, is not
treated here, even though it is a critical part of the overall picture.
This paper begins with discussion of several general design-related issues,

followed by a critical review of topics that need coverage in our civil engineering
curricula. Post-B.S. education and training are discussed. The paper concludes
with suggestions and recommendations.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ISSUES
General Issues
Concrete has been called the ideal architectural material because of its plastic
nature and its ability to be cast into almost any shape or form. Do we, as faculty
members in civil engineering, really capture the inherent excitement of being part
of the design team that produces new concrete structures? My feeling is that in
general, we do not. The primary reason for this shortcoming is well-intentioned
but quite unfortunate-- we become almost overwhelmed in trying to cover all the
intricacies of analysis, strength of sections, beam-column and stability effects,
time-dependent behavior, prediction of cracking and deflections, connection
difficulties, etc. This fact of life has some quite undesirable effects, however,
particularly in the minds and attitudes of our students, who often do not develop
much real enthusiasm about the intellectual rewards of being key participants in
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creating and building exciting new structures. How can these approaches and
attitudes be changed?
Holgate (3) produced a book that should be required reading for all faculty and
students of structural engineering. His theme, "the art of structural design", is

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22 White
developed from the perspective of a structural engineer with strong ties to
architecture. He delves deeply into the philosophies of architecture and
structural engineering. He points out that in the early years of civil engineering
studies the standard approach is for students to learn analysis and calculation
procedures and then apply them to obtain ••the right answer" to a ..clear-cut"
problem. This implies that there is a world of standard, clear-cut problems
waiting to be solved by practicing structural engineers. Holgate says ..Once the
mind becomes set in this view of the world it becomes very difficult to break out
of the mould at a later date", and that "traditional engineering courses reduce the
creativity of students". He also points out, quite correctly, that students begin to
believe that design is the repetitive application of formulas and rules, and hence
boredom soon sets in once the joy of mastering and applying new knowledge
begins to dissipate.
Holgate says ..Structural design can be seen as the process of disposing material
in three-dimensional space so as to satisfy some defined purpose in the most
efficient manner possible". While this definition seems rather direct, two words
require very careful definition -- ..purpose" and ..efficient". Purpose is defined
primarily by the owner, while efficiency is more the province of the engineering
and construction team. Structural efficiency often must be compromised to
accomodate HVAC needs and other issues. The other critical point is that many
important issues may be classified as non-numerical and fall quite outside the
coverage typically found in civil engineering curricula
The challenge is to introduce into our structural engineering courses the many
less predictable aspects of design without sacrificing student's understanding of
the rational aspects -- those based on equilibrium and compatibility of
deformations.
Structural Design and Its Three Bases of Knowledge
Successful design results from the skillful amalgamation of three quite different
types of knowledge: (a) purely analytical approaches, (b) experimentally-based
behavior models, and (c) non-computational factors.
Analytical approaches based on structural mechanics principles -- most of

these approaches for calculating forces and displacements are based on equili-
brium and compatibility of deformations for linear elastic structures; hence they
are applicable to structures made of any material with an appreciable range of
linear elastic response. Another distinctly different yet rational approach is ..limit
design" which assumes linear elastic-fully plastic material behavior; full imple-
mentation of this method requires input from the second category of knowledge
discussed immediately below. t :L :!linear analytical methods are increasingly
available to account for geometric and/or material nonlinearities.
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Experimental observations generalized into behavioral models formulated
to provide predictions by the structural engineer -- this part of the design spect-
rum is critically important to designers of concrete stuctures, given the highly
nonlinear nature of concrete as it shrinks, cracks from applied forces and
environmental actions, and then experiences significant time-dependent deform-
ations for many years after construction is completed. These behavior models
utilize simplified models of how materials (e.g, concrete and steel) respond to
load. They form the basis for equations used to predict flexural, shear, and
torsional strengths of reinforced and prestressed concrete members, as well as
forcalculatingsplice lengths, slab strength, frame connection strength, moment
redistribution effects, bearri-column behavior and long column effects, strut-and-
tie models, displacements, and most other topics covered in books on reinforced
and prestressed concrete.
Factors critical to any project -- functional planning, economics, aesthetics,

environmental effects and serviceability, architect-engineer-builder-owner inter-
actions, the construction process, social and political issues, operations and
maintenance plans, etc. Holgate calls these the ..non-computational factors".
From the perspective of the owner, these factors are often far more important
than calculation of forces or predictions of strengths and displacements. Addres-
sing these issues is normally the responsibility of a team of individuals coord-
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inated by an architect (for building projects) and by a civil or structural engineer

for other projects such as bridges, dams, heavy industrial facilities, etc.
Civil engineering students should be familiar with the fundamental differences

between these three types of knowledge and how each complements the other in
structural engineering practice.
Do Young Structural Engineers Have the ..Right Background"
The breadth and depth of course coverage in civil engineering programs have
been debated ..ad nauseum" for many decades. The issues are simple to state but
very difficult to resolve. There is always more to teach than time permits, par-
ticularly when an ever-expanding list of important topics need coveraage. These
topics include computer science, materials science, probability and statistics,
systems engineering, environmental issues, construction, costs and ~conomics,
and the like. We also want our students to be more cognizant of relevant social
issues and of the aesthetic impact of constructed facilities, as well as having
strong communication skills and a reasonably broad background in humanities
and the arts.
A crucial issue is to decide how much to accomplish in the undergraduate cur-

riculum and how much to achieve in subsequent graduate study, continuing
education, or on-the-job training. Opinions vary widely on this issue, of course,
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24 White
Warren (4) comments in some detail on preparation of civil engineering under-
graduates who are heading to careers in structural engineering. This study was
done under the auspices of the National Council of Structural Engineer Assoc-
iations to provide a basis for recommendations for possible separate professional
certification (registration) requirements for structural engineers. He says:
"Undergraduate preparation should include all the basic structural materials,
analysis procedures and foundations. Education requirements for certain speci-
alty certifications should include all base certification requirements and graduate
level courses in advanced design of steel, concrete (including prestressed con-
crete), computational structural analysis, soil dynamics, structural dynamics and
structural stability analysis. Perhaps this could be achieved with a Master of
Scienee Degree from a recognized engineering program that included the com-
pletion of specific recommended coursework".
A quite different perspective on expectations for entry level engineers was

presented at the CEO Forum at the 2001 ASCE Conference in Houston. Con-
sensus among these distinguished individuals was that civil engineeering
curricula have too much emphasis on the technical side, and too little on such
topics as communications (both written and oral), practice in team efforts,
thinking critically, instilling a willingness to work hard and have the right atti-
tudes, development of confidence to undertake new assignments, and creativity.
Given that these individuals were operating at the upper levels of their
companies, their comments were not at all surprising.
Weingandt in Modern Steel Construction (5) has written a rather provocative

article on whether or not structural engineers have the appropriate education and
training to serve as leaders of design or design/build teams. He reports that
some individuals feel that the high degree of specialization needed in leading-
edge structural design leaves too little time for broadening one's knowledge base
or for refining the management and people skills needed in positions of lead-
ership. Although structural engineers often are the team leaders on jobs primar-
ily structural in nature, they seem to be quite scarce in many top level positions
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such as in leading the largest construction projects or heading up large public or

private agencies.
Weigandt says "If current trends continue, narrowly focused structural engineers
will be pushed into the background more and more. They'll be treated as highly
specialized technicians. And fewer of them will head design/build teams."
He concludes with this challenge to the structural engineering profession-- ''To

lead rather than be led demands that young structural engineers, especially those
who want to expand their horizons, be more broadly trained and aware of all the
other engineering and architectural systems that make up the total building
package-- and encouraged to hone their leadership, communications, and people

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skills to the highest level possible".
Thus we have, as always in other discussions of what should be taught in civil

engineering curricula, a full spectrum of views ranging from narrow special-
ization to broad engineering and beyond to management skills. It becomes
obvious that the education of a structural engineer (or any engineer) must be a
life-long process, with some portions formal, some informal, some on-the-job,
and some by self-study, reading and simply satisfying one's curiousity about the
world we live and work in.
Professional Registration Issues
The National Council of Structural Engineer Associations (NCSEA) passed a

resolution in September 2000 to establish a standing committee on Structural
Engineering Certification, with the charge to develop a model for the establish-
ment of a "Professonal Certification Program for Structural Engineers" to be
implemented by NCSEA. The committee is in the process of formulating a
vision for structural engineering. A summary of this effort was reported by
Williston Warren IV in Structure (4). He points out that in the U.S. there are
some 55 separate jurisdictions that regulate the practice of structural engineering.
Individual states establish minimum licensing requirements based on widely
varying criteria. Quoting Warren, ''This has resulted in states having general
civil engineering practice licenses, general professional engineering practice
licenses, specific structural engineering practice licenses, and multi-tier civil and
structural engineering licenses. In addition to the licensing models that differ on
a state-by-state basis, there are differences in examinations, professional conduct
administration, and standards of practice." NCSEA proposes to eventually reach
national certification for the practice of structural engineering with the goal of
producing "a uniform criteria by which structural engineers are evaluated and
licensed".
The proposed conceptual model for certification would consist of general struct-
ural engineering certification supplemented by specialty certification "to address
areas of practice requiring additional levels of education, experience and
examination..... examples that might fall in this specialty certification category
are specialities in the design of bridges, cold regions, long span structures, soil-
structure interaction, special vibrations, and essential structures". The specialty
certifications could be obtained by some combination of additional education,
training, and experience and appropriate examinations.
NCSEA also suggests the possibility of coordinating and offering a formal

training program for recent college graduates. Seminar programs would be
available on the complete spectrum of structural engineering material, with
content including those topics typically not covered in university curricula along
with review of material considered crucial to the practice of structural
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26 White
engineering. ACI should consider its possible role in such a training program.
The Institute would come to such discussions from a position of considerable
strength, given our rich base of knowledge and solid reputation for high quality
publications and seminar programs.
CURRICULAR CONTENT
The challenges are formidable ! Over the past several decades, the structural
engineering and materials coverage in typical undergraduate civil engineering
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curricula have been .. pared down" to permit coverage of more science, more
humanities, and new engineering topics. And these additions been done within
the context of fewer courses required for the degree. In the typical CE curri-
culum, we've experienced increasingly sophisticated elastic analysis and a
decreasing amount of coverage of concrete as a material, while maintaining a
reasonable level of effort on studying the behavior and design of members.
Coverage of connection behavior and design has decreased in many programs.
·over the same time period, structures have become substantially more complex,
high strength concrete has emerged as the material of choice for many
applications, design procedures have increasingly been based on inelastic
behavior of concrete members and connections, time allotted for construction
continues to shrink, and a new discipline of engineered rehabilitation and repair
has developed. The challenge is to devise strategies to do better in our engi-
neering curricula
It is obvious that all these topics cannot fit within the typical undergraduate civil
engineering program.
ASCE now advocates the Master's degree as the first professional degree for
civil engineers; should we be doing our curricular planning based on the
assumption that this will become reality in the near future, and that we can
..count on" having 5 years to educate tomorrow's young structural engineers?
How much of an engineer's formal education should be delayed beyond college,
with a much higher utilization of continuing education (including use of the
rapidly evolving distance learning via the Intmet)?
We should strive to make improvements in a number of key areas, including (a)

conceptual design, (b) simple methods for estimating loads in members, (c)
preliminary design, (d) design of the entire structure, (e) connections, (f)
variability in loads and in material properties, (g) the proper role of analysis in
design and the effects of modeling assumptions on analysis results, (h) materials
aspects, (i) integration of materials selection and behavior into structural design
and analysis processes, (j) achieving economies in teaching analysis and design
fundamentals, (k) constructibility and feasibility, (l) identification and control of
errors encountered in design and construction, (m) aesthetic impact of our

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structures, (n) sustainability and environmental effects of concrete construction,
and (o) life cycle costs and maintenance plans and operations.
Conceptual Design
Most of the readings assigned to undergraduate students in structures course deal

with pre-defined structures with little or no discussion as to how each particular
structure was selected to meet the design requirements. While the selection of
structural types and forms often requires the expertise of an architect (particularly
for buildings), the strucural engineer should be well-versed in the fascinating
subject of conceptual structural design, where multiple schemes are conceived
for a given design situation and then evaluated for consideration for preliminary
design calculations.
Several fundamental structural engineering topics can be covered in lectures and

problem assignments on conceptual design, including:
a. force transmission and flow of forces for both gravity and lateral
loadings.
b. basic methods of resisting forces with axial members acting in tension
or compression, bending members acting in flexure, combined-action members,
and surface structural elements such as slabs and shells.
c. typical feasible span lengths and general proportions for the many
typical forms used in reinforced concrete structures, such as frames, arches,
cable-supported concrete decks, walls, slabs, folded plates and shells, etc.
d. example structures, both simple and "monumental" that illustrate these
principles.
These topics should be presented initially in perhaps 2 lectures, and then

expanded on later in every structures course offered, particularly topics (c) and
(d), with visuals livening up the lectures. Problem assignments can be a mixture
of individual and group assignments, with brief oral reports by students to
present and defend their choices of structural forms and concepts.
The decision-making leading up to the final geometrical form for a given

structure represents the highest level of structural engineering practice. Although
much of this topic must be learned on the job, I believe that it is important to
provide more coverage at the undergraduate level. The inherent motivational
value alone makes this worthwhile; at the same time, it provides an excellent
counterpoint to the considerable calculation-based material taught in structural
engineering courses.
Simple Methods for Estimating Loads in Members and Preliminary Design

Approaches
I believe that we must teach more preliminary design approaches, which includes
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28 White
simple methods for estimating loads in members (slabs, beams, columns, etc.)
and then establishing sizes and approximate reinforcing for these primary com-
ponents of any concrete structure. Even a modest coverage of approximate
preliminary design can have a profound effect on the way students think about
structures. With this knowledge they can establish initial proportions and
dimensions of any structure without having to resort to complex and time-
consuming structural analysis. This gives them a start on developing "structural
intuition" and adds a new sense of confidence to deal with real structural design.
I will draw an example from an undergraduate reinforced concrete structures

course I taught two years ago at Cornell in a classroom in Hollister Hall, a late
1950s reinforced concrete building with rather sizeable span one-way slabs sup-
ported on beam-and-column framing. I gave an assignment during the very first
lecture-- to determine the approximate quantity of reinforcing steel needed at the
center of the multi-span reinforced concrete beam spanning over the classroom.
I provided the design live load intensity, load factors for dead and live load, slab
thickness, and reinforcement yield strength, while spans and column dimensions
were measured by the students.
Many students struggled with this assignment, of course, as they decided on

load .transfer paths, made meaningful estimates of bending moments, and
modeled the beam behavior by the internal couple approach with an estimated
location of the compressive force resultant in the mid-span section of the T-
beam. l believe that this exercise, which produced results with an accuracy that
surprised the students, was an extremely valuable part of the course and made
later lectures much more meaningful, particularly for topics such as flexural
strength and the calculation of moments and shears in reinforced concrete
frames.
Instruction in preliminary design and approximate analysis should begin as early

as possible, using appropriate examples and homeworks. Subsequent courses
should keep coming back to this topic. The sketching of approximate deflected
shapes and location of inflection points, along with simultaneous sketching of
approximate bending moment diagrams provides a real learning experience for
students.
I advocate allocating at least 25% of the total time spent in teaching analysis to
determining approximate forces. The ability to quickly calculate approximate
forces in any structure is also an absolutely necessary skill in checking the
results of computer-based analysis and design.
Design of the Entire Structure
We must provide more emphasis on design of the entire structure, including the
critical process of selecting the basic structural type to be used, and how the
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structural elements are connected. Perhaps the best way to accomplish this is to
have a~ubstantial portion of the total problem set assignments in the fotm of
open-ended problems-- rather simple structural situations at the undergraduate
level and rriuch more comprehensive and realistic projects at the graduate level.
An example from the author's own undergrad concrete structures class follows:
"Working in teams of 3 engineers, we will be designing selected portions of a

three-story general-purpose academic building with a footprint of 5000 square
feet and a total gross floor area of 15,000 square feet, to be located in the current
parking lot behind Thurston Hall. The building is to have a full basement, a
freight elevator, and two sets of stairs. In this first assignment, you are to
propose a typical floor framing plan (location of columns, definition of slab
spans and supporting beams and girders). Clear height between top of floor and
lowest part of underside of floor framing above is to be 10 feet. Live load is to
be 125 psf (conservatively selected to permit changing use of the building space
by different groups). Material strengths are to be selected by each team." In
subsequent assignments the building design was refined, with final design being
completed for all typical elements of the building, including foundations.
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Further discussion on designing the complete structure is given below after

materials instruction is discussed.
Connections in Concrete Structures
Member design has become increasingly "computerized" and this tendency will
undoubtedly continue to grow as software becomes more sophisticated and
readily available to engineers in firms of all size. But the joining of members
remains a more elusive design function because determination of relevant forces
and their effects is so much more difficult. Also, the adoption of higher strength
concretes accentuates this situation because members get smaller and congestion
of reinforcement and construction issues can be a real problem.
Frame joint efficiency, particularly for joints subjected to moments that open the
joint, is not at all obvious to students. The dramatic effects of reinforcement
location and bend patterns can be treated well in a single lecture.
The introduction of the strut-and-tie modeling approach into the ACI 318 Code
(6) provides a more rational basis for many connection designs. It is important
that this topic receive at least some coverage at the undergrad level and con-
siderably more in graduate level concrete structures design courses.
Treating Variability in Loads and in Material Properties
We (the faculty) have traditionally placed strong emphasis on calculating member

forces (axial, shear, bending, and torsion) to what appears to the student to be a

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30 White
high level of accuracy. The elegance of the calculation processes tends to
overpower what really happens in an actual structure. In the vast majority of
structures, we simply do not know load magnitudes very well. Students deserve
to get better explanations of the approximate nature of design, including the high
variability of live load values and the real-world variability of material properties.
We also need to do a much better job of explaining how poorly-defined effects
such as shrinkage, support movements, unexpected restraining forces, and the
like can introduce very substantial changes in the stress resultants experienced by
the actual structure.
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How can we do this without having students think that "sloppy" calculations are
adequate? An obvious starting point is to never use more than two significant
digits in expressing any final design calculation result. Our textbooks, journals,
and other publications routinely have moment values expressed in as many as 8
digits, and deflections to as little as 11100 of an inch. We should provide more
insight for students into the accuracy of the parameters going into bending
moments-- the loading intensities, the "real" span lengths, and the coefficient K
in the denominator of M = wL2/K. Quoting "precise" values are misleacting,
particularly for short-term deflections of concrete structures wliere we do not
know E values and the state of actual cracking makes the calculation of moment
of inertia values very difficult at best. Add to this the problem of shrinkage and
creep deflections and the situation gets even worse. Any coverage of deflection
calculations for concrete structures should include presentation of predicted and
measured deflections for both beams and slabs. Only these direct comparisons
of theory and reality can drive home to the student the fragility of our ability to
predict deflection behavior.
Role of Analysis and Defining the Effects of Modeling Assumptions on Analysis

Results
The proper role of analysis in the design process needs better definition. We
need to continually stress that the prime role of analysis is to improve design and
hence improve the overall quality of the completed project. Student attitudes on
any subject correlate well with faculty attitudes. There is far too much separation
of analysis and design in academia; often we see one group of faculty teaching
analysis and another group teaching design. A solution is pretty obvious!
However, if tradition or some other reason still dictates that separate courses be
given, then it is essential to have some modest coverage of the behavior of steel
and concrete structures prior to teaching analysis, in order to have realistic and
meaningful discussions on effective stiffness of members and behavior at loads
beyond the proportional limits.
Effects of assumptions on types of supports, boundary conditions, foundation

stiffness, and the like need to be integrated into the lecture material and in the
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hinged or fixed, and that building frames stop at ground level. Fundamental
concepts on foundations should be integrated into the structures classes, with
continual linkages between courses in structures and in soil mechanics and
foundations. Another issue needing more attention is the influence of degree of
concrete cracking on displacement calculations.
At the upper-class level, and in graduate education in structural engineering, we

need to convey the sensitivity of results (forces and displacements) to the
modeling assumptions involved in the analysis, particularly the more complex
problems that utilize finite element approaches. Behavior beyond the elastic limit
is particularly sensitive to material properties, mesh fineness, and load increment
size. An effective approach is to have students (or teams of students) model and
analyze the same structure, using the finite element approach, and then compare
results and critically discuss the effects of different modeling assumptions.
The Materials Aspects
As evidenced by the generally deteriorated state of a sizable portion of our infra-

structure, we have an urgent need for the development and employment of better
materials for constructing new facilities, as well as improved materials for use in
repair and retrofitting. Just as we need more coverage of materials, the typical
U.S. civil engineering department has reduced the time given to traditional
construction materials, particularly to understanding the complexities of con-
crete, soils, and rock. Several issues are involved -- the pressure to reduce
required hours for graduation to ensure that most students finish in four years,
the desire to cover new materials such as plastics, and the gradual reduction in
laboratory sessions to reduce costs.
The difficult problem we face in providing the proper coverage on construction

materials is well illustrated by considering the Civil Engineering Research
Foundation (7) statements on high-performance construction materials and
systems, expressed in terms of the long list of desirable characteristics of
infrastructure performance. These characteristics include (a) superior strength,
toughness, and ductility, (b) enhanced durability/service life, (c) increased
resistance to abrasion, corrosion, chemicals, and fatigue, (d) initial and life-cycle
cost efficiencies, (e) improved response in natural disasters and fires, (f) ease of
manufacture and application or installation, (g) aesthetics and environmeni:al
compatibility, and (h) ability for self-diagnosis, self-healing, and structural
control.
How do we possibly do justice to this complex set of concrete material char-

acteristics which goes so far beyond the typical mechanical properties we've
always covered in undergraduate courses? How do we get young practicing
engineerS educated to the point where they can make informed decisions on
choices of materials for each new project they work on? All of this cannot be
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done in the typical B.S. degree program, but at the same time we must educate
our students to be sensitive to these issues (particularly durability) and to be
motivated to continue learning about materials as an integral part of improving
their design skills.
We also must have some coverage of advanced composite materials consisting of

strong fibers (glass, Kevlar, carbon) embedded in a resin matrix. These
materials have already found substantial use in construction and in retrofitting
projects, and they have excellent potential for becoming an important con-
struction material. But their properties are much different from those of
traditional civil engineering materials~ similarly, design approaches may well be
quite different than for, say, steel and concrete. We must provide young
engineers with the opportunity to become proficient in designing and building
with advanced composites, including both reinforced and prestressed concrete
and the entire array of repair and strengthening applications.
A number offormidable educational tasks must be addressed that go far beyond

undergraduate course work. Programs are needed for several quite different
user groups -- undergraduate and graduate engineering students, engineers in
practice, materials suppliers, construction workers, quality control personnel,
etc.
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Integration of Materials Selection and Behavior into Structural Design and

Analysis Processes; the "Capstone" Design Experience
The specification of proper materials, and the integration of pertinent material

properties into all phases of the analysis and design process, may well be the
most critical steps in arriving at a durable, top-quality constructed facility. While
the emphasis at this symposium is on concrete structures, it is a fact of life that
the majority of constructed facilities utilize several materials, including concrete,
masonry, steel, timber, and perhaps plastics. Academia has been less than
stellar in helping students think broadly about materials selection, given that we
tend to have quite separate courses on concrete and steel structures, with much
Jess coverage of masonry and timber structures in most civil engineering
programs.
As an example of how most designs incorporate two or more primary construct-

ion materials, many modern high-rise buildings now utilize some type of com-
posite (hybrid) framing to carry gravity loads and lateral forces (wind and seis-
mic). Composite construction utilizes concrete and steel, each to its best
advantage, providing a fire-resistant, economical structural system that is fast to
construct and provides substantial stiffness to resist lateral drift. The extensive
activity in composite construction (8) is expected to c9ntinue, with an ever-
increasing usage of high strength concrete and high-performance structural steel,
and with extensions to buildings of medium and moderate height. One of the

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greatest challenges in designing and building a high-rise composite framed build-
ing is developing a strategy that will guarantee reasonably flat floors after time-
dependent deformations in the columns have essentially stabilized. TJ:lis requires
a level of knowledge about the concrete in the columns that far exceeds what we
typically know about concrete in the usual structure.
I suggest that the first course in structural engineering include an abbreviated

coverage of the primary issues met in designing and building with a variety of
materials (concrete and steel as a minimum), with subsequent courses having
more detailed coverage on individual materials, and perhaps the final course
going back to "general design" where students must make decisions on which
material(s) to use. This type of course is also called "capstone design" and is
used widely in civil engineering programs across the country. A good example
is the course at Purdue University, started in 1960 and continually refined and
improved over the years. A summary of the course was presented by Dmevich
at the Third National Congress on Civil Engineering Education (9). He sum-
marizes the course objectives: "By the end of the course, the student will be able
to:
1. Integrate the technical subdisciplines of civil engineering, develop
criteria for design, and perform trade-off and alternatives analyses to produce
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cost-effective solutions,
2. Gather relevant data, have discussions with the clients, identify and use
applicable regulations, codes and other information.
3. Communicate site analyses, work programs and engineering design
detail to both technical and non-technical customers.
4. Do integrated project planning, scheduling, and cost analysis for a
moderately-sized civil engineering project.
5. Perform a reasonably detailed design to meet customer requirements,
using, where appropriate, software and computer techniques to satisfy design
objectives and to prepare requested construction documentation, and
6. Work more effectively on a multi-disciplinary team."
Achieving Economies in Teaching the Fundamentals of Analysis and Design
Economies in coverage can begin early, say during the teaching of mechanics of
materials, where problems should be designed to illustrate practical situations,
with later courses building directly on the mechanics coverage. I believe we
spend more time on flexure than is really needed; it is a "comfortable" topic with
experimental results agreeing very well with basic assumptions and simple
calculation methods. Teaching flexure from the standpoint of two internal forces
(C and T) separated by an internal moment arm provides a fundamental basis that
can be then readily adapted to any material and to both elastic and inelastic
behavior. This approach also helps in teaching shear, with horizontal shear
stress resulting from differential values of either C or T along the beam axis.
Emphasizing the internal couple facilitates better understanding of prestressed

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34 White
concrete flexural members, where the values of internal force resultants remain
nearly constant under changing loads, while the effective internal moment arm
increases.
Hard decisions must be made on what displacement-calculation methods to

teach; we simply cannot be encyclopedic in coverage. Virtual work is the most
general; if a student understands virtual work concepts and how to apply them,
then he or she can solve any displacement problem. I also like students to know
the moment-area method for quick and relatively error-free calculation of
displacements of simple structures.
Structural .analysis procedures can be some combination of stiffness-based

computer methods and a thorough coverage of approximate analysis utilizing
assumed points of inflection. The teaching of moment distribution has "fallen by
the wayside" in many curricula. I still like to have students know how to do
beams and frames (without sway) by moment distribution, not only because it is
a very good method to get answers but also because it illustrates so convincingly
the dependence of bending moments on flexural stiffness.
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Construction and Constuctibility
Construction engineering and construction management are disciplines by them-

selves and certainly extend far beyond the conventional undergrad civil engi-
neering curriculum. But their importance in arriving at a successful, high quality
constructed facility c;annot be overstated. Courses in construction engineering
and management, with substantial systems engineering content, should be
available to the civil engineering student. This might include a simplified,
motivational versionatthe freshman level, followed by an upperclass course or
two containing strong coverage of construction methodologies, costs, and
bidding strategies. Construction projects, particularly the larger ones, are
wonderful examples of applied systems engineering, with high potential for
creating a sense of excitement for students. Case studies of outstanding projects
should be used in regular structures courses.
Constructibility needs to be integrated into all structural design and project

courses. As we blend these ideas into our courses, we also need to find ways to
transmit the philosophy and thought modes involved in the successful execution
of any construction project. The bottom line of most of our efforts is the
realization of constructed facilities, a fact that we sometimes tend to forget as we
get so involved in the niceties of analysis and advanced design methodologies.
Identification and Control of Errors Encountered in Design and Construction
Students at both the undergrad and grad levels should have a reasonable level of
understanding of errors in design and construction. They need to appreciate the

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most common types of errors and mistakes as well as their potential impacts on
safety and serviceability. Civil engineering students should receive some formal
training about error control in the office and in the field, particularly on strategies
for checking calculations, drawings, and specifications. A small volume pub-
lished by ASCE (10) contains a wealth of useful information, including some
highly practical material contributed by practicing structural engineers. The
paper by Dr. Franz Knoll provides a systematic, rational approach to definition
of errors and mistakes and how to best develop methods to control them. He
categorizes errors and mistakes in both design and construction, and describes
the assignment of probability of occurrence and then the likelihood of serious
consequnces when each type of error does occur. He suggests establishing
priorities for combatting error effects by considering the weighted product of
probability of occurrence and likelihood of serious consequences.
This topic can be introduced part-way through a design course in a single

lecture. Supplementary selected readings and a homework exercise done with
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teams of 3 students, followed by group discussion of the homework results,
further reinforce this important topic, which should be revisited systematically in
subsequent courses.
Cultivation of a Sensitivity about the Aesthetic Impact of Everything We Design

and Build
Although space limitations prevent any significant discussion of this topic, it is

appropriate to comment on the fact that there are far too many poorly proport-
ioned, poorly detailed, and downright ugly structures in every corner of the
world; at times they tend to outweigh our many elegant and graceful structures.
We must be more sensitive about aesthetics and the fact that most civil
engineering "products" are out in the open, to be seen by hundreds of millions of
people each and every day. It is also an unfortunate fact that many buildings
classified as "ugly" by the average observer were designed by architects, not
engineers.
Even if an engineering instructor has no formal training in architecture, it seems

worthwhile to encourage students to discuss how they feel about the appearance
of those case study structures used in lectures and readings. Rehitionships
between form and function and simplicity of structural systems should be
included in those lectures given on conceptual design. Ref. (3), the ACI volume
on concrete bridge esthetics (11) and the books by Billington (12,13) are excel-
lent sources for lecture background and for student reading assignments.
Bringing in outside speakers and havirig students attend "outside" lectures on
campus are also good techniques to cultivate sensitivity to aesthetics. And
students should be advised carefully on their selection of humanities electives,
with encouragement to take some courses in the visual arts and art history,
architecture, and the like.

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36 White
Sustainability and an Understanding of the Environmental Effects of Concrete
Construction
Sustainability in construction receives considerable press these days. Michael

Dickson describes the issues very well in his essay "Touching the Earth Lightly"
( 14). He says; "Construction without depletion is not just a convenient style for
altruistic developers. Rather it is a movement that is gathering pace, driven by
compelling reasons: the current, relatively low cost of primary energy and the
unrestricted use of irreplaceable materials can no longer be sustained indefinitely.
Because the issues are complex, and different for each building type, the lang-
uage of 'green' architecture with high comfort and low environmental impact
needs to be expanded immediately -- otherwise through our activities as a
species we may overload the planet."
Dickson concludes with: "Sustainability in the built environment requires multi-

disciplinary and inter-disciplinary work; it needs to be applied in all cultures,
climates, and geographical locations; it calls for an ethical stance and, very often,
the confidence to depart from the norm. This is perhaps our greatest challenge
as responsible engineers -- to test our limits, to question our solutiona, to risk
our reputations in order to save our planet. At the same time a better process will
also create a better asset for the client, for the user and for subsequent
generations."
For too many decades we've regarded concrete structures as "permanent", while
at the same time spending excessively on repairs, rehabilitation, and premature
demolition. This is not a proper use of our natural and financial resources. We
now know enough about materials and construction practices to eliminate most
of these problems, but it will take new levels of technical effort along with a
continuous commitment to achieving a defined service life. Our current students
will be the generation most directly charged with these responsibilities, so it is
essential that they be exposed to the ideas and concepts and that they are in the
proper position to build up their expertise in the many issues of sustainability
and service life definition and extension.
A suggested format for one or two lectures is provided by Mehta (15) in a paper
on concrete technology for sustainable development. He defines and discusses
three crucial elements needed for an environment-friendly concrete construction
technology: (a) conservation of concrete-making materials, (b) enhancement of
durability of concrete structures, and (c) a paradigm shift from reductionistic to
holistic approach in concrete technology research and education.
Mehta has more specific recommendations in a second paper (16) on reducing

the environmental impact of concrete. He points out that the annual world pro-
duction of 1.6 billion tons of cement produces about 7% of the carbon dioxide
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going into the atmosphere (one ton of carbon dioxide for each ton of Portland
cement clinker produced). Environmental effects from the mining and
transportation of limestone and clay needed to make cement can be quite severe,
and the mining, processing, and transportation of aggregates for concrete con-
struction involves some 10 to 11 billion tons of sand, gravel and crushed rock
each year. And, we need roughly 1 trillion liters of fresh mixing water to
produce the world's concrete each year.
Mehta offers several suggestions for reducing environmental impact of concrete

construction: (a) conserve Portland cement by using blended cements containing
large amounts of pozzolanic and cementitious by-products such as fly ash and
granulated blast-furnace slag, (b) conserve aggregate by judicious use of demo-
lition waste (old concrete rubble and masonry which is now generated at the rate
of roughly 1 billion tonnes per year) for the coarse aggregate in concrete, and
dredged sands and mining wastes for the fine aggregate, (c) reduce the volume
of fresh potable water by better aggregate grading, by using more admixtures
and superplasticizers, and by using recycled industrial waters and even brackish
waters for some applications, and (d) by making new concrete structures more
durable by stepping back from the modem practice of making concrete gain
strength very quickly by using too much Portland cement with high-early
strength properties.
Defining True Life Cycle Costs and the Need to Plan for Maintenance and its
Costs
Getting students involved in sustainability issues creates a natural path into treat-
ment of true life cycle costs, life extension methodologies, and the need for a
carefully planned and implemented maintenance program for all structures. As a
minimum, these issues need basic definition and then illustration with a few case
study examples distributed over several courses. The available literature on
these topics is growing by leaps and bounds, particularly in the form of
conference proceedings.
PROFESSIONAL DEGREES BEYOND THE B.S.
We need to supplement our many fine B.S: programs with more professional
education programs to produce engineers with the type of technical background
that just cannot be achieved in a four year B.S. program. The Master of Engi-
neering (M.Eng.) model has been used for more than three decades at Cornell
University, in nearly all branches of engineering. The M.Eng.degree is inher-
ently different from Master of Science programs, with heavy emphasis on
design, no research components, and strong involvement of practicing engineers
in helping teach design. Programs with similar goals are offered at many other
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38 White
schools. In the Structural/Geotechnical Engineering M.Eng.option at Cornell,
about 80% of student effort during the intensive 9 month program is spent in
taking graduate level courses in civil engineering topics (including advanced
materials courses) and in supporting disciplines such as management, labor
relations, architecture, and the like.
The other 20% of the total effort is a comprehensive design project -- the
cohesive element that most sharply defines the program. The design project
provides students with a rich experience in open-ended preliminary design and in
formulating and modeling real structural systems. It provides them an oppor-
tunity to work in guided team situations with students from several different
concentrations (typically structures, geotech, and management), with constant
stress on constructability, practicality, and economics, and in close contact with
eminent practicing professional engineers who bring the design projects to
campus. Conceptual and preliminary design is done in the fall semester,
followed by a full-time three-week final design period in January, and a formal,
public presentation in February covering financial feasibility, design results, and
construction planning and costs.
Practicing engineers have been exceptionally generous in donating their time and
talents in bringing projects to the Cornell campus and then returning repeatedly
to work with students and faculty. They also like to hire the M.Eng. graduates.
And added benefits include infprmal talks to undergraduates by the visiting
engineers, along with undergraduate attendance at presentations given by the
M.Eng. students.
ASCE's decision that the Master's degree should be the first designated civil
engineering degree, and thus serve as the entry point into the civil engineering --``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
profession, has received considerable discussion, both pro and con. The basic
concept is fine, I think, because it is very difficult to argue against the consid-
erable additional knowledge gained during this intensive advanced study. But I
have trouble with requiring everyone to follow this path. Some students may be
better off pursuing additional graduate studies on a part-time basis while work-
ing, either at a local campus or by internet-provided programs. Some need the
maturity and direction provided by getting into the full-time job market after
getting their B.S. degree; those who follow this path and then come back for the
M.Eng. degree always do exceptionally well in their graduate studies. Others
may choose to supplement the B.S. in civil engineering with a degree in
business or management. So my personal position is to enthusiastically
recommend the 5th year, but not require it.
CONTINUING EDUCATION; THE INTERNEf
The audience for continuing education spans a broad spectrum, ranging from

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construction personnel to highly experienced designers. The offering of short
courses and seminars to civil engineers has been a "big business" for some time.
Most typically, teams of professors and practicing engineers prepare and present
these materials to an assembled audience at locations around the country. But
the available delivery mechanisms are expanding! The rapidly evolving distance
learning opportunities afforded by the Internet will have a major impact on edu-
cation at all levels. For example, the popular masonry design seminar put on by
ACI in various cities has been converted into a high-quality format for
distribution on the internet and is now available from the ACI Website, as is the
course on fiber-reinforced concrete. These offerings will be followed by a host
of other "concrete education" offerings on the web by ACI and other technical
groups. They could have a strong central position in the wider group of
structural engineering educational modules envisioned by the NCSEA as
discussed in an earlier section of this paper.
More publications directed specifically at materials technicians and construction

workers are needed. These must be highly specific, brief, and in the right
language. A specific example might be a half-hour explanation, along with a
single sheet of text, on handling and placement of high-strength concrete
containing silica fume and other admixtures. ACI has developed such a "tool-
box series" of publications on a number of construction techniques, involving
both regular and high-performance materials.
Designers, material specifiers, and contractors must have ready access to

material properties and related data on the performance of each new material. As
stated so well in the CERF publication (7), "To transmit the benefits of high-
performance construction materials and systems to all potential users, we must
make reliable data about composition, properties, and performance available to
owners, designers, contractors, and the construction community."
As an example of what might be done, one of the information transfer mech-

anisms envisioned by the CONMAT concrete group ( 15) is the establishment of
a computer bulletin board with detailed data on properties and behavior of HPC,
directed to designers, architects, ready-mix suppiers, contractors, facility
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owners, and researchers. This would provide, on a 24/7 basis, a powerful new
tool for enhancing the use of high-performance materials. However, it is crucial
that common formats for data be agreed on, and that the on-line electronic data
base system be well-designed, user friendly, and properly integrated.
International agreements on formats, methods of updating, etc. are needed.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper has delved into a host of topics related to educating civil engineers for

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40 White
a career in structural design, with strong emphases on concrete structures. The
end goal of these educational efforts is to produce engineers who are equipped to
ensure that society has the very best structures and facilities, as measured from
the multiple standpoints of functionality, safety, aesthetics, durability, service-
ability, minimal impact on the environment, and total life cycle cost
The paper began with a review of structural design issues, the three basic types
of information needed in design, the right background for new graduates, and
implications for professional registration. Numerous suggestions for curricular
content were then made, along with extended discussion on the many non-
calculational aspects of successful design and project implementation. Some
specific recommendations include the points given in the next three paragraphs.
The technical aspects of college curricula must remain rigorous while at the same
time we find ways to streamline coverage of these essential topics. Additional
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emphasis needs to be given to approximate analysis and preliminary design, and
to the materials aspects of concrete. Strong ties to the real world of construction
are essential to help the student develop a sense of what's right and what's
wrong, a feeling of confidence in his or her efforts, and skills in constructibility.
Teamwork and communications need to be included at every level of student
effort. More of the teaching of design should be done with the direct assistance
of practicing professisonal engineers who can provide actual project situations,
with real constraints and conditions.
Visiting engineers should have informal meetings with students to discuss recent
projects and to comment on life in the design profession. Likewise, materials
suppliers, construction companies and precast suppliers can take an active role in
enriching education, including hosting field trips to illustrate the many aspects of
the real world that cannot be taught effectively in the classroom/lab.
Education beyond the B.S. should be made available to all who want it, using a
variety of formats including (a) the Master of Engineering degree or practice-
oriented M.S. programs, (b) conventional continuing education via attendance at
conferences, short courses and seminars, and (c) Internet-based learning with
modules, seminars, and courses on topics spanning from basics of concrete mix
design on through design, repair and retrofit, and structural design.
What can we, as members of ACI, do to help improve the teaching and learning
processes? In addition to some of the activities suggested above, we all need to
take a much more proactive role in ..preaching the gospel" about the unlimited
opportunities in expanded usage of improved cements and concretes. Everyone
can get involved, and working together, we will have a major positive impact on
improving education.

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REFERENCES
(1) White, R.N. 1998. On "Concrete Education" for the 21st Century --
President's Memo. Concreteinternational. 20(2): 5. Detroit: ACI
(2) White, R.N. 2001. Better Constructed Facilities Through Improved

Education. Creative Systems in Structural and Construction Engineering (Proc.
of Jst International Structural Engineering and Construction Conference,
Hawaii), A. Singh (Ed.), pp. 3-11, 2001. .
(3) Holgate, A. 1986. The Art in Structural Design -- An Introduction and

Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. 337 pp.
(4) Warren, W.L.IV. 2001. Certification: A Vision for Structural Engineering.

Structure. September, pp. 6-7.
(5) Weingardt, R.G. 2001. Structural Engineers as Primes. Modern Steel
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Construction. Aug. 2001, pp. 20-21.
(6) ACI 318-02. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI
318-02) and Commentary (ACI 318R-02). ACI: Detroit.
(7) CERF 1993. High-Performance Construction Materia/sand Systems -- An

Essential Program for America and its Infrastructure, CERF Executive Report
93-SOll.E, April, Civil Engineering Research Foundation, Washington DC:
ASCE.
(8) Xiao, Y .. & S.A. Mahin 2000. Composite and Hybrid Structures, Proc. 6th
ASCCS Conf. Los Angeles. March 2000, 1220 pp. ASCCS Secretariat: Univ.
of Southern Cal.
(9) Hancher, D.E. (ed) 2001. Civil Engineering Education Issues 2001 (Proc.
of Third National Congress). ASCE. [V.P. Dmevich, "Evolution of the CE
Capstone Design Course at Purdue"].
(10) Nowak, A.S. (ed) 1986. Modeling Human Error in Structural Design and
Construction. ASCE.
(11) Watson, S.C. and Hurd, M.K., Editors (1990). Esthetics in Bridge
Design. ACI MP-1. ACI: Detroit.
(12) Billington, David P. 1963. The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of
StucturalEngineering. Basic Books.

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42 White
(13) Billington, David P. 1990. Robert Maillart and the Art of Reinforced
Concrete. MIT Press, Cambridge.
(14) Dickson, M. 2001. Touching the Earth Lightly. Patterns: Essays on the
Art and Science of Engineering for Sustainability. T. Ross (Ed). pp. 3-6.
Burro Happold Consulting Engrs. U.K.
(15) Mehta, P.K 1999. Concrete Technology for Sustainable Development

Concretelnternational. 21(11): 47-53. Detroit: ACI
(16) Mehta, P.K. 2001. Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete.

Concrete International. 23(10): 61-65. Detroit: ACI
(17) CERF 1994. MaJerialsforTomorrow's Infrastructure: A Ten-Year Plan
for Deploying High-Performance Construction Materials and Systems, CERF
Executive Report 94-501l.E, Dec. 27, Civil Engineering Research Foundation,
Washington DC: ASCE.
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SP-213-3
Compressive Behavior of High-Strength

High-Performance Concrete
Under Biaxial Loading
by E. G. Nawy, D. H. Lim, and K. L. McPherson
Synopsis: Components of most concrete structural systems, such as slabs, long span thin
shells, containment vessels and protective structures are stressed in multiaxial states of
stress. This study explores the behavior of high strength high performance concrete under
biaxial loading in comparison to uniaxial loading conditions, and to propose a modified
Elastic Modulus expression for concretes under biaxial loading for cylinder compressive
strengths above 12,000 psi (82 MPa). In excess of 100 high-strength cube specimens in
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several series were tested to failure under uniaxial and biaxial compression. Ratios of the
minor to major principal stresses (aia) were selected as a major test variable. From the
test results, it is shown that confinement stress in the minor principal direction has a
pronounced effect on the strength and deformational behavior in the principal direction.
Both the stiffness and ultimate strength of the concrete increased to a value of
approximately 30 percent. Crack development in the tested specimens under biaxial
compression progressed into asymptotic tensile splitting cracks along the a 2 direction. A
mathematical model and an empirical equation were developed for the elastic modulus of
concrete under biaxial loading as a result of these tests.
Keywords: biaxial stress; elastic modulus; failure modes;

high-performance concrete; high-strength concrete; stress-strain relationship

43
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44 Nawy et al.
Edward G. Nawy, FACI, is a distinguished professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey. His research interests include the
serviceability and crack control of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures and the behavior of
high performance concrete. His work, comprising in excess of 160 technical papers and chapters is
several handbooks, has been published in technical journals worldwide and is the author of Reinforced
Concrete- A Fundamental Approach (5'" Ed., 2003), Prestressed Concrete- A Fundamental Approach
(4'" Ed. 2003), Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook (1998), and Fundamentals of High
Petjormance Concrete (2"d Ed, 2001). He is a registered professional engineer in New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, California and Florida and Chartered Engineer, overseas, is engineering
consultant to various state and national organizations. He has been founding chairman and current
member of ACI Committee 224 on Cracking, Past chairman and current member of AC1 435 on
Deflection, chairman of ACJ Chapter Activities Committee and member of ACJ -ASCE 421 on
Structural Slabs. Dr. Nawy is a recipient of the Henry L. Kennedy Award, the AC1 Chapter Activities
Award, the ACI Concrete Research Council R. E. Phil/eo Award, Honorary Professor, Nanjing Institute
of Technology, China, and has been an Evaluator jar the National Accreditation Board jar Engineering
and Technology (ABET).
Dong Hwan Lim is an Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Dongseo University,
Pusan, Korea. He received his Ph.D in Concrete Structural Engineering at Seoul National University in
1994. His research interests include the serviceability and crack control of reinforced and prestressed
concrete structures, behavior of high strength concrete and anchorage zones ofprestressed Concrete.
Kristi L. McPherson is Structural Engineer with Jenny Engineering Corporation, Springfield, New
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Jersey. Her graduate research at Rutgers-The State university of New Jersey involved concentration on
the behavior of concrete under multi-axial stress, and the use ()[.fiber-optic sensors in monitoring the
cracking and deflection behavior of concrete structures. She was formerly on the instructional and
research staff of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University.
INTRODUCTION
The past decade has seen a rapid growth of interest in high-strength high
performance concrete and considerable attention has been given to the use of Silica
Fume as a partial replacement of cement in the production of high performance
concrete. Today, high strength concrete is used in the construction of tall buildings,
long-span bridges, marine structures and other special structural systems such as
offshore oil platforms. 1· 8 One of the advantages of using HSC is its long-term high
performance and that it allows smaller size vertical supports, thereby providing more
floor space, lighter members, smaller foundations, and the resulting more efficient and
economical structures.
During the past two decades, a large number of experimental and analytical
studies on the high-strength concrete have been conducted worldwide to explore the
characteristics of concrete and stress strain models for the HSC have been suggested
16
by several researchers. 6' Some studies were made of the behavior of normal and high

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strength concrete under biaxial states of stress. Such studies including the one
reported in this work are essential for the development of a failure criterion for high-
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strength concretes. As concrete in actual structures is always subject to mutiaxial

states of stress, not the uniaxial state portrayed by the standard test cylinders, they aid
in the correct evaluation of the structural deformation behavior of such members as
slabs, large-span shells, containment vessels and for the shear regions of flexural
members.
But most previous studies on multi-axial behavior have been limited to concrete
having compressive strength of 10,000 psi ( 69 MPa), and only limited data is available
on high-strength high performance concrete having a compressive strength in the
range of 15,000 psi (lOOMPa) and higher. Most available expressions for the Elastic
Modulus of concrete, such as the ACI Code expression, were derived to portray the
uniaxial loading state. But the real compressive strength and the value of Elastic
Modulus of concrete in actual structures where the stress condition is not uniaxial but
biaxial or triaxial is higher than that of the uniaxial stress condition. Hence it is
necessary to introduce a modifier to the ACI expressions that can accommodate the
effect of biaxial states of stress.
This study concentrates on the material and mechanical behavior of high-
strength high performance concrete under biaxial loading. To accomplish this
objective, several series of tests were conducted with the aim of analyzing the stress-
strain relationship of the tested specimens and development of a model and expression
for the Elastic Modulus of concrete under biaxial compression.
Research Significance
Many types of concrete members such as slabs, long span thin shells,
containment vessels, and protective structures are stressed in a biaxial stress state.
Many of these systems are being built with high strength concrete, some with strength
considerably exceeding the 12,000psi (82MPa) uniaxial compressive strength that
ACI Code provides an expression for. The designer is well served if expressions are
available that would permit evaluating the actual multi-axial stress within the
structures being designed, through the use of expressions that correctly evaluate their
concrete modulus, hence their stiffness. A reasonable and simple empirical approach

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46 Nawy et al.
is to derive magnifying multipliers to the existing uniaxial Young's modulus. The
modified modulus as developed in this investigation is an attempt in this direction.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Concrete Mixture Proportions
In order to achieve a 56-180 day compressive strength in excess of 12,000 psi
(83MPa), and after several trial batches, a concrete mixture was developed having the
mix proportions presented in Table 1. This concrete age level was chosen since most
concrete structural systems are in actual full use at an age level of 2-6 months after
concrete placement. Type 3 Cement was used. The wlcm ratio was 0.25 and a high-
range water-reducing admixture (super-plasticizer) was applied to the mix in order to
obtain the required workability. The coarse aggregates consisted of crushed stone
graded aggregates with a 3/8in. (9.5mm) maximum size and a 2.68 specific gravity.
The fine aggregate was natural sand with a fineness modulus of2.67.
Fabrication and Curing Specimens

In excess of 100 cube specimens measuring 4 x 4 x 4in. (100 x 100 x lOOmm)
and 24 concrete control cylinders 4 x 8in. (100 x 200mm) were fabricated and tested
in this investigation. All specimens were cured in a moist curing room, removed 24
hours thereafter from the molds and placed in a water basin for 3 days. They were then
placed again for 50 days or more in the moist room, at 100 percent relative humidity
and constant temperature of 23° C. Two days before testing, the specimens were
taken out of the humidity room, grounded with precision with a wet grinder and
prepared for testing.
Test Variables and Test Procedure

In this study, the ratios of minor to the major principal stress (cr 2/cr 1) and the
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friction between specimen surface and loading platen interface were selected as major
test variables. Figure 1 denotes the directions of the principal axes. Figure 2 shows the
testing set up and Table 2 gives the main test variables of the cube test series. Testing
was conducted using a 1,000,000 lb compression-testing machine modified in order to
apply the transverse biaxial loads to the test cubes in the z-direction. Series I test

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cubes were subjected to uniaxial loading only in they-direction (cr1-direction). Some
minor frictional restraint in the lateral z-direction (crrdirection) was produced by the
steel bearing at the interface with the test cubes.
Series 3, 5, and 7 cubes were subjected to the same loading conditions as
Series 2, 4, and 6, except that Teflon pads approximately 1/4 inch larger in area than
the cube cross-sectional area were placed between the concrete surface and steel
loading platens of the testing machine in order to reduce or eliminate any frictional
forces between the loading platens and the loaded specimens.
Series 2 test cubes were biaxially loaded at a compressive stress ratio (cr2/cr 1) of
50 percent, but without using the Teflon pads. Series 3 test cubes were loaded as in
test cubes Series 2, but with the pads lubricated. Series 4 test cubes were also biaxially
loaded at a compressive stress ratio (cr2/cr 1) of 75 percent, but without using the Teflon
pads. Series 5 test cubes were loaded as in test cubes Series 4, but with the pads
lubricated. Series 6 test cubes were so loaded at a principal stress ratio (cr2/cr1) equal
to 1.0, but without using the Teflon pads, whereas Series 7 test cubes were subjected
to the same stress ratio as in Series 6, but lubricated pads were inserted between the
platen heads and the specimens.
Strain reading for all three faces of the test cubes were measured by L VDTs and
transmitted to a computer strain data acquisition system. Loads were applied
incrementally in generally ten equal increments up to failure. For the biaxially loaded
cubes, the loading rates were manually controlled so as to have the loads in the y- and
z-directions act simultaneously to the end of their predetermined load increments. The
rate of loading was five minutes per one load increment, considered sufficient to take
the necessary data readings.
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TEST RESULTS
Stress-Strain Relationship and Ultimate Strength
The ultimate uniaxial compressive strength was determined from testing control
concrete cylinders. Three cylinders were tested in accordance with ASTM C 39 at 14,
28 and 180 days. The biaxial test program on the concrete cubes started at 180 days
from casting the specimens. The uniaxial concrete strength results obtained from the

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48 Nawy et al.
cylinders naturally differ different from the uniaxial strength obtained from the cubes
because of the specimen size effect.
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain relationship under uniaxial and biaxial
compression for test specimens 1, 2, 4, and 6. Figure 4 shows the stress-strain
relationship for test cubes 1, 3, 5, and 7 where a Teflon friction-reducing layer was
inserted in the interface between the cubes and the testing head platen. It is clear from
the test results given in Table 3 that confinement stress in the minor direction (crz) has
a pronounced effect on the strength and deformational behavior in the direction of
major principal stress (cr 1).
Both stiffness and ultimate strength are increased. The highest increase of 29.8
percent in ultimate strength under biaxial compression over the uniaxial loading case
is developed at a principal stress ratio of 0.5, where no friction-reducing Teflon is
introduced, and drops to 15 percent above the uniaxial loading case when the Teflon
layer is inserted. When lubricated Teflon pads were used, the failure load increase was
only 13.6 percent. At equal biaxial compression, namely, 0' 1 I 0' 2 = 1.0, the relative
increase was19.6 percent. These test results demonstrate that the Modulus of Elasticity
value under biaxial loading is higher than what the ACT Code formula gives. The test
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
results in this investigation showed that the maximum value is achieved at a minor to
major principal stress of 0.5. It was important to consider the non-friction reducing
state, as it more realistically resembles the biaxial and triaxial states of stress in the
actual loaded elements within a structure.
The biaxially-tested cubes exhibited a linear stress-strain relationship almost up
to the ultimate load, with a higher proportional limit than the uniaxially loaded
specimens. A major cause for nonlinearity of the stress strain curve for concrete is the
degree of internal micro cracking. The micro cracks begin as bond at the aggregate-
mortar interface and propagate through the mortar matrix to precipitate failure.
Confinement through the introduction of compressive stress in the minor principal
direction prevents or delays these micro cracks from being generated, resulting in a
stiffer, more linear stress-strain response in the major principal direction. Some
horizontal friction between the platen head and the specimen surface at the interface is
expected to increase in the biaxial failure strength of the test cubes, as demonstrated in
this testing program. Additionally, in comparing the cube-cylinder ultimate strength

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values, the cube/cylinder ultimate principal stress ratio envelope in Figure 5
demonstrates an ordinate value in excess of 1.30, denoting the significant increase
contributed by biaxial compression to the strength of the high strength concrete used
in this investigation.
Failure Modes
The crack patterns and failure modes for all test cubes were studied and
compared. As shown Fig.6, high strength concrete under uniaxial compression showed
a splitting type of failure, where inclined cracks formed in a direction parallel to the
minor cr2 principal stress, at an inclination of 20-30 degrees, as observed also by other
investigators. But when loaded under biaxial compression (see Fig.7), essentially one
single crack developed at failure, essentially asymptotic to the horizontal cr2 direction.
The comparison indicates that the mode of the inclined cracks that developed under
uniaxial loading was prevented from forming by the introduction of the biaxial minor
principal compressive stress.
Generally, failure cracks in normal strength concrete pass through mortar and
occasionally through the coarse aggregate, depending on the quality and
characteristics of the aggregate. Examining the test specimens of the high-strength
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high performance concrete cubes and comparing them with the control cylinders
showed that the majority of failure cracks passed through the aggregates. This
phenomenon is consistent with the fact that available coarse aggregates in most
regions of the United States have an upper failure strength range of 15,000-16,500 psi
(100-ll4Mpa). To achieve concrete strength beyond that range would require using
special granite crushed stone from the few depleting sites that are still available, such
as those in the State of Washington.
Elastic Modulus
Most available expression for Elastic Modulus of concrete ( Ec) are defined by
the concrete compressive strength and surface-dry unit weight of concrete. The ACI
318 Code expression for normal strength concrete with a cylinder compressive
strength level of up to 6,000 psi (41.4Mpa) is:

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50 Nawy et al.
[7" (
Ec = 57,000v;, w, I 145 )3/2 (1)
For higher strength concrete in the range of 6,000 to 12,000 psi, Equation 1
seems to overestimate the Elastic Modulus. ACI Committee 363 has recommended the
following expression:
Ec = ( 40,000 fi + 1,000,000) {w, I 145) 312

(2)
where, w, =unit weight of concrete in Ibl ft3 unit and both and Ec are psi units.
Test results from this investigation were compared to the values obtained from
the ACI Code expression for uniaxial values of Elastic Modulus and were not found in
agreement. These results show that Equation 2 underestimates the real compressive
strength value of the concrete in actual structures where the stress condition is not
uniaxial but biaxial or triaxial as the case may be, particularly significant for high-
strength concrete having a strength in excess of 12,000psi (82.7MPa). Hence an
attempt is made in this investigation to introduce a modifier to the ACI Code
expressions that can reflect the effect of biaxial states of stress on the estimated
strength of the concrete in actual structures.
A best fit regression analysis resulted in the following expression for the
modified concrete elastic modulus for concretes of strength in excess of 12,000 psi
(87.2MPa):
(3)
where, Ec8 is the modulus of concrete under biaxial loading and Ec is the modulus
obtained from the ACI expressions in Equation 1 and 2.
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Comparison between test values from Equation 3 and the values from the ACI
expression in Equation 2, is shown in Table 4. From this Table, the proposed
Equation 3 is shown to be in good agreement with the test results. The average values
of the modulus of concrete for Series 1, 2, 4, and 6 was found to be 5.6, 7 .6, 7.4 and
6.9 x 10 6 psi (38,620 -52,414 MPa, or 38.6-52.4 GPa) respectively for stress ratios 0.0,
0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. A plots relating the compressive strength to the elastic modulus,
comparing the ACI expression with the expression developed in this investigation are
given in Figure 8. They graphically demonstrate a significant difference between the
Ec resulting from the ACI Code expression and the modified Ec 8 expression proposed
in this investigation, which takes into account the effect of biaxial compression on the
modulus of concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can therefore be drawn from this investigation:
1. Confinement stress in the minor direction (cr2) has a significant effect on the
strength and deformational behavior in the direction of major principal stress
resulting in an increase in the stiffness and ultimate strength of the concrete.
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2. For test specimens with platen-induced friction, the maximum strength increases
occurred at a biaxial stress ratio cr21cr1=0.5. The increase in ultimate strength in this
case is 29.8 percent as compared to 19.5 percent in the case of cr21 cr 1=1.0, giving a
smaller ultimate strength and resulting stiffness. For test specimens with no platen-
induced friction, the strength increase ranges between 13.6 and 5.2 percent.
3. Failure cracks under biaxial compressive loading were tensile splitting cracks
occurring almost asymptotically along the direction of minor principal stress
whereas the uniaxially loaded specimens developed inclined cracks at about 20-30
degrees to that plane.
4. An expression was developed in this investigation for a modified elastic modulus for

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52 Nawy et al.
high-strength high performance concrete that takes into account the actual
concrete compressive strength in structures, since the stress condition in most
normal structural systems are non-uniaxial.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research work reported in this paper was conducted in the Concrete
Research Laboratory of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Rutgers University- the State University of New Jersey under the direction ofthe first
author with the assistance of the second author who worked on the mathematical
analysis of the data and the third author who conducted all the tests and interpreted the
test results for the developed model.
REFERENCES
I. Nawy, E. G., "Fundamentals of High Performance Concrete," 2"d Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Mew York, NY, 2001, pp. 462.
2. Nawy, E. G., Reinforced concrete- A Fundamental Approach, 5th Edition, Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003, pp. 866.
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3. Randall, V., and Foot, K.,"High Strength Concrete for Pacific First Center,"
Concrete International, V.ll, No. 4, American Concrete Institute, Farmington hills,
MI, Apr. 1989, pp.14-16.
4. Nilson, A. H.,"Design Implications of Current Research on High Strength

Concrete," ACI SP-87-pp.85-118, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Ml, 1985.
5. Yong, Y. K., Nour, M.G., and Nawy, E. G., "Behavior of Laterally Confined High
Strength Concrete Under Axial Loads," ASCE Journal of the Structural Division,
Vol. 114, No.2, American Society ofCivil Engineers, Reston, VA, February 1988,
pp. 332-351.
6. Chen, R. C., Carrasquillo, S.J., and Flower, D. W., "Behavior of High Strength
Concrete under Uniaxial and Biaxial Compression," ACI SP-87-14, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, Farmington Hills, MI, 1985, pp. 251-273.
7. Iran, 1., and Pantazopoulou, S.J.," Experimental Study of Plain Concrete Under
Triaxial Stress, ACI Material Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Ml, Nov.-Dec. 1996, pp. 589-601.

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8. Traina, L.A., and Mansour, S. A.,"Biaxial Strength and Deformational Behavior of
Plain and Steel Fiber Concrete," ACI Material Journal, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Ml, July-Aug. 1991, pp.354-362.
9. Liu, T., Nilson, A., and Slate, "Stress-Strain Response and Fracture of Concrete in
Uniaxial and Biaxial Compression," ACI Journal, Proceedings V.69, No.5,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, May 1972, pp.291-295.
10. Tasuji, 1., Slate, F., and Nilson, A.," Stress-Strain Response and Fracture of
Concrete in Biaxial Compression," ACI Journal, Proceedings V.75, No.7,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml, July 1978, pp.306-312.
11. Kuper, H., Hilsdorf, H. K., and Rusch, H.," Behavior of Concrete Under Biaxial
Stresses," ACI Journal, Proceedings V.66, No.8, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington hills, MI, Aug. 1969, pp.656- 666.
12. Yin, W., Su, E., Mansour, M., and Hsu, T.," Biaxial Tests of Plain and Fiber
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 86, No.3, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Ml, May-June 1991, pp. 236-243.
13. Hussein, A., and Marzouk, H.," Behavior of High Strength Concrete under Biaxial
Stresses," ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, Jan.-Feb. 2000, pp.27-36.
14. Fiorato, A. E.," PCA Research on High Strength Concrete," ACI Concrete
International Journal, V.11, No.4, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,
1989, pp. 44-50.
15. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirement for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-
02, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2002, pp.454.
16. Lim, D.H., McPherson, K.L., and Nawy, E. G., "Behavior of High Strength Concrete
Under Biaxial Compression," Proceedings, 2001 Second International Conference
on Engineering Materials, CSCE/JSCE, San Jose, CA, August16-19, 200 I ,pp.345-
354.
Table 1- Concrete Mixture Proportions -lb/yd3 (kg/m 3)
Coarse Fine Silica Super

Cement Water
A22re2ate A22re2ate Fume Plasticizer
900 1851 1,100 225 135 45

(534) (1098) (653) (133) (80) (26. 7)

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54 Nawy et al.
Table 2. Main Test Variables in Test Cube Specimens Series
Compressive Strength of Concrete Uniaxial

Princiapl
Test Cylinders, MPa (psi) Compr. Str. Stress Ratios Friction
Specimen Cube (cricrt)
28 180 See Table 3 for State
Series 14 Days Specimens ConcreteCubes
Days Days Strength Values
MPa,(psi)
Series I
73.5 77.7 81.0 82.3
(Control-No 0.0 Friction
(10,660) (11,275) (11,750) (11 ,940)
Pads)
Series 2 70.5 75.8 80.8 82.7
0.5 Friction
(No Pads) (10,230) (11,000) (11 ,685) (12,000)
Series 3 70.5 76.7 79.7 82.6 No
0.5
(Pads) (10,220) (11,125) (11,560) (II ,980) Friction
Series 4 69.6 77.4 80.7 84.2 0.75 Friction
(No Pads) (10,110) (11,230) (11,704) (12,210)
Series 5 71.2 78.1 81.3 83.6 0.75 No
(Pads) (10,320) (11,320) (11,785) (12,120) Friction
Series 6 72.8 77.7 82.7 84.4 1.00 Friction
(No Pads) (10,560) (11,270) (11,994) (12,240)
Series 7 70.7 76.8 79.8 83.1 No
1.00
(Pads) (10,253) (11,319) (11,574) (12,053) Friction
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Table 3 - Increase in Ultimate Strength as a Function of the Ratio of the Minor to Majo1
Principal Stress (ava1)
Compressive Strength Ratios of Minor to Increase of

Test Specimen
of Cube Specimens Major Principal Stress Ultimate Strength
Series*
MPa (psi) (ava1) (%)
Series 1
82.3
(Control- No 0.0 -
(11,970)
Pads)
Series 2 106.9
0.5 29.8
(No Pads) (15,500)
Series 4 102.1
0.75 24.1
(No Pads) (14,808)
Series 6 98.5 1.00 19.6
(No Pads) (14,280)
Series 3 95.9 0.5 13.6
(Pads) (13,905)
Series 5 84.5 0.75 2.6
(No Pads) (12,255)
Series 7 83.1
1.00 1.0
(Pads) (12,052)
* Teflon pads were inserted at the interface between test specimens 3, 5, and 7 and the rigid steel
testing head platen.
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56 Nawy et al.
Table 4- Comparison of Analytical, Experimental and ACI Elastic Modulus Values
Specimen Values of Elastic Modulus (!Jsi x 106 )* Experimental/

Series Experimental Proposed Analytical
ACI Expression
Value Equation
5.68 5.37 5.64 1.007
5.72 5.37 5.64 1.014
5.52 5.37 5.64 0.979
5.93 5.37 5.64 1.051
5.77 5.37 5.64 1.023
Series I
5.42 5.37 5.64 0.961
5.33 5.37 5.64 0.945
5.45 5.37 5.64 0.966
5.71 5.37 5.64 1.012
5.65 5.37 5.64 1.001
7.41 5.98 7.58 0.978
7.52 5.98 7.58 0.995
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7.82 5.98 7.58 1.034
7.63 5.98 7.58 1.009
7.57 5.98 7.58 1.001
Series 2
7.60 5.98 7.58 1.005
7.70 5.98 7.58 1.019
7.65 5.98 7.58 1.012
7.55 5.98 7.58 0.999
7.78 5.98 7.58 1.029
7.58 5.86 7.42 1.022
7.63 5.86 7.42 1.028
7.60 5.86 7.42 1.024
7.30 5.86 7.42 0.984
7.63 5.86 7.42 1.028
Series 4
7.33 5.86 7.42 0.988
7.40 5.86 7.42 0.997
7.35 5.86 7.42 0.991
7.50 5.86 7.42 1.011
7.28 5.86 7.42 0.981
6.92 5.78 6.88 1.006
6.99 5.78 6.88 1.016
7.20 5.78 6.88 1.047
7.12 5.78 6.88 1.035
6.70 5.78 6.88 0.974
Series 6
6.82 5.78 6.88 0.991
6.98 5.78 6.88 1.015
6.75 5.78 6.88 0.987
6.82 5.78 6.88 0.991
6.74 5.78 6.88 0.980
6
* I ps1 x I 0 = 6895 MPa

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Load Cell
~
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Figure 1 - Schematic of the Principal Loading Axes
Figure 2 - Testing Set Up

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--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
58 Nawy et al .
...........
(/)
~
'-'
(/)
(/)
Q)
I-
.......
(/) 8
Q) -k- Series 1 - E1
-~ + Series 1 - E2
(/) crl
(/)
-} 6 -w- Series 2 - E1
Q)
I-
Q. ......._ Series 2 - E2
E cr2~ ~cr2 - Series 4 - E 1.
0 ...._ Series 4 - E2
0
t + Series 6 - E1
crl -<>- Series 6 - E2
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000

6
Strain ( x 10· In/In)
Figure 3- Stress-Strain Relationship in Test Specimens Series 1,2,4,6
16
...........
"Vi
~
'-'
(/)
(/)
Q)
>-
.......
(/)
Q)
> -.-.. Series 1 - E 1
(/)
(/)
a! -e- Series 1 - E2
Q)
1-
Q. -} -w- Series 3 - E1
-11- Series 3 - E2
E
0 cr2~ ~cr2 -Series 5- E 1
0
...._Series 5- EQ
t +Series 7 - EJ
a! -<>- Series 7 - e2
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Strain ( x 10·6 In/In)

Figure 4- Stress-Strain Relationship in Test Specimens Series 1,3,5,7

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1.5
-
.r:::.
Cl
c
Q)
.....
Ci5
.....
Q)
"0
.!;;
;;:. ________________ J _________________
'
~_
(.)
-0
CJl
CJl
''
'
-ro
~
( /)
0..
"(3
c
·g_ 0.5
.....
0
c
~
.....0
0
:o:;
ttl
0:::
0+-----------~--------~~--------~
0 0.5 1.5
Ratio of Major Principl Stress to Cylinder strength
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 5 - Ultimate Principal Stress Ratios Envelope
Figure 6 - Typical Inclined Splitting Failure Cracks in Uniaxially-Loaded Cubes

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60 Nawy et al.
Figure 7 - Typical Asymptotical Splitting Failure Cracks in Biaxially-Loaded Cubes
8~-----------------------------------------------,
-...- By Test . .--1·..-·· · ·

~
\()
0
X 7
-e- By ACI
-11- Predicted
·ti__...·······
l ......~ .
.•.··· ...
'-' ........
(f)
Linear by Predicted
:J .......··.../
\
:J
lJ ..................
0 ......;"
~
u 6 .A ..-·············_.-··· o················
......
(f)
((J ........---·· ............................................................. .
w ...··:-- ................................. ~"
. . . ,. . .,::.<.::.:~:. . . . f................... Linear by {C'I
........
5+-------~---------+--~----~--------~------~
11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000
Compressive Stress (psi)

Figure 8- Plots of Elastic Modulus Analytical- Experimental Eca Results vs.
ACI Code Ec Values
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SP-213-4
Design of Rectangular
HSC Columns for Ductility
by 0. Bayrak and S. A. Sheikh
Synopsis: In most design codes (1, 2, 3) provisions for the design of confinement
reinforcement contain empirical constants that were based on the experimental data
available in the literature. Most of the data used was from tests in which normal strength
concrete columns with square cross sections were used. Only recently, a limited amount
of experimental data on high strength concrete (HSC) columns has become available.
Experimental data on rectangular HSC column behavior, on the other hand, is rarely
found in literature, especially on large size HSC specimens tested under moderate to high
axial load levels and subjected to large inelastic displacement excursions. This paper
presents results from a continuing research program which aims to study confinement of
concrete by lateral reinforcement. The current work deals with the experimental behavior
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ofHSC (52 MPa:::;; fc':s; 112 MPa) columns having rectangular cross sections. Large-size
columns (250 x 350 x 1473 mm) with heavy stubs (508 x 762 x 813 mm) were tested
under moderate to high axial load levels and reversed cyclic displacement excursions.
Effects of several variables such as section geometry, axial load level, and amount of
lateral reinforcement on the behavior of these specimens are studied, and the responses of
the rectangular specimens are compared to those of specimens with square cross sections.
It is concluded that HSC columns having square and rectangular cross sections can be
designed to behave in a ductile manner, provided that sufficient amount of confinement
reinforcement is used in an efficient configuration.
Keywords: columns; deformability; ductility; earthquakes; energy dissipation;

high-strength concrete (HSC)
61
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62 Bayrak and Sheikh

Oguzhan Bayrak is an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at the Phil M.
Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin.
He chairs ACI-ASCE 441 (Committee on Reinforced Concrete Columns), and is
a member of ACI 341 (Earthquake-Resistant Concrete Bridges), FIB
Commission 4 Task Group 4.411 (Application of Computer Based Methods to
Practical Problems), and Task Group 4.4/4 (Computer-Based Modeling and
Design). Bayrak's research and teaching interests are related to behavior,
analysis and design of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, earthquake
engineering, evaluation of structures in distress, use of fiber-reinforced polymers
for corrosion repair, and strengthening of reinforced concrete.
Shamim A. Sheikh is a professor of civil engineering at the University of

Toronto. He is a member of ACI-ASCE Committee 441 (Reinforced Concrete
Columns). He is also a member of the ACI Committee 374 (Performance-Based
Seismic Design of Concrete Buildings). His research interests include
confinement of concrete, earthquake resistance of reinforced concrete, expansive
cement and its applications, and use of fiber-reinforced plastics in concrete
structures. He was given the ACI Structural Research Award in 1999 for his
work on the design of confinement reinforcement for seismic resistance.
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INTRODUCTION
According to the current seismic design philosophy, the ability of concrete-

framed structures to withstand strong ground motions depends mainly on the
formation of plastic hinges and their capacities to absorb and dissipate energy
without significant loss of strength. For this reason, most building codes attempt
to ensure hinging in the beams rather than the columns in order to guarantee
stability. However, experience from recent earthquakes has shown that formation
of plastic hinges in columns of a framed structure at locations other than the
column bases at the foundation level was still possible during severe
earthquakes. This was true despite the application of the "strong column-weak
beam" concept as recommended by various design codes. Appropriate
confinement of column concrete thus becomes ever so important. During the last
two decades, the use of high strength concrete (HSC) has become widespread
adding another dimension to the design problem. The design equations for
confining reinforcement that exist in the current design codes (1, 2, 3) were
originally derived based on experimental results in which normal strength
concrete (NSC) was used. It has therefore become imperative that the basic
concept behind the code equations and the empirical constants be investigated for
the ability of these equations to produce ductile member designs.
Sheikh and Khoury (4) have suggested a rational design procedure for the design
of confinement reinforcement in NSC columns. Results from square columns
with concrete strength up to 55 MPa were used to develop the design equations
(4, 5, 6). Bayrak and Sheikh (7, 8) suggested modifications to the original
confinement reinforcement design procedure for its applicability to HSC
columns with concrete strength up to I 00 MPa. Experimental data from HSC
columns with square cross sections was used to modify the original formulation.

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After this modification Bayrak and Sheikh tested 71 MPa concrete columns
having rectangular cross sections (250 x 350 mm). Results from these
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
specimens, tested in the Column Tester (Figure 1) housed in the Structural

Testing Laboratories of the University of Toronto are presented here and
compared with those from earlier tests on specimens with square column
sections. Each specimen consisted of a 250 x 350 x 1473 mm column and a 508
x 762 x 813 mm stub. The column part of the specimen represented a column in
a concrete frame between the section of maximum moment and the point of
contraflexure. The stub represented a discontinuity such as a beam column joint
or a footing. Effects of concrete strength and cross-sectional geometry on
sectional behavior are studied and discussed in this paper.
The ACI Code equations for the design of confining reinforcement were derived
based on experimental data from large-size square column tests where normal
strength concrete was used. However, due to architectural requirements and
other geometrical constraints, columns with rectangular cross sections are being
used in building designs. Therefore, the application of the code equations to
HSC columns with rectangular cross sections needs to be investigated. In
addition, as the ACI-ASCE Committee 441(9) suggested, further tests on HSC
columns are needed under cyclic lateral excursions while simultaneously
subjected to moderate to high levels of axial load. With this motivation, eight
specimens with rectangular column cross sections were tested under simulated
earthquake loading and their performance is discussed here. Experimental data
obtained from well-instrumented large-size rectangular HSC columns is used to
critically examine the code provisions for confining reinforcement.
CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT DESIGN FOR RECTANGULAR

COLUMNS
In this section various concrete design code requirements are reviewed. Current
and previous versions of the ACI-318 Code are treated in depth in order to study
the historical development of the relevant code provisions. Improvements to the
ACI-318 Code provisions for confinement reinforcement design through
different versions of the Code are presented in detail. Once the history of current
code provisions for confining reinforcement is carefully examined,
improvements to existing provisions can be recommended in light of the current
experimental findings.
Confinement Reinforcement Provisions of ACI 318-56 and ACI 318-63 Codes
Neither the 1956 nor the 1963 Code contained equations to calculate the amount
of confinement steel in tied columns. However some limiting requirements were
included in both codes. These requirements were:
• At least #2 bars (0.25" or 6 mm) should be used for ties.

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• Ties should be spaced apart not more that 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie
diameters, or the least dimension of the column section.
The 1956 Code required that all the longitudinal bars should be laterally
supported by a tie bend; the 1963 Code, on the other hand, relaxed this provision
requiring instead lateral support to every comer and alternate longitudinal bars.
The provision of the Code that has not changed since 1963 is: "The ties shall be
so arranged that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral
support provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle of not more
than 135 degrees and no bar shall be farther than 6 in. (152 mm) from such a
laterally supported bar. "
The following equation was suggested to calculate the volumetric ratio of the
spiral reinforcement in circular columns.
Ps=0.45[~][~-1]
fyh Ac
(1)
where
Ps = volumetric ratio of the spiral reinforcement to core concrete
fc' = compressive strength of concrete as measured from standard cylinders
f h = yield strength of spiral reinforcement
A 8 = gross area of the section
Ac = area of the concrete core measured to outside diameter of spirals
Confinement Reinforcement Provisions of ACI 318-71, 77
Special requirements for seismic design were first introduced in the 1971 edition
of the ACI 318 Code. The plastic hinge region was defined as the region where
ultimate moment capacity of the concrete section may be developed, and with
increasing inelastic deformations, the moment capacity could be conserved
without any significant loss. The concept of "strong column-weak beam" was
included in the Code to prevent column hinging and related collapse
mechanisms. The length of the confining region for columns, i.e. the length of
the zone of plastification, was defined. The maximum center-to-center spacing of
ties was limited to 102 mm (4 in). The minimum cross-sectional area of one leg
of a tie was suggested to be calculated by the following equation:
(2)
where
lh the maximum unsupported length of rectangular hoop measured between
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legs of the hoop

s = the spacing of the hoops
Ps = the volumetric ratio of the spiral steel.
Equation 2 assumes that the square confining reinforcement is half as efficient as

the circular confinement. In 1971 a lower limit to the volumetric ratio of the
spirals was introduced. In addition to Equation 1, the following equation had to
be satisfied, which was primarily directed toward large sections.

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Ps =0.12[~]fyh
(3)
Combining the equations above, the cross-sectional area of one leg of a tie is given
by:
Arie = 0.225s 1h ( -Ag -1 -fc·

Ac
j fyh
(4)
but not less than

fc•
Ar;e = 0.06slh- (5)
fyh
Equations 4 and 5 are presented below in the format of the equations of 1989,
1995, 1999 and 2002 versions of ACI 318. It is assumed that the section is
square and contains only perimeter ties.
Ash -_ 0.45shc( -Ag -1 ) -fc· (6)

Ach f yh
but not less than
f c'
Ash= 0.12shc- (7)
f yh
where
Ash= total cross-sectional area of rectilinear ties, (= 2 x Ar;e)
Ach = area of concrete core measured out to out of transverse reinforcement
he = the maximum unsupported length of rectangular hoop measured between
legs of the hoop, ("" lh )
Moreover, the minimum bar size allowed for ties was increased from #2 (1/4" or
6 mm) to #3 (3/8" or 9 mm).
Confinement Reinforcement Provisions of ACI318-83
This version of the Code contained, for the first time, special detailing for frames
in zones with moderate to high seismic risk. The minimum amount of confining
steel in tied columns was specified as:
Ash =0.3shc[~][Ag
fyh Ach
-1] (8)
but not less than
(9)
where Ash is the total cross-sectional area of rectilinear ties.
The 1983 Code changed the maximum tie spacing from I 02 mm (4 in.), to the
smaller of 102 mm (4 in.) or V. of the minimum section dimension. It also
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allowed the use of cross ties with a 180° hook at one end and a 90° hook at the
other end to ease the construction of reinforcing cages.
Confinement Reinforcement Provisions of ACI 318-89, 95, 99, 02
In the 1989 version of the ACI 318 Code, the numerical coefficient in Equation 9
was reduced from 0.12 to 0.09. This change was made based on the observed
behavior of tied columns which had properly detailed hoops and cross-ties. The
current version (ACI 318-02) of the Code requires that the total cross-sectional
area of rectilinear ties shall not be less than that given by the following
equations:
(10)
but not less than
(11)
The ACI 318-02 requirements for the confinement reinforcement in circular

columns is expressed in terms of the volumetric ratio of spiral steel to core
instead of total cross-sectional area. The Code requires that volumetric ratio of
spiral steel, p5 , shall not be less than that given by Equations l and 3.
Performance Based Confinement Reinforcement Design
Sheikh and Khoury (6) proposed a procedure for the design of confinement
reinforcement for a given ductile performance that takes into account parameters
such as reinforcement distribution and axial load level. This method is suggested
for the design of columns that have concrete strengths up to 55 MPa. Equation 12
was proposed by Sheikh and Khoury (6). A simplified version of this equation
was also suggested for design purposes by the authors.
(12)
where
Ash(ACI)= total cross-sectional area of rectilinear ties as suggested by the ACI
318 Code (from Equations 10 and 11)
a configuration efficiency factor, a= 1 when a minimum of 8
longitudinal bars are laterally supported by tie bends, a > 1 when
less than 8 longitudinal bars are effectively supported by tie bends.
curvature ductility factor. In calculating !lq,so (Figure 3), <j> 2 is taken
as the curvature of the section when the moment on the descending
part of the moment curvature envelope curve is equal to 80% of the
maximum moment.
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P/P0 The ratio of the applied axial load to the axial load carrying
capacity of the column.
0.85 fc' (Ag-As) + fy As
total cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement
yield stress of longitudinal reinforcement.
In the application to specimens with concrete strengths varying between 72 MPa

and I 02 MPa, it was found that the effect of axial load on the lateral
reinforcement demand for a certain column performance is not influenced
significantly by concrete strength. Section ductility measured by "f..l.pso." on the
other hand, is influenced by concrete strength. This is because higher strength
concrete specimens have lower deformability and energy absorption capacities
initially. These properties improve considerably during the later part of the
displacement excursions. Based on the regression analyses performed on
seventeen square columns (4, 5, 6, 7, 8), the original formulation suggested by
Sheikh and Khoury (6) for NSC (fc'<55 MPa) columns was modified by Bayrak
and Sheikh (8) for columns with concrete strengths higher than 55 MPa as
follows:
It is important to note that Equations 12 and 13 are derived from experimental

data from large-size square column tests. However, due to architectural
requirements and other geometrical constraints, columns with rectangular cross
sections are being used regularly by structural engineers. Therefore, application
of Equations 12 and 13 to HSC columns with rectangular cross sections needs to
be investigated. With this motivation, specimens RS-9HT, RS-lOHT, RS-llHT,
RS-12HT, RS-13HT, RS-14HT WRS-23HT and WRS-24HT were tested under
simulated earthquake loading and their performance is discussed here.
The specimens used in the test program consisted of a 250 x 350 x 1473 mm (9.8
x 13.8 x 58 in.) column and 508 x 762 x 813 mm (20 x 30 x 32 in.) stub. The
column part represented the part of a column in a typical building frame between
the section of maximum moment and the point of contraflexure. The stub
represented a discontinuity like a beam column joint or a footing. The core area
in rectangular specimens was kept constant at 74.4% of the gross area of the
column section in all the specimens. The core size, measured from center to
center of perimeter ties, was 210 x 310 mm (8.3 x 12.2 in.). Table 1 gives the
details of the specimens tested and the level of the axial load applied to each
specimen during testing.
Each specimen was tested under a constant axial load and reversed cyclic lateral
displacement excursions until it was not able to maintain the axial load. Prior to
the test each specimen was aligned to ensure the concentric application of the
axial load. The lateral load was applied at the stub near the stub-column
interface (Figure 1). Hence the column test region near the stub was subjected to
constant axial force and maximum cyclic shear and moment. In the first cycle
the specimen was subjected to 75% of the elastic or yield displacement (~ 1 ),
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which can be defined as the lateral deflection corresponding to the estimated
lateral load carrying capacity (V max) on a straight line joining origin and a point
about 65% of Ymax on the lateral load-displacement curve. Both Llr and Ymax
were calculated using theoretical sectional responses of the unconfined columns
and integrating curvatures along the length of the specimen. Subsequent
displacement excursions consisted of two cycles each at~,, 2 ~ 1 , 3 ~~ and so on
(Figure 2).
RESULTS
Since behavior of reinforced concrete sections and members is not elastoplastic,

several definitions for ductility and deformability are available in literature. In
this study the ductility parameters suggested by Sheikh and Khoury (4) are used
to evaluate the performance of the test specimens. This makes the comparison of
the results from the current study to the results obtained in the earlier stages of
the ongoing research program more meaningful. Figure 3 illustrates definitions
of the ductility parameters for a section based on a moment-curvature
relationship. Similar ductility parameters can also be developed from shear (V)
vs. tip deflection (~ 1 ) which will result in llt>, N,.,, W comparable to !lei>, Nq,, and E
in Figure 3.
The definitions for most of the ductility parameters illustrated in Figure 3 are
self-explanatory; others, however need further explanation. N,., and Nq, are
cumulative displacement and curvature ductility ratios. These ratios can be used
to assess the cumulative amount of inelastic deformations, normalized with
respect to yield deformations, experienced by a section or a member. W and E
are work damage and energy damage indicators, respectively. By using these two
parameters, energy absorption and dissipation characteristics of the test
specimens were evaluated. These four parameters can be defined up to the end of
a test (in this case subscript "t" is used in Table 2) or up to the cycle in which the
strength loss is less than or equal to 20% (in this case subscript "80" is used in
Table 2). Detailed discussion of these parameters can be found elsewhere (4, 5,
6). Ductility parameters of the test specimens are listed in Table 2.
Behavior of each specimen can be evaluated in the form of moment vs. curvature
and shear force vs. tip deflection relationships. It should be recognized that
sectional behavior represented by the M-<1> relationship is of primary concern here
because the inelastic deformations concentrate at the plastic hinge once the column
is loaded in the post-elastic range. Further lateral displacements will take place
mainly as a result of plastic hinge rotation. Considering this fact and space
limitations, only moment vs. curvature plots for the test specimens are included
herein. The moments plotted in Figures 4-11 are those at the failed sections of
the columns, including secondary moments caused by the axial load. The
curvature was calculated from the deformation readings measured by the upper
and lower LVDTs located in the most damaged region within the hinging zone.
Spalling of top and bottom cover concrete, yielding of inner and outer ties, and
buckling of top and bottom longitudinal bars are marked on the graphs in Figures
4-11. In all specimens, failure did not occur at the column stub connection,
although this section was subjected to the maximum moment. Due to the
confinement provided by the stub to the adjacent column section, the failure
shifted away from the stub.
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DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
A general study of Figures 4-11 and Table 2 indicates that high strength concrete
columns with rectangular cross sections can be made to behave in a ductile manner
under high levels of axial load, provided that a sufficient amount of confining
reinforcement is used in an efficient configuration. Specimens RS-9HT and
WRS-23HT, displaying curvature ductility factors of 19.3 and 19.9 respectively, can
be ranked as highly ductile columns. The notable differences between the responses
of the test specimens (Figures 4-11 and Table 2) indicate that the column behavior is
affected greatly by different variables. The variable RA!r used in Table 2 can be
defined as follows;
Ash/ Ash(ACI)
RA/P P/Po (14)
It is observed that higher axial force requires a larger amount of lateral
reinforcement for comparable ductility. The parameter RA/P can therefore be
used to evaluate a column's performance with different P and Ash values. As can
be observed in Table 2, all the section ductility parameters tend to increase with
increasing RAJP values. In fact, the ductility classification of the test specimens
summarized in Table 3 is established based on RA/P values of the test specimens.
Effect of Concrete Strength
It is observed that specimens having the same RA/P ratios and the same type of
reinforcement configuration behaved in a similar manner. When behaviors of
the specimens corresponding to the same group of ductility classification are
compared to each other (Figures 4-11, Tables 2 and 3) following observations
can be made:
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i. Concrete strength of Specimens RS-12HT and RS-13 HT were 70.8 and
112.1 MPa respectively. RS-12HT was tested under an axial load level that
is 32% of its axial load carrying capacity, and RS-13HT was tested under a
somewhat higher axial load level (P= 0.?7P.J J\n examination of Figures 7
and 8 and Table 2 proves that these spectmens dtsplayed a moderate level of
ductility with a curvature ductility factor, f..4so, of about 10. Specimen AS-
3RT, previously tested by Bayrak and Sheikh (7), also displayed a very
similar level of ductility with a J..L.pso value of l 0.1. The comparison of the
behavior of Specimens RS-12HT and RS-13HT with AS-3HT is particularly
important as AS-3HT has a square cross section unlike the rectangular
sections of "R" type specimens and was tested under a higher level of axial
load (P= 0.50P.,). As can be observed in Table 2 Specimens AS-3HT, RS-
12HT and RS-l3HT have very similar RA/P ratios. Hence, the sectional
behavior of all three specimens can be classified in the same group despite
the differences in their concrete strength, the level of axial load under which
they were tested and section geometry.
ii. Similar observations can be made by comparing the behavior of Specimens
AS-7HT with RS-14HT, AS-4HT with RS-llHT, RS-9HT with
WRS-23HT, and RS-lOHT with WRS-24HT. The use of the RAiP ratio
facilitates the comparative analysis of sectional behavior of specimens
tested under different levels of axial load and containing different amounts

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of transverse reinforcement. In other words, sectional behavior of a
specimen tested under a lower axial load may be similar to another tested
under a high level of axial load, provided that both have the same
reinforcement configuration, but the latter specimen has a higher
volumetric ratio of transverse reinforcement.
Effect of Axial Load
The effect of axial load on "R" type columns can be evaluated using specimens
RS-9HT and RS-lOHT (Figures 4 and 5, Table 2). These two specimens
contained the same amount of lateral reinforcement, which was 42% more than
the ACI 318-02 requirements. Specimen RS-9HT was tested under a moderate
level of axial load (P/P 0 = 0.32); whereas RS-lOHT was tested under a higher
axial load level (P/P0 = 0.49). An increase in axial load caused substantial
reductions in the ductility parameters (Table 2). A higher axial load resulted in
an increase in the rate of strength and stiffness degradation with every load cycle
and adversely affected the cyclic performance of rectangular HSC columns.
Specimen RS-9HT's curvature ductility factor, J..Lq,so, cumulative curvature
ductility factor, N.J>so, and energy damage indicator, Exo• are 42%, 178% and
337% higher than those of Specimen RS-1 OHT, respectively. Similarly,
Specimens WRS-23HT and WRS-24HT, two identical specimens in every
respect but the level of axial load under which they were tested, can be compared
to evaluate the effect of the axial load on the behavior of "WR" type HSC
columns (Figures 10 and 11). Once again, a decrease of the axial load from
0.49P" to 0.32P" resulted in pronounced increases in the curvature ductility
factor, J.!q,so, cumulative curvature ductility factor, N.1> 80, and energy damage
indicator, Exo (Table 2). It can be concluded that the level of axial load influences
the behavior of columns significantly, and hence it should be used as a design
parameter.
Effect of Amount of Transverse Reinforcement
Specimens RS-1 OHT and RS-11 HT can be compared to evaluate the effect of the
amount of lateral reinforcement on the behavior of "R" type HSC columns. An
increase in the amount of lateral reinforcement significantly improved the cyclic
behavior of the specimen (Figures 5 and 6, Table 2). An increase of 32% in the
volumetric ratio of tie reinforcement to concrete core resulted in pronounced
improvements of energy dissipation capacity, deformability and ductility
(Table 2). The curvature ductility factor, J..l&o, of RS-11 HT is 39% higher than
that of RS I 0-HT. The differences between the cumulative curvature ductility
factor, Nq,so, and energy damage indicator, Ef"' of these specimens are even more
pronounced. The increase of 32% in the vo umetric ratio of tie reinforcement to
concrete core resulted in a 128% increase ofN 80, and a 281% increase ofExw
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Effect of Section Geometry
Specimens RS-9HT, RS-10HT, WRS-23HT and WRS-24HT are used to study

the effect of section geometry and shear span to depth ratio on cyclic behavior of
rectangular HSC columns. Specimens RS-9HT, RS-lOHT, WRS-23HT and
WRS-24HT were identical in every aspect (Tables 1 and 2). They had very
similar concrete strengths, amount of lateral reinforcement and configuration of
transverse reinforcement. Figures 4, 5, 10 and 11 show the moment versus
curvature behavior of the specimens under consideration.
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Specimens RS-9HT and WRS-23HT were tested under a moderate axial load
level (P/P 0 =0.32). RS-9HT was tested about its strong axis, and WRS-23HT
was tested about its weak axis. These two identical specimens displayed very
similar section ductilities, despite the fact that the shear span to depth ratio for
Specimen RS-9HT was 5.3, and 7.4 for WRS-23HT. As shear deformations
were not critical for both columns, the curvature ductility factors, cumulative
curvature ductility ratios, and energy damage indicators of these two columns
were very similar (Table 2). Small differences in the section ductility parameters
are attributed to experimental scatter. Experimental observations during the
testing of RS-9HT and WRS-23HT also confirm very similar if not identical
behavior of these specimens. Specimens RS-1 OHT and WRS-24HT were tested
under a higher axial load level (PIP o =0.49). RS-1 OHT was tested about its
strong axis and WRS-24HT was tested about its weak axis. Both specimens
displayed very similar section ductilities, despite the differences in shear span to
depth ratios (Table 2).
Table 2 also lists the member ductility parameters of the specimens discussed
above. Bearing in mind that the section performances of Specimens RS-9HT and
WRS-23HT were very similar and that those of RS-1 OHT and WRS-24HT were
also very similar, the following conclusions can be drawn from comparisons of
member and section ductility parameters:
1. Similar curvature ductility factors translate to different displacement

ductility factors, depending on the shear span to depth ratio as well as the
plastic hinge length to shear span ratios. For the specimens tested in this
study, displacement ductility factors decreased with increasing shear span
to depth ratios (Table 2).
ii. Member ductility parameters seem to be influenced significantly by section

geometry and shear span to depth ratios. Section ductility parameters, on
the other hand, are not affected by changes in sectional geometry and shear
span to depth ratios. Therefore it is easy to classify column behavior using
section ductility parameters. To classify columns based on their member
ductility parameters would be misleading. A displacement ductility factor,
f..l 1180 , of 8.3 for Specimen RS-9HT and 3.3 for Specimen WRS-23HT
correspond to the same level of section ductility, measured by f..lq,so of
approximately 19 to 20. To satisfy a displacement ductility demand, f..l1180,
of 8.3 in column WRS-23HT, a curvature ductility demand, f..lq,so, of much
larger than 20 would be needed, which requires a considerably larger
amount of lateral reinforcement than that used in the specimen. Hence, this
observation alone shows the reliability of the performance based design
expressions (Equations 12 and 13).

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Effect of the Stub
The maximum moment in each test specimen occurs at the column-stub

interface. During the testing of each specimen, it was observed that the damage
started at a section away from the face of the stub. This indicated that the
strength of the critical section at the column-stub interface was higher than that
of the failed section because of the additional confinement provided by the stub.
The additional confinement provided by the stub caused a delay of spreading of
cracks in concrete and reduced the tendency of lateral expansion. As a result, the
moment capacity of the critical section increased and failure shifted to a nearby
section. Figure 12 illustrates the extensively damaged regions of the columns in
all the specimens. As can be seen in this figure, plastic hinge regions were
shifted away from the column-stub interface for all test specimens.
Application of Performance Based Design Equations to Rectangular Specimens
In the previous sections the evolution of the code expressions for confining
reinforcement design is presented. In addition, recently suggested performance
based design expressions for square NSC and HSC columns (Equations 12 and
13) are illustrated. In this section the accuracy of the performance based design
equations is evaluated using the experimental data developed during the course
of the current research. Table 3 illustrates experimental and predicted section
ductility parameters. In predicting the curvature ductility factor of the
specimens, Equation 13 was employed, as the concrete strength of the test
specimens was higher than 55 MPa. In predicting cumulative curvature ductility
ratios, Npso, and energy damage indicators, Eso, Equations 15 and 16 are
employed.
Ego = 0.06 (!lq,so )3.3 (15)
2
NBO =0.12(11<!>80) +1.58(!-leso) (16)
These two equations along with Equation 13 were previously derived using the
data from square HSC column tests (7, 8). Their ability to correctly predict the
performance of HSC columns with rectangular cross sections is being evaluated
here. As can be observed in Table 3, section ductility parameters of all eight test
specimens are predicted with reasonable accuracy. Curvature duclity factors,
!lq,so, of test specimens were predicted with very high accuracy and low standard
deviation, indicating the reliability of the performance based design expression
(Equation 13) in its application to rectangular HSC columns.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the research reported here:
• Rectangular HSC columns made with 112 MPa concrete can be made to
behave in a ductile manner under high levels of axial load, provided that
sufficient amount of lateral reinforcement is used in an efficient configuration.
As in square NSC and HSC columns, behavior of rectangular HSC columns
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subjected to constant axial load and reversed cyclic lateral load is
substantially influenced by the confinement provided by rectilinear ties.
• An increase in axial load reduces a column's deformability and ductility and
accelerates strength and stiffness degradation with every load cycle. To
compensate for this effect, a larger amount of lateral reinforcement is
required. Therefore, the axial load level should be incorporated as a design
parameter in the design of confinement reinforcement.
• It is observed that square and rectangular specimens having the same RA/P
ratios (Equation 14) and the same type of lateral reinforcement configuration
behaved in a similar manner.
• Similar curvature ductility factors translate into different displacement
ductility factors, depending on section geometry, shear span to depth ratio as
well as the plastic hinge length to shear span ratios. For the specimens tested
in this study, displacement ductility factors decreased with increasing shear
span to depth ratios. Whereas, member ductility parameters are influenced
significantly by section geometry and shear span to depth ratios, section
ductility parameters are not affected by these factors. Hence, the use of
curvature ductility parameter as a performance measure is a more rational
choice than the use of the member ductility parameter for the design of
confinement reinforcement.
• Performance based design approach proposed by Bayrak and Sheikh (7)
proved to be accurate and reliable in predicting the curvature ductility factor
of the HSC column specimens with rectangular cross sections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is written to contribute to the symposium organized to celebrate the

career of Richard W. Furlong. Both of the authors had the privilege to work with
Dick under the umbrella of ACI-ASCE Committee 441 (Reinforced Concrete
Columns). We are looking forward to having many intriguing and fruitful
discussions on columns with Dick in the years to come as we have always
enjoyed Dick as a friend, and a colleague.
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The experimental work reported here was carried out at the Structures
Laboratories of the University of Toronto and funded by research grants from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, (2002), "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced

Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-02/ACI 318R-02)," American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 429 p.
2. "Code for Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings
(CAN3-A23.3-M94)," (1994), Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale,
Ontario, 199 p.

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3. "Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Structures," (NZS 3101 :1995),
(1995), Standards New Zealand, Wellington, Part 1-The Design of Concrete
Structures, 256 p.; Part 2- Commentary on the Design of Concrete Structures,
264p.
4. Sheikh, S. A., and Khoury, S. S., (1993), "Confined Concrete Columns with
Stubs", ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 90, No.4, pp. 414-431.
5. Sheikh, S.A., Shah, D.V., and Khoury, S.S., (1994), "Confinement of High-
Strength Concrete Columns," ACI Structural Journal, V. 91, No. 1, pp.
100-111.
6. Sheikh, S.A., and Khoury, S.S., (1997), "A Performance-Based Approach for
the Design of Confining Steel in Tied Columns," ACI Structural Journal, V.
94, No. 4, pp. 421-431.
7. Bayrak, 0., and Sheikh, S.A., (1997), "High Strength Concrete Columns under
Simulated Earthquake Loading," ACI Structural Journal, V. 94, No. 6, pp.
708-722.
8. Bayrak, 0. and Sheikh, S.A., "Confinement Reinforcement Design
Considerations for Ductile HSC Columns," Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 124, No.9, September 1998, pp. 999-1010.
9. ACI-ASCE Committee 441, (1996), "High Strength Concrete Columns,"
ACI 441R-96, 13p.
10. American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete (ACI 318-56), ACI Journal, May 1956
Concrete (ACI 318-63), American Concrete Institute, 1963.
Concrete (ACI 318-71 ), American Concrete Institute, 1971.
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Table 1 -Details of Test Specimens
Spec. f'c Lateral Steel Longitudinal Steel Axial Load
No.& p p
Size Spac. Ps fyh Ash Size Pt fyl
-- -
(MPa)
(#) (mm) (%) (MPa) A,h(ACI) (%) (MPa) fc'Ag Po
(#)
RS-9HT 71.2 !OM 80 3.44 542 1.41 8-20M 2.74 454 0.34 0.32
RS-IOHT 71.1 !OM 80 3.44 542 1.41 8-20M 2.74 454 0.50 0.49
!OM 542
RS-IIHT 70.8 80 5.43 1.88 8-20M 2.74 454 0.51 0.49
15M 463
RS-12HT 70.9 IOM 150 1.83 542 0.75 8-20M 2.74 454 0.34 0.32
RS-13HT 112.1 !OM 70 3.92 465 0.89 8-20M 2.74 454 0.35 0.37
RS-14HT 112.1 !OM 70 3.92 465 0.89 8-20M 2.74 454 0.46 0.49
WRS-23HT 72.2 !OM 80 3.44 542 1.40 8-20M 2.74 521 0.33 0.32
WRS-24HT 72.2 !OM 80 3.44 542 1.40 8-20M 2.74 521 0.50 0.49
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No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
......
=
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m
m
Table 2 - Member and Section Ductility Parameters ...
<
m
:I:"
Specimen RA/P Lateral Reinforcement Axial Load Ductility Factors Ductility Ratios Energy Indicators m
fc' size@ Ps fyh
=
=-
A," p p (1)
(MPa) spac.
(mm)
-- -
A,"(ACI) /.'Ag pu
)..lt.80 )..l$80 )..l$90 N,-.go N,-., N$so N$, Wso w, Eso E, =-
CD
(%) (MPa) ~
RS-9HT 4.5 71.2 10M@80 3.44 542.0 1.42 0.34 0.32 8.3 19.3 14.0 53 96 89 165 258 584 1088 2572
=-
RS-10HT 2.9 71.1 10M@80 3.44 542.0 1.42 0.50 0.49 5.4 13.6 8.6 17 30 32 54 43 105 249 1134
10M@80 542.0
RS-IIHT 3.9 70.8 5.43 1.88 0.51 0.49 6.6 18.9 14.4 33 57 73 123 136 328 951 1969,
15M@80 463.0
Not for Resale, 01/26/2015 02:26:59 MST
Licensee=University of Texas Revised Sub Account/5620001114, User=erur, ert
RS-12HT 2.3 70.8 10M@ I 50 1.83 542.0 0.75 0.34 0.32 4.4 9.0 6.0 13 30 23 46 21 73 108 282
RS-13HT 2.4 112.1 10M@70 3.92 465.0 0.89 0.35 0.37 4.9 10.2 7.2 18 38 29 76 106 174 150 586
RS-14HT 1.8 112.1 IOM@70 3.92 465.0 0.89 0.46 0.49 2.5 7.9 6.4 11 14 18 27 13 23 57 110
WRS-23HT 4.4 72.2 10M@80 3.44 542.0 1.40 0.33 0.32 3.3 19.9 13.7 18 33 73 126 44 98 991 20591
WRS-24HT 2.9 72.1 10M@80 3.44 542.0 1.40 0.50 0.49 2.0 13.2 9.7 9 17 46 70 17 32 345 1214
AS-3HT 2.4 71.8 10M@90 2.84 542.0 1.19 0.50 0.50 5.0 10.1 9.1 15 28 20 42 36 102 161 396
AS-4HT 3.7 71.9 15M@IOO 5.12 463.0 1.83 0.50 0.50 7.0 21.2 17.7 25 69 84 151 231 354 997 1688
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AS-7HT 1.7 102.0 10M@94 2.72 542.0 0.80 0.45 0.48 3.1 7.2 5.5 9 12 14 24 11 17 25 57
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Table 3 - Predicted and Experimental Section Ductility Parameters
Section Ductility Parameters

Predicted
Experimental Predicted
Experimental
Specimen
N<j>ROPre EsoPre
J..l<J>RO N4>so Eso J..l$&0 N4>so Eso -J..l$80Pre
-- --- --
J..l$80Exp N$80Exp EsoExp
RS-9HT 19.3 89 1088 18.7 72 950 0.97 0.81 0.87
RS-10HT 13.6 32 249 13.5 43 320 0.99 1.35 1.29
RS-11HT 18.9 73 951 19.0 73 994 1.00 1.00 1.04
RS-12HT 9.0 23 108 8.6 23 74 0.96 0.98 0.68
RS-13HT 10.2 29 150 10.0 28 119 0.98 0.96 0.80
RS-14HT 7.9 18 57 7.6 19 48 0.96 1.05 0.84
WRS-23HT 19.9 73 991 18.3 69 886 0.92 0.95 0.89
WRS-24HT 13.2 46 345 13.2 42 299 1.00 0.91 0.87
Average 0.97 1.00 0.91

Standard Deviation 0.03 0.16 0.18
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 1. Test Setup.

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8r-----------------------------------~
-6
"8 o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LOADING CYCLES
Figure 2. Typical Lateral Displacement History
Cycle(l)
-------~-
area= C; ; =m
N~ =2:12_
i =1 </>,
Figure 3. Definitions of Ductility Parameters
~0 ~----------------~-------------------,
C Spalling of top cover 0
400 (!:Spalting of bot. cover ~-
{jYielding of outer tie fPL
300 (!;Yielding of inner tie

@:Buckling of top bars
.Buckling of bottom bars
e 200
~ 100
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2 0 ~--~~~~L-~~~~~~~~~--~~~==~
l-100
0
::!! -200 t!l------IIL--II'-t'b4:-=ill"
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Curvature,'' [x10.. radlmm]
Figure 4. Behavior of Specimen RS-9HT.

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500
0 Spalllng of top cover
400 CD Spelling of bot. cover

® Yielding of outer tie
300 ® Yielding ollnner ue
® Buckling of top bar•
~200 e Buckling or boL bart
E
~ 100
...
:i
c:
~-100
0
::; ·200
·300
I•,
-400
~0
·500
·200 ·150 ·100 ·50 0 50 100 150 200
Curvature, .p, [x1 0-6 radlmm]
500
QSpalling of top cover
(DSpalling of bot. cover
400
@Yielding of outer tie
300 ®Yielding of inner tie
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
@Buckling of top bars

200 eauckling of bottom bars
'E
z
~
100
-:i 0
i
~ ·100
0
::;
·200
p
·300 fi p, - ~
1•, (MPa) (o/o)
Po A5h(ACI)
~
·400
70.8 5.43 0.49
1.88
-soo L=~:__._ _ _.___L~:::t=:=E~::±:::::::::..
·200 ·150 -100 ·50 0 50 100 150 200
Curvature,'' [x10.. radlmm]
Figure 6. Behavior of Specimen RS-llHT.

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~0 r--------------------r-------------------,
Cspalling of top cover
400 Q:spalling of bot. cover
~Yielding of outer tie
300 (!:Yielding of inner tie
@:Buckling oftop bars
200 e Buckling of bottom bars
'E
! 100
:i
~E -100
0
:; -200 RS-12HT
·300 fc' Ps ~
1•, (MPa) (%) Po Ash(ACI)
L-~~==~~~--~----~----_j--~=7~0~.8==1=.8=3=0~·=32====0~.7=5==:_j
-400
·500
-200 -150 -100 -~ 0 ~ 100 150 20
Curvature, •· [x10.. radlmm]

--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
500 r-~-------------------r--------------------~
0 Spalling of top cover
400 CD Spalling of bot. cover
®Yielding of outer tie
300 ®Yielding of Inner tie
@ Buckling of top bars
'E
! 100
:i 0
-E
~ -100
0
:; -200
·300
-400
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Curvature, •· [x10.. radlmm]

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500
0 Spalling of top cov~r
400 (!) Spalltng of bot. cover
®Yielding of outer tiC
@)Buckling of top bars
'E
z 100
;!!.
::i 0
i
~ -100
0
~
-200 RS·14HT
-300 ~
-400
1•, A 5 h{ACI)
-500
~
-200 ·150 ·100 ·50 0 50 100 150 200
Curvature, +• [x10.. radlmm)
m
500
0 Spalling of top cover
400 G)Spal\ing of bot. cover
®Yielding of outer tie
®Buckling of top bars
~ 200 e Buckling of bottom bars
E
z
;!!.
100
::i 0
.:
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
"' -100
~
0
~ -200
-300 fc' Ps _::__~
(MPa) (%) P A h(ACI)
~PL 0 5
~
-400
72.2 3.44 0.32 1.40
·500
-200 -150 -1oo -so o so 100 150 200
Curvature, •· [x10.. rad/mm]

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SOO r-Oo-5-pal-ling-of-top-co-ve,------.---------:8---,
400 (j)SpaiUng of bot. cove< ~~~ ~

{!)Yielding of outer tie fPL .
300 @Yielding of inner tie
@Buckling of top bars
~
~ 100
~ 0~=--~~~~~~~~--~
'i
~ -100
0
::; -200 RS·9HT
fc' Ps ~ ~
(MPa) {%) Po Ash(ACI)
72.1 3.44 0.49 1.40
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Curvature, •· [x1 0.. radlmm]
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
40mm~ T r- 290mm 100 mm~ T r- 350 mm
I h!HT I I ~OHT I
SOmm~; r- 280mm 100 mm~ T r-- 340 mm
~IILI___ h._,, ------l
L-----l~ 1HT
....J
I ~2HT
60 mm~ T r- 280 mm 110mm~ T r- 360mm
L--_....J~3~H-T----~ L-----1
~,____1----'
RS-14HT
60mm~ T r-- 240mm 120mm~ T r- 260mm
L-....--...J~23HT
Figure 12. Extensively Damaged Regions of the Rectangular HSC Columns.
l-....--...J~24HT
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SP-213-5
Design of High-Strength Concrete Columns

for Strength and Ductility
by M. Saatcioglu
Synopsis: The use of high-strength concrete in construction industry has expanded in

recent years for its superior strength and performance. However, many aspects of
structural design for high-strength concrete columns remain to be developed. Of
fundamental importance is the development of a rectangular stress block that is
applicable to high-strength concrete. The current rectangular stress block parameters,
intended for normal-strength concrete, are not suitable for use in high-strength concrete
columns. A new rectangular stress block is presented in the paper for the computation of
column strength under combined flexure and axial compression.
Strength and ductility of concrete are inversely proportional. Therefore, high-
strength concrete columns exhibit brittle characteristics, developing sudden and
explosive failures under concentric compression. Therefore, the design of high-strength
concrete columns becomes a challenge, especially for seismically active regions. While
column ductility can be increased through confinement, the ACI 318-02 ( 1) confmement
requirements are intended for normal-strength concrete columns and are not applicable to
columns cast from high-strength concrete. A displacement based design procedure has
been developed for the confinement of high-strength concrete columns. The procedure is
presented in the paper with related design expressions. Summary of experimental
findings on inelastic deformability of high-strength concrete columns is also presented
with the effects of design parameters highlighted.
Keywords: column design; concrete columns; confinement;

high-strength concrete (HSC); rectangular stress block; reinforced concrete

83
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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84 Saatcioglu
Murat Saatcioglu, FACI, is a professor of structural engineering at the University
of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. He is a member of ACI Committees 374, Performance
Based Seismic Design of Concrete Buildings; 441, Concrete Columns; and is the
Chair of340, Design Aids for the A CI Building Code. His research interests include
concrete confinement, high-strength concrete columns and seismic design and
retrofit of concrete columns.
INTRODUCTION
Strength of concrete in multi-story buildings has increased gradually over the years,
approaching 130 MPa in certain applications. The use of high-strength concrete
(HSC) has been mostly in columns because of its high compressive strength.
Although HSC offers advantages in terms of performance and economy, the brittle
nature of the material provides a challenge for column design in terms of strength
and deformability. Specifically, strength under concentric and eccentric loading, as
well as deformability beyond the elastic range require design approaches that are
different than those used for normal-strength concrete columns. It is the objective of
this paper to present recently developed design approaches for strength and
confinement ofHSC columns. The paper also includes the results of experimental
research conducted at the University of Ottawa and elsewhere, to provide the
background information for these design approaches.
COLUMN STRENGTH
It has been shown by previous research that the strength ofHSC columns cannot be
computed with sufficient accuracy using the current design approach outlined in the
ACI 318-02 Building Code (1 ). This is attributed to the behavior of cover concrete,
which tends to spall off prematurely under concentric compression, and the use of
rectangular stress block developed for normal-strength concrete elements. These
two aspects of column design are discussed in the following sections, with design
expressions presented for HSC columns.
HSC Columns Under Concentric Compression
The concentric capacity of normal-strength concrete columns is computed by Eq.

(1). This is the same expression that is included in current concrete codes (1,2).
(1)
Eq. (1) suggests that concentric column capacity consists of contributions from
concrete and longitudinal steel where the former is based on the in-place strength of
concrete in column and the net concrete area including the cover. The in-place
strength of concrete is assumed to be 85% of concrete cylinder strength. This
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reduced strength is attributed to differences in size, shape and concrete casting
practices between standard cylinders and actual column members.
Test data is available on the in-place strength ofHSC in columns. Tests of two 250
mm square columns with 124 MPa and 81 MPa cylinder strengths conducted by
Saatcioglu and Razvi (3) indicate in-place strengths of 0.89fc and 0.92fc,
respectively. The average value reported by Cusson et al. (4) from tests of235 mm
square columns with 100 MPa concrete is 0.88fc. Tests conducted by Yonget al. (5)
on small-scale specimens with a 152 mm square cross-section indicate 0.87f c to
0.97fc for concretes with 84 MPa to 94 MPa cylinder strengths. The Canadian
Standard CSA A23.3-1994 (2) recommends values of up to 0.90f c to be used as in-
place strength of concrete in columns. These values suggest that the in-place
strength of HSC may be closer to cylinder strength than that of normal-strength
concrete, probably due to the improved uniformity ofHSC mixes. The above results
indicate that an average value of 0.9f c may be acceptable as in-place strength of
HSC for design purposes. This value was also shown to be valid for columns under
eccentric loading (6).
In spite of the favorable in-place strength ofHSC, experimentally recorded column

capacities are consistently overestimated by Eq. (1), unless the columns are
confined by properly designed transverse reinforcement. The strain data recorded by
Saatcioglu and Razvi (3, 7) during their tests of large-scale HSC columns indicated
that premature spalling of cover concrete occurred in most columns prior to the
development of strains associated with concrete crushing. This observation,
combined with visual observations of cover spalling during tests, suggested that the
cover concrete suffered stability failure, rather than crushing. Figure 1 illustrates the
spalling of cover concrete typically observed in tests. It was hypothesized that the
presence of closely spaced longitudinal and transverse steel, forming a mesh of
reinforcement, produced a natural plane of separation between the cover and the
core. The separation of this plane was triggered by high compressive stresses
associated with high-strength concrete as well as the differences in mechanical
properties of core and cover concretes. Early spalling of cover concrete resulted in
lower capacities than those computed using Eq. 1 when the strength enhancement in
core was not sufficient to make-up for the loss of cover. Beginning of cover spalling
was visually observed and marked during testing. Accordingly, the initial signs of
cover spalling, usually in the form of vertical cracks, began at approximately 0.15 %
to 0.30 % strain for 124 MPa, 0.17 % to 0.25 % strain for 92 MPa, and 0.20 % to
0.41 % strain for 60 MPa concretes. It should be emphasized, however, that these
strain ranges indicate the initial signs of cover spalling and are not accurate
representations of strains at complete spalling.
The test data was further analysed along with those reported by other researchers on
square columns to examine the effect of cover spalling. Those tested by Rangan et
al. (8), and some of the columns tested by Yong et al. (5) contained widely spaced
low volumetric ratio transverse reinforcement. These columns were able to develop
unconfined column capacities (Po) as specified in Eq. (1 ). Columns tested by Itakura
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86 Saatcioglu
and Yagenji (9), without any cover, consistently showed higher capacities than
those computed based on gross cross-sectional area and unconfined concrete, since
they did not suffer strength loss due to the spalling of cover. Those that were
sufficiently confined to offset the effects of cover spalling consistently developed
higher strengths than Po. However, the group that contained insufficient volumetric
ratio of closely spaced transverse reinforcement could not sustain capacities
computed on the basis of total cross-sectional area and unconfined concrete
strength. Figure 2 shows the variation of in-place strength of HSC columns with
concrete cylinder strength, as observed during column tests. It should be noted that
the data plotted in this figure also include confined columns. Therefore, some values
of in-place strength are higher than those established by standard cylinder tests.
However, the figure clearly shows the trend in strength reduction with increasing
cylinder strength of concrete.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The strength loss associated with cover spalling is also a function of the amount of
cover concrete to be lost prematurely. This effect can be introduced by core-area to
gross-area ratio (Ac!Ag). As this ratio decreases (cover thickness increases), the
strength also decreases. Ozbakkaloglu and Saatcioglu (6) reviewed the available
experimental data on the behavior of cover concrete in HSC columns and
recommended a multiplier(~) to be used with concrete cylinder strength (f c) to
incorporate the effect of cover spalling on column strength. With this modifier, the
concentric capacity ofHSC columns can be computed as shown below when (f c) is
expressed in MPa.
(2)
k3 == 0.90 (3)
(4)
y == l.l-0.007f c ~ 0.8 (5)
Eq. (5) can be re-written for f c in psi, as shown below.
f'
y == 1.1---c-~ 0.8 (6)
20,000
The onset of cover spalling under concentric compression is not only a function of
concrete strength, but also the stability of cover concrete as governed by cover
thickness. Clearly, as the cover thickness increases the stability improves. This is
one reason why the spalling effect reaches alarming magnitudes in small-scale test
columns with thin covers. Because it is difficult to test large size columns with ultra
high-strength concrete under concentric compression, currently no test data is

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available on HSC columns with thick concrete covers. For such columns, Eq. (4)
would result in conservative values. Until data become available from large size
HSC columns with thick concrete covers resulting in low AciAg ratios, Eq. (4) can
be used but the Ac/ Ag need not be taken less than 0.6.
The product (k3 ~) in Eq. 2 introduces the effects of differences in size, shape and
concrete casting practice between standard cylinders and actual column members
through (k3) and the effect of cover spalling through (~). This product reaches a
value that can be as low as 0.63 for 120 MPa concrete and Ac/Ag = 0.6, resulting in
26% more reduction in the in-place strength of concrete as compared with the value
used in Eq. (1) for normal-strength concrete columns.
HSC Columns Under Eccentric Compression
Concrete columns show different behavior under strain gradient than uniform
compression. Columns under combined bending and axial compression develop
double or single curvature. The deflected shape of a column is such that the
compression side is always on the concave side of the column, which is the side that
is susceptible to cover buckling. The cover on this side has a tendency to buckle
towards the core concrete (towards the inside of column) and therefore is
constrained against buckling by the core concrete. Therefore, cover buckling is not
likely to occur in columns under bending. Observations during tests, conducted
under bending reversals did not indicate premature spalling of the cover concrete.
Therefore, the modifier(~), specified in Eq. (4) for concentrically loaded columns,
becomes 1.0 for eccentrically loaded columns.
Another significant difference in strength calculations between concentrically and

eccentrically loaded columns is that the presence of strain gradient allows
redistribution of stresses near the extreme compression fiber. This permits the
member to develop compressive strains higher than that corresponding to the peak
concrete strength (so), prior to strength decay. Therefore, the ultimate compressive
strain ( ~>cu) attained at peak moment resistance is higher than that attained during a
standard cylinder test. For normal strength concrete elements, this value is
conservatively taken by ACI 318-02 ( l) as 0.0030, though the Canadian Standard
CSA A23.3-1994 (2) recommends a value of0.0035. The applicability of this strain
value to HSC elements raises questions. Ozbakkaloglu and Saatcioglu ( 6) conducted
extensive analytical research to show that the strain at flexural failure is a function
of concrete strength. Their recommendation is shown below, where f c is in MPa.
0.0027::; ~>cu = 0.0036 -(fc -30)xl0-5 ::; 0.0036 (7)
The above expression recognizes the brittle nature ofHSC beyond the peak stress,
with (~>cu) changing between 0.0036 for 30 MPa concrete and 0.0027 for 120 MPa
concrete. Once the strain profile for ultimate is established through Eq. (7), the
computation of column strength can be done by plane-section analysis. This can be
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88 Saatcioglu
done by establishing material stress-strain models, including that for HSC (I 0, II),
and integrating stress distributions to obtain internal forces for the computation of
moment resistance at ultimate. Alternatively, a rectangular stress block for HSC can
be employed for ease in calculations. The rectangular stress block prescribed in ACI
3I8-02 (1) is intended for normal-strength concrete, and should not be used for HSC
columns, especially when the level of axial compression is high and the contribution
of concrete to sectional behavior is significant. A rectangular stress block for HSC
has been developed by Ozbakkaloglu and Saatcioglu (6) based on a large volume of
experimental and analytical data. The stress block is presented in the next section.
The sensitivity of Eq. (7) to flexural strength calculations was found to be small
when a rectangular stress block was used (6). In such cases an average value of ~>cu=
0.003 may be used for the entire range of concrete strengths considered in this
paper.
Rectangular Stress Block for HSC
The stress-strain relationship ofHSC is significantly different than that of normal-

strength concrete. Different features of HSC, relative to normal-strength concrete,
can be described as; i) steeper ascending branch of the stress-strain curve that
becomes almost linear at approximately 130 MPa, ii) increased strain at peak stress
(~> 0 ), developing approximately 0.0025 strain for 130 MPa, and iii) steeper
descending branch of the stress-strain relationship beyond the peak, showing brittle
and explosive failures, developing lower strains at ultimate (lower ~>cu).
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The rectangular stress block developed by Ozbakkaloglu and Saatcioglu (6) was
defined to have a 1fc width and l3 1c depth as typically done in building codes and
standards (I ,2), and is illustrated in Fig. 3. The stress block parameters are
expressed below.
For f'c 5 30 MPa:

a1 = 0.85 (8)
131 = 0.85 (9)
For f'c > 30 MPa:

a 1 =0.85-0.0014(f\-30)~0.72 (10)
13 1 = 0.85- 0.0020(fc-30) ~ 0.67 (II)
The above expressions can be re-written for (f c) in psi, as indicated below.
For f'c 5 4000 psi:

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a 1 = 0.85 (12)
J3, = 0.85 (13)
For f'c > 4000 psi:

a, = 0.85- (f\ -4000)x10-5 ~ 0.72 (14)
~ 0.67
5
J3 1 = 0.85 -1.4(fc -4000)xl0- (15)
Equations (8) to (11) indicate that (a 1) and (J3 1) are equal to 0.85 for concrete
strengths of up to 30 MPa and reduce by 0.014 and 0.020, respectively, for every 10
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MPa increase in concrete strength such that a 1 2:0.72, and J3 1 2:0.65. Similarly, (a 1)
and (J3 1) are equal to 0.85 for concrete strengths of up to 4,000 psi and reduce by
0.010 and 0.014, respectively, for every 1000 psi increase in concrete strength such
that a 1 2: 0.72, and J3 1 2: 0.65.
COLUMN DEFORMABILITY
It is good practice to design reinforced concrete elements to have ductility for

redistribution of stresses and sufficient warning prior to failure. The ductility
requirement gains a new dimension for earthquake resistant structures. Reinforced
concrete columns built in seismically active regions are expected to undergo a large
number of inelastic deformation cycles while maintaining overall strength and
stability of the structure. This can be ensured by proper confinement of the core
concrete. However, the strength and ductility of concrete is inversely proportional.
This implies that HSC columns are significantly more brittle than those with lower
strength concretes. Therefore, confinement plays an important role on the behavior
ofHSC columns if inelastic deformations are expected to occur during the service
life of the structure. The confinement requirements of ACI 318-02 (1) were derived
for normal-strength concrete, and are not applicable to HSC columns.
Research on HSC indicates that the strength gain due to confinement is independent
of concrete strength, although the percentage of strength gain becomes lower for
higher strength concretes (3,12,13). Therefore, HSC columns require
proportionately more confinement to attain deformabilities usually expected of
earthquake resistant columns. This may, however, result in prohibitively high
volumetric ratios of transverse reinforcement, possibly leading to concrete
placement problems. On the other hand, tests on high-strength concrete columns
reveal that higher-grade reinforcement can be effective in confining columns
(3, 12, 13), reducing or eliminating the need for increased volumetric ratio of steel. It
was shown that the effectiveness of high-grade confinement steel under concentric
compression depended on the amount and efficiency oftransverse reinforcement. It
was also found that the effectiveness ofhigh-strength steel depended on the level of
axial compression for columns subjected to lateral load reversals (3,7,13,14).
Transverse reinforcement with yield strengths of up to 1000 MPa was found to be
fully effective in columns subjected to concentric compression (3,13). The same
steel was effective under lateral deformation reversals when the accompanying level

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90 Saatcioglu
of axial load was above approximately 40% Po·
Saatcioglu and Baingo (14) tested large-scale circular columns to study the effects
of confinement design parameters on HSC columns. Among the parameters
considered was the grade of transverse steel. Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show
experimentally obtained moment-drift hysteretic relationships for two 90 MPa
concrete columns. They had approximately the same properties except for the
strength of transverse steel. Column RC-3 with 1000 MPa developed a drift capacity
in excess of 5%, while the companion column RC- 4 with 580 MPa failed at about
3% lateral drift, in spite of the slightly higher percentage of spiral steel used in this
column. Tests of other companion columns indicated that grade 1000 MPa steel was
about 80% effective when the axial load was reduced to 20%P 0 , developing
approximately 800 MPa stress at peak column resistance (14). Reinforcement with
about 600 MPa yield strength was consistently effective in confining high-strength
concrete columns. Therefore, until further experimental data become available, it
may be prudent to limit the yield strength of transverse reinforcement to 600 MPa,
which provides an increase of about 50% in the current limit of 400 MPa used in
ACI3 I 8-02 ( 1).
The effect of the volumetric ratio of confinement reinforcement was investigated by

testing HSC columns with different levels of transverse reinforcement. Figure 4(b)
illustrates that Column RC-4 with 1.81% volumetric ratio of transverse steel
developed about 3% lateral drift ratio at failure while the companion column RC-5,
with twice the amount of transverse steel developed about 6% lateral drift ratio as
shown in Fig. 4(c). The improved behavior attained in Column RC-5 was also
attained with half as much transverse reinforcement, when the grade of transverse
steel was proportionately increased, as in Column RC-3 shown in Fig. 4(a). This
comparison clearly indicates that HSC columns can be confined quite effectively
without increasing the volumetric ratio of steel excessively so long as the grade of
steel is proportionately increased. There is a trade off between the amount and grade
of transverse reinforcement.
One of the shortcomings of the current confinement requirements of ACI 318-02 ( 1)

is that they were derived based on axial deformability of columns, which is not
representative of column behavior during seismic response. Columns of building
and bridge structures experience lateral drift when subjected to seismic forces. It has
been shown by previous research that there is direct correlation between lateral drift
and concrete confinement (15). Consequently, columns that experience significant
lateral drift should be confined more stringently that those that are braced laterally
by rigid structural walls. Lateral drift is not explicitly addressed in ACI 318-02 ( 1)
for column confinement. Instead, the confinement requirements were developed on
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the basis of axial deformability, with implied understanding that columns that are
deformable under concentric compression are also deformable under combined axial
and lateral loading. This criterion does not permit the level of axial compression
and/or the drift demand to be introduced as design parameters.

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A displacement based design approach was developed for column confinement by
Saatcioglu and Razvi (14,15) with lateral drift as the performance criterion. The
design approach is based on computed drift capacities of columns with different
levels of confinement and axial compression. The computation of drift was done
using a computer program for static inelastic loading (push-over analysis) (17) that
incorporated analytical models for concrete confinement (I 0, 18), steel strain
hardening ( 17), bar buckling ( 17), formation and progression of plastic hinging ( 15),
and anchorage slip (19,20) (extension of reinforcement in the adjoining member).
The analysis procedure also included an option for second-order deformations
caused by P-~ effects. The analytical models, as well as the analysis procedure
employed had been verified extensively against experimental data
(10,15,18, 19,20,21 ).
A large number of column analyses were conducted to establish the significance of

design parameters on lateral drift ratio. The results indicated that the amount, grade,
spacing and arrangement of confinement reinforcement, as well as the level of axial
compression, concrete strength, cover-to-core area ratio and shear-span-to-depth
ratio played important roles on drift capacity. The percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement also played a role, though oflesser significance. The analyses results
indicated that it was possible to combine the majority of the design parameters in a
ratio to reduce the number design variables. Similar drift capacities were obtained
for columns with similar geometry and reinforcement arrangement but different
amounts of confinement reinforcement and material strengths so long as the Pcfyh/f' c
ratio remained constant within certain limits. This indicates that the pcfyh/f' c ratio
could be used as a design parameter for a wide range of material strengths,
including high-strength concrete and high-grade reinforcement. Further verification
of this point was done experimentally for concrete strengths of up to 124 MPa and
steel strengths of up to 1000 MPa (3,7,13,14). It was also established that the
relationship between the required level of confinement and cover-to-core area ratio
was approximately linear within the practical range of0.3 to 0.8. Consequently, it
was confirmed that columns having a constant ratio (r), as defined below, would
develop approximately similar drift capacities when other confinement parameters
remained constant, irrespective of variations in individual parameters that make up
this ratio.
(16)
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the variation of column drift capacity with coefficient (r),
defined in Eq. (16), for different levels of axial compression and efficiency of
transverse reinforcement, (kc).
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92 Saatcioglu
kc==0.15~bc be (17)
S Sr
Drift ratios plotted in Figures 5 and 6were determined at 20% strength decay in
moment capacity. Therefore, the strength decay does not include the decline in
lateral force resistance due to P-Ll effect. The figures clearly indicate that the lateral
drift capacity (deformability) improves with increasing values of coefficient (r) and
the efficiency of reinforcement arrangement, (kc). They further indicate that the
column drift capacity decreases with increasing axial compression. Therefore,
higher percentage, and/or higher grade, and/or improved efficiency of transverse
reinforcement are required for columns under higher compression. This implies that
the confinement requirements may be relaxed for columns under lower levels of
axial compression. Figures 5 and 6 also suggest that the confinement steel
requirements should not only be a function of axial load level, but also the
efficiency of confinement reinforcement as defined by (kc).
Figures 5 and 6 were generated for columns with a shear-span-to-depth ratio (L/h)
of2.5. This level is near the lower end ofL/h ratios used in practice. A complete set
of analyses was also conducted for columns with Llh = 5.0 representing the higher
end of the range used in practice (22). When the strength decay due to P-Ll effect
was included in analysis, Llh ratio did not show a pronounced effect on drift
capacity. However, when the P-Ll effect was not considered, drift capacities were
consistently higher for columns with higher shear-span-to-depth ratios. In the cases
considered, the drift capacity increased by about 75%, going from Llh == 2.5 to Llh =
5.0. For design purposes, it is conservative to consider the aspect ratio that produces
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lower estimates of drift capacity. Hence, the results for L/h = 2.5 were used in
developing the design expressions derived below. This implies that these
expressions are intended for columns for which the P-Ll effect during seismic
response has already been considered by either a moment magnification procedure
or an appropriate secondary analysis.
The relationships shown in Figs. 5 and 6 suggest that the following approximation
can be made between (r) and lateral drift ratio (o).
(18)
Substituting the value of (r) from Eq. (16) and solving for reinforcement ratio Pc;
(19)
Equation (19) is based on analytical data, which were verified by experimental

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observations. The design parameters considered varied within certain ranges, which
may be taken as limiting values. They include maximum concrete cylinder strength
of 124 MPa, reinforcement yield strength of600 MPa to 1000 MPa, depending on
the efficiency of confinement reinforcement and the level of axial compression as
discussed previously, minimum axial compression of 20% column concentric
capacity, and minimum cover-to-core area ratio of0.3. The limitations also include
those specified in ACI 318-02 (I) for the spacing of transverse and longitudinal
reinforcement. Furthermore, the drift ratios obtained were within approximately 4%.
Aside from the major design parameters discussed above, the percentage of
longitudinal reinforcement was also observed to have an influence on drift capacity
(22). This was expected since the increase in longitudinal steel content would
increase the contribution of steel as a ductile material to overall column response
and produce an increase in column deformability. Column analyses were conducted
for I%, 2% and 4% longitudinal reinforcement. The results showed minor variations
in drift capacity, with columns having higher percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement exhibiting slightly higher drift capacities. The improvement obtained
by doubling the amount of reinforcement was approximately I 0%. Hence, the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio p was not included as a parameter for confinement
design. Instead, the results for an average reinforcement ratio of 2% were adopted.
Equation (19) can be used to establish the area ratio of transverse confinement
reinforcement for a given drift demand. The allowable story drift ratio (maximum
drift demand) is specified in building codes. This value varies between 2.0% and
2.5% for most concrete frame structures (23,24,25). A design expression is
obtained, as shown in Eq. (20), if a permissible drift ratio of2.5% is substituted into
Eq. 19.
Pc =0.35~[AgAc -1]-.Jk:1-~
fyh <pPo
(20)
(21)
(22)
In the above equations, the axial force ratio P/Po is replaced with PuiPo to
introduce two margins of safety for design. The first is associated with the
computation of Pu as the maximum axial compressive force that can possibly be
applied on the column during a strong earthquake. This quantity corresponds to
factored design axial compressive force in the ACI 318-02 design practice (1 ).
When the capacity design approach is used, as in the case of the New Zealand
practice (26), Pu is computed at the formation of probable moment resistances at the
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94 Saatcioglu
ends of framing beams when plastic hinges have formed at these locations. The
second margin of safety is introduced through the capacity reduction factor, <j>,
which may be taken as 0.90, as opposed to 0.70 and 0.75 currently recommended
for tied and spiral columns in ACI 318-02 (1 ). A higher value of may be
justifiable because of improved ductility of properly confined columns.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A rectangular stress block is presented for high-strength concrete. The behavior of

HSC columns under concentric and eccentric compression is discussed. Relevant
expressions are derived for strength computations. A displacement-based design
procedure is presented for confinement of HSC columns.
The following conclusions are drawn based on the strength and ductility design
information presented in the paper:
1. The rectangular stress block prescribed in ACI 318-02 (1) for normal-
strength concrete cannot be used to compute the strength ofHSC columns.
2. HSC columns may develop premature spalling of cover concrete, in the

form of instability of the cover shell, depending on concrete strength and
cover-to-core area ratio. Therefore, concentric capacity calculations based
on ACI 318-02 ( 1) may not be applicable to HSC columns. The strength
reduction factor presented in the paper, supported by test data, may have to
be used for the computation of concentric compression capacity of HSC
columns.
3. The rectangular stress block presented in the paper can be used to compute
the strength of HSC columns under combined bending and axial
compression.
4. Inelastic deformability ofHSC columns can be improved significantly with
confinement. The degree of confinement required for HSC columns is
proportionately higher than that for normal-strength concrete columns. This
may be achieved by increased volumetric ratio and/or higher grade of
transverse reinforcement.
5. High-strength transverse reinforcement is effective in confining HSC
columns. Steels with yield strengths of up to 600 MPa to 1000 MPa may be
used, depending on the level of confinement and axial compression. The
effectiveness of higher-grade reinforcement increases with the level of
confinement and axial compression. There exists a tradeoff between the
volumetric ratio and grade of transverse reinforcement. The increased
confinement needed for HSC columns can be achieved with the use of
high-strength steel, without increasing the volumetric ratio excessively.
6. The displacement-based design procedure developed for concrete
confinement provides good agreement with experimental results obtained
from HSC column tests under load reversals.
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NOTATIONS
Ac : Area of core concrete within perimeter tie (centre-to-centre).

A8 : Gross area of column concrete section.
As : Area of longitudinal steel reinforcement.
Ash : Area of transverse reinforcement in a cross-sectional direction.
be : Core dimension, centre-to-centre of perimeter tie.
(fc)column: In-place strength of concrete in column.
f c : Concrete cylinder strength.
fy : Yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement.
fyh, fy 1 :Yield strength of transverse reinforcement.
h : Column sectional dimension.
: Core dimension perpendicular to the transverse reinforcement under
consideration (centre-to-centre of perimeter tie).
: Confinement efficiency parameter, defined in Eq. ( 17).
: Coefficient defined in Fig. 3.
: Coefficient defined in Fig. 3.
: Coefficient that relates in-place and cylinder strengths of concrete,
defined in Eq. (3).
: Coefficient that accounts for strength loss due to cover spalling,
defined in Eq. (4).
: Column shear span.
: Axial compressive force on column.
: Maximum axial compressive force on column during an earthquake.
: Nominal concentric compressive capacity of column.
: Confinement coefficient, defined in Eq. (16).
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: Spacing of transverse reinforcement along the column height.

: Spacing of longitudinal reinforcement, laterally supported by corner
of a hoop or hook of a crosstie.
: Coefficient that defines width of rectangular stress block, specified in
Eqs. (8) and (10) for f c in MPa and Eqs. (12) and (14) for f c in psi.
j3, : Coefficient that defines height of rectangular stress block, specified in
Eqs. (9) and (II) for fc in MPa and Eqs. (13) and (15) for fc in psi.
: Extreme compression fiber strain in concrete at ultimate moment
resistance.
Eo : Strain in concrete corresponding to peak strength, f c·
~ : Lateral displacement.
8 : Lateral drift ratio, defined as horizontal displacement divided by
height.
y : Coefficient, defined in Eq. (5) for f c in MPa and Eq. (6) for f c in psi.
<j> : Capacity reduction factor.
Pc : Area ratio of transverse confinement reinforcement, Pc =Ash I hcs
Ps :Volumetric ratio of transverse confinement reinforcement.

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96 Saatcioglu
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, "Building Code Requirement for Reinforced Concrete

(ACI318-02) and Commentary (318R-02)," American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Mich., 2002, 443 pp.
2. CSA, "Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings (CAN3-A23.2-94)," Canadian

Standards Association, Ontario, 1994, 199 pp.
3. Saatcioglu, M. and Razvi, S.R., "High-Strength Concrete Columns with Square

Sections," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 12, pp. 1438-
1447, 1998.
4. Cusson, D., and Paultre, P., " High-Strength Concrete Columns Confined by
Rectangular Ties," ASCE Journal ofStructural Engineering, Vol. 120, No.3, March
1994, pp.783-804.
5. Yong, Y.K., Nour, M.G., and Nawy, E.G., "Behavior of Laterally Confined High-
Strength Concrete Under Axial Loads," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol.ll4, No.2,1988, pp. 332-351.
6. Ozbakkaloglu, T. and Saatcioglu, M., "Development of a Rectangular Stress

Block for High-Strength Concrete," Ottawa-Carleton Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, Report, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa,
Canada, 2002.
7. Razvi, S.R., and Saatcioglu, M., "Circular High-Strength Concrete Columns

under Concentric Compression," ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 96, No.5, pp. 817-
825, 1999.
8. Rangan, B.V., Saunders, P., and Seng, E.J., "Design of High-Strength Concrete
Columns." Evaluation and rehabilitation of concrete structures and innovations in
design,ACI SP 128-52, American Concrete Institute, 1991, pp. 851-862.
9. Itakura, Y ., and Yagenji, A., "Compressive Test on High-Strength RIC Columns

and Their Analysis Based on Energy Concept." Proceedings of lOth World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, 1992, pp. 2599-2602.
10. Popovics, S., "Analytical Approach to Complete Stress-Strain Curves," Cement

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and Concrete Research, Vol.3, No.5, Sept. 1973, pp. 583-599.
11. Saatcioglu, M., and Razvi, S.R., "Strength and Ductility of Confined Concrete,"
ASCE Journal ofStructural Engineering, Vol. 118, No.6, 1992, pp. 1590-1607.
12. Nagashima, T., Sugano, S., Kimura, H., Ichikawa, A., "Monotonic Axial
Compression Test on Ultra High-Strength Concrete Tied Columns," Proceedings of

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JO'h World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, 1992, pp.2983-2988.
13. Razvi, S.R., and Saatcioglu, M., "Strength and Deformability of Confined High-
Strength Concrete Columns," ACI Structura!Journal, Vol. 91, No.6, 1994, pp. 678-
687.
14. Saatcioglu, M., and Baingo, D., "Circular High-Strength Concrete Columns
under Simulated Seismic Loading," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol
125, No.3, 1999, pp. 272-280.
15. Razvi, S.R., and Saatcioglu, M., "Analysis and Design of Concrete Columns for
Confinement," Earthquake Spectra, Volume 15, No.4, 1999, pp. 791-811.
16. Saatcioglu, M. and Razvi, S.R., "Displacement Based Design of Reinforced

--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Concrete Columns for Confinement," ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 90, No.1.
January 2002, pp.3-ll.
17. Yalcin, C., and Saatcioglu, M., "Inelastic Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Columns," Computers and Structures, Pergamon Press, Vol. 77, No.5, 2000, pp.
539-555.
18. Saatcioglu, M., and Razvi, S.R., "Strength and Ductility of Confined Concrete,"
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 118, No.6, 1992, pp. 1590-1607.
19. Alsiwat, J., and Saatcioglu, M., "Reinforced Anchorage Slip Under Monotonic
Loading," ASCE Journal ofStructural Engineering, Volume 118, No.9, 1992, pp.
2421-2438.
20. Saatcioglu, M., Alsiwat, J., and Ozcebe, G., "Hysteretic Behavior of Anchorage
Slip in Reinforced Concrete Members," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol.118, No.9, 1992, pp.2439-2458.
21. Saatcioglu, M., Salamat, A.H., and Razvi, S.R., "Confined Columns Under
Eccentric Loading," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.l21, No.ll,
1995, pp. 1547-1556.
22. Razvi, S.R., and Saatcioglu, M., "Design of RIC Columns for Confinement
Based on Lateral Drift," Ottawa-Carleton Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, Report OCEERC 96-02, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Ottawa, Canada, 92 pp.
23. Uniform Building Code, Volume 2, International Conference of Building

Officials, Whittier, California, U.S.A., 1997, 492 pp.
24. International Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials,

Whittier, California, U.S.A., 2000.

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98 Saatcioglu
25. National Research Council, "National Building Code of Canada," National
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1995,571 pp.
26. "Code of Practice for General Structural Design and Design Loadings for
Buildings, NZS 4203: 1984, New Zealand Standards Association, 1984, New
Zealand.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 1. Instability of cover concrete in HSC columns under concentric compression
(a) Circular HSC Column, (b) Square HSC Column, (c) Spalled HSC cover pieces
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1.4~----------------------------------------~
••
0.6 -1-------------------------1
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
fc(MPa)
Figure 2. Variation of in-place strength ofHSC with cylinder strength, as observed by

different researchers (6)
T -,x
1... •
-~-~-
c
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Stress Block
Ut = 0.85 0.0014 (f'c 30) 2:: 0.72
~I 0.85 0.0020 (f' c- 30) 2:: 0.67
Figure 3. Rectangular stress block for HSC when is expressed in MPa (6)

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100 Saatcioglu
Moment (kN.m)
160
RC-3 p 5 =1.59%
fc = 90 MPa s = 50 mm
-8 -6 6 8
Drift(%)
-160
(a)
Moment (kN.m]
160
RC-4 p5 =1.81%
fc = 90 MPa s =50 mm
fyt = 580 MPa P = 43% Po
brift(o/~
-B -6
-160
(b)
Moment (kN.m
RC- 5 Ps =3.67% 160
fc =90 MPa s =50 mm
fyt= 420 MPa
-8 6 8
Dnft (%)
(c)
Figure 4. Tests of circular HSC columns with different parameters of confinement (14)

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101
0.4
....i
~
C,J
!:5
~ 0.2 p=2%
u
L/h = 2.5
P= 0.8P.0
0.0 ....._......._--'-___.-"--_,____,__....._...&.....__.____._......_......
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Drift ( 0/o)
Figure 5. Variation of drift capacity with confinement coefficient (r) in square columns
p=2%
--
0.4 L/h = 2.5
"
....c
~
C,J
IS~ ACI 318

0
u 0.2
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- y -::::.0.21> 0
0.0 .__......._.....____.,_-'-__..._........ _......___.__...__.....~_ .......___.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
Drift ( /o)
Figure 6. Variation of drift capacity with confinement coefficient (r) in spirally
reinforced circular columns

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102 Saatcioglu
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SP-213-6
Precast Concrete for High Seismic Regions
by G. S. Cheok and H. S. Lew
Synopsis: This paper presents the research work, experimental and analytical, on precast
hybrid concrete beam-to-column connections at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology and its contribution to the development of seismic design provisions for
precast concrete frame structures.
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Keywords: beam-column connections; concrete construction; moment frame;

post-tensioning; precast concrete; seismic design
103
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104 Cheokandlew
Geraldine S. Cheok is a research civil engineer at the Building and Fire
Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA.
ACI Fellow H.S. Lew is a senior research engineer at the Building and Fire
Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA. He is a former director of ACI, a former member
of the Technical Activities Committee, and currently serves on ACI 318,
Building Code and several other ACI technical committees.
INTRODUCTION
At present, despite its potential superior performance, precast concrete

construction is not used widely in high seismic regions of the U.S. This is largely
due to lack of research data on seismic performance of precast concrete to support
the viability of precast concrete design for regions of high seismicity and to
subjective restrictions in building codes.
In order to establish a research database, the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) in 1987 has initiated a comprehensive experimental program
to examine the behavior of precast concrete beam-column connections subjected to
cyclic inelastic loads. The objective of the program was to develop design
guidelines for precast moment-resisting frames suitable for use in regions of high
seismic risk. The basic concept uses post-tensioning (PT) steel to connect the
precast elements and to provide the required vertical shear resistance to the applied
seismic, dead and live loads without the use of corbels or shear keys, which are
normally found in precast concrete construction.
The program was divided into four phases. Phase I consisted of tests of four
monolithic connections. These monolithic connections were designed to UBC
[ 1985] seismic zones 2 and 4 provisions. Phase II consisted of tests of six precast
post-tensioned connections and Phase Ill consisted of two precast post-tensioned
connections. In Phase II, the PT steel was fully bonded whereas the PT steel in
Phase III was partially bonded. Phase IV consisted of tests of hybrid connections.
Hybrid precast connections, Phase IV, is the main focus of this paper. The hybrid
connections contain mild steel and PT steel, both of which contributed to the
moment resistance. In addition, the mild steel serves as an energy dissipator and
the post-tensioning clamps the beam against the column, allowing beam shear at
the interface due to gravity and lateral loading to be resisted by interface friction.
Concern was raised that the shear resistance provided by this arrangement, without
shear keys or corbels, would not be sufficient to resist the vertical shear resulting
from gravity loads in addition to the applied seismic forces. To address this
concern, loads simulating gravity loads were applied to the beams during tests.
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Phase IV was divided into two sub phases, A and B. In Phase IV-A [Cheok and
Stone, 1993], six tests were conducted on three exploratory designs. The
objectives of this sub phase were to test the hybrid concept and to explore different
designs. The results were used to develop the specimen details for Phase IV -B
[Cheok and Stone, 1994]. In Phase IV-B, four tests of "production" specimens
were conducted. The primary variables in this sub-phase were the amount and
type of mild steel. The PT steel was located at the centroid of the beam cross
section. This location in Phases I to IV -A specimens produced the largest drift
(relative story displacement) capacity prior to yielding of the PT steel.
In addition to the experimental tests, the seismic performance of the hybrid frames
was evaluated analytically [Cheok et al. 1998]. Based on the experimental and
analytical results, a design procedure for hybrid precast connections was
developed [Cheok et al. 1996].
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Detailed results from Phases I, II, III, and IV may be found in reports by Cheok
and Lew [1990, 1991b], Cheok and Stone [1993, 1994], and in papers by Cheok
and Lew [1991a, 1993], Stone et al. [1995], Stanton et al. [1997]. Table 1 briefly
summarizes all the tests specimens.
Since completion of this project, a five-story 60-percent scale precast frame was
tested at the University of California at San Diego to demonstrate the viability of
design and construction of precast concrete and to validate analytical prediction
procedure. In addition, a number of buildings have been and is being built
including a 39-story residential building in downtown San Francisco, a high
seismic region.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
SUMMARY OF PHASE I TO III
Experimental Set-up
The subassemblages tested were 1/3-scale models of an interior beam-to-column

connection, and they were based on a prototype 15-story office building with a
floor plan 60.96 m (200 ft) by 30.48 m (100 ft) and a story height of 3.96 m ( 13
ft).
An axial load equal to 0.1 f ·c Ag was applied on the column. The test set-up and
boundary conditions are shown in Figure 1. The loading sequence in Phases I to
III is based on the yield displacement, l'ly, with one cycle to 0.75 l'ly and 2 cycles
thereafter at even multiples of l'ly.

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106 Cheuk and Lew

Results
The results from the monolithic tests were used as benchmarks for the precast
connections. The monolithic zone 4 connections failed at a story drift of 3.5% ±
0.3 %. The failure mode was beam hinging with pronounced shear cracks in the
plastic hinge region as seen in Figure 2.
In Phases II and III, post-tensioned precast connections were tested. The

variables investigated were type of PT steel, bars vs. strands, and the bonding of
the PT steel. The results showed that, in the absence of shear keys or corbels, the
friction force developed at the beam-column interface was sufficient to resist the
applied shear force without any slip occurring at the interface. Failure modes
for the all the specimens were similar - opening between the beam and column,
crushing at the beam comers, and minor cracking in the beams and in the column
joint region. The flexural capacities of the precast connections were similar to
those for the monolithic connections, and the drift capacities of the precast
connections were greater than those for the monolithic connections. A
comparison of the use of bars vs. strands showed that the specimens post-
tensioned with strands had higher drift capacities. The energy dissipation
capacities of the precast connections were much less than for the monolithic
connections. As energy dissipation is a desirable attribute in seismic resistance,
methods to improve this attribute were investigated.
Summary of Phase IV
Phase IV A
Specimen Description and Test Set-up
To improve the energy dissipation capacity of the precast connections, the

concept of combining the use of mild steel and high strength steel, a hybrid
system, was investigated in Phase IV. In Phase IV A, three exploratory hybrid
beam-column precast connections were designed and tested. The details for the
three designs are shown in Figure 3.
The first design (I-P-Z4) used fully-bonded mild steel located in the top and
bottom of the beam and fully-bonded strands at mid-depth of the beam. The mild
steel was placed at the outer edges of the beam in order to maximize the cyclic
strains imposed on it and the PT steel was placed at mid height of the beam to
minimize the potential for yielding. A second specimen, K-P-Z4, was also tested.
This specimen was similar to I-P-Z4 expect that the mild steel was Grade 60
instead of Grade 40 as used in I-P-Z4.
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A second design (J-P-Z4) used fully-bonded mild steel and unbonded PT steel,
both located at the top and bottom on the beam. Unbonded PT tendons were used
to delay yielding of the PT steel.
The third design (L-P-Z4) employed replaceable steel. The ability to repair a
structure by simply replacing the failed steel elements instead of condemning it
after an earthquake is economically attractive. This design used unbonded mild
steel and PT steel collocated at the top and bottom of the beam. The strains in the
PT steel were reduced by using unbonded PT tendons.
Boundary conditions were similar to those in the previous tests. All columns were
subjected to an axial load approximately equal to 0.4fc Ag. The axial load was
specified in the design provided by the precast contractor. Concentrated loads
simulating gravity loads on the beams were applied to all the specimens. A
concentrated load of approximately 20 kN (4.5 k) was applied to each beam at
approximately 89 mm (3.5 in) from the column face. The load was equivalent to a
uniform dead load of 5.3 kPa (110 psf) and live load of 2.4 kPa (50 psf). The
loads on the beams were maintained constant throughout the tests.
The load history for specimens I-P-Z4 to K-P-Z4 was the same as that used for in
Phases I to Ill. However, the load history used for specimen L-P-Z4 was based on
story drift and is the one used in the PREcast Seismic Structural Systems
(PRESSS) Program and is show in Figure 4. The change in the load history was
made so that comparisons with other PRESSS specimens could be made more
easily.
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Discussion
The tests showed that a precast concrete system based on hybrid reinforcement is
feasible and shows considerable promise. Not all of the details worked perfectly,
but the purpose of the program was to evaluate a number of concepts and to
identify the most promising one. The key issues are that, given the appropriate
details, the PT steel remains elastic and the system loses little strength up to very
large drifts, the mild steel dissipates energy and no shear slip occurs at the beam-
column interface. Based on these issues, specimen K-P-Z4 showed the most
promise.
The drift at which the PT steel yields is influenced by the PT location, the type of
steel, and the initial prestressing stress. Strands prove better than bars because
their yield strains are higher. The PT is best located at mid-depth of the beam,
which minimizes the increase in strain for a given rotation or drift. The lowest
initial prestressing stress consistent with other constraints should be used because
the greatest strain capacity remains to accommodate drift. The need for shear
friction resistance places a lower bound on the prestress force than can be used, so
very low stress could lead to large and uneconomical tendons. Even if the PT steel
yields, its contribution to the flexural strength is not lost, but rather the danger is

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108 Cheok and Lew

one of possible shear slip at the column face. This behavior represents a fail-safe
feature. It should also be noted that at the reported failure drift, the systems still
maintained 80% of their maximum strength. In some cases, the damage at
"failure" was small compared to that in a conventional reinforced concrete joint.
Obtaining successful behavior in the mild steel depends on the detailing. Bond
must be assured for anchorage and any unbonded length must be great enough to
prevent fracture (as in K-P-Z4), but short enough to ensure that yielding takes
place. The mechanical connections of the replaceable system (L-P-Z4) lead to
relatively large unbonded length and yielding was further inhibited by the
relatively high yield strength of the steel. The mechanical connectors performed
as intended but they added material cost, caused congestion, and were time-
consuming to assemble both during fabrication and erection. The specimens with
the bars grouted in the ducts (1, J and K P-Z4) provided energy dissipation that was
equal to or larger than that of the monolithic specimens up to about 1.5 % drift.
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Slip was prevented at the beam-column interface because the fiber-reinforced
grout maintained its integrity and the PT strand remained elastic.
The tests also demonstrated that the systems with central PT provided significantly
better structural performance. The body of the beam suffered almost no shear
cracking when central PT was present and serious cracking when it was not. The
problem of shear transfer into the dogbanes is acute and even with large quantities
of shear steel; cracking and slip occur well before failure. The reinforcing is also
congested and difficult to install. Furthermore, the dogbanes are an architectural
inconvenience.
The foregoing considerations suggested that a successful design should contain

central PT, grouted mild steel at top and bottom and no dogbanes. Figure 5 shows
a possible design. The solid beam end houses the ducts for the mild steel and the
trough allows the bars to be lowered into place and slid into the ducts. The troughs
can be filled later if desired. This design was used for subsequent tests.
PhaseiVB
Specimen Description
Four beam-column connections were tested in Phase IV-B. The precast beams and
columns were fabricated by a precaster and were shipped to NIST where they were
assembled and tested. The objective was to determine the optimum combination
of mild and PT steels and to examine the use of an alternate type of mild steel as a
means of improving the energy dissipation characteristics of the connection.

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The results of the Phase IV -A tests provided guidance on the relative amounts of
mild and PT steel to be used but the choices were limited by the bar sizes
available. The final decision was to use either 2 #3 bars or 3 #3 bars, made of
either A 615 steel or ASTM A240-87 304 stainless steel, and three 13 mm (1/2 in),
Grade 270 strands. The reason for using 304 stainless steel bars as the energy
dissipators was that 304 stainless steel has a total strain elongation capacity of
approximately 50 % compared to about 20 % for the Grade 60 reinforcing bars.
The greater elongation capacity was expected to provide better energy dissipation
and to delay fracture.
Based on the Phase IV A results, the PT steel was partially bonded. The mild steel
bars were intentionally debonded for 25 mm (I in) on both sides of the beam-
column interface in order to delay bar fractures as observed in Phase IV-A.
Steel angles were also included at the comers of the beams at the column interface,
as they proved effective in reducing the concrete crushing at the comers.
Prevention of concrete crushing at the beam comers is especially necessary at
higher drift levels.
Beam stirrups and column ties were welded reinforcement grids (WRGs) custom
made for the specimens and were made from smooth wire. This avoided potential
congestion of hooked bars and eliminated the need for tight radius bends.
Results
As seen in Figure 6a, the hybrid connections sustained much less damage to the
beams than the monolithic connection (Figure 2). In addition, none of the PT steel
yielded during the tests, even at 3.5% story drift.
The specimen with the stainless steel bars suffered premature bond failure of the
bars. Subsequent to this unfortunate occurrence, this specimen was then cycled to
6 % story drift. The forces in the PT indicated that the PT steel yielded at this
point. After yielding, the stress in the PT steel was approximately 0.1 fpu and there
was sufficient clamping force produced by the PT steel to resist the gravity loads
as no vertical slip of the beam relative to the column was observed.
In summary, the hybrid system displayed behavior that was in almost every way
superior to that of the conventionally reinforced specimens.
1. A hybrid precast system can be designed to have the same flexural

strength as a conventionally reinforced system with the same beam size.
Prior to fracture of the bars, the hybrid system suffered no strength
degradation.
2. The hybrid system is self-centering and displays essentially no residual
drift.
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110 Cheuk and Lew

3. The hybrid system has a very large drift capacity. It can undergo load
cycles to± 6% drift while maintaining 55% of its maximum strength.
4. The hybrid system dissipates more energy per cycle than the conventional
system up to 1.5 % drift. Thereafter, the ratio of energy dissipated is
approximately 75% of the conventional system.
5. The concrete in the hybrid suffered negligible damage, even at drifts up to
6 %. In the Phase IV-8 specimens, cracks were I mm (0.04 in) or less in
width and the cracks closed completely when the load was removed.
Only minor concrete spalling was found in the cover concrete at the
comer angle.
6. The strains in the transverse steel remained below 0.15 fy and no sign of
shear distress could be detected. This behavior contrasted strongly with
that of the conventional specimens, which suffered severe shear cracking,
and were beyond repair at the end of the tests.
NON-LINEAR TIME-HISTORY ANALYSES
An investigation of the seismic performance of the precast frame system was

carried out using the nonlinear analysis program IDARC. The existing three-
parameter hysteretic model in IDARC was found to be inadequate to characterize
the observed force-deformation response of hybrid precast connections.
Therefore, the model was enhanced to incorporate certain unique features of the
experimentally observed behavior, and the new model is characterized by seven
parameters [Cheok et al. (1998)]. The revised computer program with the seven-
parameter hysteresis model was utilized in a detailed parametric evaluation of
precast structures ranging in height from four to twenty-two stories. The purpose
of the evaluation was to establish expected maximum interstory drift demands
and to compare them with the laboratory performance of the monolithic and
hybrid precast specimens.
Two sets of design forces were calculated for "typical" monolithic prototype
buildings: one set was provided by a design firm, and the other set was
generated by NIST. Both sets of designs were based on the guidelines specified
in the Uniform Building Code (ICBO, 1994). The dynamic models were based
on a prototype building with a floor plan of 65.8 m x 32.9 m (216ft x 108 ft).
The structure has a perimeter frame with 4 bays per frame in both directions.
The building was designed for UBC seismic zone 4 for S 1, S2, and S3 soil types.
Prototype structures having 4, 8, 12 and 22 floors were studied.
Connections in the buildings varied based on the amounts of mild steel and PT
steel. They varied from a connection which contained only PT steel with no mild
steel and to a monolithic connection which contained only mild steel.
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A suite of 29 acceleration records from four different earthquakes was used for
the input motion in the dynamic analyses. These records were scaled in
magnitude (PGA) such that the acceleration response spectra were similar to the
UBC design spectra in a specified period range for each of the different soil
types.
An important observation from the simulations was that all connections,

irrespective of the mild steel and PT steel combination, produced very similar
drift demands for both designs. Hence, it may be stated that connections with
slightly more energy dissipation capacity fared almost as well as those with less
energy dissipation capacity. The drift demand appears to be more dependent on
the soil type and the acceleration record. Additionally, the drift demands, 3.5% -
4%, are higher than that for frames designed per UBC (1994) but they have been
found to be more representative of the upper bound of expected inelastic drifts
[Uang and Maarouf(1993) and Veletsos and Newmark (1960)]. In general, the
nonlinear time-history analyses show that the seismic responses of precast
concrete frames with hybrid connections are similar or better that the seismic
response of concrete frames with monolithic connections in terms of drift
demands and failure modes.
SUMMARY
Based on the experimental and analytical results, it was concluded that precast,
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prestressed concrete has unique properties that can offer advantages for seismic
resistance over cast-in-place concrete. Precast concrete should be viewed as an
individual construction system and should not be relegated to emulating cast-in-
place technology. The hybrid system can be designed to have the same flexural
strength as a conventionally reinforced system with members of the same size
and it has a very large drift capacity. The system is self-centering and the
damage sustained by the concrete is much less than for a cast-in-place system.
Finally, the precast system with hybrid connections requires no corbels or shear
keys.
As a result of these findings, design procedures were developed for the hybrid
connections [Cheok et al. 1996]. The design procedures and the results of the
test program were, in turn, used to obtain a product approval from the ICBO
Evaluation Service. This approval allows the hybrid precast system to be
constructed in seismic regions. Several structures have been built which uses the
hybrid concept including a 39-story residential building in downtown San
Francisco. This building is the tallest concrete frame building in a high seismic
region. Several buildings are being designed using hybrid connections.
Additionally, the findings of the NIST program in conjunction with findings

from other test programs were used to develop the ACI Provisional Standard

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112 --``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- Cheok and Lew

Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based on Structural Testing [ACI
1999]. A second ACI Provisional Standard Post-Tensioned Special Moment
Frames Composed of Discretely Jointed Precast Concrete Members has been
developed, and will be published in 2002.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Partial funding for the project was provided by Charles Pankow Builders, Ltd
and by the Concrete Research and Education Foundation of the American
Concrete Institute. The invaluable support and contribution of Dean Stephan and
the late David Seagren of Charles Pankow Builders, Ltd. and John Stanton of the
University of the Washington are very gratefully acknowledged. The non-linear
time-history analyses were a collaborative effort with Dr. Sashi Kunnath of the
University of California at Davis. The assistance of Suzzane D. Nakaki with the
design methodology is much appreciated.
Support, advice and encouragement was given throughout the project by the ACI
Project Advisory Committee, consisting of: Catherine French, S. K. Ghosh,
Jacob Grossman, Grant Halvorsen, Paul Johal, Robert Mast, Courtney Phillips,
Nigel Priestley, Barry Schindler, and Norman Scott.
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute (1999], Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames

Based on Structural Testing, An ACI Provisional Standard, ACI ITG/Tl.I-
99, Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 1 and Collaborators,
Farmington Hills, MI.
Cheok, Geraldine S. and Lew, H. S. (19901, "Performance of l/3-Scale Model

Precast Concrete Beam-Column Connections Subjected to Cyclic Inelastic
Loads," NISTIR 4433, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD, October.
Cheok, G. S. and Lew, H. S. [199la], "Performance of Precast Concrete Beam-

to-Column Connections Subject to Cyclic Loading," PC! Journal, Vol. 26,
No.3, Chicago, IL, May-June, pp. 56-67.
Cheok, G. S. and Lew, H. S. [199lb], "Performance of 1/3-Scale Model Precast

Concrete Beam-Column Connections Subjected to Cyclic Inelastic Loads -
Report No. 2," NJSTIR 4589, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD, June.

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Cheok, G. S. and Lew, H. S. [1993], "Model Precast Concrete Beam-to-Column
Connections Subject to Cyclic Loading," PC! Journal, Vol. 38 , No. 4,
Chicago, IL, July-August, pp. 80-92.
Cheok, G. S. and Stone, W. C. (1993], "Performance of 1/3-Sca1e Model

Loads - Report No. 3," NISTIR 5246, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, August.
Cheok, G. S. and Stone, W. C. [1994], "Performance of 1/3-Scale Model

Loads - Report No. 4," NISTIR 5436, National Institute of Standards and
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Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June.
Stone, W. C., Cheok, G. S, and Stanton, J. F. [1995], "Performance of Hybrid

Moment-Resisting Precast Beam-Column Concrete Connections Subjected to
Cyclic Loading," ACJ Structural Journal, Vol. 92, No.2, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI, March-April, pp. 229-249.
Cheok, G. S., Stone, W. C, and Nakaki, S. D. [1996], "Simplified Design

Procedure for Hybrid Precast Connections," NISTIR 5765, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February.
Stanton, J. S., Stone, W. C., and Cheok, G. S., [1997], "A Hybrid Reinforced
Precast Frame for Seismic Regions," PCJ Journal, Vol. 42, No. 2,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, March-April.
Cheok, G. S., Stone, W. C., and Kunnath, S. [1998], "Seismic Response of

Precast Concrete Frames with Hybrid Connections," ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 95, No. 5, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,
September-October, pp. 527-539.
International Conference of Building Officials [1985, 1994], Uniform

Building Code, Whittier, CA.
Uang, C-M and Maarouf, A. [1993], "Seismic Displacement Amplification

Factor in Uniform Building Code," SEAOCNC Research Bulletin Board,
BB93-3, June, pp. B1-B2 and "Displacement Amplification Factor for
Seismic Design Provisions," Proceedings Structures Congress, ASCE, Vol.
1, Irvine, CA., pp. 211-216.
Veletsos, A. S. and Newmark, N. M. [1960], "Effects of Inelastic Behavior on

the Response of Simple Systems to Earthquake Motions, " Proceedings,
2WCEE, Tokyo, Japan, 1960, Vol. 2, pp. 895-912.

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114 Cheok and Lew

Table I Description ofNIST Precast Connections
PT Steel
PT Steel dist. Length of MildStee1
Test Specimen Seismic Type' from de bonded
Phase Names Zone extreme PT Steel
fiber,d, (mm)
(mm)
Type' Bond' Area Bondd

(mm')
I A-M-Z2 2 M --- --- --- --- 568 F

B-M-Z2
I A-M-Z4 4 M --- --- --- -- 613 F

B-M-Z4
I A-P-Z4 4 p B F 89 -- --- ---

B-P-Z4
II A-P-Z2 2 p s F 63 --- --- -

B-P-Z2
II C-P-Z4 4 p B F 135 -- --- ---

D-P-Z4
II E-P-Z4 4 p s F 102 --- --- ---

F-P-Z4
Ill G-P-Z4 4 p s p 102 1219 --- ---

H-P-Z4
IVA 1-P-Z4 4 p s F 254 --- 142 F

K-P-Z4
IVA J-P-Z4 4 p B u 51 914 213 F
IVA L-P-Z4 A 4 p s u 40 914 --- ---

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IVA L-P-Z4 B 4 p B u 40 914 --- ---
IVA L-P-Z4 C 4 p s u 40 914 186 u
!VB M-P-Z4 4 p s p 203 1511 142 p
IVB N-P-Z4 4 p s p 203 1511 131 p
IVB 0-P-Z4 4 p s p 203 1511 213 p
IVB P-P-Z4 4 p s p 203 1511 197 F
a M ~ Monolithic; P ~ Precast
b B =Post-tensioning bars; S =Prestressing strands
F =Fully grouted; P = Pa1tially grouted; U = Unbonded

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All dimensions in mm
25.4 mm;;; I inch
D
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South <::==> North
UPPER
CROSS HEAD
1321
LOWER
CROSSHEAD- II
~~~~~~~~~~#7~~~
Figure 1 Boundary Conditions.
Displacement (om)
Figure 2 Monolithic Connection at Failure (3.7% Story Drift).

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116 Cheok and Lew

25.4 mm = I in.
Dogbone
Fully grouted mild steel
(2 - #3, Grade 60)
1.... 305 . . . 1
Figure 3a Specimen I-P-Z4 and K-P-Z4.
25.4 mm =I in.
Dogbone
Fully grouted mild steel

(3 - #3, Grade 60)
Unbonded PT bars
677 305 Fiber reinforced

grout joint
1.... 305 . . . 1
Figure 3b Specimen J-P-Z4.
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25.4 mm = 1 in.
Dogbone Unbonded mild

steel tube
Unbondcd PT bars
inside mild steel tube
Fiber reinforced
grout joint
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1... 305~1
Figure 3c Specimen L-P-Z4.
2.0%
.5
1.0
0.75
Figure 4 Drift Based Loading History.

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118 Cheok and Lew
//
}rough
PT
/ rv
cJ
t uct
lf
v
Figure 5 Phase IV B Specimens- Beams with Troughs and Central PT.
200
180
180
~ 140 .
~ 120
100 .
80
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Scan
a. Specimen at Failure b. Load Profile in PT Steel
3.5% Story Drift
Figure 6 Hybrid Specimen O-P-Z4.
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SP-213-7
Shear Strength of Lightweight Concrete

Beams with Stirrups Near Code Minimum
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by J. A. Ramirez
Synopsis: The new ACI 318-02 provision for minimum shear reinforcement, Equation
(11-13), is based on tests of normal weight concrete beams. The evaluation of
experimental data supported the code change making minimum shear reinforcement a
function of the concrete cylinder strength. However, it also indicated that caution should
be exercised when extrapolating current code minimums to beams with concrete cylinder
strengths above 13 ksi (90 MPa). Because of the paucity of data on the shear strength of
higher strength lightweight concrete beams with stirrups near code minimum values, the
performance of this type of member is experimentally evaluated in this paper. The
program consisted of four prestressed concrete beams, two specimens contained no
stirrups, and two had stirrups near the code minimum. The specimens failed at shear
capacities above calculated values. In the beams without stirrups, a 44% increase of the
concrete cylinder strength resulted in a 28% increase of the measured shear strength.
However, in the specimens with shear reinforcement (PC6S and PC10S), a 56% increase
of the concrete cylinder strength only resulted in a 3% increase of the measured shear
strength. The findings from the experimental program indicate that the current code
minimum stirrups for lightweight concrete beams should be re-examined. The
requirement results in a lower amount of minimum stirrups for higher strength
lightweight concretes in comparison to the minimum amount required for an otherwise
identical normal-weight concrete beam.
Keywords: beams (supports); crack control; ductility;

high-strength concrete (HSC); lightweight -aggregate concrete;
minimum shear reinforcement; shear strength; stirrups
119
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120 Ramirez
Biographical Sketch:
Julio A. Ramirez is a Professor of Structural Engineering at Purdue University.

He is a Fellow of ACI and a recipient of the Delmar Bloem award. He is a
member of the ACI Committees Technical Activities, Publications, 318 -
Structural Building Code, 408 Committee -Bond and Development of
Reinforcement, Joint ACI-ASCE 445 -Shear and Torsion, Joint ACI-ASCE 423 -
Prestressed Concrete.
INTRODUCTION
Structural engineers have continually tried to optimize building materials by

improving their durability and effectiveness. Lightweight aggregate concrete
(L WC) has been used in place of normal-weight concrete (NWC) in building
applications to decrease dead load and reduce member dimensions. The reduction
in dead load due to the use of L WC may permit smaller foundations and lead to
cost savings. In particular, due to lower handling, transportation, and construction
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costs, the lightweight concrete products are ideally suited for production of
precast concrete elements. The semi-empirical nature of code procedures to
design for shear structural concrete beams, the known lower diagonal tensile
strength of LWC, the increasing use of higher concrete compressive strengths in
design, and a paucity of data on the shear strength of LWC beams with low or
minimum amount of stirrups justify the evaluation of the current requirements for
minimum shear reinforcement.
A usual motivation for the minimum amount of shear reinforcement in design is

that the tensile strength of the concrete may be reduced because of imperfections
during construction, or other similar reasons. This would then decrease the beam
diagonal cracking load making the presence of stirrups necessary to provide
reserve shear strength. The reserve strength would prevent a sudden shear failure
on the formation of first diagonal tension cracking and enhance deformation
capacity. Minimum shear reinforcement must also control the growth of diagonal
cracks at service load levels. In this regard, it is also necessary to limit the
maximum spacing of the stirrups representing the code minimum.

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Lightweight aggregate concrete differs from normal-weight aggregate concrete in

that it results in members with a lower diagonal tensile strength, and the observed
roughness of the crack face is less since cracks tend to run through the aggregate.
It is also more brittle than gravel aggregate concrete in compression. The first two
characteristics can be critical to the shear capacity of beams with low amounts of
stirrups. The brittleness in compression indicates a need to re-evaluate the upper
limit of the shear capacity as controlled by web crushing failure. This paper
focuses on the shear strength of higher strength concrete beams made of sand-
lightweight aggregate concrete (SLWC) with stirrup reinforcement amounts near
code minimum levels. Sand-lightweight aggregate concrete refers to concrete
containing lightweight coarse aggregate and normal-weight fine aggregate.
ACI 318-02 CODE MINIMUM STIRRUPS
Previous of editions of the ACI 318 have required an amount of minimum stirrups
independent of the concrete strength. For beams with higher strength concretes a
limitation of 100 psi (0.69 MPa) was imposed on the values of..Jfc. Larger values
of ..Jr'c were allowed if minimum stirrups were provided to resist a shear stress, Vs
= rfy = (fc/5000)*(50) in psi, but no more than 150 psi (1.03 MPa). The increase
in the minimum amount for beams with concrete strengths in excess of 10,000 psi
(70 MPa) was deemed justified on the basis of tests of beams having concrete
strengths up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa) conducted by Mphonde and Frantz (2) and
Elzanaty, Nilson and Slate (3) that indicated that high cylinder strengths do not
necessarily result in high values of failure shear stress in members without
stirrups. This was attributed to a significant reduction in the crack roughness as
the concrete strength increased. This deficiency was somewhat offset by an
observed increased efficiency of the stirrups compared to that calculated on the
basis of Equation ( 11-15) in the ACI 318-02.
Since then, a number of test programs have addressed the performance in shear of
reinforced normal-weight-high-strength concrete (NWHSC) beams with code
minimum stirrups (5-10). The test results of beams (aid of greater than 2.5)
containing an amount of stirrups near code minimum in terms of shear stress (vs =
rfy = 50 psi (0.34 MPa)), of 43 psi (0.30 MPa) ::; rfy ::; 58 psi (0.40 MPa), are
shown in terms of the ratio of test to calculated ACI 318-02 shear stress (Figure
1), and in terms of the ratio of reserve shear stress to calculated shear capacity in
Figure 2. The calculated shear stress is obtained using Equations (11-3), Vc = 2..Jt'c
in psi, and (11-15), Vs = rfyv = (Avl(bws))(fyv), in the ACI 318-02. In these
expressions, f c = cylinder compressive strength at test date, Av = area of shear
reinforcement within a distance s, s = spacing of stirrups in a direction parallel to
the longitudinal reinforcement, bw = web width, and fyv = yield strength of stirrup
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122 Ramirez
reinforcement. The reserve shear stress is estimated as the difference between the
shear stress at failure (test shear stress), Vtest = Ytestl(bwd), and the calculated
concrete contribution to the shear strength, Vc, d =effective depth of the member
measured from the extreme flexural compression fiber to the centroid of the
longitudinal tension reinforcement. In both figures, the product 1OO(Aslbd)/(d*f c)
is used to illustrate the c01;nbined effect of the percentage of longitudinal tension
reinforcement, the effective depth of the member, and the concrete compressive
strength.
It is well known that low percentages of longitudinal tension reinforcement have a

detrimental effect on the shear strength of beams without stirrups, and that
increased beam depth in beams without well distributed skin reinforcement and
without stirrups also has and adverse effect on the shear strength (4). Angelakos et
al. (5) noted that changing the longitudinal tension reinforcement ratio from 0.5 to
2.1% increased the observed shear strengths of beams without stirrups by over
60%. The significance of well-distributed skin reinforcement, approximately
0.29%, was demonstrated by Collins and Kuchma (6) with the test of Specimen
BM100D having an effective depth of 925 mm (36.4 inches), near minimum
stirrups, 58 psi (0.40 MPa) similar to Specimen BMlOO, and concrete cylinder
strength of 4 7 MPa (6.8 ksi). The ratio of failure to ACI calculated shear capacity
increased from 0.8 to 1.1.
Figures 3 and 4 show the same ratios for safety and reserve strength graphed
against concrete cylinder strength, fc, for the specimens with 50 psi (0.34 MPa)
minimum stirrups, and with longitudinal tension reinforcement ratios less than
2.5% from Yoon et al. (10), Roller and Russell (9) and Johnson and Ramirez (7).
The Angelakos et al. (5) and Collins et al. (6) specimens were removed from these
comparisons because they did not meet the requirements of Sec. 10.6.7 for skin
reinforcement in the ACI 318-02. The Ozcebe et al. (8) specimens were removed
because the ratios of longitudinal reinforcement ranged from 2.5% to around
4.5%.
A descending trend can be observed in both figures with increasing concrete

cylinder strengths. In the Roller and Russell (9) study, three out of ten specimens
tested contained minimum stirrups equivalent to a 50 psi (0.34 MPa) shear stress.
The three specimens are shown in Figures 1-4. Two out of these three specimens
failed in shear at a strength well below the calculated using Eqs. (11-3) and (11-
15) in the ACI 318-02. The unsafe beams had cylinder compressive strengths of
17.4 ksi (120 MPa) and 18.2 ksi (125 MPa). The mode of failure was defined as
diagonal tension in both specimens. The third specimen failed in shear
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
compression with a ratio of test to calculated shear capacity of 1.1. It had

concrete cylinder strength of 10.5 ksi (72 MPa). The researchers noted that the
first diagonal crack not initiated by a flexural crack generally occurred at a shear
less than the concrete contribution calculated using the 318 provisions. They also
noted that the difference between the two decreased as the amount of shear

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reinforcement was increased. This finding could be interpreted as the role of the
stirrups in delaying the observed onset of diagonal cracking. The researchers
noted, based on the findings of the study, that the ACI Code provisions
overestimated the concrete contribution to the nominal shear strength when the
concrete compressive strength is greater than 17 ksi (117 MPa). They further
supported a recommendation from and earlier study by Johnson and Ramirez (7),
making the amount of minimum stirrups a function of the concrete cylinder
strength to compensate for the lack of conservatism in the estimate of the concrete
contribution to the member shear strength at high-concrete compressive strength
levels.
The minimum amount of shear reinforcement required for reinforced concrete

beams was made a function of the concrete cylinder strength in the form a
continuous function, Equation (11-13), in the ACI 318-02. Equation (11-13)
provides minimum stirrups in an amount sufficient to develop a shear stress, Vs =
rfyv = 0.75-ffc (in psi) but no less than 50 psi (0.34 MPa). The step function for
allowing values of -ft'c greater than 100 psi (0.7MPa), if minimum stirrups were
provided to resist a shear stress, v, = rfy = (fc/5000)*(50) in psi, but no more than
150 psi (1 MPa), was then removed. Figure 5 shows the same data graphed in
Figures 3 and 4, but in terms of stirrup efficiency versus concrete cylinder
strength. Stirrup efficiency is defined as the ratio of the difference between the
failure shear stress and the calculated concrete contribution from Eq. (11-3) to the
shear capacity provided by the stirrups rfy obtained from Eq. (11-15) in terms of
stress. This figure includes the Ozcebe et al. data (8) to illustrate the beneficial
effect of longitudinal reinforcement with increasing concrete strengths. Rolle and
Russell (9) indicated that an increase of almost 1.3 times the previous minimum
amount of 50 psi (0.34 MPa) was needed to prevent unsafe estimates, and almost
1.8 times to achieve at least 50% reserve strength over the amount estimated as
the concrete contribution.
In the Rolle and Russell study, an otherwise identical beam with normal weight
concrete having cylinder strength of 18.2 ksi (125 MPa), and stirrups providing a
shear strength, Vs = rfy = 102 psi"" 0.75-118200 = 101 psi (0.7 MPa), was tested.
The specimen failed in shear compression at shear stress equal to 0.84 times the
calculated value using the ACI provisions Equation (11-3) and Equation (1 1-15).
Until more data are available, caution should be exercised in extrapolating the
current provisions beyond 13 ksi (90 MPa) where stirrup efficiencies of at least
50% were observed (Figure 5).
MINIMUM STIRRUPS IN LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE BEAMS
Extensive experimental data (11, 12) from tests of lightweight concrete beams
without stirrups indicate a reduction in the diagonal tensile strength with respect
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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124 Ramirez
to that of beams with gravel aggregate (normal-weight) concrete. Based on the
available experimental information, Sec. 11.2 requires that one of the following
modifications be applied to --J[ c throughout Chapter II, with a few exceptions,
when lightweight aggregate concrete is utilized:
• When the splitting tensile strength is specified, fct, and concrete is

proportioned in accordance with Sec. 5.2, the value of fct/6.7 shall
be used instead of.Jfc, but fct/6.7 ~ .J-fc.
• If fct is not specified, all values of --J[c have to be multiplied by

0.75 for all -lightweight concrete, and 0.85 for sand-lightweight
concrete. Linear interpolation is permitted when partial sand
replacement is used.
The minimum amount of stirrups required, in terms of shear stress, Vsmin = rfy =
0.75--..Jfc (psi) becomes in the cases where fct is not known, for all-lightweight
0.56--.Jfc, and for sand-lightweight concrete 0.64--.Jfc. In either case, the minimum
amount cannot be less than 50 psi (0.34 MPa). The concrete contribution term in
terms of stress, Vc, as per Eq. (11-3) is also modified accordingly, for all-
lightweight concrete to 1.5.J(, and for sand-lightweight concrete to I.7.Jfc. The
reduction in the Vc term is justified on the basis of the experimental data on the
diagonal tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete beams. However, no
experimental data support the reduction in minimum stirrups particularly in higher
strength concretes.
In the next section of this paper, experimental data from prestressed HSL WC
beams with stirrups near code minimum values are presented to illustrate their
behavior in shear. It must be noted that for prestressed concrete beams, it is
allowed to calculate the minimum stirrups using Equations (11-13) or (11-14),
and use the lesser of the two amounts. This is permitted because tests by Olesen,
Sozen and Siess (13) of prestressed concrete beams with minimum stirrups
indicated that the smaller amount of(li-13) and (11-14) was sufficient to develop
ductile behavior in beams with a minimum prestressing not less than 40% of the
tensile strength of the flexural reinforcement. However, in all the specimens
tested in the Olesen et al. study Wabash River sand and pea gravel were used. The
maximum size of the gravel was 3/8 inches (9.5 mm).
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Malone (14) tested four prestressed lightweight aggregate concrete beams in the
Kettelhut Structural Engineering Laboratory of the Purdue University School of
Civil Engineering. The lightweight coarse aggregate consisted of Haydite
particles with a maximum aggregate size of 9.5 mm. In all girders natural sand

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was used as the fine aggregate. Target girder concrete compressive strengths
varied from 41.4 MPa (6 ksi) to 68.9 MPa (10 ksi). The cast-in-place slab was
normal-weight concrete. Hardened concrete proportions at the time of testing are
shown in Table 1. Mild tensile longitudinal reinforcement consisted of Grade 60
No. 7 and No. 8 uncoated deformed steel bars. Grade 60 No. 3 uncoated
deformed steel bars were used for the stirrups. The prestressing steel consisted of
Y2 in. special low-relaxation 7-wire prestressing strand with an ultimate strength
of 270 ksi. The specimens were 1-section pretensioned girders with a composite
cast-in-place slab. The specimens were designed to fail in shear.
Specimen details are summarized in Table 2. The nominal dimensions and

reinforcement details of typical test specimens are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The
amounts of shear reinforcement (rfy) varied from 0 to 0.92 MPa (133 psi). The
minimum amount of stirrups as per Equation (11-13) for the 41.4 MPa (6 ksi)
specimens is 0.34 MPa (50 psi). Equation (11-14) would be controlled by
maximum spacing requirements resulting in 0.63 MPa (92 psi). For the specimens
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with 69 MPa (10 ksi) concrete, Equation (11-13) would result in 0.44 MPa (64
psi) minimum stirrups. Once again, Equation (11-14) would be controlled by
maximum spacing limitations resulting in a minimum requirement of 0.63 MPa
(92 psi). Stirrup strain gage locations are shown in Figure 7. Each specimen was
tested simply supported and subjected to a single point load at midspan, as shown
in Figure 8. Load cells placed underneath each support beam were used to
monitor reactions. Load was applied to the specimen by a 2670 kN (600 kips)
Baldwin testing machine.
TEST RESULTS AND CALCULATED CAP ACITIES
The failure crack patterns are shown in Figures 9-12. In Specimen PC6N the
failure crack was a web-shear crack in the north shear span that extended from the
face of the support to the face of the loading plate, as shown in Figure 9. The
maximum applied shear force was 353 kN (79.4 kips). Specimen PC6S prior to
failure, had three web-shear cracks developed in each shear span. The failure
crack extended form the face of the loading plate to the curtailment of the
supplementary No. 7 longitudinal bars in the south span, as shown in Figure 10.
The maximum applied shear force was 520 kN (116.9 kips). The first inclined
cracks (web-shear cracks) in Specimen PClON occurred in the north shear span at
a shear of 440 (98.9 kips) and 445 kN (100 kips). The failure crack extended
form the face of the support to face of the loading plate in the north shear span, as
shown in Figure 11. The maximum applied shear force was 466 kN (104.8 kips).
In Specimen PC lOS, yielding of the stirrups T2, T7, T8, and T9 was observed
prior to failure of the specimen. The first inclined cracks (web-shear cracks)
occurred at a shear of 444 (99.8 kips) and 451 kN (101.4 kips). Near failure, two
major web-shear cracks had developed in each shear span. The failure crack

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126 Ramirez
extended form the face of the loading plate to the curtailment of the
supplementary No. 8 longitudinal bars in the south shear span, as shown in Figure
12. The maximum applied shear force was 534 kN (120 kips).
COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND CALCULATED SHEAR

CAPACITIES
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Measured shear capacities taken as the maximum applied shear force during the
test were compared with code-based shear capacities calculated according to the
ACI 318-02 code. Specimen properties used to calculate the shear strength are
summarized in Table 3. The values of measured and calculated shear strengths
are summarized in Table 4. Web-shear cracking governed the value of the
calculated concrete contribution for all specimens.
The results of the specimens without stirrups (PC6N and PC 1ON) indicate that a
44 percent increase of the concrete cylinder strength (from 48.5 to 69.6 MPa)
resulted in a 28 percent increase of the measured shear strength (from 365 to 465
kN). However, in the specimens with shear reinforcement (PC6S and PC 1OS), a
56 percent increase of the concrete compressive strength (from 44.5 to 69.6 MPa)
only resulted in a 3 percent increase of the measured shear strength (from 520 to
534 kN). The amount of shear reinforcement provided was twice the minimum
required by Equation (11-13) of ACI 318-02 for sand-lightweight concrete with
69.9 MPa (10 ksi) concrete cylinder strength.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the study findings the following recommendations are made:
1. Caution should be exercised in extrapolating the 318-02 minimum shear

reinforcement amount to normal weight concrete beams with cylinder
strengths in excess of90 MPa (13 ksi).
2. The stirrups near code minimum prescribed amounts did not significantly
change the shear capacity of the higher strength lightweight concrete beam.
The stirrups in Specimen PC lOS yielded immediately after the first web-shear
crack occurred. The measured shear capacities of Specimens PC6S and
PClOS were essentially the same. This finding indicates insufficient post-
diagonal cracking reserve strength with the higher strength concrete and
supports the need to re-examine the current minimum shear reinforcement
requirement for higher strength lightweight concrete beams.

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FUTURE WORK
Due to the limited amount of test data available on the shear strength of
lightweight aggregate prestressed concrete beams, additional tests are justified in
order to establish the minimum shear reinforcement needed to obtain adequate
post-diagonal cracking reserve capacity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The experimental program was conducted in the Kettlehut Structural

Engineering Laboratory at Purdue University with the support of the Federal
Highway Administration and the Indiana Department of Transportation.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete

(ACI 318-02) and Commentary - ACI 318 R-02," American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, January 20002, 443 pp.
2. Maphonde, A. G., and Frantz, G. C., "Shear Tests of High- and Low-Strength
Concrete Beams without Stirrups," ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 81, No. 4,
July-Aug. 1984, pp. 350-357.
3. Elzanaty, A. H., Nilson, A. H., and Slate, F. 0., "Shear Capacity of

Reinforced Concrete Beams Using High Strength Concrete," ACI Journal,
Proceedings, V. 83, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1986, pp. 290-296.
4. Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445, "Recent Approaches to Shear Design of

Structural Concrete," ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Dec. 1998, pp.
1375-1417.
5. Angelakos, D., Bentz, E. C., and Collins, M.P., "Effect of Concrete Strength
and Minimum Stirrups on Shear Strength of Large Members," ACI Structural
Journal, V. 98, No.3, May-June 2001, pp. 290-300.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. Collins, M. P., and Kuchma, D., "How Safe are Our Large, Lightly
Reinforced Concrete Beams, and Footings," ACJ Structural Journal, V. 96,
No.4, July-August 1999, pp.482-490.

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128 Ramirez
7. Johnson, M. K., and Ramirez, J. A., "Minimum Amount of Shear
Reinforcement in High Strength Concrete Members," ACJ Structural Journal,
V. 86, No.4, July-Aug. 1989, pp. 376-382.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. Ozcebe, G., Ersoy, U., and Tankut, T., "Evaluation of Shear Reinforcement
for Higher Strength Concrete," ACI Structural Journal, V. 96, No. 3, May-
June 1999, pp. 361-368.
9. Roller, J. J., and Russell, H. G., "Shear Strength of High Strength Concrete
Beams with Web Reinforcement," ACI Structural Journal, V. 87, No.2, Mar-
Apr. 1990, pp. 191-198.
10. Yoon, Y. S., Cook, W. D., and Mitchell, D., "Minimum Shear Reinforcement
in Normal, Medium, and High-Strength Concrete Beams," ACI Structural
Journal, V. 93, No. 5, September-October 1996, pp. 576-584.
11. Hanson, J. A., "Tensile Strength and Diagonal Tension Resistance of

Structural Lightweight Concrete," ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 58, No. 1,
July 1961, pp.l-40.
12. lvey, D. L., and Buth, E., "Shear Capacity of Lightweight Concrete Beams,"
ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 64, No. 10, Oct. 1967, pp. 634-643.
13. Olesen, S. E., Sozen, M. A., and Siess, C. P., "Investigation of Prestressed
Reinforced Concrete for Highway Bridges, Part IV: Strength in Shear of
Beams with Web Reinforcement," Bulletin No. 493, University of Illinois,
Engineering Experiment Station, Urbana, 1967.
14. Malone, Brian J. (1999) "Shear Strength of Reinforced and Prestressed

Concrete Beams with Lightweight Aggregate Concrete", PhD. Thesis, Purdue
University, December.
Table 1 -Hardened Concrete Properties

Girder Slab
Splitting Modulus of
Compressive Modulus of Compressive
Tensile Elasticity
Specimen Strength Rupture (f,) Strength
Strength (fct) (Ec)
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
PC6N 48.5 3.2 3.2 - 43.4
PC6S 44.8 2.0 3.3 - 37.7
PC ION 69.6 4.1 3.9 26200 41.7
PC lOS 69.6 4.0 3.7 26200 34.2

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Table 2- Specimen Details
Target Concrete
Prestressing a
Specimen Compressive aid r r fyw
Details
Strength
MPa Strands MPa
PC6N 41.4 3.03 2 (Top) 8 (Bottom) 0 0
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PC6S 41.4 3.03 2 (Top) 8(Bottom) 0.00183 0.92

PClON 68.9 3.04 2 (Top) 8 (Bottom) 0 0
PC lOS 68.9 3.04 2 (Top) 8 (Bottom) 0.00183 0.92
• fyw = 502 MPa
Table 3- Specimen Properties Used in Code-Based Calculations

1
f'c dv d Av s As fpo fpc Aps
Specimen 2 2 2
MPa mm mm mm mm mm MPa MPa mm
PC6N 4R.5 713 746 0 - 774 1131 -3.52 862
PC6S 44.8 713 746 142 2 508 774 1132 -3.52 862
PC ION 69.6 713 744 0 - 1529 1126 -3.52 862
PC lOS 69.6 713 744 142 2 508 1529 1126 -3.52 862
I - 0.9d L
- bw-
bv- - 152.4 mm dv- fyv Actual = 503 MPa (fyv CodeMaxtmum = 414 MPa)
Table 4- Summary of Measured Shear Capacities and Code-Based Calculated

Nominal Shear Capacities ({yv = 414 MPa)
V AASHTO LRFD V ACI318-02

Specimen
VMeasured
General Vc;/Vcw VMeasured v Measured
kN
Method Method vAASHTO LRFD v ACI318-02
kN kN
PC6N 356 301 316 1.18 1.13
PC6S 520 436 393 1.19 1.32
PC ION 465 322 353 1.44 1.32
PC10S 534 492 426 1.08 1.25

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130 Ramirez
Safety: Minimum 50 psi vs Elf~ of Tension Reinforcement, rc and Effective Depth
1.50 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
1.40
• •
1.20 • •
...
•• •
)1: Ill
c:; 1.00 • + Angelakos el al. (01)
i!
~
f 0.80
•
Ill'
• • Ill Collins and Kuchma (99)
A Ozcebe etal. (99)
f •• *• .IJIYoonelal.(98)
: X Roller and Russell (90) i
X ~ • Johnson a~d Ramirez (89)
"' 0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
100(Aslbd)/(d"fc))
Figure 1. Safety from Minimum Stirrups, 50 psi, in Normal Weight Concrete Beams.
Reserve: Minimum 50 psi vs Effect of Tension Reinforcement, f'c and Bfectlve Depth
1.00
0.80
0.60
u
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
<(
lO
• Angelakcs et al. (01)
~ 0.40 • 111 CoiUns and Kuchms (99)
~1il 1K
•• • • , A Ozceb9 et al. (99)
..
~ 0.20 •
Iii
II
IIYoon et al. (96)
; x Roller and Russell (90)
~ lO
• ' • Johnson and Rarrirez (89)
J 0.00 • +
0.)0 • 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4 0
X
-0.20
lit
-0.40
100(Aa/bd)/(fcd))
Figure 2. Reserve Shear Strength from Minimum Stirrups in Normal Weight Concrete
Beams, 50 psi.

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1.60 •
1.4o 1
1.20 j
I
~
~
Ill • I miYoon et al. {96)
~ 1.00
• • Ill
X Roller and Russell (90)
-~.-~?.~.~5?~. .~.~~- ~-~~~~~-(~~).'
1111!
i •
0.80
lK
lK
0.60 .
0.40 '
10 12 14 16 18 20
Concrete Strength, rc (ksi)
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 3. Safety from Minimum Stirrups, 50 psi with Increasing Concrete Strengths in
Normal Weight Concrete Beams.
Minimum !llmount.SO psi va fc
1.00
0.80 '
0.60
1 II
•
•
0.40
l~
0.20
• •
Ill
Ill
1!!1 Yoon wt al.(96)
:X Roller and Russell (90)
'~-~.'?..~S:on ~-~~ ~.~mi~z (89) '
s •
0.00 •
0 '8
-o.20 •
-o.40 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - '
eon.- Strength, fc (ksl)
Figure 4; Reserve Shear Strength from Minimum Stirrups, 50 psi, with Increasing
Concrete Cylinder Strengths in Normal Weight Concrete Beams.

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132 Ramirez
Estimated Stirrup Efficiency
3.50 r----~--------------------------,
3.00
...
2.50
...
2.00
...
....
;§: 1.50
·•· .t .t. Ozcebe et al. (99)
~. 1.00 • Ill IIIYoon et aL (96)

X Roller and Russell (90)
ll !II
! 0.50 • ~~~~S!'!J ~~-~in:~<~~L
0.00
:~ g @ @ IE [!] I]§;
-0.50
Concn>te Strength, fc (l<sl)
Figure 5. Stirrup Efficiency in Normal Weight Concrete Beams with Increasing Concrete
Cylinder Strengths.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- 2 - 112" Special Strands (Inside)
2 No.5 Deformed Bars (Ourside)
No. 3 Double-Leg Stirrup
J 2- 1/2" Special Strands
------ 3 No. 8 Deformed Bars
L--------..1~ 6. 112" Special Strands

All dimensions shown in mm
I in. =25.4 mm
Figure 6. Details of Specimen PC lOS.

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No 3 Stirrups
\n , ~
J Slab reinforcement not shown
No. 5 bars spaced at I 52 mm on center each way
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Tl T2 T3 T4 TS T6 T7 T8 T9
TIO
~ 2 No. 7 Bars at Midspan (PC6N and PC6S) ~~

3 No.8 Bars at Midspan (PC ION and PC lOS)
-914~914 3048 914~914-

6706
All dimensions shown in mm

1 in. = 25.4 mm
Figure 7. Reinforcement Details for Specimen PC6S and PC lOS.
Composite Prestressed Concrete Specimen \

LoadPoin
r::
;:: Load Plate
- -
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~M
t""
"'!p p
Roller Support Support Plate~
- 914
T Load Cell
4877
6706
Support Beam I'
914 -
Figure 8. Test Setup.
Figure 9. Failure Crack in North Shear Span, Specimen PC6N.

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134 Ramirez
Figure 10. Failure Crack in South Shear Span, Specimen PC6S.
Figure 11. Web-Shear Crack in North Shear Span, Specimen PClON.

--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 12. Web-Shear Crack in South Shear Span, Specimen PC lOS.

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SP-213-8
Design Rules for Composite Construction

in Retrospect
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by I. M. Viest
Synopsis: Design requirements for composite construction in steel and concrete as

practiced in the United States are reviewed. Included are buildings and highway bridges.
After a brief account of the origins of composite construction in America, an emphasis is
placed on the early rules issued by ACI and AISC for composite columns in buildings, by
AASHO-the predecessor of AASHTO-for composite beams in highway bridges and
by AISC for composite beams in buildings. All four sections include outlines of
subsequent changes that have taken place over the years. The paper is concluded with a
discussion of a potential decrease in the strength of a stud shear connector located in the
trough of a steel deck.
Keywords: buildings; composite construction; design rules; highway bridges;

history
135
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136 Viest
Ivan M. Vi est, FACI, is a consultant in private practice. He joined the Institute in
1948 and has been an active participant in its activities ever since. He has been
involved in various aspects of composite construction as well as in other innovative
aspects of structural design. The results of this work have been published in two
books and numerous technical papers that appeared at frequent intervals in several
professional journals. Prior to entering private practice, he was associated with
Bethlehem Steel Corporation, the AASHO Road Test of the National Academy of
Sciences and the University of Illinois.
ORIGINS
The first well documented structural use in America of rolled beams embedded in
concrete was in the Ward House, a private residence completed in Port Chester,
N.Y., in 1877. It took more than another decade before the new combination of the
two structural materials began finding wider applications. In buildings, reinforced
concrete started replacing wood and masonry in floor construction during the late
eighteen-eighties and the eighteen-nineties. Concrete embedment of steel beams for
fireproofing became common by the end of the nineteenth century.
In bridges, steel beams embedded in concrete were introduced with the issuance of a
U.S. patent to the Austrian engineer JosefMelan in 1894. Melan bridges consisted
of several rolled beams that were bent to the curvature of a flat arch and completely
embedded in a solid concrete slab. They were built in the East and the Midwest on
both highway and railway networks. By the early days of the twentieth century
straight rather then curved beams became common.
The Druecker warehouses, built in Chicago in 1898, were among the first with steel
columns encased in concrete. This scheme was reversed in 190 I when pipe
columns were filled with concrete to increase the capacity of a crane bay in the new
Government Printing Office in Washington, DC.
For building applications, design rules for composite construction in structural steel
and concrete were developed over the years primarily by the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) and the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). The
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
and its predecessor the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO),
developed and issued similar rules for highway bridges. Another organization that
included design rules for composite construction in its specifications was the
American Railway Engineering Association (AREA). Their requirements for
composite beams for railway bridges generally followed the AASHTO lead.
Requirements for the design and construction of composite slabs were issued by the
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and those for welding stud shear
connectors by the American Welding Society.
Professor Richard W. Furlong's involvement with composite construction began
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during the nineteen-sixties. Early in the following decade he conducted a series of
tests of eight full-size composite beams on a 32-ft span with the length of the stud
shear connectors as the principal variable. They were a part of research sponsored
by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) to develop generally applicable
design rules for composite beams with the slab cast on steel forms. The bulk of that
research was carried out at Lehigh University. Furlong had the results of his effort
included in the final report from Lehigh rather than publishing them in an
independent stand-alone paper under his authorship. Furlong's most important
contribution in the field of composite construction was concerned with composite
columns. He conceived and developed a method for the design of concentrically
loaded composite columns. After some modifications, it was included in the 1986
and later editions of the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Specification.
This paper is based primarily on recollections and on documents cited in the

references. It is limited to elements composed of structural steel sections or pipe
combined with reinforced concrete. The concrete interacting with the steel section
may be present in the form of a slab or an encasement or both, or as a fill for the
pipe. Many portions of the text originated in the source documents listed in the
References. However, the only longer verbatim transfer is clearly identified and
presented in quotation marks.
To refresh his memory, the author checked some items with Professor Furlong, with
his mentor Professor Chester P. Siess of the University of Illinois and with a few
other friends and colleagues involved at various stages of the development of design
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rules for composite construction. Their contributions are hereby acknowledged with
thanks.
COMPOSITE COLUMNS IN ACI CODES
Joint Committee Reports - Perhaps the earliest broadly based recommendations for
the design of reinforced concrete in the United States were contained in the final
report of the first Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete.
Two engineering societies, the ASCE and the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM), and two industry-wide associations, the AREA and the Portland
Cement Association, appointed in 1903 and 1904 special committees for the
purpose of preparing a recommended practice for the design of concrete and
reinforced concrete structures. In June 1904 the special committees merged into
the Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, and in 1915 the ACI
was added to the roster of constituent organizations. Progress reports were
presented in 1909and 1912,andthefinalreportwasadoptedonJuly 1,1916. The
final report stated that it was not a specification but that it may be used as a basis for
such documents.
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Reinforced Concrete initiated steps toward forming a successor to the Joint
Committee. The second Joint Committee held an organizing meeting in February
1920 at the Engineers' Club in Philadelphia. Each of the five constituent
organizations was represented by seven members. Richard L. Humphrey,
consulting engineer from Philadelphia, served as chairman and Duff A. Abrams,
professor at the Lewis Institute in Chicago, as secretary-treasurer of the Committee.
The work was carried out in seven subcommittees. They reported to an executive
committee that included the chairman, the secretary-treasurer and three other
members.
Second Joint Committee held 18 meetings, the last one in December 1923, and even
more numerous subcommittee sessions. Tentative Specifications, submitted to the
constituent organizations, were presented in several cities and remained open for
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public criticism and discussion for more than two years. As a result of feedback,
verification tests followed. The final report was issued on August 14, 1924 under
the title Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete. The final
document included provisions for materials, construction and design. Its sixty-six
pages were supplemented by eighteen appendices.
Design provisions were based on working stresses and the elastic cracked-section
theory. The allowable stresses in concrete were given in terms of the cylinder
strength of concrete f 'sub c multiplied by 0.4 for flexure, 0.2 for compression in
short columns, 0.02 for shear in beams without web reinforcement and 0.04 for
bond in beams and slabs with plain bars. The allowable steel stress was specified at
16 or 18 ksi depending on the type and grade of reinforcement. The unsupported
length of a short column was limited to 40 times the least radius of gyration of the
cross-section.
Requirements for composite columns were included for the first time in the 1924
Specifications. A composite column was defined as a structural steel shape
thoroughly encased in circumferentially reinforced concrete, or a cast iron pipe
filled with concrete. The allowable stress for concrete for both of these column
types was 0.25 f 'sub c considering only the area within the circumferential
reinforcement or inside the pipe. The allowable stress for structural steel and cast
iron sections was a function of the slenderness of the column with a maximum of 16
ksi for structural steel and 10 ksi for cast iron.
The third Joint Committee was organized in 1930 to study the extent and character
of the advances in knowledge since the 1924 report. In December 1932 the
American Institute of Architects was added to the five constituent organizations of
the earlier Joint Committee. The Committee held seventeen general meetings. It
issued a progress report that was presented and discussed at the ACI meeting of
February 1937. Their final report issued to the constituent organizations in June
1940 retained the elastic cracked-section theory for the design of flexural elements,
but the provisions for concentrically loaded columns were based on their maximum
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Column equations ofthe 1940 Report used the so-called addition formula that was
developed from extensive tests of reinforced concrete columns completed at the
University of Illinois and Lehigh University in the early nineteen-thirties under the
direction of Professors Frank E. Richart and Inge Lyse, respectively. The addition
formula was first adopted by ACI as a part of its 1936 Code. Although service load
design was retained in the 1936 ACI Code and the 1940 Joint Committee Report,
both the magnitude and the form of the column design equations were derived from
the conditions characteristic of the ultimate strength of the column.
The 1940 Joint Committee Report included substantially expanded provisions for
composite columns, added provisions for combination columns and made the
provisions for pipe columns applicable to steel rather than the cast iron pipe referred
to in the I 924 Report. The combination column was defined as a structural steel
column encased in concrete reinforced with# 10 wire mesh rather than the vertical
reinforcing bars and circumferential hoops or spiral required for a composite
column. The single most important change from the earlier Joint Committee
Reports was the adoption of the addition formula for the design of concentrically
loaded composite and pipe columns. The allowable compression in flexure was
increased to 0.45 f' sub c and the allowable steel stress to 18 or 20 ksi.
ACJ Building Code - National Association of Cement Users (NACU), which

became known in 1913 as the ACI, issued in 1908 a report of its Committee on
Laws and Ordinances that included six pages entitled Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete or Concrete-Steel Constructed Buildings. While it is not clear whether
this document achieved any official standing, it was the earliest predecessor of the
ACI Code. In February 1910, Standard Building Regulations for the Use of
Reinforced Concrete were adopted by letter ballot as NACU Standard No.4. The
next major revisions were adopted in 1920 and the revised report issued under its
earlier name during the same year. The 1920 Regulations included
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recommendations of the I 9 I 6 Joint Committee Report.
Following several revisions issued as preliminary drafts or tentative standards,

another version of the code was adopted and published in the 1936 ACI
Proceedings under the title Building Regulations for Reinforced Concrete (A.C.I.
501-36-T) . It was the first ACI Code that included provisions for composite
columns.
The permissible load on a composite column was given as the sum of separate
contributions of concrete, the longitudinal bar reinforcement and the structural steel
core. Each of the three terms was independent of the other two because the Illinois
and Lehigh tests of reinforced concrete columns have shown that a column fails by
crushing of concrete only after yielding of the longitudinal steel components. The
part of the report dealing with composite columns included requirements concerning
the details of the steel core and reinforcement, and for splices and connections of the
core. It also stipulated that the core must be designed to carry safely any

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140 Viest
construction loads placed upon it prior to its encasement in concrete.
Also included were provisions for two types of combination columns listed as 'Steel
Columns Encased in Concrete' and 'Pipe Columns'. The first of these two elements
was defined in the same way as the combination column of the 1940 Joint
Committee Report. Its design load was specified as a function of the permissible
stress for an unencased steel column, the cross-sectional area of the steel section and
the cross-sectional area of the concrete section. The permissible load for a pipe
column was given by two additive terms, one representing the contribution of
concrete and the other that of the steel pipe. Slenderness reduction was required
whenever the column length exceeded ten times the least lateral dimension.
Except for the transition to the ultimate strength design and for some minor
adjustments, the equations for the design of composite, combination and pipe
columns remained essentially unchanged through at least 1963. In line with the
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changes introduced in subsequent years into the design of reinforced concrete

columns, by 1977 the code provisions for composite compression members stated
simply that the 'strength of a composite member shall be computed for the same
limiting conditions applicable to ordinary reinforced concrete members.'
Furthermore, by 1977 no differentiation was made among various types of
composite compression members. They were defined as 'members reinforced
longitudinally with structural steel shapes, pipe, or tubing with or without
longitudinal bars.' On the other hand, the section on composite compression
members was expanded by the addition of requirements that may be categorized as
detailing. The provisions in force at the time of writing this article remained
essentially the same as those in the 1977 issue.
AISC RULES FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS
Over the years, the design of composite columns was covered in the ACI Code and
that of composite beams in the AISC Specification. In 1976 the AISC Engineering
Journal included Professor Furlong's paper AISC Column Logic Makes Sense for
Composite Columns, Too. Shortly afterward Professor George Winter of Cornell
University, who was at that time chairman of the Structural Stability Research
Council, formed an ad hoc group called the Structural Specification Liaison
Committee (SSLC). Composed of at least one member from each of the structural
specification committees of the ACI, AISC and AISI, its purpose was to work
toward unifying the approaches to structural design for reinforced concrete,
structural steel and cold-formed steel. Winter chaired the group. William A. Milek,
Clarkson W. Pinkham and a few others served as its members. In addition, SSLC
called on several experts as consultants on specific issues.
One of the subjects taken up by the SSLC was the design of composite columns.
Furlong's paper was written in terms of working stress design. In cooperation with
Furlong, the committee transformed the method into the ultimate strength design
format and proposed to include the method in the new specification for structural

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steel design that was then under development. The new document, adopted by
AISC in 1986 as the LRFD, included the modified Furlong method for
concentrically loaded composite columns and also provisions for composite
columns subjected to combined compression and flexure.
In essence, the Furlong method was a modification of the addition formula for
reinforced concrete columns derived from experimental research at the University of
Illinois and Lehigh University during the nineteen-thirties. The modification
consisted of the addition of a new term accounting for the contribution of the
structural steel shape or the steel pipe to the overall strength of the column. The
new term was given as a function of the product of the structural steel or steel pipe
cross-sectional area and the steel yield strength.
AISC design of composite columns was developed without any new supporting
experimental evidence. Therefore, the provisions were made purposely very
conservative especially for combined compression and flexure for which
experimental evidence was practically nonexistent. The transition from concentric
compression to bending was based on two straight lines rather than on the obviously
more correct but also less conservative and less certain convex curve.
Another reason for the conservative approach was the desire to provide incentives
for research on composite columns. Unfortunately, proposals to the National
Science Foundation by academic institutions for research projects in this field were
unsuccessful. Furthermore, commercial incentives were insufficient for conducting
the work under the sole sponsorship of the industry. The requirements for
composite columns remained essentially unchanged in both the 1993 and the 1999
editions of the LRFD specification. They remain a fruitful field for academic
research, particularly now that powerful computer programs reduce drastically the
number of experiments necessary to verify theoretical approaches.
COMPOSITE BEAMS IN AASHTO DESIGN
Composite beams were the principal load carrying elements in practically all
ordinary steel highway bridges built in the United States during more than the past
quarter century. They were designed in accordance with the Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges issued by AASHTO. The compilation of the Specifications
began in 1921 with the organization of the AASHO Committee on Bridges and
Structures. The specifications were developed gradually during the following years
until issued by the parent organization in printed form in 1931. As parts of the
document were approved, they were made available in mimeographed form to the
state highway departments and other bridge builders.
A printed version of the Standard Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges was
issued by the United States Department of Agriculture on October 9, 1924.
According to the introduction,

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"The standard specifications for steel highway bridges set forth in this
bulletin are those recommended by the subcommittee on bridges and
structures of the American Association of State Highway Officials. They
were presented to the association at its annual meeting at Kansas City, Mo.,
December 4 to 7, 1922 and were subsequently adopted by the association by
letter ballot. They have since been approved by the Secretary of Agriculture
for use in connection with the administration of Federal appropriations for
construction of the Federal aid highway program."
The introduction included a list of subcommittee membership. One member each

came from fourteen states and two from the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads. One of
the two was from Washington, DC, the other from Portland, Oregon. The Bureau
representative from the east coast, E. F. Kelley, served as chairman of the
committee and E. E. Brandow of the Pennsylvania State Highway Department as
secretary. The well known expert on the design of arch bridges, Conde B.
McCullough of Oregon, was among the fourteen members from the states.
Forty-eight pages long, the document consisted of a brief introduction, design

requirements divided into three divisions and an index. The first division dealt with
materials, the second with general considerations and the third with design. The
division on design covered 28 of the 48 pages and was subdivided into subsections
on general features, loads, unit stresses, distribution of loads and structural steel
design. The last item covered close to 100 different topics, starting with dimensions
for stress calculations and ending with approval of plans. Among these numerous
design topics, there were requirements for reversal of stress, combined stresses,
secondary stresses, compression members, tension members, connections and
connecting devices, floor systems, bracing, plate girders, trusses and viaducts. The
text ended with the following sentence:
"No deviation from the approved plans will be permitted without the written
order of the engineer."
Government Printing Office produced the 1924 document and sold it for 10 cents
per copy.
The earliest ancestor of the highway bridge specifications was issued in 1871 by
Clarke, Reeves & Company, the forerunner of the Phoenix Bridge Company, in
their initial annual circular. It was the first general specification for the design of
railroad bridges issued in this country. One page long, it consisted of four parts.
The first dealt with design, the second specified properties for the iron, the third
listed several fabrication requirements and the last placed limits on deflections of
the finished structure.
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures issued by

AASHO in 1931 was the first broadly recognized standard for the design and
construction of highway bridges in the United States. With the advent of the

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automobile, highway departments were established in all states just before the end
of the nineteenth century. They handled all aspects of a substantial majority of
bridges in the whole country. The responsible individual within each department
was the chief bridge engineer. It was natural, therefore, that these engineers acting
collectively as the AASHO Committee on Bridges and Structures would become the
author of this first broadly recognized standard. Furthermore, maintaining the
document became a continuing task of the Committee.
Within a short time, the Specifications became a de facto national standard. It was
adopted and used not only by the state highway departments but also by other
bridge-owning authorities and agencies in the United Stated and abroad. The last
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three words of the original title were soon dropped and the document was re-issued
under the same title in consecutive editions at approximately four-year intervals.
The sixteenth edition appeared in 1996.
The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown
enormously during the half century following the original issue of the document.
In 1986, the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures requested the research
committee of AASHTO to undertake an assessment of bridge design specifications.
The work was accomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research
Program (NCHRP) administered by the Transportation Research Board. Completed
in 1987, the principal result of the assessment was a recommendation to develop an
entirely new bridge design standard. A multi-year, exceptionally comprehensive
NCHRP project was awarded to the consultants Modjeski & Masters. With their
administrative input and under the guidance of an about 50-member project panel,
composed of some of the country's best bridge engineering talent, an entirely new
bridge design standard was produced and released under the name LRFD.
Section 9 - Composite Beams of the 1944 edition of the AASHO bridge

specifications called for proportioning 'by the moment of inertia of the net
composite sections'. It included rules for the effective flange width, the effect of
shoring on stresses in the composite beam, computation of horizontal shear
between the slab and the beam, and deflections. It also required the use of
mechanical shear devices for the transfer of horizontal shear and for preventing
uplift between the slab and the beam. The spacing of the mechanical devices was
limited to a maximum of two feet. A significant expansion took place in 1957 with
the addition of design equations for channel, stud and spiral shear connectors, a
method for determining the factor of safety for shear connectors and clarifications in
some of the existing provisions. Further changes in the design of shear connectors
followed in the ninth and tenth editions. The tenth dropped the rules for spiral shear
connectors and included provisions for the design of composite box and hybrid
girders.
By 1977 the designer had the choice between the working stress design and the load
factor design. The LFD, adopted by the AASHO Committee on Bridges and
Structures in 1971 for steel bridges, represented a milestone in the development of

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design specifications for highway structures. It enabled the designer for the first
time to determine routinely the ultimate strength of a composite beam and other
structural elements of a bridge. Another major change came couple of decades later
with the introduction of LRFD. Following the phaseout of the WSD and LFD
hopefully before the end of the first decade of this millennium, the LRFD should
become the sole method in structural design of ordinary steel highway bridges.
That will mark the completion of an early path on the road toward explicit
evaluation of the strength and deformability of a bridge as a part of the routine
design process.
AISC RULES FOR COMPOSITE BEAMS
Composite beams are designed according to the provisions of two AISC

specifications: The Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings adopted on December 27, 1999 and the Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings- Allowable Stress Design and Plastic Design adopted on June I,
1989.
Allowable Stress Design -The story of design codes for steel building construction
started with mill handbooks. Perhaps the first of them was published in 1876 by
Carnegie Steel Company. It provided data for construction in wrought iron. Others,
such as those of Passaic Rolling Mill Company, Cambria Steel, Jones & Laughlin
and Bethlehem Steel Company, appeared over the next few decades. The AISC
undertook to promote uniform practice in the industry shortly after its founding in
1921. It selected a committee from among the leading talent in the academic,
engineering and architectural professions to prepare a specification for the design,
fabrication, and erection of structural steel. The committee had five members:
George F. Swain, professor of civil engineering at Harvard University, Milo S.
Ketchum, dean of the college of engineering at the University of Illinois, and three
practicing engineers and architects E. R. Graham of Chicago, W. J. Thomas ofNew
York and Wilbur J. Watson of Cleveland.
On June I, 1923 the committee submitted a 9-page document entitled Standard

Specification for Structural Steel for Buildings. After adopting it, the Institute made
the Specification available to the profession as a part of a book entitled Steel
Construction. That was the beginning of the now ubiquitous design aid that has,
over the years, become known as the AISC manual of steel construction. In 1925,
the AISC board of directors conferred the Institute's first honorary memberships on
the five authors of the Specification.
Composite beams were not included in the 1923 document. Requirements for their
use appeared for the first time in the AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication
and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings adopted in 1936. They were
applicable to any rolled or fabricated steel floor beam entirely encased in concrete
and meeting certain dimensional and reinforcing steel requirements. Loads applied
before hardening of concrete were assigned to the steel beam alone while the
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assumption of composite action was applicable to loads applied after the hardening
of concrete. The maximum tensile stress in the steel section was limited to 20 ksi.
For the allowable concrete stress and the modular ratio reference was made to the
specification governing the design of reinforced concrete for the specific structure
under consideration. Another short paragraph dealt with the design of the end
connections of the steel beam.
Specification provisions for composite beams remained basically unchanged until

1961 when, for the first time, the document included design of composite beams
without concrete encasement of the steel section. It called for connecting the beam
and the slab by mechanical shear connectors welded to the beam and embedded in
the slab. Basing the design on the conditions at ultimate strength and providing
allowable loads for the design of shear connectors were two other significant new
features of the 1961 text.
Tests and theory have shown that the ultimate strength of a composite beam is
independent of shoring during construction. Thus, even though the design was
carried out at the working load level, it was permitted to assume that all loads were
resisted by the composite section regardless of the presence or absence of shoring.
The design of shear connectors was based on the assumption of fully plasticized
cross-section of the composite beam and on the maximum strength of shear
connectors determined empirically. The allowable horizontal shear load per
connector was tabulated for three sizes of stud, channel and spiral connectors and
three cylinder strengths of concrete.
In 1969, provisions were added for the design of beams with incomplete composite
action and spiral shear connectors were dropped. Requirements for beams with
incomplete interaction were expanded in 1978. Two major extensions were
introduced in that edition: shear connectors embedded in light-weight concrete
slabs and composite beams built with stay-in-place steel forms. Except for minor
adjustments primarily of editorial nature, after 1978 the allowable stress design has
been retained to this day without any major change.
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Load and Resistance Factor Design - At the time the work on the LFD for
highway bridges was nearing completion, a new AISI research project was awarded
to Professor T.V. Galambos at Washington University in St. Louis. Galambos' first
task was to review the practices in the design of steel-framed buildings and to
propose further steps that may be indicated by the review. Shortly after the
beginning of the project, a symposium on Concepts of Safety and Methods of
Design was held in London. The papers presented at the meeting confirmed that
worldwide trend in the development of structural design specifications was toward
explicit consideration of multiple limit states in combination with the theory of
probability. Galambos then proposed that these two concepts, the explicit
consideration of multiple limit states and the theory of probability, should serve as
the corner-stones of a new method for the design of structural steel for buildings.
Six years of exhaustive studies brought the project to completion.

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At the beginning of the project, the new method was referred to as the Load Factor
Design for Buildings. After Professor Winter became member of the project
advisory committee, he objected on the grounds that the proposed method was to
introduce not only load factors but also resistance factors. A new name was coined:
the Load and Resistance Factor Design.
Final report of the project at Washington University was issued in May 1976. To
convert it into the form of a specification, portions of the text were assigned to
eleven subcommittees of the AISC Specification Committee. When the
subcommittees completed their work, the results were assembled into a draft for a
thorough review by the whole Committee. The resulting preliminary report, labeled
For Trial Use Only, was released by AISC on September 1, 1983 for one year
period of review and trial use.
During the course of the subcommittee work, due attention was given to the
organization of the prospective document. Professor Steven J. Fenves of Carnegie-
Mellon University studied the logic of the organization of the manuscript and
prepared proposals for consideration by the editorial committee. The adopted
format was based on the need for clarity and ease of use of the new specification as
well as on the familiarity of the design community with the organization of the
allowable stress design. The subsequent (1989) issue of the ASD was reorganized
using the format adopted for LRFD.
Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings was
adopted by the Institute and issued on September 1, 1986. The basic feature of the
LRFD was the dimensioning of members and connections at their ultimate strength
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level. Thus the design was based firmly on the wealth of knowledge obtained over
several decades of structural research. LRFD furnished the designer with
information that can serve as a basis not only for routine designs but also for
solutions to unusual problems encountered in practical applications. Furthermore, a
clear path was provided for updating the Specification on the basis of new research
findings and for adopting design rules for new products.
First update of the LRFD for buildings was issued in 1993 and the third edition
became available in 1999. To avoid the need for maintaining two separate
documents, the AISC Specification Committee at its meeting on November 10,
2001 adopted a new format that will accommodate the LRFD and the ASD
requirements within the same common text. The target year for publication of the
unified document was set as 2005.
Besides the method of approach and form, the 1986 LRFD expanded the scope of
the AISC requirements for composite construction by incorporating rules for
compression members in a form fully compatible with that used in the design of
bare steel columns. Another significant innovation was the replacement of tabular
values for the design of shear connectors with equations, one for studs and another

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for channels. Both accommodated lightweight aggregate concrete implicitly. The
1993 edition increased the maximum spacing of stud shear connectors to 36 in. and
moved the requirements for the design of shear connectors in hybrid beams from a
footnote into the body of the text. Otherwise the changes introduced in this second
edition of LRFD were mostly editorial.
Further editorial adjustments and four substantive changes were made in the 1999
edition. The highest permitted minimum yield strength of steel used in calculations
was raised to 60 ksi, new requirements were included for the transfer of loads to
axially loaded encased composite columns, a provision was added for concrete-
encased beams with shear connectors and the design load was reduced by 25 percent
for a single stud connector placed in the rib of a formed steel deck running
perpendicularly to the supporting beams.
It may be of interest to record at this point that LRFD is seldom used by the design
community even though adopted more than 15 years ago. One of the last steps in
the development of the new method was the so called calibration against ASD.
Despite the warning from the sponsoring industry that, to be accepted by the
profession, the new method must provide the user with some definite savings, the
prevailing preference was for the LRFD to result on average in the same structures
as the ASD. Accordingly, the designer had no economic incentive to replace his
well established, reliable methods with something unfamiliar and untried by him.
STUDS IN RIBS CROSSING THE BEAMS
Formed steel decks are used universally for construction of floor slabs in steel-
framed buildings. The decks are roll-formed into a corrugated shape. Except when
very shallow, the corrugations are usually of trapezoidal cross-section. Decks three
inches deep are the most common. They are tack-welded to the supporting steel
beams. In composite construction, stud shear connectors are located in the troughs
of the deck. They are welded to the supporting beam through that portion of the
deck sheet that is placed flat on the top flange of the beam.
In commercially produced decks, the flat portion has a stiffener in the middle
between the two adjacent corrugations. Thus the studs cannot be centered in the rib
but must be placed closer to one of the walls of the corrugations. Recent laboratory
tests have shown that for ribs running perpendicularly to the supporting steel beams
there can be a significant reduction in the strength of the stud as compared to the
strength of a stud placed in a solid slab. As a stop-gap measure, adopted before the
supporting research was completed, the 1999 LRFD Specification reduced by 25
percent the design strength of a stud shear connector placed singly in a deck rib
oriented perpendicularly to the beam.
Reduction in the strength of a stud shear connector in the rib of a steel deck is
readily understandable. If the stud were bearing directly against the wall of the
deck, with no concrete between the sheet and the stud, it would be essentially
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unconnected to the slab. Thus it could transfer hardly any load from the steel beam
into the concrete flange of the composite beam. Accordingly, the design strength of
a stud connector in a perpendicularly oriented rib should be reduced with decreasing
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thickness of the concrete between the stud and the wall of the formed steel deck. To
quantify this decrease, two items must be determined: the minimum thickness of
concrete that assures the full potential strength of a stud shear connector and the
shape of the transition from full to zero strength.
It is important, however, to point out that millions of square feet of floors have been
erected to the designs using current allowable loads for stud shear connectors and no
difficulties have been reported that could be attributed to an insufficient number of
studs.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Design rules for composite construction have been developed gradually over the
years and have been undergoing improvements and updating to this day. These
progressive changes resulted in more efficient uses ofthe constituent materials and
led to better, less expensive structures. There is no doubt that the search for further
improvements and for application of new materials in the field of composite
construction will continue into the future.
REFERENCES
I. Composite Construction - Design for Buildings, Edited by I. M. Viest, J. P.

Colaco, R. W. Furlong, L. G. Griffis, R. T. Leon and L.A. Wyllie, Jr., ASCE and
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
2. R. W. Furlong and W. D. Henderson, Report ofLoad Tests on Composite Beams

of Lightweight Concrete in Three-Inch Metal Deck with Stud Length as the
Principal Variable, University of Texas at Austin, August 1975.
3. R. W. Furlong, AISC Column Logic Makes Sense for Composite Columns, Too,
AISC Engineering Journal, I st Quarter 1976, pp. 1-7.
4. C. P. Siess, History ofACI Building Codes and Joint Committee Reports 1904-
1963, A chronological compilation of references prepared for classroom distribution
in the graduate school of the University of Illinois. An edited version was published
in Reference 5.
5. George Winter, Development of a National Building Code for Reinforced
Concrete 1908-1977, Concrete International, December 1962, pp. 27-3 7.
6. L. H. Gillette, The First Sixty Years, The American Institute of Steel

Construction, Inc. 1921-1980, AISC, Chicago, 1980.
7. W. S. Easterling, D. R. Gibbings and T. M. Murray, Strength of Shear Studs in

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Steel Deck on Composite Beams and Joists, Engineering Journal, AISC, 30(2),
1993, pp. 44-55.
8. Concepts ofSafety ofStructures and Methods ofDesign, A Symposium, Reports

of the Working Commissions, V. 4, International Association for Bridge and
Structural Engineering, London, 1969.
9. Historical Sketch of the Development of American Bridge Specifications,

Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way
Association, V. 6, 1905, pp. 153-171.
10. Joint Committee Reports
a. Final Report of the Special Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete,

November 1916, ASCE Transactions, New York, 1917, pp. 1101-1206.
b. Report of the Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and
Reinforced Concrete, ASTM, Philadelphia, August 1924.
c. Recommended Practice and Standard Specifications for Concrete and
Reinforced Concrete, ACI, Detroit, June 1940.
11. ACI Codes
a. H. C. Henley, Report of the Committee on Laws and Ordinances:

Requirements for Reinforced Concrete or Concrete-Steel Constructed
Buildings, NACU Proceedings, V. 4, 1908, pp. 233-239.
b. Standard Building Regulations for Use of Reinforced Concrete,NACU
Proceedings, V. 6, 1910, pp. 349-361.
c. The same title as lOb, Proceedings ACI, V.l6, 1920, pp. 283-302.
d. Building Regulations for Reinforced Concrete (A. C.!. 501-36-T),
Proceedings ACI, V. 32, 1936, pp. 407-444.
e. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (AC1318-63),ACI,
Detroit, 1963.
f. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACJ 318-77),ACI,
Detroit, 1977.
g. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (318-99) and
Commentary (318R-99), ACI, Detroit, 1999.
12. AASHTO Specifications
a. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures , First

Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1931.
b. Standard Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Department Bulletin No. 1259, Washington, D.C., October 9, 1924.
c. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Sixteenth Edition, AASHTO,
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150 Viest
Washington, D.C., 1996.
d. The same title as 12c, Fourth Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1944.
e. The same title as 12c, Seventh Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1957.
f. The same title as 12c, Ninth Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1965.
g. The same title as 12c, Tenth Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1969.
h. Interim Specifications, Committee on Bridges and Structures, AASHO,
i. The same title as 12c, Eleventh Edition, AASHO, Washington, D.C., 1973.
j. The same title as 12c, Twelfth Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1977.
k. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Second Edition, AASHTO,
13. AISC Specification
a. Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel

Buildings, AISC, Chicago, 1999.
b. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings- Allowable Stress Design and
Plastic Design, AISC, Chicago, 1989.
c. Standard Specification for Structural Steel for Buildings, Steel
Construction, First Edition, Second Printing, AISC, New York, 1928, pp.
8-16.
d. Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings, Steel Construction, Third Edition, First Printing, AISC, New York,
1937.
e. The same title as 13d, AISC, New York, 1961.
f. The same title as 13d, AISC, New York, 1969.
g. The same title as 13d, AISC, New York, 1978.
h. Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings, AISC, Chicago, 1986.
i. The same title as 13h, AISC, Chicago, 1993.
j. The same title as 13h, AISC, Chicago, 1999.
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SP-213-9
Reliant Stadium-A New Standard for Football
by L. G. Griffis, A. Wahidi, and M. C. Waggoner
Synopsis: Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas will be the first retractable roof football
stadium in the United States. Like the Astrodome before it, this new stadium will
represent the state-of-the art in stadium design, hosting not only a new NFL football
team, but also the renowned Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo.
The structure for Reliant Stadium incorporates several unique structural concepts to
make it economical and yet still support the architectural design. The giant supertrusses
that span the sidelines at each side of the stadium support the retractable roof structure.
The gentle arch-shaped bottom chord was dictated by architectural sightlines and
required a rigid frame action with its supporting supercolumns. In addition, the supertruss
was designed to be a composite steel/concrete element for economy. The concrete top
chord serves as support for the rails of the retractable roof. The composite supertrusses
are believed to be the largest ever constructed in a building structure.
Structural analyses that provided envelope solutions to account for the variation in
soil and concrete stiffnesses were undertaken to properly design the supertrusses,
supercolumns and the mat foundations that support them. A wind tunnel study was
undertaken to accurately predict the design wind forces from Gulf Coast hurricanes.
Special precautions were taken to control mass concrete temperature effects in the
placement of the mat foundations for the supercolumns. The complete structural system
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and the details of its design are described in the paper.
Keywords: composite construction; composite truss; fabric structures;

high-strength concrete (HSC); long-span roof; mass concrete;
mat foundation; retractable roof; soil-structure interaction; supercolumn;
supertruss; temperature effects
151
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152 Griffis et al.

ACI member Lawrence G. Griffis, P.E. is President, Structures Division, Walter
P. Moore and Associates in Austin, Texas.
ACI member AsifWahidi, PhD, P.E. is Vice President with Walter P. Moore and
Associates, Houston, Texas.
ACI member Mark C. Waggoner is a Graduate Engineer with Walter P. Moore

and Associates in Austin, TX.
INTRODUCTION
The opening of the Houston Astrodome in 1965 seemed almost beyond

comprehension and befitting a city that was at the center of the space program.
The stadium indeed looked like a gigantic spaceship that had landed on the flat
grassy Gulf coast plains in a remote comer of southwest Houston. As you walked
into "the eighth wonder of the world", you could scarcely take it all in. The
beauty, elegance and grace of the curved steel lamella dome skeleton seemed
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almost too lean to support the enormous 642-foot roof span, which more than
doubled any previous roof span. Over the years, after hosting thousands of
historical sporting and entertainment events, the venerable old stadium steps
back out of the limelight for another trend-setting showplace - Reliant Stadium
(see Figure 1).
The Astrodome ushered in an era of all-weather multipurpose domed stadiums

with its cushioned seats, futuristic skyboxes, a gigantic $2 million dollar
scoreboard - all in a completely air-conditioned environment. It held its place as
a grand showplace for many years, but the new millennium ushered in a new fan
expectation for better sightlines closer to the action on the field, wider
concourses, more food courts, a natural grass field, multiple private suits, club
lounges and club seating and, of course, a fully retractable roof to accommodate
football or rodeo concerts come rain or shine.
In 1965, the Astrodome was grand in its roof span and building scale. Reliant
Stadium, nearly 300 feet wider in breadth and over 60 feet taller, literally dwarfs
the dome as you view the two adjacent structures from a nearby freeway. If the
Astrodome evoked images of the space age, Reliant reminds one of a glittery Las
Vegas showplace. Its elegant high-tech design seems to evoke the future with its
silver paint, precast and metal panel cladding, walls of glass and a fabric roof
that literally will glow for nighttime events.

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Designed by sports architect HOK Sport + Venue + Event, in association with
local architects Hermes & Reed Architects and Lockwood Andrews and
Newnam, and structurally engineered by Walter P. Moore and Associates, the
new stadium is designed to capture the essence of Houston and its high-tech
history and create a sense of adventure that is uniquely Texan. One of the most
notable aspects of the design is the retractable roof structure cloaked in white
teflon-coated fiberglass fabric. The retractable roof structure offers the
flexibility to play football games in either an open-air environment or in air-
conditioned comfort, depending on weather conditions and the event. For the
Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, which is a major tenant for two weeks
every year in late February/early March, the rodeo and its concert events can be
held in a closed building atmosphere, much like an arena. Indeed, Reliant
Stadium is equipped to support 170,000 pounds of rigging load for major concert
events, comparable to any modem arena.
THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
A significant part of the grandeur of Reliant Stadium lies in its structure, much of
which is exposed as part of the architectural expression (see Figures 1 and 2).
The retractable roof contains two hi-parting panels that open to each side from
the center 50-yard line. Five trichord trusses support each roof panel. When
retracted to the fully open position, the roof opening is 350 feet by 500 feet or
175,000 square feet. The roof is powered by forty 5 HP, 460 volt three phase
electric motors, designed to open and close the roof in as little as ten minutes.
Each roof panel is covered with translucent teflon-coated fiberglass fabric

stretched with cables between each trichord truss. Each retractable trichord truss
spans 385 feet and is supported on a single six-inch tall 175-pound ASCE rail
sitting on top of a giant supertruss.
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Each supertruss spans approximately 650 feet between a giant supercolumn at

each comer of the stadium bowl. Each supertruss is 50 feet deep at midspan and
72 feet deep at the supercolumn support. The truss is trapezoidal in cross section
being 36 feet wide at its top rail support level and only ten feet wide at its bottom
chord level. Each truss cantilevers over the supercolumn support 167 feet to
support the roof in its fully open retracted position. The composite steel/concrete
supertrusses on Reliant Stadium are believed to be the largest ever used in a
building structure.
Additionally there are two more fixed trichord trusses that support the fixed roof
at each endzone. Retractable and fixed trichord trusses are 30 feet deep, 18 feet
wide and spaced at fifty feet on center across the roof. There are two giant
endzone box trusses, each 30 feet deep and 18 feet wide that house the
mechanical systems and also support the large endzone scoreboards.

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154 Griffis et al.
Each concrete supercolurnn is approximately 150 feet tall, 13 feet thick and
tapers in width from 68 feet wide at the base to 37.5 feet at the top. The
supercolumn walls are 26 inches thick. Concrete strengths varied from 6000 PSI
to 10,000 psi 56-day strength. Each supercolumn is supported on a mat
foundation that is 155 feet long, 86 feet wide and 8.5 feet thick. Mat concrete
strength is 7000 psi at 56 days.
A barrel shaped roof at each sideline provides shelter for the bowl sidelines.
Fifty-six barrel roof trusses span from the building perimeter to the bottom chord
level of each supertruss.
Several of the structural challenges faced in the design of Reliant Stadium are
discussed in the following sections.
THE SUPERTRUSS- FORM AND ECONOMY
The tapered form of the supercolumn, its 50-foot depth at midspan and its 76-
foot depth at the supercolumn support, was dictated by architectural constraints.
As shown in Figure 2, the shallow depth at midspan provides for an arch like
bottom chord profile maximizing sightlines from the sideline bowl. Faced with
this constraint the structural challenge was to conceive a structure that was
economical and constructible. The solution was two fold. First, the truss was
rigidly tied (moment connected) to the supercolumn, thereby achieving a rigid
frame action between the truss and its supporting supercolumn. In effect, a
system was conceived wherein the tapered form of the supertruss and
supercolumn matched the moment diagram from gravity loads (Figure 3).
Second, the supertruss was made composite with the top chord slab that provided
the rail platform for the retractable roof. This slab was made 9 inches deep at the
center half span of the truss. It was formed using a 3-inch composite metal deck
(3 inch deck with a 6 inch top slab). These two features were incorporated into
the structural design and were important to satisfying architectural form and
structural economy.
THE COMPOSITE STEEL/CONCRETE SUPERTRUSS
As previously mentioned, aesthetic reasons dictated that the supertruss be deeper

at the supports than at the midspan. The concrete rail slab at the top acts
compositely with the top chord to provide the required strength and stiffness at
the midspan without putting a heavy premium on the structural steel tonnage.

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To minimize weight, 56-day 10,000 psi concrete was used for the 9-inch thick
slab (6-inch slab on 3-inch metal deck) in the positive moment region where the
slab is subjected to high compressive forces. The deck flutes were oriented
parallel to supertruss span to maximize compression area and stiffness. Spacing
of supporting beams was reduced to 4' -6" near the midspan to reduce
slenderness effects. Slab buckling was checked following ACI 318 ( 1)
provisions for column design. Supporting steel beams and the whole panel of
two way steel framing between supertruss panel points was designed for strength
and stiffness required to effectively brace the slab carrying a high magnitude of
compression.
Headed studs provide the shear connection between the steel truss and the
concrete slab. Normally, on composite beams the total number of required shear
connectors is spaced uniformly over the entire span. Due to the long span of the
truss, the spacing of studs was reduced as the shear increased from the midspan
toward the supports. Canadian Code (CSA) (2) recommendations were used to
design for the maximum shear transferred at the steel-concrete interface.
In the negative moment region, where the slab is not in compression, its
thickness was reduced to 6 inches (3-inch slab on 3-inch metal deck), and the
design concrete strength was reduced to 4000 psi.
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Another important design consideration was to limit the relative lateral
movement between the two supertrusses. The concrete rail slab proved to be an
efficient way of carrying the shear caused by the lateral and torsional loads and
to limit the lateral movements. The thickness of slab required to carry the
compression and the shear was sufficient to reduce the lateral movement to
values smaller than the maximum permitted for operation of the retractable roof
transporters. Shear reinforcement was provided according to ACI 318. Since
strain compatibility may produce tension in the 6-inch thick slab, the shear
reinforcement in this region was designed for the full shear without any help
from concrete.
The two frames each cons1stmg of one supertruss and its two supporting
supercolumns were designed for all applicable load combinations. Wind loads
were obtained from a wind tunnel report. Every critical wind direction was
considered in the load combinations. The retractable roof was considered in the
fully closed position, multiple partially open conditions and in the fully open
condition in order to cover the full variation in the moment diagram during
opening and closing of the roof. Special effort was made to further envelope the
design forces for possible variations in the stiffness of concrete and in the
restraint offered by the soil at the base of the supercolumn mat foundation.
Stiffness of concrete members depends on the concrete strength, the amount of
cracking, level of compressive stress and on the amount of creep and shrinkage.
Concrete stiffness is higher for transient loads than for sustained loads. Soil
stiffness is even harder to predict. It not only varies with location and depth of

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156 Griffis et al.

soil, but also varies with the total settlement at each location and the rate of
loading. Like concrete, the transient load stiffness of soil is greater than its
sustained load stiffness.
Several possibilities exist. If the actual soil modulus of subgrade reaction is

higher than assumed in design, the base of the supercolumn will have a higher
degree of fixity, the design moments at the bottom as well as top of the
supercolumn will be higher, the negative moment at supertruss supports will be
higher and the positive moment at supertruss midspan will be lower. The effect
of higher stiffness of supercolumn combined with the effect of lower stiffness of
the composite rail slab at top of the supertruss on the supercolumn and supertruss
moments are also similar to that of a stiffer-than-assumed soil.
An envelope of design forces for the supertruss rail slab, supertruss steel
members, the supercolumn and its foundation was developed based on the load
combinations and the soil-supercolumn-slab stiffness combinations.
Supertrusses, supercolumns and their foundations were designed not only for the
worst load combination but also for the worst combination of soil, supercolumn
and slab stiffness. The worst load and stiffness combinations were also used for
checking deflections and for checking the overall stability of the structure. A
representative distribution of axial forces in the supertruss elements from
composite action is shown in Figure 4.
The supertrusses that support the retractable roof interact with a number of
structural systems that exhibit time-dependent and non-linear structural behavior.
Supertruss frame action is developed through interaction between steel and
concrete, both on the global (steel truss, concrete column) and local (composite
top chord) scale. Unlike steel, the properties of the concrete vary both with load
level and time. Further complication is added by the nature of the soil that
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supports the mat, which exhibits stiff response to transient loads but soft
response in resisting sustained loads. In the structural modeling, it was essential
that the following effects be captured:
1. The structure-soil interaction at the mat.

2. The potential variation in the properties of the supercolumn due to cracking,
creep, and shrinkage.
3. The proper location (and potential shifts) of the inflection point, establishing
where the composite slab is in tension or compression.
4. The potential variation in the properties of the composite slab due to creep
and shrinkage.
5. The spatially non-linear reactions of the fabric cladding system on the
supporting supertruss elements.
6. The interaction of the supertrusses and concrete bowl through the barrel roof
trusses to resist rooflateral wind loads.

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To capture the above effects, a potential stiffness range was developed for each.
Since the majority of the load is due to the dead weight of the structure, the
minimum soil stiffness was derived from sustained load conditions. Similarly,
the maximum soil stiffness was taken as the transient load stiffness. For each
case, the modulus of subgrade reaction varied depending on the location within
the mat. A sensitivity analysis was also performed which showed that the frame
system was relatively tolerant of differential settlements and rotations.
To establish concrete flexural stiffness ranges, moment-curvature and creep

analyses were conducted on each element. For the supercolumn, these analyses
showed that the commonly used ACI 318 values of 0.35EI and 0. 7EI provided
excellent lower and upper bounds, respectively. The slab and foundation were
found to exhibit stiffness between 0.5 and 1.0 EI.
Consideration was also given to the cracked shear stiffness of the supercolumns
and foundations. Research by Dilger and Abele (3) has shown shear stiffness
drops rapidly once cracks are formed. Proper consideration of shear stiffness
was crucial for the supercolumns, which could provide false thrust support to
develop arch action in the supertrusses if modeled too stiff.
High-strength concrete was used in both the top of the supercolumns and the
composite slab. The standard ACI formula tends to over-predict the modulus of
elasticity Ec for high-strength concrete. The recommendations of ACI 363-92 (4)
were followed in determining Ec for high strength concrete elements.
The upper and lower bounds of the potential stiffness ranges for the various
elements were used to develop three computer models for structural analysis.
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Stiffnesses used are summarized in Table 1, and the resultant moment diagrams
are shown in Figure 3. Combinations were developed to control various
elements as follows:
Modell- Soft Supercolumn- Soft Foundation- Stiff Slab

This model was developed to produce the maximum midspan moment in the
supertruss. Lower bound column stiffness forces the supertruss to act more like
a simple beam. Model 1 governed the design of the supertruss bottom chord at
midspan and the composite slab.
Model 2- Stiff Supercolumn- Stiff Foundation- Soft Slab

This model was developed to produce the maximum foundation moment,
supercolumn moment, and supertruss moment at the support. The stiff column
system shifts moment from the center of the truss to the support, resulting in the
largest moment transfer between supertruss and supercolumn. Model 2 governs
design of the foundation, supercolumn, supertruss anchorage elements, and
supertruss chords at the support.

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158 Griffis et al.

Mode/3- Soft Supercolumn- Soft Foundation- Soft Slab
Similar to Model 1, Model 3 attempts to generate the maximum moment at the
midspan of the supertruss. However, Model 3 includes the effects of shear lag in
the slab. As shown in Figure 4, the slab cannot instantly transfer the horizontal
component of force delivered from the steel diagonals. Instead, the gusset plate
connection must deliver the entire load into the steel member, which slowly
dissipates the force into the slab through shear studs. The shear lag is modeled
by shifting the theoretical inflection point by one bay and reducing the axial
stiffness of the slab. In essence, this models the "development length" of the
slab - the distance required to transfer the force in the steel into concrete slab.
Model 3 governs the design of the supertruss top chord at midspan.
SUPERCOLUMNS
All four supercolumns are identical from a design point of view. The size of
each supercolumn is 12'-8" by 67'-8" at the base and 12'-8" by 37'-6" at the top.
The column shape was determined by the architects to clear sight lines for all
seats. The supercolumns are 150 feet tall. The cross section is hollow in the
lower 130 feet height. The outside walls of the hollow section are 2'-2" thick
having a 2" deep architectural reveal all around. Two structural cross walls or
ribs connect the exterior walls along the longer dimensions of the columns to
each other. The space inside the supercolumns is used for mechanical ducts.
The top 20 feet of the supercolumns has a solid cross section that was used for
connecting the supercolumns to the supertrusses. 56-day compressive strength of
concrete was 6000 psi for the hollow portion and up to 13,000 psi for the top
solid portion under the supertrusses. ·
The maximum factored load at the top of each supercolumn was 14,200 kips and
the maximum load at the base was 28,000 kips, the maximum factored moment
about the strong axis was 570,000 kip-feet at the top and 810,500 kip-feet at the
base; and the maximum factored moment about the weak axis is 87,500 kip-feet
at the top and 55,400 kip-feet at the base.
The design of the hollow section of the supercolumns was like any column or
shear wall design. In addition to the overall buckling of the full hollow section,
the local buckling of the hollow section walls braced by the floors and the cross
walls was also considered in the design (5).
Design of the top 20 feet solid part required several special considerations. As
mentioned earlier, the size was limited to 12 '-8" by 37' -6" to clear sight lines for
all spectators. The 20 ft tall solid "cap" was cast in two 10 feet lifts.
The transfer of load from the supertruss to the supercolumn was accomplished
through six large built-up steel columns supported on base plates large enough to
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distribute the compressive loads and to accommodate the required number of 2-
lfz" diameter A354, Grade BD anchor rods. The lateral shear was transferred
through steel "drag" plates having sufficient anchor rods to transfer the design
shears.
High bearing stresses under base plates required the use of 13,000 psi high-
strength concrete at 56 days. Closely spaced reinforcing bars were used to
confine the concrete in high bearing areas to prevent local bearing failure at the
comers and edges. The anchor rods were designed using ACI 349 provisions (6).
Research conducted by Darwin et. al. (7) on reinforcing bar deformation
parameter requirements for achieving development lengths predicted by ACI
318, was used to confirm that the anchor rod threads did satisfy all such
requirements. The length of threaded portions of the anchor rods, therefore, was
based on the required tension development length. Additional spirals and
horizontal reinforcing bars were provided to confine the concrete around the
anchor threads.
The 20 feet tall cap was designed for the shear, flexure, axial tension and
compression on the overall column cross-section. The cap was also designed like
a two-way pier/pile cap. Additional vertical reinforcing was provided for shear
at the horizontal construction joint interface and for anchoring the high tensile
forces near the anchor-rod clusters. As mentioned earlier, additional horizontal
reinforcement was also provided at the anchor rods for confinement and crack
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control.
Due to the relatively small size of the cap, the reinforcing and anchor rods
required special care during installation. The anchor rods were held in the
required place by means of steel templates stabilized by small steel frames to
prevent them from dislocation during concrete placement. Steel and anchor rod
congestion presented special problem for placement of concrete. Adequately
vibrated high slump concrete was used to assure proper consolidation of
concrete.
SUPERCOLUMN MAT FOUNDATION
The supercolumns are supported on a mat foundation approximately 86 feet by

155 feet in plan dimension. The mat is 8'-6" thick near the supercolumn and
tapers at the top to a minimum thickness of 4'-6". To minimize the quantity of
concrete a compressive strength of 7000 psi at 56 days was used for the design of
the mat.
Due to the supertruss/supercolumn frame action, the mat that supports the
supercolumn must resist significant applied moments. To limit the variation in
soil pressure under the mat for sustained loads, it was decided to orient the mat at

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160 Griffis et al.

an eccentricity to the supercolumn. As shown in Figure 5, the eccentricity of the
supercolumn axial force roughly counteracts the applied sustained load moment
at the mat. Though an exactly uniform soil pressure is not possible due to
"dishing" effects, this orientation proved quite effective in limiting the
permanent rotation of the mat.
Of great concern in the design of the mat foundation was the total temperature
rise in the concrete from time of placement and ultimate curing and, perhaps
more importantly, the temperature differential in the cooler mat surface and the
warmer center. It is well documented that too large a temperature in the concrete
during the curing process may result in loss of strength, loss of ductility and loss
of stiffness. Too large a temperature differential may cause excessive
microcracking, a build up of temperature and shrinkage stresses and a loss of
flexural and shear strengths. The strategy employed to control these problems
involved:
• Cooling of the aggregates at the batch plant

• A concrete mix that utilized fly ash replacement of cement
• Controlling the concrete temperature at placement to 90 degrees F maximum
• Insulation of the mat surface with six inches of sand and covering the sand
with polyethylene sheet (8).
• Moist curing the mat surface as it sets
• Wetting the sand after placement
• Monitoring the concrete temperature within the mat as the concrete sets
The maximum mat concrete temperature was held to 170 degrees F and the
maximum temperature differential was held to 45 degrees F. The strategy
outlined above proved effective in mat construction.
WIND LOAD RESISTANCE
Wind tunnel testing provided numerous loading conditions that considered all
wind directions for which the structure was analyzed. Structures in Houston,
Texas must be designed for large Gulf coast hurricanes (118 MPH, 3 second gust
wind speeds). As with all long-span roofs, the most critical load cases were
those that involved wind loadings with a downward component. Downward
wind loads are generated by roof shape, roof surface irregularities and internal
pressures. In the case of Reliant Stadium, wind tunnel results showed that the
"wall" created by the supertruss causes a concentration of heavy downward wind
pressure on the adjacent low barrel roof. This condition, which occurs under
east-west winds (transverse to the supertruss), proved critical to many elements
of the roof design.
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The supertruss does not span between supercolumns in resisting wind loads
applied perpendicular to the exposed face. Rather, much like the rest of the
structure, it relies on the concept of a unified structural system that acts
compositely to resist load. Three seemingly separate structural systems, each of
a different material, work together to transfer the wind loads to the ground.
Wind loads are initially resisted by tensioned fabric panels attached to the
supertruss. The fabric is made of PTFE-coated glass fibers, installed and
fabricated by Birdair, Inc. These panels weave through the face of the supertruss
and resist applied wind loads through anticlastic double curvature. Sufficient
prestress is provided through segmented boundary cables to keep the fabric
always in tension. The fabric panels are anchored continuously at the top and
bottom of the supertruss and attach at discrete locations through the supertruss
depth.
The supertruss is connected laterally to the concrete bowl structure through the
barrel roof trusses. The combined system of the barrel roof trusses and the
concrete bowl serve to restrain the supertruss laterally under applied transverse
wind pressure. However, since the supertruss itself possesses some lateral
spanning capability between supercolumns, the force delivered to each concrete
frame depends on the stiffness of each barrel roof truss/concrete frame. In fact, a
behavior similar to shear wall-frame interaction develops between the supertruss
and the concrete bowl frames through the barrel roof trusses and diaphragm.
FABRIC ANALYSIS
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Tensioned fabric is used as the enclosure system for both the retractable trichord
trusses and the supertrusses. PTFE-coated glass fiber panels span 32 feet
between trichord trusses in a doubly curved anticlastic system that transfers wind
and rain load to the trichords. Similarly, a unique cone-shaped fabric system is
weaved into the face of the supertrusses to provide the closure system between
the rail slab and the barrel roof.
Analysis of fabric structures is fundamentally different from that of linear static

systems because the response and structural form are interdependent (geometric
non-linearity). Due to the large number of load combinations, from a
computational standpoint it was not practical to develop combined models of the
fabric and steel systems. The fabric analysis was performed by Birdair using
proprietary finite element software for load conditions specified by the structural
engineer and RWDI, the wind tunnel consultant. The fabric models developed
by Birdair were electronically mapped node-to-node to the conventional analysis
models developed by the structural engineer for steel and concrete design. Thus,
reactions generated in the fabric model became applied loads in the overall
analysis models. All load cases were generated electronically and transferred

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162 Griffis et al.

seamlessly between analysis programs. Independent global force balance checks
in each model provided confidence in the analysis methods for both Birdair and
the structural engineer.
CONCLUSIONS
The Astrodome set the standard for its time and so too will Reliant Stadium. Its
unique retractable roof and the incomparable fan amenities promise not only to
bring NFL football back to Houston in grand style, but also to create a new home
for the largest rodeo event in the world - all in an open air or fully enclosed air
conditioned environment. The total stadium structure utilized over 17,000 tons of
high strength structural steel, 160,000 cubic yards of concrete and 14,000 tons of
reinforcing steel. Its structural design utilized several unique features to make it
economical and affordable. The stadium will have been built within budget in
less than 30 months when it opens in the summer of 2002 for the first exhibition
football game, proving once again that Houston will have accomplished its goal
of setting the standard in stadiums- yet again!
REFERENCES
1. ACI 318-99, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, American

Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich.
2. "Design of Concrete Structures (CSA A23.3-94)," Canadian Standards

Association, Toronto, Canada, 199 pp.
3. Dilger, W.H. and Abele, G., "Initial and Time-Dependent Shear Deflections
of Reinforced Concrete T -Beams," Deflections of Concrete Structures, ACI SP
43-20, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1974, pp. 487-513.
4. ACI Committee 363, "State-of-the-Art Report on High Strength Concrete

(ACI 363R-92)," American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1992, 55
pp.
5. Poston, R.W.; Gilliam, T.E.; Yamamoto, Y.; and Breen, J.E., "Hollow
Concrete Bridge Pier Behavior," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 82, No. 6, Nov.-
Dec. 1985, pp. 779-787.
6. ACI Committee 349, "Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related

Concrete Structures (ACI 349-97)," American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Mich., 1997, 134 pp.
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7. Darwin, D. and Graham, E.K., "Effect of Deformation Height and Spacing on
Bond Strength of Reinforcing Bars," ACJ Structural Journal, V. 90, No. 6, Nov.-
Dec. 1993.
8. Portland Cement Association, "Massive Structural Concrete: Can't Keep it

Cool? Keep it Warm!," Concrete Technology Today, PCA, No. 1, March 1980,
pp. 1-2.
Table 1: Structural Model Properties
Model1 - Soft Supercolumn/Foundation for maximum midspan moment.

Controls slab design and bottom chord force.
Model 2 - Stiff Supercolumn/Foundation for maximum moment at Supercolumn.
Controls supercolumn, foundation, and steel members at supercolumn.
Model 3 - Soft Supercolumn/Foundation and Soft Slab.
Controls deflections and steel members at midspan at top chord.
Model1 Model2 Model3

El 0.5E,I 9 1.0E,I 9 0.5E,I 9
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Foundation EA.' 0.5E,Ag 1.0E,Ag 0.5EA
Soil Modulus 18-26 pci 75-115 pci 18-26 pci
10 ksi High Strength 2 0.35E',I 9 0.7E',I 9 0.35E',I 9
El
Concrete Solid Section EA_'·2 0.125E',Ag 0.25E',Ag 0.125E',Ag
Supercolumn
El 0.35E,I 9 0.7E,I 9 0.35E,I 9
6 ksi Hollow Section
EA. 0.125E,Ag 0.25EA 0.125E,Ag
E2 3
1.0E', 0.57E', 0.57E'/
10 ksi Composite Slab 228' from 228' from 210' from
Inflection Point
center center center
Notes:
1. Based on Dilger and Abele (3)
=
2. E for high strength concrete based on ACI 363-92 (4 ): E', 40,000*(f,)A0.5+1 ,000,000 psi
3. Minimum slab E based on moment-curvature and creep analysis of slab.

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164 Griffis et al.
Figure 1: Reliant Stadium
.
\ 2 SUPERTRUSSES: 984' TOTAL
\'"'"'~ ,_,., ~··~'~'
350' SPAN SCOREBOARD

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TRUSS AT EACH END

28 BARREL ROOF TRUSSES
EACH SIDE OF STADIUM
SUPERCOLUMN
~SUI'EI'tCO,LW~N MAT FOUNDATION:

155' X 86' X 8.5'
Figure 2: Reliant Stadium Roof Structural System

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SUPERTRUSS/SUPERCOLUMN MOMENTS
-------STIFF COLUMN/FOUNDATION
- - - SOFT COLUMN/FOUNDATION
- - - - - ROOF OPEN
Figure 3: Representative Supertruss/Supercolurnn Moment Diagrams
SUPERTRUSS CHORD AXIAL FORCES
SUPERCOLUMN MOMENT
COMPRESSION FORCE IN STEEL
~COMPRESSION FORCE IN SLAB
Figure 4: Supertruss Chord Axial Force Distribution

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166 --``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Griffis et al.
SUPERCOLUMN MOMENT SUPERCOLUMN

(810,500 KIP-FEET OR AXIAL FORCE
154 KIP-MILES MAX) (28,000 KIPS MAX)
\_ROUGHLY UNIFORM
CL MAT
PRESSURE UNDER
SUSTAINED DEAD LOAD
Figure 5: Foundation Mat Load Balancing

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SP-213-1 0
Composite RCS Space Frame Systems:

Previous and Current Studies
by J. M. Bracci, S. Powanusorn, and J.P. Steele
Synopsis: Composite reinforced concrete column-steel beam (RCS) frame systems

initiated in high-rise construction in the United States as perimeter moment framing
(tubular construction) due to the speed of erection, material cost savings, and enhanced
lateral load resistance and performance. An overview of traditional RCS frame
construction, advantages, previous research, and beam-column joint issues are presented.
Then, the idea of using this form of construction for three-dimensional space frames is
discussed and previous research on the performance of these systems for zones of high
seismic risk is summarized. In a collaborative effort with structural engineers, an
experimental and analytical investigation of composite RCS frame systems is proposed
for low- to mid-rise construction in areas prone to high-level wind storms and/or
moderate seismic risk. New beam-column joint connection details that are economically
feasible and constructable are presented. The preliminary results from the analytical
investigation on the proposed experimental specimen tests during lateral loading are also
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presented.
Keywords: beam-column joint; composite; constructability; frame
167
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168 Bracci et al.

Joseph M. Bracci is an Associate Professor in the Department of Civil
Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843-3136. He
received his PhD degree from the State University of New York at Buffalo. His
research interests include experimental testing, analytical modeling, and
performance-based design of structures under seismic loading.
Suraphong Powanusom is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Civil

Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843-3136. He
received his MS degree in Civil Engineering from the University of New South
Wales, Australia and his BS degree from Chulalongkom University, Thailand.
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His research interests include the shear behavior of reinforced concrete elements.
John P. Steele is a M.S. candidate in the Department of Civil Engineering at

Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843-3136. He received his BS
degree in Civil Engineering from Texas A&M University. His research interests
include the experimental behavior of composite RCS frame systems.
INTRODUCTION
Composite RCS frame systems typically consist of reinforced concrete (RC)

columns, which usually have a small embedded steel !-shape for erection
purposes, and structural steel beams (1 ). Historically in the United States, this
type of structural system has been used for high-rise building construction in
zones of low-to-moderate seismic risk (2). Composite moment frames are used
along the building exterior to develop perimeter tube framing that resists lateral
loading, primarily due to wind. Significant material cost savings can be achieved
using columns of reinforced concrete versus structural steel. The concrete
columns also result in an increased inherent structural damping that leads to
enhanced dynamic performance during wind loading. In addition, a significant
increase in lateral stiffness is achieved using concrete columns compared to steel
columns of equivalent flexural strength. Since high-rise building design is often
governed by deflections during wind loading, the additional column stiffness is
beneficial for resisting lateral loads.
In terms of constructability, RCS frame systems can be built using a rapid

construction process by allowing a vertical spread of construction activities so
that multiple trades can work simultaneously (3). Four-to-six stories of structural
steel framing can be constructed ahead of the RC metal deck floor construction,
which is ahead of the RC column construction. As a ten-to-twelve story
construction cycle continually moves upward, multiple repetitions of column
formwork, material, and labor can be utilized. Steel erection columns are

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designed primarily for gravity loading during story construction. To erect the
structural steel framing, erection columns are fillet welded in the shop both above
and below the beams for two stories to form two-story column trees that are
bolted in the field at beam mid-spans and alternate story mid-heights. In the
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orthogonal direction, when necessary, beams are bolted into the joint regions to
create simple connections that resist only gravity loading. Also, structural steel
columns are normally used in the interior of the structure to resist only gravity
loading.
Composite RCS frame construction has structural steel beams that pass through
RC columns, and therefore do not require full penetration welding in critical
beam-column joint locations. Welding in beam-column joint regions, as in steel
special moment resisting frame (SMRF) systems, can result in significant damage
and brittle behavior in joint connections as observed in the Northridge and Kobe
earthquakes. RCS frame systems inherently do not require such qifficult field
welded connections since the steel beams are continuous through the joint
regions. The small steel erection columns that are fillet welded above and below
the beam are not in critical hinge locations since they are later encased in a much
larger RC column which resists the majority of the seismically induced forces.
Therefore, the main performance issue in RCS construction is related to the beam-
column joint region and the appropriate joint detailing for strength and
deformability. In an attempt to identify the in-plane behavior of such composite
beam-column joints, two-third scale cruciform shaped specimens, consisting of a
steel beam passing through a RC column, were tested under both inelastic
monotonic and cyclic loading conditions at The University of Texas at Austin (4)
and (5). Joint failure modes were identified as joint panel shear and concrete
vertical bearing failures (see Fig. I). Various beam-column joint detailing
arrangements were considered to improve joint behavior such as: (a) face bearing
plates (FBP) to mobilize the concrete strut within the inner panel joint region in
resisting shear demands; (b) vertical joint reinforcement to increase the vertical
bearing capacity of the concrete above and below the steel beam within the joint;
(c) joint transverse reinforcement to enhance the outer panel zone regions of the
joint in resisting shear forces; and (d) band plates to mobilize more of the outer
panel zone and confine the concrete above and below the beams within the joint
for enhanced bearing strength (see Fig. 2 and for more details refer to (4) and (5)).
Based on this work, a task committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers
(6) produced a guideline for designing composite joints between steel beams and
either RC or composite steel-concrete columns. Kanno (7) extended this research
by investigating the behavior of similar composite beam-column joints during
inelastic reversed cyclic loading, considering various factors such as
subassemblage failure modes, joint failure modes, joint detailing, column axial
load, concrete strength, and concrete bearing strength of the column and joint.
This study (7) demonstrated that composite beam-column joints can be detailed
such that their performance during seismic loading can be comparable to those of
seismically designed steel and RC beam-column joints.

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170 Bracci et al.

RCS SPACE FRAME SYSTEMS
Previous Research
For space frame construction, both interior and exterior frames participate in
resisting lateral loading in two orthogonal directions. For zones of high seismic
risk, space frame construction can be designed to provide a significant degree of
structural redundancy to ensure adequate performance during earthquake
excitations. Therefore, a research program was conducted at Texas A&M
University (8, 9) to evaluate the seismic behavior of composite RCS space frame
systems. At the beam-column joint regions, the steel beam in one framing
direction was continuous through the joint and in the other framing direction was
bolted to the joint for bi-directionallateralload resistance. The structural system
was intended for application in zones of moderate-to-high seismic risk for low-to-
mid rise construction. The experimental and analytical research program was
specifically designed to be part of the National Science Foundation US-Japan
Cooperative Research Program on Composite and Hybrid Construction - Phase 5
( 1).
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The experimental portion of the research program (8, 9) consisted of performing

quasi-static reversed cyclic load tests on six two-thirds scale cruciform specimens.
Three-dimensional specimens resembling interior beam-column-slab joint
connections were varied only by their joint detailing configuration. The first two
specimens were designed using beam-column joint detailing that was similar to
current U.S. industry practice in RCS perimeter framing construction for high-rise
buildings. However, beams that were not continuous through the joint regions
were connected using only a shear tab and seat angle arrangement for moment
resistance in this lateral load framing direction. In addition, shear studs to
promote composite beam-slab behavior were provided in both framing directions.
Face bearing plates (FBP, full depth beam stiffener) in the beams near the column
face were also included for joint shear resistance per past practice and research.
Two specimens (#1 and #2) were intentionally designed to develop joint failure
mechanisms per previous research (joint panel shear and vertical bearing
mechanisms). There were noteworthy construction difficulties with these two
specimens due to overlapping cross-ties that passed through holes in the beam
webs in the joint region. Two additional specimens (#3 and #4) were designed to
increase the joint strength and ease constructability concerns. Band plates were
added above and below the beams around the column perimeter to increase the
joint vertical bearing strength by providing confinement to the concrete in the
critical bearing zones. In addition, confinement of the concrete within the joint
region was achieved through the use of joint plates within the beam depth and
around the joint perimeter, avoiding the tedious detailing of transverse
reinforcement in the joint region. Specimen #3 had joint plates that were bent at
90 degrees and field welded to the FBPs at the column face to form a square joint

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region with the same dimensions as the column. Specimen #4 had FBPs that were
located out from the column face to intentionally move the potential beam plastic
hinge region away from the joint. Flat joint plates were then field welded to the
FBPs at an angle of 45 degrees to the beam webs - forming an octagon-shaped
joint region encompassing the column. Specimen #5 was very similar in detail to
specimen #4 except some modifications were made to improve constructability
and seismic performance. Extended face bearing plates that were bent at 45
degrees (Bent FBP) were welded only to the beam webs, rather than to both the
beam web and flanges as in previous specimens. Flat plates were then fillet
welded to the Bent FBPs to encircle and confine an enlarged joint region. The
Bent FBPs were welded only to the beam webs in order to reduce bending stresses
in the Bent FBPs during beam bending (flange stresses). In addition to the shear
tab and seat angle connections, top angle connections were also used to provide
continuity of the top flanges of the discontinuous beams through the joint.
Specimen #6 had a discontinuous beam on only one side of the joint-simulating
an exterior connection detail. Otherwise it was identical to specimen #5.
Companion analytical simulations using macro-models in IDASS (1 0) were also

performed to correlate with the experimentally measured response. Moment-
rotation behavior in the composite beam-slab sections and also force-drift angle
behavior in the beam-column joint subassemblages were used to calibrate the
numerical element models. Based on the experimental response and analytical
simulations, design recommendations were developed for the composite beam-
slab sections and the beam-column joint regions. Using these design
recommendations, a prototype six-story RCS space frame system (consistent with
the US-Japan Program) was designed for Los Angeles, CA according to
International Building Code IBC-2000. A series of performance-based analytical
evaluations were then conducted on this prototype building using the calibrated
element models in IDASS and ground motions that were representative of varying
probabilistic earthquake intensities.
The major contribution from this research program was that composite RCS
moment resisting frame systems can be viable 3D space frame systems in terms of
earthquake resistance and constructability. The results from the experimental
testing program demonstrate that interior beam-column-slab joint subassemblies
can exhibit desirable beam hinging mechanisms in orthogonal lateral loading
directions with appropriate joint detailing. Design recommendations for
composite beam-slab sections were formulated for elastic stiffness and plastic
strength calculations based on the steel beam shape and the effective concrete slab
width. This project also demonstrated that the RC slab in composite metal
decking has a significant role in affecting the behavior of the beam-column joints.
Specimens that were intentionally designed to fail by joint panel shear
mechanisms had much higher joint strengths than extstmg design
recommendations suggest. This implied that the slab and transverse beams at
interior joint connections significantly enhance the effective joint widths by
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172 Bracci et al.

allowing more of the concrete within the joint to participate in resisting shear
force demands.
Current Research
The authors, along with practicing structural engineers, initiated an analytical and
experimental research program to identify appropriate joint detailing for RCS
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space frame systems in zones governed by wind loading and/or moderate seismic
excitations. In addition, the primary emphasis of the research program was to
utilize joint details that would further simplify constructability of these systems
and allow them to be cost competitive with traditional RC and structural steel
frame construction.
In terms of constructability, the steel erection columns were considered desirable

in that they allow for the rapid construction of the structural steel skeleton and are
used to consistently set floor elevations. Therefore, the current research program
is utilizing a similar construction approach as was previously presented. The
primary deviations are with detailing of the beam-column joint region. In the
previous study, the octagon-shaped joint region was successful in terms of seismic
performance. However, construction of the RC column and joint region was
somewhat difficult in that construction of the joint would require additional
formwork beyond the shape of the column. To eliminate this additional
formwork, steel cover plates, with the same overall dimensions as the column in
plan view and with the same depth as the beam, are provided in the beam-column
joint regions in the current research program. An overall schematic of the first
subassemblage of the experimental testing program is shown in Fig. 3. In one
framing direction, the steel beam is continuous through the joint region. In the
other direction, beams with shop welded cover plates are connected to the joint
using a shear tab and top and seat angle connections to ensure bi-directional
moment resistance. In the field, the cover plates are fillet welded to the
continuous beams. For the first specimen, the joint cover plates are only welded
to the web regions of the beam and are intentionally not welded to the beam
flanges. The philosophy, in terms of behavior, is to utilize the cover plates to
confine the entire core region of the concrete joint and thereby mobilize the entire
joint concrete in resisting shear panel distortions and vertical bearing
deformations. In addition, significant stresses from the beam flanges will not be
transferred to the cover plates, thereby avoiding significant torsional demands on
the cover plates. In terms of constructability, formwork in the joint is eliminated
since the cover plates can also be used a formwork.
An overview of the proposed experimental test setup is shown in Fig. 4. Loading

will be applied through actuators in a series of quasi-static reversed cyclic loading
to simulate both gravity and lateral loading. The columns ends are idealized as
pinned connections, the column has an applied axial load representative of actual

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conditions, and beam ends are displaced by actuators in simulated loading
scenarios including gravity loading, lateral loading in one direction, and bi-
directional loading. The experimental program is planned for completion by Fall
2002. Analytical predictions of specimen performance, as well as the
performance of the individual components, are presented in the next section.
PRELIMINARY FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF RCS

SUBASSEMBLAGES
To complement the experimental program, three-dimensional non-linear finite

elelment modeling (FEM) is used to estimate the overall behavior of the RCS
subassemblages and to study the behavior of the subassemblage components. The
primary goals of this study are to: (a) evaluate the effect of joint confinement by
means of face-bearing plates (FBP), cover plates welded to the beam web and
flanges, and cover plates welded only to the beam web; and (b) evaluate the effect
of the composite action between RC slab and steel beams on joint behavior.
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Work by Yonezawa and Noguchi (11) provided a general guideline for using
FEM to study RCS frame construction. Material non-linearity due to concrete
cracking and crushing, steel plasticity, and interface behavior between the
concrete and steel beams were the primary modeling issues addressed in this
work. A similar procedure is implemented in this study using the commercial
FEM package ANSYS, version 5.7. The following outlines the material models
used in this study:
• Concrete: 8-noded solid elements and equivalent uniaxial compressive stress

and strain as proposed by Collins and Mitchell (12). Prior to cracking, the
concrete is assumed to be elastic and isotropic. Whereas after cracking, the
concrete is assumed orthotropic. A five parameter failure surface, as proposed
by Willam and Warnke (13), is used to define crushing and cracking of
concrete. The effect of shear transfer across cracks is taken into account by a
partial retention factor of 0.5.
• Steel Beam and Plates: 4-noded quadrilateral shell elements. The constitutive
relationship for such elements are modeled as elastic-perfectly-plastic based
on Von Mises yield criterion.
• Steel Reinforcement: Bar elements capable of axial compression and tension,

and one-dimensional elastoplastic stress-strain relationship.
• Contact and Friction: Yonezawa and Noguchi (11) proposed a special link
model with slipping and opening relationships, established directly from
experimental test data, for the interface between the concrete and steel plates
in RCS construction. In this study, contact elements and a classical friction

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174 Bracci et al.

model based on Coulomb's friction law with the coefficient of friction of 0.4
are used to model the interaction between concrete and steel plates.
Theoretically, the concrete-steel interface in tension should carry not carry
any force. However to improve numerical stability and convergence of FEM
analysis, a partial factor of 0.1 is used as soft springs. No attempt is made to
model the slip between the reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete.
With varying joint details for the different levels of joint confinement, ten
analytical models of the cruciform subassemblage are analyzed and are shown in
Table l. Each model is designated by an alphanumeric system from Ml-MlO.
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Models Ml and M2 have joint cover plates and do not have transverse beams and
the slab. Model Ml has the cover plates welded to the beam web and flanges,
while Model M2 has the cover plates welded only to the beam web. Models M3-
M6 have added transverse beams, in comparison with Models Ml and M2, with
varying joint details. Model M3 represents a specimen without any joint detailing.
Model M4 has FBPs, whereas models M5 and M6 have cover plates, one welded
to the beam web and flanges, and the other welded to only the beam web,
respectively. Models M7-M10 include the modeling of the RC slab and have
respective joint detailing as models M3-M6. Incremental displacement control
loading is applied analytically until numerical instability in the model occurred.
PRELIMINARY FEM RESULTS
Fig. 5 shows the overall actuator force-displacement diagram for models Ml-
MlO, both without (models 1-6) and with the RC slab (models 7-10). Results
show that the RC slab significantly enhanced both the negative and positive
strengths of RCS the subassemblage. For models Ml-M6, with exception of M3
that has no special joint details, the ultimate strength of the subassemblage is
approximately equal to the load causing plasticity in the entire Wl6X31 beam
section. Note that this deformation level does not correspond to failure, but rather
to the point were instability of the numerical solution occurred. This was
expected since the steel plates were modeled using the elastic-perfectly-plastic
constitutive relationship. Models M7-Ml0, with the added RC slab, have
consistently higher strengths than Models Ml-M6. Separate hand calculations
based on the simplified laws of mechanics were performed to estimate the
ultimate strength of bare steel beam and composite beam-RC slab sections per
ACI 318-99 and AISC-LRFD (1993). It was found that the FEM results give
ultimate load levels for the models M4-M6 and M8-Ml0 that were approximately
equal to the ultimate strength of the respective beam sections.
The confinement effect on joint strength by special detailing can be observed

through models M3-M6 and M7-Ml0. Models M3 and M7 with no special joint
detailing have less strength than the other models in the same group. Bugeja et al.
(9) presented a physical model of the moment frame subassemblage and showed

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that the contributing components of the overall vertical deformation imposed at
the two ends of the subassemblage can be attributed to the column, beam, and
joint deformations as shown in Fig. 6. Based on this physical model, the FEM
results were used to extract the deformation contributions of the three
components. Results for Models M7 and MlO are compared in Fig. 7. The figure
shows that joint detailing has a significant impact on enhancing the performance
of RCS joints through confinement effect. Confinement improves the joint
strength, as well as the stiffness, and forces the failure mechanism into the beams.
The figure also shows that considerable deformation is evident in such frame
systems.
As generally accepted for design (6), the shear strength of RCS beam-column
joints comes from 3 components (see Fig. 2): (a) steel beam web; (b) inner
concrete strut; and (c) outer concrete strut. Investigations on the principal
compressive stresses in the joint region, as shown in Fig. 8, show that joint
confinement enhances the contributions from the inner and outer concrete struts
as the width of the concrete strut increases.
This research program focuses on improved performance and constructibility of

RCS joints. It is believed that the welding of cover plates to the flanges of the
beam can increase the cover plate stresses because the large flange forces must be
transferred to the cover plate through torsion. Fig. 9 shows the principal tensile
and compressive stresses in cover plates for Models 9 and 10. The results show
that Models 9 and 10 have similar stress patterns. However, Model M9 shows
larger stress concentrations and an irregular pattern of plate distortion where it is
welded to the flange.
These preliminary results are being used to predict the experimental behavior of
the overall subassemblage specimen and that of the individual components.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
These results will be compared to the measured experimental behavior. At the

time, analytical models will be calibrated for more accurate predictions of
specimen behavior.
CONCLUSIONS
Composite RCS frame systems can be economically feasible and desired

structurally in high-rise construction as perimeter moment framing. Previous and
current research is aimed at evaluating construction practices for space frame
construction that may be more appealing for low- to mid-rise construction. The
current effort, in collaboration with structural engineers, attempts to address the
performance and constructability aspects of RCS space frame construction for
areas prone to high-level wind storms and/or moderate intensity seismic events.
New beam-column joint connection details that are economically feasible and
constructable are being validated analytically and experimentally. The

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176 Bracci et al.

preliminary results from the analytical investigation show that desired structural
performance can be achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The research reported in this paper was financed by National Science Foundation
(Grants No. CMS-9632442 and CMS-9733959 through Dr. S. C. Liu) and the
Department of Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University. These supports are
gratefully acknowledged. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the
writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
REFERENCES
(1) U.S.-Japan Planning Groups-Joint Planning Workshop,

"Recommendations for U.S.-Japan Cooperative Research Program-
Phase 5 Composite and Hybrid Structures," Technical Report No. UMCEE
92-29, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1992, 66 pp.
(2) Viest, I.M., Colaco, J.P., Furlong, R.W., Griffis, L.G., Leon, R.T., and
Wyllie, L.A., Composite construction design for buildings, American
Society of Civil Engineers/McGraw Hill, New York, 1997, 394 pp.
(3) Griffis, L.G., "Some Design Considerations for Composite-Frame

Structures," AJSC/Engineering Journal, Second Quarter, 1986, pp. 59-64.
(4) Sheikh, T.M., Deierlein, G.G., Yura, J.A., and Jirsa, J.O., "Beam-Column
Moment Connections for Composite Frames: Part 1," Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 11, 1989, pp. 2858-2876.
(5) Deierlein, G.G., Sheikh, T.M., Yura, J.A., and Jirsa, J.O., "Beam-Column
Moment Connections for Composite Frames: Part 2," Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 11, 1989, pp. 2877-2896.
(6) ASCE Task Committee on Design Criteria for Composite Structures in

Steel and Concrete, "Guidelines for Design of Joints between Steel Beams
and Reinforced Concrete Columns," Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 120, No.8, 1994, pp. 2330-2357.
(7) Kanno, R., "Strength, Deformation, and Seismic Resistance of Joints

between Steel Beams and Reinforced Concrete Columns," Ph.D.
Dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, 1993, 617 pp.

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--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(8) Bracci, J.M., Moore, W.P., and Bugeja, M.N., "Seismic Design and
Constructability of RCS Special Moment Resisting Frames," Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No.8, 1999, pp. 385-392.
(9) Bujega, M.N., Bracci, J.M., and Moore, W.P., "Seismic Behavior of
Composite RCS Frame Systems," Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 126, No.4, 2000, pp. 429-436.
(10) Kunnath, S.K., "Enhancements to the Program IDARC: Modeling the

Behavior of Welded Connections in Steel Moment Resisting Frames,"
Report No. NIST GCR 95-673, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1995.
(11) Yonezawa, K. and Noguchi, H., "Analytical Study on the Shear

Performance of Beam-Column Connections in Hybrid Structures with RC
Columns and Steel Beams," Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute,
Vol.l6, 1994, pp. 257-264.
(12) Collins, M.P. and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures. Prentice-
Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1991, pp. 766.
(13) Willam, K. J. and Warnke, E. P., "Constitutive Model for the Triaxial
Behavior of Concrete," Proceedings of the International Associations for
Bridges and Structural Engineering, IABSE, Vol. 19, Paper III-1, 1975
TABLE 1. Different Joint Details for FEM Parametric Studies
Model Cross Slab FBP Cover Plates

Beam Welded to Welded to
Web & Flanges Web Only
Ml - - - X -
M2 - - - - X
M3 X - - - -
M4 X - X - -
M5 X - - X -
M6 X - - - X
M7 X X - - -
M8 X X X - -
M9 X X - X -
MlO X X - - X

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178 Bracci et al.

~
<4-
Vertical Joint
Re 1nforceme'lt
____. ____.
'-....._-A ~
Panel Shear Failure Vert1cal Beanng Fa1lure

Figure 1. Joint Failure Modes
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(a) Steel Beam Web
I
(b) Inner Concrete Strut
I
(c) Outer Concrete Strut
Figure 2. Components of Joint Shear Resistance

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24'x24'
RC COLUMN
\41TH EMBEDDED
I-SHAPE
6' RC SLAB
IN COMPOSITE
DECK ( p = 5:1.)
\4l6x35
FRAMING
BEAMS
CONFINEMENT
PLATES
FLOOR-----"
BEAMS
Figure 3. Experimental Specimen Schematic

--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- - - - REACTION
FRAMES <TYP)
Figure 4. Experimental Test Setup

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180 Bracci et al.

40
30
20
,-._
"'
p.. 10
g
Q) 0
1
~ _I
--+-Model I
-10 1 -+- Model2
1
-20 -r-Model3
I .,...Model4
-30 -+-ModelS
1 ...... Model6
-40
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Displacement (in.)
(a) Models Ml to M6 (w/o slab)
100
80
60
40
~ 20
:.i2
1)' 0
~
0-20 .I.
I
~Model7
""' -40 -ModelS
-60
I __._Mode19
-80 I
-*"""ModeiiO
-100
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Displacement (in.)
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(b) Models M7 to MlO (w/slab)

Figure 5. Overall Actuator Force-Displacement Response

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r
,_
Column
Joint Bum
Figure 6. Components of Overall Subassemblage Response
100,------,------.-----~------~
I I I I I
80
I I
--------.---------)- ________ ,_________ ,________
I I I
·---------
1 I I I
60
40 ------------ -·-
---- ' - ------ -·
~ 20 - - - - - - - - '- - - - - - - - -·-' - -------
'
---- -,-------- -,---------
' '
g 0 '
' ' '
~ -20 '
--------~-----
'
-40 ________ ,_________ , ' ' ------- -M-Total
- -:-------- -:-
' '
-60 ------- - ,_ - --- --:- --- -- - _;_- __ ---- _; ________ -+-Beam
• : : _._Colunm
-80 ---------------:-------- -:---------:-------- -+-Joint
I I I I
-100+-~~~~~~-T~~~-r~~~,-~~--r-~~~
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Total Displacement(in.)
(a) Model M7 (without RC Slab)

--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
100 -.------.-----.----- - - - - - - , - - - - - - . - - - - - , - - - - - - ,
'
'
80 --------~--------~--------~--------~-------- --------
', : ~':..4!11lt!J'*'IIC"'
60 --------(--------+--------
'
40 --------,--------
' (
' --------
';;;'
]' 20 --------r--------~-------- ------~--------~--------
';5 ' ' ' '

' -------- '
~
0 --------~---------1 - - - - - - - -L. - - - - - - - - '- - - - - - - - -
' ' ' '
' ' ' '
-20 -------- ' --------: ---- -r-'-~-~1
, ~Total
-40 --------~-------- ' -.-seam

--It-Column
-60
-80
-3 -2 -I 0 2 3
Total Displacement(in.)
(b) Model MlO (with RC Slab)
Figure 7. Component Response for Models M7 and MlO

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182 Bracci et al.
(a) No Joint Details (b) w/ FBP (c) w/ cover plates
(a) Model without the RC Slab
(a) No Joint Details (b) w/ FBP (c) w/ cover plates
(b) Models with the RC Slab
Figure 8. Concrete Stress Patterns within the Joint
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(a) Principal Compressive Stresses- M9 (welded to beam web and flanges)
(b) Principal Tensile Stresses- M9 (welded to beam web and flanges)
(c) Principal Compressive Stresses- MlO (welded to the beam web only)
(d) Principal Tensile Stresses- MlO (welded to beam web only)

Figure 9. Principal Compressive and Tensile Stresses in Cover Plates
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184 --``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bracci et al.

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SP-213-11
Finite Element Analysis of

Composite Steel-Concrete Columns
by S. A. Mirza and E. A. Lacroix
Synopsis: A finite element analysis of strength determined from 150 physical tests of
rectangular composite steel-concrete columns taken from the published literature was
undertaken. The columns used for this study were braced and pin-ended and were
constructed using normal strength concrete with a specified compressive strength
between approximately 2500 and 8100 psi (17.2 and 55.8 MPa). The columns were
subjected to short-term loads producing pure axial force, combined axial force and
symmetrical single curvature bending, or pure bending. Major variables included the
concrete strength, the end eccentricity ratio, the slenderness ratio, the structural steel
index, and the tie/hoop volumetric ratio. The study provides a critical review of the
reliability of the finite element modeling method examined.
Keywords: columns; composite construction; concrete;

finite element analysis; reliability; steel; strength; tests
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
185
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186 Mirza and Lacroix

S. Ali Mirza, FACI, is a professor of civil engineering at Lakehead University,
Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. A recipient of the ACI Raymond C. Reese
Structural Research Award, Dr. Mirza is a member and past chair of joint ACI-
ASCE Committee 441, Reinforced Concrete Columns, and is a member of ACI
Committees 335, Composite and Hybrid Structures.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Edward A. Lacroix is a project engineer with Walters Inc., Hamilton, Ontario,

Canada. He received his M.Sc. from the University of Manitoba. He specializes
in finite element modeling of reinforced concrete and composite steel-concrete
structures.
INTRODUCTION
During the past 10 to 15 years, finite element modeling (FEM) software has
become more readily available and its use by design engineers has been steadily
increasing. Presently, there are several FEM programs that are able to model the
reinforced concrete column behavior and strength. In an attempt to examine the
applicability of FEM in predicting the strength of composite columns, the results
of a nonlinear FEM software (ABAQUS 1994a, 1994b) were compared with 150
physical tests taken from eight investigations reported in the literature. The study
included only those tests for which the complete information required for FEM
analysis was available from the published data, as no new physical tests were
conducted as part of this study.
The physical tests included in this study were conducted on rectangular tied
composite columns in which steel sections are encased in concrete. The columns
were braced and pin-ended and were constructed using normal density normal
strength concrete with a compressive strength between approximately 2500 and
8100 psi (17.2 and 55.8 MPa). The columns were subjected to short-term loads
producing pure axial force, combined axial force and symmetrical single
curvature bending, or pure bending. The columns used in this investigation are
graphically represented in Fig. 1.
Major variables investigated in this study include the concrete strength f' c, the
end eccentricity ratio e/h, the slenderness ratio Q/h, the structural steel index
Pssfysslf' c, and the transverse reinforcement (tie/hoop) volumetric ratio p ", where
e = eccentricity of the axial load at column ends; h = overall depth of the flexural
rigidity area taken perpendicular to the axis of bending; Q = length of the column;
fyss = yield strength of structural steel; and Pss = ratio of the cross sectional area
of structural steel to the gross flexural rigidity area (structural steel ratio). Based
on statistical analyses of the ratios of tested to computed FEM strengths (strength
ratios), evaluations of major variables affecting the strength were conducted.
These evaluations, plus the comparisons of tested and computed strengths,
provide an insight for critical review of the variability and other statistics related

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to the FEM method examined and are presented and discussed in this paper. The
results of the study are limited to normal strength concrete.
The strength comparisons and statistical evaluations presented in this paper

provide guidance for the reliability of the FEM method used for computing the
strength of composite steel-concrete columns. These comparisons and
evaluations will be useful to structural designers of such columns.
SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL TESTS
The experimental data used for this study were taken from short-term physical
tests reported by Anslijn and Janss (1974), Morino et a!. ( 1984), Procter (1967),
Roderick and Loke (1974), Roik and Mangerig (1987), Roik and
Schwalbenhofer (1988), Stevens (1965), and Suzuki et a!. (1984 ). These tests
were conducted on rectangular composite column specimens in which steel
sections are encased in concrete. Of 150 specimens used in this study, 58 were
subjected to pure axial load, 76 were subjected to axial load combined with
symmetrical single curvature bending, and 16 were subjected to pure bending.
The failure strength of a test column specimen was defined as the peak strength
reached on the load-deflection or moment-deflection response. The geometric
and material properties of the test specimens are summarized in Table I and
cover large ranges of the column cross section size, f' c, e/h, Q/h, fyss, fyr, Pss, Prs,
and p ", where fyr = yield strength of reinforcing bars; and Prs = ratio of cross
sectional area of longitudinal reinforcing bars to the gross flexural rigidity area
(longitudinal reinforcement ratio). This helped to examine the effects of
different variables on the strength of composite steel-concrete columns.
In this study, the concrete strength f' c was defined as the strength obtained from
the standard (6-in. (150-mm) diameter by 12-in. (300-mm) high) cylinder tests or
as the equivalent standard cylinder strength computed from cube tests. For some
of the physical tests, the cube instead of cylinder test strengths were reported.
However, it was not clear from the reported data whether the cubes were loaded
parallel or perpendicular to the direction of casting. In such cases, the reported
strengths were converted to the equivalent standard cylinder strengths by
employing the following procedure. Eq. 1 was used to first convert the strength
of a cube of a given size to the strength of a 4-in. (100-mm) cube and then to
convert the strength of the 4 in. (100-mm) cube to the strength of a 6-in. (150-
mm)cube:
f ~f 0 [ 058+ 042[ v,? JY,] (1)
in which fo and V0 are the concrete strength and volume of a 4-in. (100-mm)
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cube; and f and v represent the concrete strength and volume of the cube of a
given size. Eq. 1, which is based on the statistical theory of brittle fracture of
solids, was first presented by Bolotin (1969) and is also documented by Mirza et
al. ( 1979). Once the strength of an equivalent 6-in. (150-mm) concrete cube was
obtained, it was converted to the equivalent standard cylinder strength by using
Eq. 2 proposed by L 'Hermite (1955):
(2)
in which feu is the strength of a 6-in (150-mm) cube. For SI units, replace 2840
psi with 19.6 MPa.
The longitudinal reinforcing and structural steel yield strengths (fyr and fyss) were
taken as those reported for bar and coupon sample tests in individual studies
available from the literature. The transverse reinforcement yield strengths were
not reported for the majority of tests examined. In those instances, the yield
strength of transverse reinforcement was assumed to be equal to the yield
strength of the longitudinal reinforcing bars.
DESCRIPTION OF FEM METHOD
The FEM for strengths and load-deflection responses (moment-deflection

responses for cases of pure bending) of test columns was carried out by using a
nonlinear FEM software (ABAQUS 1994a, 1994b). The software was capable
of performing static second-order strength analysis involving both material and
geometric nonlinearities. No understrength and/or material resistance factors
were applied to computed strengths and load-deflection (or moment-deflection)
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
responses. The computed FEM strengths, therefore, represent the unfactored

strengths in this study.
The FEM software included an extensive library of predefined rebar elements

and three-dimensional beam (space) sections that were used. This greatly
simplified the data input required to model the composite cross section. A
composite steel-concrete cross section was assumed to consist of four different
materials, each represented by a different stress-strain curve. These materials
include the unconfined concrete outside the transverse tie reinforcement, the
partially-confined concrete within the transverse ties, the longitudinal reinforcing
steel bars, and the structural steel section, as indicated in Figs. 2. The
unconfined concrete was modeled by using a "thin-walled" box beam section
with the inner wall of the box beam section coinciding with the centerline of the
transverse tie reinforcement. The partially-confined concrete was modeled by
using a rectangular beam section with the outer edge of the rectangular beam
section coinciding with the centerline of the transverse tie reinforcement and the
inner edge of the box beam section. The longitudinal reinforcing bars were

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modeled by superimposing bar elements within the rectangular beam section
mesh. The structural steel section was modeled by using an 1-beam section.
Two different orientations of the I-beam section were used to model the major
and minor axis bending problems. These beam sections and bar elements were
superimposed at common node points in order to fully define the column cross
section, as illustrated in Fig. 2(e). The FEM software numerically integrated the
cross section to obtain the generalized force/moment-strain/curvature
relationships. As the integration points are used to discretize a beam section and
to define its mesh for numerical computations, an increase in integration points
leads to a denser mesh, resulting in a more accurate solution but a higher
computational time. For this study, the number of integration points was
increased substantially from the software default condition. The locations and
number of integration points used are shown in Fig. 3 for the four materials noted
above.
The modeling of a composite steel-concrete column (member) was accomplished

by using a predefined three-dimensional three-node beam (space) element. The
length of the column was divided into a number of segments, each representing a
beam element. Each beam element was connected to adjacent elements at the
two outer (common) node points. The central node point of the element was
generated and used for integration purposes by the software. A discretized
column subjected to symmetrical single curvature bending is illustrated in Fig.
4(a). However, for the purpose of analysis, the symmetry about the midlength
permitted the use of an equivalent "cantilever" column that was one-half the
length of the original column, as illustrated in Fig. 4(b ), leading to a substantial
saving in computational time. The boundary conditions at the top node of the
column restrain movements along the x and z axes and rotation about the y axis,
whereas those at the bottom node of the column restrain movements along the x,
y, and z axes and rotation about the y axis (Fig. 4(a)). The node at the column
midlength is restrained from movements along and rotations about the y and z
axes (Fig. 4(b)). These restraints modeled the boundary conditions used in
physical tests of column specimens analyzed in this study. To prevent the
localization of element curvature, the finite element length was taken equal to or
slightly greater than the overall depth of the cross section in the plane of bending,
as indicated in Fig. 4(c). A column was loaded by introducing a small applied
axial load and/or a small bending moment at the top node (Fig. 4(b)), reflecting
the end eccentricity used in the physical test of the column specimen. The
applied axial load and/or bending moment were then increased in increments of
constant proportions, using a second-order analysis procedure, until failure
occurred. The FEM failure strength of a column was defined as the peak
strength reached on the moment-deflection response curve when the column was
subjected to pure bending and as the peak strength reached on the load-deflection
response curve when the column was subjected to pure axial force or axial force
combined with bending moment. For the analysis of columns subjected to pure
axial load, an imperfection was added to the initially straight element model in
order to ensure a smooth transition from column stability to column instability.
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This is due to the fact that a perfectly straight column subjected to pure axial load
remains straight until the critical load is reached and then buckles suddenly. The
large deflections associated with this sudden buckling could not be properly
captured using the FEM software. In this study, the initial imperfection in pure
compression members was introduced by applying a total transverse load equal
to one percent of the self-weight of the column distributed uniformly over the
entire column length.
The elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain curves defined by measured values of

yield strength and modulus of elasticity were used for structural steel section and
reinforcing steel bars. These values of yield strength and modulus of elasticity
were reported in individual studies taken from the literature. The local buckling
of the longitudinal reinforcing steel bars was not considered in the FEM analysis
since it was not clear from the published data whether such a failure occurred in
the reported column tests used for this study. Hence, the local buckling of the
longitudinal reinforcing bars was assumed to be resisted by the transverse tie
reinforcement and the concrete inside the transverse ties. Note that if the local
buckling of the longitudinal reinforcing bars were included in the analysis, the
computed strengths would be lower for some of the column tests, resulting in
slightly higher (better) average strength ratios than those reported in the later part
of this paper. The descriptions of both the unconfined and the partially-confined
concretes in compression outside and inside the lateral ties, respectively, were
taken from Park et a!. (1982 ), as illustrated schematically by the stress-strain
curves in Figs. 5(a) and (b). The ascending parts up to the peak stress and the
descending parts beyond the peak stress in these curves are represented by
second-order parabolas and straight lines, respectively. Note that Eu in Fig. 5(a)
is the ultimate compressive strain of unconfined concrete; and K in Fig. 5(b) is a
factor that represents the degree of concrete confinement provided by lateral ties.
The concrete tensile stress-strain relationship used for the FEM of cross sections
was represented by a bilinear curve shown schematically in Fig. 5(c). The
ascending branch of this curve up to the peak stress was taken from Mirza and
MacGregor (1989) and the descending branch representing "tension softening"
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
after the cracking of concrete was taken from Bazant and Oh (1984). In Fig.
5(c), E ro is the strain where the tensile strength of concrete equals zero; and E1 is
the tension softening modulus of concrete taken equal to 70Ec/(57+fr) psi
(0.48Ec/(0.39+fr) MPa). The compressive crushing and tensile cracking of
concrete were, therefore, modeled using the ultimate compressive strain Eu and
the descending parts of the stress-strain curves in Figs. 5(a)- (b) and the ultimate
tensile strain E fo and the descending part of the stress-strain curve in Fig. 5(c). In
an attempt to construct a finite element model as complete as feasible, physical
properties of concrete were modified to account for in-place conditions and rate
of loading effects. Hence, the compressive strength f" c, modulus of elasticity Ec,
and modulus of rupture fr used for concrete stress-strain curves in Fig. 5 were
computed from Eqs. 3-5:

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f~= 0.97f~[o.89(1+ 0.08log 10 (o.97f~/t))] (3)
E = 60,400~0.97f' [u6- o.08log (t)J (4)

c c 10
fr = 8.3~0.97f~[ 0.96( 1+ O.l1log 10 (8.3~0.97f~ It}) J (5)
in which f' c = compressive strength of standard cylinders (in psi) as tested or

computed from Eq. 2; and t =time (in seconds) taken by a column specimen to
reach its failure load. In Eqs. 3-5, the factor 0.97 represents the effect of in-situ
conditions, including the size effect and curing under laboratory controls, and the
term inside the square brackets represents the effect of rate of loading, as
documented by Mirza et al. (1979). For SI (MPa) conversion, multiply t by
0.0069 in Eq. 3; replace 60,400 by 5,015 in Eq. 4; and replace 8.3 by 0.69 and
multiply t by 0.0069 in Eq. 5. Further details are documented elsewhere
(Lacroix and Mirza 1998).
STRENGTH ANALYSES AND COMPARISONS
The strengths of 150 test specimens were calculated using the FEM procedure
described in the foregoing section. The tested strengths were divided by the
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
computed strengths to obtain the nondimensionalized strength ratios. These
strength ratios were used for statistical analyses and strength comparisons. Note
that the strength ratios reported in this study are based on unfactored computed
strengths.
Comparisons of Tested and Computed Strengths
The tested strengths are plotted against the FEM strengths in Fig. 6. The diagonal
(45°) line in the figure represents the line of equality. The strength ratio statistics
are also shown on the figure as is the histogram of the strength ratios in the inset
of the figure. A coefficient of variation of 0.17 for strength ratios of 150 tests
plotted in Fig. 6 indicates that the FEM procedure computes the column strength
with acceptable accuracy. However, an average strength ratio of 0.92 obtained
for the same tests is lower than 1.0 and is a consequence of the data from Anslijn
and Janss ( 1974) falling significantly below the line of equality, as indicated by
solid circles in Fig. 6. Of the 39 tests from Anslijn and Janss used in this study,
30 specimens were subjected to pure axial load, whereas the remaining 9 were
subjected to eccentric axial load with e/h < 0.2. Hence, the strength of these 39
specimens is susceptible to the concrete compressive strength. Anslijn and Janss
(1974) reported the strength of 4-in. (100-mm) concrete cubes and Eqs. 1 and 2
were used to obtain an equivalent standard cylinder strength from their data.
These equations are empirical and could have introduced some margin of error

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into the conversion to cylinder strength. Furthermore, accidental eccentricities
may have contributed to lower tested strengths for these columns. Note that
specimens tested by Anslijn and Janss were 9.4 in. x 9.4 in. (240 mm x 240 mm)
or 12.6 in. x 8.3 in (320 mm x 210 mm) in cross section and were reinforced with
very light transverse ties and longitudinal reinforcing bars (p "~ 0.002 and Prs <
0.008). If the data from Anslijn and Janss (1974) are excluded from the
statistical analysis, the coefficient of variation will decrease significantly from
0.17 to 0.13 and the average strength ratio will increase from 0.92 to 0.98, a
value close to unity. This is not surprising because the average strength ratio for
the 39 tests from Anslijn and Janss was computed as 0.75.
In an earlier study, Mirza and Lacroix (2002) reported an FEM analysis of

reinforced concrete columns. The cumulative frequency curve of strength ratios
taken from that study for 354 reinforced concrete columns is compared to the one
developed herein for 150 composite columns on a normal probability scale in
Fig. 7. It is interesting to note that the shapes of the cumulative frequency curves
plotted in Fig. 7 for the two sets of data are very similar. In fact, if the data for
composite columns taken from Aslijn and Janss (1974) are excluded from the
analysis, the two curves will lie almost on top of one another with an average
strength ratio of0.98 and coefficient ofvariation of0.13 in both cases. Figs. 6-7
and the foregoing discussion lead to the conclusion that the strength of composite
steel-concrete columns can be computed with reasonable accuracy using the
FEM procedure examined.
Effects of Major Variables
The effects of the end eccentricity ratio e/h, transverse reinforcement (tie/hoop)
volumetric ratio p", slenderness ratio Qlh, structural steel index Pssfysslf' c, and
concrete strength f' care shown in Figs. 8-12, respectively. Each of these figures
was plotted from the data for all 150 column tests and illustrates the strength
ratios computed from FEM. With the exception of the data taken from Anslijn
and Janss (1974), which are identified by solid circles, the strength ratios plotted
in Figs. 8-12 do not appear to be significantly affected by any of the variables
investigated. In fact, the data plotted from all studies other than Anslijn and
Janss are clustered almost equally on both sides of the line of equality (horizontal
line of unity) over the entire range of each of the variables examined. This is
expected as the variables studied were explicitly or implicitly included in the
FEM analysis. The reasons for the Anslijn and Janss data falling significantly
and consistently below the line of equality are given in the preceding section.
Based on Figs. 8-12, it is reasonable to conclude that ratios of tested to FEM
strengths are not affected by any of the variables examined in this study. This
conclusion is the same as that reached in an earlier study on reinforced concrete
columns (Mirza and Lacroix 2002).
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Strength Ratio Statistics for Usual Columns
ACI 318-02 (2002) Sections 10.11.5 and 10.16.5 limit the slenderness ratio Q/h of
pin-ended composite columns subjected to symmetrical single curvature bending,
the type of columns used in this study, to a maximum value of slightly less than
30 when such columns are designed using the ACI moment magnifier method.
Similarly, ACI 318-02 Section 2.1 limits the Q/h ratio of columns to a minimum
value exceeding 3. Furthermore, columns in building structures are rarely
subjected to pure axial force or pure bending; they are mostly subjected to
combined axial load and bending moment (Mirza and MacGregor 1982). Hence,
composite columns with 3 < Q/h < 30 and 0 < e/h < oo used in this study can be
considered as "usual" columns. Strength ratio statistics (average values and
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coefficients of variation) for the so-defined composite columns are given in
Table 2(a)-(c) and are grouped into those for columns subjected to bending about
(a) the major axis; (b) the minor axis; and (c) the major or minor axis of the steel
section core. A comparison of Table 2(a) and (b) clearly shows that strength
ratio statistics remain unaffected regardless of whether the composite columns
are subjected to the major axis bending or the minor axis bending. Overall
statistics for composite columns given in Table 2(c) were developed by
combining the data used for Table 2(a) and (b) and, as expected, are virtually the
same as those shown in Table 2(a) or (b).
Strength ratio statistics for reinforced concrete columns given in Table 2(d) are
reproduced from Mirza and Lacroix (2002). A comparison of Table 2 (c) and (d)
indicates that the average strength ratio for composite columns (0.96) is slightly
lower than that for reinforced concrete columns (1.00), whereas coefficients of
variation for the two types of columns are approximately the same. It should be
noted that, if the data from Anslijn and Janss (1974) are excluded from statistical
analysis, the average strength ratio for composite columns will increase to 0.98, a
value close to unity, and the coefficient of variation will decrease to 0. I 3. This is
expected for reasons described previously.
Table 2 and related discussion lead to following conclusions: (a) The FEM
procedure produces strength ratio statistics for composite columns that are
comparable to those for reinforced concrete columns; and (b) the average
strength ratio and coefficient of variation for usual composite columns can be
taken as 0.98 and 0. I 3, respectively.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Comparisons of physical test strengths of 150 rectangular composite columns

taken from the literature with the strengths of the same columns calculated from
an FEM procedure are presented in this paper. The columns examined were
made of steel sections encased in normal density normal strength concrete and
were tied, pin-ended, and subjected to short-term loads, producing pure axial
force, axial force combined with equal and opposite end bending moments, or

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pure bending moment.
These comparisons indicate that (a) the strength of composite columns can be
computed with reasonable accuracy using the FEM procedure examined; (b) the
ratios of computed to FEM strengths are not affected by any of the variables
investigated; and (c) the FEM procedure produces strength ratio statistics for
composite columns that are comparable to those reported in a recent study for
reinforced concrete columns.
NOTATION
A1 = area of cross section of tie/hoop bar

b = overall width of column cross section taken parallel to axis of bending
b 11
=outside width of ties/hoops
d II =outside depth of ties/hoops
Ec =modulus of elasticity of concrete
E1 =tension softening modulus of concrete
e =eccentricity of axial load at column ends (first-order eccentricity)
e/h =end eccentricity ratio
fc,ft =compressive, tensile stress of concrete that corresponds to given value
of strain
f' c =concrete strength from standard cylinder tests or equivalent standard
cylinder strength from cube tests
f c
11
=compressive strength of unconfined concrete used for FEM
feu =strength of 6 in. ( 150 mm) concrete cube
fo =strength of 4 in. (100 mm) concrete cube
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
fyr = yield strength of reinforcing steel bars
fyss =yield strength of structural steel
h =overall depth of column cross section taken perpendicular to axis of
bending
K = factor representing degree of concrete confinement provided by lateral
ties used for FEM
Q =column length
Q!h = slenderness ratio
Meal =bending moment strength of column (member) at axial load equal to Pu
n =number of test specimens
Pu =axial load strength
sh = spacing of transverse ties/hoops
t = testing time to failure, s
v0 =volume of4 in. (100 mm) concrete cube
Ec = strain in concrete
Efo =strain where tensile strength of concrete equals zero
Eo, E01 =compressive, tensile strain in concrete at peak stress, respectively
Eu =ultimate compressive strain of unconfined concrete
pll =tie/hoop volumetric ratio taken equal to 2(b 11 + d 11 )Ar!b 11 d" sh
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Prs = ratio of cross sectional area of longitudinal reinforcing bars to gross
area of cross section (longitudinal reinforcing steel ratio)
Pss =ratio of cross sectional area of structural steel section to gross area of
cross section (structural steel ratio)
Pssfysslf' c = structural steel index
REFERENCES
ABAQUS Version 5.4 Theory Manual, 1994a, Hibbitt, Karlsson, and Sorensen
Inc., Pawtucket, Rhode Island.
ABAQUS Version 5.4 User's Manual, 1994b, Hibbitt, Karlsson, and Sorensen
Inc., Pawtucket, Rhode Island.
ACI Committee 318, 2002, "Building Code Requirements for Structural

Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary (ACI 318R-02)," American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 443 pp.
Anslijn, R., and Janss, J., 1974, "Le Calcul des Charges Ultimes des Colonnes
Metalliques Enrobes de Beton," Rapport C.R.I.F., MT89, Brussels, Belgium.
Bazant, Z.P., and Oh, B.H., 1984, "Deformation of Progressively Cracking

Reinforced Concrete Beams." ACI Journal, V.81, No.3, May-June, pp. 268-278.
Bolotin V.V., 1969, "Statistical Methods in Structural Mechanics (translated by

S. Aroni)," Holden-Day Inc., San Francisco, California.
Lacroix, E.A., and Mirza, S.A., 1998, "Comparative Study of Strength Design
Methods for Rectangular Reinforced Concrete and Composite Steel-Concrete
Columns," Research Series Report No. CE-98-2, Lakehead University,
Department of Civil Engineering, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, 332 pp.
L'Hermite, R., 1955, "Idees Actuelles sur Ia Technologie du Beton," La

Documentation Technique du Batiment et des Travaux Publics, Paris, France,
242 pp.
Mirza, S.A., Hatzinikolas, M., and MacGregor, J.G., 1979, "Statistical

Descriptions of Strength of Concrete," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE,
V. 105, No. ST6, pp. 1021-1037.
Mirza, S.A., and Lacroix, E.A., 2002, "Comparative Study of Strength-

Computation Methods for Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Columns," ACI
Structural Journal, V. 99, No.4, July-Aug., pp. 399-410.

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Mirza, S.A., and MacGregor, J.G., 1982, "Probabilistic Study of Strength of
Reinforced Concrete Members," Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 9,
No. 3,pp. 431-448.
Mirza, S.A., and MacGregor J.G., 1989, "Slenderness and Strength Reliability of
Reinforced Concrete Columns." ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 4, July-Aug.,
pp. 428-438.
Morino, S., Matsui, C., and Watanabe, H., 1984, "Strength of Biaxially Loaded
SRC Columns," Composite and Mixed Construction, American Society of Civil
Engineers, pp. 241-253.
Park, R., Priestley, M.J.N., and Gill, W.D., 1982, "Ductility of Square-Confined
Concrete Columns," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 108, No. ST4,
pp. 929-950.
Procter, AN., 1967, "Full Size Tests Facilitate Derivation of Reliable Design
Methods," The Consulting Engineer, V. 31, No.8, pp. 54-60.
Roderick, J.W., and Loke, Y.O., 1974, "Pin-Ended Composite Columns Bent
about the Minor Axis," Report No. R-254, Sydney University Civil Engineering
Laboratory, Australia, 35 pp.
Roik, K., and Mangerig, 1., 1987, "Experimentelle Untersuchungen der

TragHihigkeit von einbetonierten Stahlprofil-stutzen unter desonderer
Berucksichtigung des Langzeit-verhaltens von Beton," Bericht zu Pl02,
Studiengesellschaft fiir Anwendungstechnik von Eisen und Stahl e.V.,
Dusseldorf, Germany, 83 pp.
Roik, K.H., and Schwalbenhofer, K., 1988, "Experimentelle Untersuchungen

zum p1astischen Verhalten van Verbundstutzen," Bericht zu Pl25,
Studiengesellschaft fiir Anwen-dungstechnik von Eisen und Stahl e.V.,
Dusseldorf, Germany, 196 pp.
Stevens, R.F ., 1965, "The Strength of Encased Stanchions," Research Paper 38,
National Building Studies, Ministry of Technology Building Station, London,
U.K., 39pp.
Suzuki, T., Takiguchi, K., Ichinose, T., and Okamoto, T., 1984, "Effects of Hoop
Reinforcement in Steel and Reinforced Concrete Composite Sections," Third
South Pacific Regional Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Wellington,
New Zealand, pp. 198-214.
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Table !-Summary of geometric and material properties of
composite column specimens used in this study*
Properties Minimum values Maximum values
bxh (in. x in.) 6.3 X 6.3 16.0 X 12.0
f' ,(psi) 2524 8093
e!h 0.00 1.06**
Qlh 2.0 28.9
fyss (psi) 32,928 113,686
fy,(psi) 31,910 60,919
Pss(%) 2.70 14.45
Prs (%) 0.00 3.14
p" (%) 0.00 2.91
* Number of specimens = 150. Note: 1 in. = 25.4 rnm; 1000

psi = 6.895 MPa.
** 16 specimens were tested under pure bending (e/h = "').
Table 2-Summary of strength ratio statistics for usual composite columns
Slenderness End Structural Longitudinal Tie/hoop Strength

ratio eccentricity steel reinforcement volumetric ratio
1/h ratio ratio ratio ratio statistics •
e/h Pss pffi p"
(a) Composite columns subjected to major axis bending (n = 30)
3.8-28.9 0.96(0.135)
(b) Composite columns subjected to minor axis bending (n = 46)
5.0-28.9 0.96(0.13 7)
(c) Composite columns subjected to major or minor axis bending (n = 76)
3.8-28.9 0.96(0.136)
(d) Reinforced concrete columns (n = 165)**
3.0-30.0 1.00(0.131)
*Statistics shown are average values (and coefficients of variation in

parentheses) of ratios of tested-to-computed FEM strengths.
**Results reproduced from Mirza and Lacroix (2002).
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Pu
A
\
\
\
! \
2 I
I
I
-+----
Am\
/
I
I
~ /
I
f',
1'-... I
(a) (b) (c)
'r
(d) (e)
Fig. 1-Type of composite steel-concrete columns studied:
(a) free-body diagram of pin-ended column in symmetrical single curvature;
(b) forces on column;
(c) bending moment diagram (M001 eP.);
(d) Section C-C for bending about major axis of steel section ; and
(e) Section C-C for bending about minor axis of steel section.
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0
<·> un...nllned eo..-
D +
(b) Partially Conffned
Concrete
r--~
I I (c) Rebar Elements
1.!_ _ _.!1
+
X II
(d) Structural Steel Section
[61 (e) Composite Steel-Concrete

Cross-Section
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Fig. 2-FEM of composite cross section.

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••••••••••••••• r.------;,
•• •••••••••••••
••••••••••••
•••••••••••••••
•••••••••••• I. .I
••• ••••••••••••••
••••••••••••
I
I
I
I
• •••••••••••••
•••••••••••••
••• ••••••••••••••
•••••••••••• I
I
I
I
••••••••••••••
•• •••••••••••••
•••••••••••• I. .I
•••••••••••••••• 1..!------~
(a) Box Beam (b) Rectangular (c) 1-Beam (d) Rebar

Section Beam Section Section Elements
Integration Points Integration Points lntegrotlon Points Integration Points

15 each woll 15 X 15 5 + 9 + 5 1 polnt/bor
Fig. 3-Location of integration points used for FEM of composite cross section.
Com•'f:~IJ'ritNode
)~----
... Finite Element
length
Jl.
I ,_h
Common Node
Point
(b) y (c)
h
z
)-.
(a)
Fig. 4--FEM of composite column:
(a) column in symmetrical single curvature bending;
(b) one-half length of column used for analysis; and
(c) finite element segment.
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fo
t"
0
(a)
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Kf~'
(b) I
I
I
Q.2Kf~' -----t-----3oo..-~
L----------+--------------~€0
. 2kf"
Eo=-o
Ec
(c)
Fig. 5-Schematic concrete stress-strain curves used for FEM: (a) unconfined concrete in
compression; (b) partially-confined concrete in compression; and (c) reinforced concrete
in tension.

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1~0~----------------------------~
-c
1200 --
~15
>-
'T
Q.
g10
(J.)
:;: 1000 g. 0
...
0 1!?
5
u.
(I) 0
Q.
-
:il 800
600
0.5 1 1.5 2
Strength Ratio
LJ c
2.5
0
0 0
o
°
0
o
Qrj.,-.:.
:'EJ)'•••:
Strength Ratio Statistics:
400 0
9r Ave. Value = 0.92
Coeff. ofVar. = 0.17
200 Maximum Value = 1.28
Minimum Value = 0.53
n = 150
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Computed Strength (kips or kip-in)
Fig. 6-Comparison of tested strengths with strengths computed from FEM
(1 kip= 4.448 kN; 1 kip-in 113 N.m).
1.9
0 1.7 1 Composite Columns (n • 150):

i= Ave Strength Ratio • 0.92
<( 1.5 Coeff of Variation • 0.17
ct: 2 Reinf Cone Columns (n • 354):
Ave Strength Ratio= 0.98
::J: 1.3
1- Coeff of Variation • 0.13
(.!)
z 1.1
LLI
ct: 0.9
1-
(/)
0.7
0.5
0.01 0.1 1 2 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 98 99 99.9 99.99
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (Percent)

Fig. ?-Comparison of strength ratio probability distribution of composite columns
plotted from data used in this study and that of reinforced concrete columns taken from
an earlier study (Mirza and Lacroix 2002).
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2.5 - r - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - ,
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 00
End Eccentricity Ratio

Fig. 8- Effect of end eccentricity ratio e/h on strength ratios (n = 150).
2.5
..
0
ca
0:::
2
-
.c 1.5
C)
-c
~
tn 1 I~
1::1
El
[]
8
t:l
g
~
0.5 . .
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Tie/Hoop Volumetric Ratio
Fig. 9-Effect of transverse reinforcement (tie/hoop) volumetric ratio p"
on strength ratios (n = 150).

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2.5
0 2
+:
/}.
-...
.s::. 1.5
en
-c
(1)
U) 1 CJ
g Cl
0
0
0.5 +----,.--L.-+--r----...,..--.,-----t
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Slenderness Ratio
Fig. 10-Effect of slenderness ratio ~/h on strength ratios (n = 150).
..
0
cu
0::
2
-...
.s::. 1.5
C)
-
c(1)
U) 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Structural Steel Index

Fig. 11-Effect of structural steel index p ss fyssIf' c on strength ratios (n = 150).
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2.5------------------
0.5 +------..~-........_...P._--..--....---1
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Concrete Strength (psi)
Fig. 12-Effect of concrete strength f' con strength ratios

(n = 150; 1000 psi 6.895 MPa).
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SP-213-12
Flexural Ductility of CFRP Strengthened

Concrete Beams-Experimental Investigation
by R. S. Aboutaha, P. Wattanadechachan, and S. H. Kim
Synopsis: The amount of tension reinforcing steel bars plays a major role in determining
the flexural ductility of reinforced concrete beams. The addition of Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composites, which is another form of tension reinforcement,
affects the ductility of concrete beams strengthened with CFRP sheets. Several
researches have investigated the use of CFRP for increasing the flexural strength of
concrete beams. However, the flexural ductility of beams with respect to the amount and
yield strength of existing ordinary steel bars has not been investigated in depth. In
addition, delamination of CFRP sheets dominates the ultimate mode of failure of flexural
members strengthened with CFRP sheets, which limits the ductility of strengthened
members. There is a need to investigate the effect of CFRP anchorage system on the
overall ductility of strengthened girders.
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of nine large-scale
reinforced concrete beams strengthened with CFRP composite sheets. The main
variables are the amount of the existing reinforcing steel bars, yield strength of steel bars,
and the type ofCFRP anchorage. The amount (size and type) of the longitudinal CFRP
sheets was maintained constant. Test results showed that the lower the amount of existing
ordinary steel bars the lower the flexural ductility of the CFRP strengthened beams. Test
results have also shown that CFRP anchorage could significantly increase the flexural
ductility of CFRP strengthened beams. Such important findings should be reflected on
the design equations of CFRP sheets required for strengthening existing reinforced
concrete beams to ensure an acceptable level of flexural ductility.
Keywords: bond; bridges; carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP);

CFRP anchorage; composite; concrete beams; ductility;
fiber reinforced polymer (FRP); flexural strength; strengthening
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207
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208 Aboutaha et al.

Riyad S. Aboutaha, FACJ, is an associate professor of civil engineering at
Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY. He is former chairman of ACI committee
335, Composite and Hybrid Systems, and is a member of ACI Committee 440
Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement. His research interests include
large-scale experimental investigation of innovative structural systems, and
bridge rehabilitation with FRPs.
Prapun Wattanadechachan, is a graduate research assistant in the

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Syracuse University.
His research interests include strengthening of concrete structures with fiber
reinforced polymer composites.
SangHun Kim, is a graduate research assistant in the Department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering at Syracuse University. His research interests
include strengthening of concrete structures with fiber reinforced polymer
composites, finite element analysis of structures, and bridge engineering.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete bridges in the United States (US) are deteriorating af an alarming

rate. In addition many bridges require upgrading due to increase in traffic
loads. Several strengthening systems have been used to strengthen US
concrete bridges, e.g. section enlargement, addition of bonded steel plates,
external post-tensioning, and addition of other structural elements.
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite systems are an excellent alternative
to conventional strengthening systems used for bridge retrofit. CFRP system
offers the following advantages: it does not corrode, light in weight, easy to
install, has high strength to weight ratio, and low maintenance cost.
Commercially available CFRP systems are produced in two main forms; cured
strips, pultruded, fabric, and carbon sheets. Figure 1 shows the installation of
CFRP cured strip, and Figure 2 shows testing of a concrete beam strengthened
with CFRP sheets. The CFRP sheets offer the advantage of continuous
application over 90 degree comers, e.g. external shear reinforcement
application.
The cost of CFRP systems is slightly high compared to most conventional

repair materials, however, the CFRP systems require less installation time, and
offer a lower maintenance cost. Being very light in weight, CFRP systems
require less manpower and installation equipment, which offsets the high cost
of the material. Considering the long-term maintenance cost of a bridge, it
becomes very apparent that the CFRP systems offer an excellent alternative to
conventional strengthening systems used for bridge retrofit.

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CFRP systems could be used for enhancing the performance of bridges under
service loads. They could also be used more effectively for increasing flexural
and/or shear strength of concrete bridges. Several researches have investigated
the use of CFRP systems for strengthening concrete bridge components 1•2•3,4.
Based on results of these research projects, it was found that CFRP systems are
very effective in flexural and shear strengthening concrete bridge components.
Several agencies and institutes have developed design guidelines for the use of
CFRP systems for bridge retrofit. The most popular design guideline is the
American Concrete Institute ACI 440F report 5 • Most of these design
guidelines adopt a model for estimating the flexural capacity of CFRP
strengthened concrete beams similar to the following
(I)
Where 'Pr = Additional reduction factor (0.85 is recommend by
ACI440)
d = Distance from the extreme compression fiber to the
center of tension steel bars.

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h = Total depth of the beam section
Ar = Total area of the FRP cross-section
frc = Effective Stress in the FRP sheet
c = Distance to neutral axis, which can be determined
from the following equation.
y and~~ =Parameters defining a rectangular stress block in the
concrete equivalent to the actual non-linear distribution
of stress.

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21 0 Aboutaha et al.
The stress in the steel bars .f, can be estimated from the strain
distribution diagram.
As shown above, the design model uses a reduction factor t¥ r of 0.85 because
the bond between CFRP systems and concrete is not as reliable as that of
ordinary steel bars, which results in a limited ductility. Bridges that require
structural strengthening by the use of CFRP systems are in need of
strengthening primarily due to lack of adequate tensile reinforcement.
Therefore, CFRP systems are introduced and bonded to the tension side of the
bridge girder. The current design guidelines do not reflect the effect of the
amount of existing steel bars on the ductility and response of CFRP
strengthened concrete beams.
This paper presents results of an experimental research that focuses on the

ductility of CFRP strengthened concrete beams. The main variables are the
amount of the existing reinforcing steel bars, yield strength of steel bars, and
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the type of CFRP anchorage. The amount (size and type) of the longitudinal
CFRP sheets was maintained constant.
Most of the current design equations do not reflect the effect of the amount of
existing steel bars on the ductility and response of CFRP strengthened concrete
beams. They also do not reflect the effect of CFRP end anchors on ductility,
while such anchors enhance ductility of CFRP strengthened members, and
prevent premature bond failure. The effect of the amount and yield strength of
steel bars, and the effect of CFRP diagonal anchors on the flexural response of
CFRP strengthened beams are presented in this paper.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH PROGRAM
To investigate the ductility of CFRP strengthened concrete beams, three groups

of beams were constructed, and tested. A total of seven rectangular and two T-
shaped beams were tested. The details of the test beams are show in Table 1.
All rectangular beams 81-88 had a cross section of 12" (305 mm) wide and
16" (406 mm) depth. The amount of the tension steel was a variable
investigated in this study, and listed in Table 1. All beam were reinforced with
2#4 (2-13 mm) compression steel bars, and #4@ 4.0" (13 mm@ 102 mm)
transverse shear reinforcement. For rectangular beams, all steel bars were
grade 60 steel (414 MPa). The details of the test beams are shown in Figure 3.
The concrete compressive strength was 4500 psi (31 MPa).

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For the T-shaped beams, the strength of the tension steel bars was the variable.
Steel of two yield strengths were investigated; 50 ksi (345 MPa), and 74 ksi
(510 MPa). Figure 3 shows the details ofthe T-shaped beams.
The strengthened beams were retrofitted with a single layer of Mitsubishi-

Replark CFRP system. The thickness of the carbon layer is 0.0066" (0.167
mm). The width of the carbon fiber layer was I 0 inches (254 mm). The
average tensile strength and tensile modulus of the Rep lark carbon fibers were
750 ksi (5171 MPa) and 33,400 ksi (230 GPa), respectively. The tensile and
tensile shear strengths of the epoxy structural adhesive were 4.2 ksi (29 MPa)
and 1.4 ksi (9.65 MPa), respectively. Beam B3 had an additional CFRP
anchors at the end of the CFRP sheets. Figure 3 shows the details of the test
specimens. Figure 4 shows the test setup. The total length of the beam was
11'-0" (3352.8 mm), and the span between the supports was 9'-6" (2895.6 mm).
All beams were subjected to a concentrated load at mid-span (three point
loading system).
TEST RESULTS
Group (I) Test Beams

Group (I) beam consisted of three beams, reference beam, strengthened beam
with CFRP sheet on the tension side only, and strengthened beam with CFRP
sheet on the tension side along with diagonal anchors. The purpose of this
series of beams was to examine the effectiveness of the CFRP diagonal
anchors in preventing bond failure between the longitudinal CFRP sheet and
the concrete on the tension side. The CFRP anchor consisted of CFRP sheets
cut and installed at 45 degrees. At each beam end, the anchor sheets
overlapped over ends of the longitudinal tension CFRP sheet.
Figure 5. shows the load deflection curves for the Group (I) beams. The
response of the reference beam B 1 was a very typical response of an under-
reinforced concrete beam. It exhibited a typical tri-linear response, stiff elastic
up to a load of I 0 kips where flexural cracks were first formed. Above I 0 kip
(44.5 kN) load the beam exhibited a lower stiffness up to a yield load of 27
kips (120 kN). Beyond the 27 kip (120 kN) load, the beam showed a very low
stiffness due to yielding of the steel reinforcing bars on the tension side. The
beam was subjected to cyclic loading in an attempt to damage the bond
between the steel and the surrounding concrete for further study of repair of
damaged beams. The test was terminated at a displacement of 1.0" (25.4 mm).
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The strengthened beam B2, showed a higher strength and stiffness. It

exhibited a higher yield strength, however, it occurred at approximately the
same yield displacement as Beam Bl. At a displacement of 1.3" (33 mm) the
CFRP sheet separated from the concrete surface. Much of the bond damage

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212 Aboutaha et al.

was within the concrete cover, a shear-tension failure, which indicated a good
bond between the concrete surface and the CFRP sheet. Loading of Beam B2
was continued to a mid-span displacement of 2.1" (53.3 mm). After the
debonding of the CFRP sheet, the strengthened beams exhibited a strength
equivalent to an unstrengthened beam, Reference Beam B 1.
Beam B3 was strengthened with a CFRP sheets on the tension side along with
diagonal CFRP anchors. The initial response of Beam B3 was almost identical
to that of the Strengthened Beam B2 before debonding of beam B2. Beam B3
exhibited higher strength than Beam B2, and most important of all it exhibited
higher ductility than Beam B2. At a displacement of 2.05" (52 mm), the
longitudinal CFRP sheet of Beam B3 fractured near the end anchorage. Figure
6 shows the CFRP sheet after failure. Prior to failure the CFRP sheet
debonded over its full length except at the anchorage zones. At that stage the
strains in the CFRP sheet were constant at all sections and equal to the average
strain over the length of the sheet. Therefore, failure of the CFRP sheet at any
section is considered development of its ultimate capacity. The results of
Beam B3 test suggest that CFRP end anchorage is very effective in preventing
debonding of the longitudinal CFRP sheet and increasing flexural ductility.
Group (//) Test Beams

Group (II) beams consisted of four beams having the same cross section and
CFRP sheet. The only variable was the amount of tension steel. The purpose
of this test was to examine the effect of the amount of the steel bars on the
response of CFRP strengthened concrete beams.
Figure 7 shows the load-deflection response of Group (II) beams. As can be
seen from the figure, Beam B4 did not exhibit a well-defined yield point,
however, Beams B5, B7 and B8 exhibited almost a well-defined yield point.
The results of Group (II) beams suggest that behavior of CFRP strengthened
beams with high steel to CFRP ratio is mainly dominated by steel bars and is
similar to that of ordinary reinforced concrete beams. However, the behavior
of CFRP strengthened beams with low steel to CFRP ratio is mainly dominated
by CFRP sheets, therefore they do not exhibit a well defined yield point on the
load-deflection curve. Figure 7 also shows that beams with low steel ratio
exhibit lower ultimate deformability than beam with high steel ratio. This may
be attributed to the fact that for beams with low steel ratio, the CFRP sheet has
to carry forces at higher rates than those bonded to beams with high steel
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content. This finding is very important because the majority of bridges that
require strengthening are in need of retrofit due to lack of adequate amount of
steel reinforcement. All Group (II) beams exhibited shear-tension failure.
Group (Ill) Test Beams

Group (III) beams consisted of two T -beams. The main variable was the yield
strength of the steel bars. The tension steel of beam B 1 and B2 had yield

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strength of 74 ksi (510 MPa) and 50 ksi (345 MPa), respectively. Both T-
beams exhibited shear-tension failure. Figure 8 shows the load-deflection
response of Group (III) beams. The chart shows that beams reinforced with 74
ksi (510 MPa) steel bars exhibit higher ductility than beams reinforced with
grade 50 steel (345 MPa). The fact that 74 ksi (510 MPa)steel bars developed
higher tensile forces than grade 50 steel (345 MPa), consequently, the CFRP
carried lower forces and resulted in lower bond stresses at the interface, and a
delayed bond failure. Such delay in bond failure allowed for higher
deformation at failure.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of nine full-

scale reinforced concrete beams strengthened with CFRP composite sheets.
The main variables were the amount of the reinforcing steel bars in the beams,
yield strength of the steel bars, and the type of CFRP anchorage. The amount
(size and type) of the longitudinal CFRP sheets is maintained constant. The
main focus of the paper is to investigate the ductility of CFRP strengthened
concrete beams.
For the test beam investigated in this study, the following conclusions could be
drawn:
I. For CFRP strengthened beams, the lower the amount of tension

steel the lower the beam deformation at failure.
2. For CFRP strengthened beams, the lower the yield strength of the
tension steel the lower the beam deformation at failure.
3. CFRP strengthened beam with tension CFRP sheet and 45 degree
CFRP anchors exhibit higher ductility than CFRP strengthened
beams with tension CFRP sheet only.
Such important findings should be reflected on the design equations of CFRP

strengthened concrete beams to ensure an acceptable level of safety.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the financial support provided by the

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and New York State Department of
Transportation (NYSDOT). The donation of the Replark CFRP system and the
technical support provided by Sumitomo Corporation of America is also
gratefully acknowledged.
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214 Aboutaha et al.

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CONVERSION FACTORS
1 in.= 25.4 mm
1 kip = 4.448 kN
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
NOTATION
'l'r =Additional reduction factor (0.85 is recommend by ACI440)

d = Distance from the extreme compression fiber to the center of tension
steel bars.
h = Total depth of the beam section
Ar = Total area of the FRP cross-section
frc = Effective Stress in the FRP sheet
fs = Effective Stress in Tension Steel bars
c = Distance to neutral axis, which can be determined from the
following equation.
AJ, +A 1 f 1•
c= .
r.r_:p,b
y and p, = Parameters defining a rectangular stress block in the concrete
equivalent to the actual non-linear distribution of stress.
REFERENCES
1. Grace, N.F., Sayed, G.A., Soliman, A.K., and Saleh, K.R., Strengthening
Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Laminates, ACI Structural Journal, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, September-October 1999: 865-874.
2. Meier, U., (1992), Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Modem materials in
Bridge Engineering, Structural Engineering International, International
Association for Bridge Construction and Structural Engineering, Zurich,
Switzerland, 1/92: 7-12.
3. Ross C. A., Jerome, D.M., Tedesco, J.W., and Hughes, M.L., Strengthening
of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Externally Bonded Composite
Laminates, ACI Structural Journal, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, March-April 1999: 212-220.
4. Taljsten, B., (1999), Concrete Beams Strengthened For Bending Using
CFRP-Sheets, Proc. Int. Con[. Structural Faults & Repair -02, on CO-Rom,
Commonwealth Institute, Kensington, London, 13-15 July, 1999.
5. ACI Committee 440 Report "Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures",
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2002.

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Table 1. Properties of the test specimens.
Group Beam Number Beam Description Tension

Steel
(As in2)
Group (I) Bl Reference 2#6 (0.88)
B2 Strengthened 2#6 (0.88)
B3 Strengthened w/ diagonals 2#6 (0.88)
Group (II) B4 Strengthened Beam # 4 2#4 (0.40)
B5 Strengthened Beam #5 2#5 (0.62)
B7 Strengthened Beam #7 2#7 (1.20)
B8 Strengthened Beam# 8 2#8 (1.58)
Group (III) TBl Strengthened (Fv = 74 ksi) 2#5 (0.62)
TB2 Strengthened (Fv = 50 ksi) 2#5 (0.62)
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Figure 1. Strengthening of a damaged concrete beam with a CFRP cured strip.

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216 --``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Aboutaha et al.
Figure 2. Testing of a concrete beam strengthened with CFRP sheets.

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- - - --------
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Q1111111111111111111111111111]
9' -6" (2895.6 mm) •I
I
<(
Reference beam for rectangular section beams (B 1)
QIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ
Strengthened Rectangular Beams (B2, B4, B5, B7, & B8)
Strengthened Rectangular Beam B# with 45 degree CFRP diagonal anchor
Qllllllllllllllllllllllllllll LS
Strengthened T-shaped Beams TB 1 & TB2
30"
•I
IL 4#3
J!
I 9"
"'
9" "I
TB 1 #3@ 12"- 12"

TB 2 #3@ 6"
2#5
/<E ~ CFRP sheet

12"
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Cross-section of the T -shaped Beams
Figure 3. Details of the Test Beams.

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218 Aboutaha et al.
Figure 4. Test setup.
60
50
40
i
~
.
:; 30
0
...J
20
10
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Deflection (inches)
Figure 5. Load-Deflection curves for Group (I) Beams.
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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Figure 6. The longitudinal CFRP sheet of Beam B3 after fracture at the face of the anchor.
70
--No.4
-·No.5
60 ···No.7
--No.8
50
Ui'
.e. 40
~
"D
~ 30
..J
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
20
10
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Deflection (inches)
Figure 7. Load-Deflection curves for Group (II) Beams.

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220 Aboutaha et al.

~.-------,--------r--------------~~======~====~
i:;;: 25~--~~+-----~~~--------~------~--------+-~----~
;r
.3 20
15
10~------~---------+------------------r-------~--------~
0~-------4---------+--------~--------~--~L--4--------~
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
--``,```,`,`,`,,,,`,`````,`,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Deflection(in)
Figure 8. Load-Deflection curves for Group (III) Beams.

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SP-213-13
My View of Richard W. Furlong-Colleague
by N. H. Burns
Synopsis: The education and professional contributions of Richard W. Furlong are given
in this paper as a part of the Richard W. Furlong Symposium on April22, 2002 at the
ACI Convention in Detroit, Michigan. Highlights of Dr. Furlong's career of teaching
and research at The University of Texas at Austin are noted. The emphasis is on how, as
an experienced designer, he was effective in transferring research results to practical
design guidelines and building code provisions. The paper is meant to give personal
recognition and express our appreciation for all the many contributions he has made to
the American Concrete Institute for more than 40 years.
Keywords: biography; Richard W. Furlong; teaching

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221
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222 Burns
Ned H. Bums, FACI, is Zarrow Centennial Professor Emeritus at the University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, where he has been active in teaching and
research since 1962. He is a member of Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 423,
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Prestressed Concrete, and is also a member of the National Academy of

Engineering.
INTRODUCTION
Let me begin by saying that I'm very honored to be asked to add my personal
reflections on my friend and colleague, Richard W. Furlong. We have been
fellow faculty members in the Department of Civil Engineering at The
University of Texas at Austin since 1958. As I've prepared some remarks to
share with the Furlong Symposium of ACI in April 2002, two thoughts have
haunted me. First, it doesn't seem possible that it was that long back that we first
met when Dick and Helen Furlong and family came to Austin for him to do his
PhD work under Phil M. Ferguson's supervision. Secondly, what a wonderful
and fortunate experience it has been to be colleagues for more than 40 years.
The graduate program in structural engineering at UT-Austin has had a

remarkable development to become one of the top programs in the United States
with international recognition during these years. Richard W. Furlong is a major
factor in making that happen and Helen, as well as the family, have supported
him at every tum in the road along his highway toward a most successful career.
Dick would be the first to agree with me that he couldn't and wouldn't have done
it without their love and support. I'll refer to Dick mostly in the rest of my
comments about my colleague Richard, but Helen Furlong and the family are
significant factors in making this all happen. So I begin by thanking them for
that support- we honor you, Dick's family, today.
FURLONG'S EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
A look at Dick Furlong's background shows where he got the educational

background for such a successful career as a structural engineer who could
transfer research results into practical design guidelines and building code
provisions.

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BSCE- 1952, Southern M
ethodist University (Co-op Program), Dallas, TX
He was involved with construction and steel fabrication from the beginning in
his civil engineering education.
Figure 1 from 1940 shows young Richard smelling the flowers while sitting on a
lawnmower rather than pushing it. He learned early to stop to smell the flowers
- and he still does.
Figure 2 shows Southern Methodist University students Richard Furlong and his
date, Helen Prince, at a Christmas dance three months before Dick proposed
marriage. Over 50 years later they will both tell you that they are very happy
that Helen accepted his proposal.
MSCE- 1957, Washington University, St. Louis, MO
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Working full-time as he completed his master's degree continued to give him
unique insight into applying the theory to practical structural design and
construction problems. Two years as an aircraft stress analyst for McDonnell
Aircraft, two years as a detailer and checker of drawings for structural steel
fabrication, then three years as a design engineer for bridges and industrial
structures with F. Ray Martin, Inc. in St. Louis.
Figure 3 shows the young structural engineer, Dick Furlong at the office of F.
Ray Martin, Inc. in St. Louis, Missouri in 1956. The design experience while
doing his Master's degree set a lifelong perspective as he directed his research
toward solving real problems and helping structural engineering use the results
from research in their designs.
PhD- 1963, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX
Dick was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering while doing

experimental research under Professor Phil M. Ferguson for his dissertation. His
observation of the actual behavior of columns in the reinforced concrete frames
he was testing taught him lessons that he expanded upon and developed more
fully in his later work. This thorough understanding of behavior was later
developed into useful building code provisions that were faithful to structural
behavior of reinforced concrete columns. Concrete-filled tubes as part of a
structural frame became the intense focus of some of his work later in his career.

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224 Burns
Figure 4 from 1961 shows Dick in front of a T-beam test specimen outside the
CE Structures Laboratory on campus at The University of Texas at Austin. This
small lab was later replaced by the much larger and more complete Phil M.
Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory at the research campus.
Figure 5 shows the Furlong family (Dick, Sara, Helen and Jack) in 1963. This
photo was taken about the time Dick was finishing his PhD work and continuing
on the faculty as an Assistant Professor in a regular faculty position. Ned H.
Bums and John E. Breen were also appointed Assistant Professors at UT-Austin
in 1962 and these three served on the faculty together at UT -Austin for over 40
years.
FURLONG'S TEACHING AND RESEARCH
Richard W. Furlong was Assistant, Associate, and full Professor (1958-98) at

The University of Texas at Austin. He rose through the ranks to a named
professorship, retiring as the E. C. H. Bantel Professor for Professional Practice
at UT-Austin.
Figure 6 is from Dick's initial paper (I) on concrete-filled tube columns, which
was published in 1967. He later was instrumental in developing improved design
guidelines for composite columns. Figure 7 shows Dick's delightful sense of
humor in presenting the old equations in Old English type in contrast to his
suggested improved equations. The equations he proposed are now widely used
by designers for concrete-filled tubes.
Referring to Dick's leadership in the ASCE-ACI Committee on Composite

Construction to develop material related to concrete-filled tubes, James 0. Jirsa
(2) said, "Because he had considerable experience as a designer, he was effective
in transferring research results to practical design guidelines and building code
provisions."
"Dick brought the same combination of practical experience and advanced

training to the classroom when he became an educator and has always been
known by the students for his ability to relate theory to solutions of practical
problems."
Of his placing of ASCE and ACI very high on his list of priorities, Jirsa added,
"He was always ready to serve and never took on a task that did not get his full
attention and dedication. It is difficult to reward such loyalty and the sacrifices
that must be made to be effective in any organization that relies on volunteer
efforts."
Figure 8 shows several members ofthe Texas Section ASCE in a 1968 photo, all
of them UT -Austin faculty. Dick Furlong is second from the left, Phil M.
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Ferguson is fifth from the left and Ned H. Bums is at the far right. Figure 9
shows Austin Branch ASCE President Furlong in a 1971 photo. He is at the far
left and standing beside him is Kishor C. Mehta. J. Neils Thompson (deceased)
is standing in the middle of this group. Neils was a very active member of ACI
in 1971.
A photo (Figure 10) taken in 1982 shows the structures faculty from The
University of Texas at Austin, Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory with
Dick standing third from the left on the back row. Also in this photo are ACI
members Phil M. Ferguson, John E. Breen (seated) and Richard E. Klingner,
Ramon L. Carrasquillo, Ned H. Bums, and James 0. Jirsa (all standing).
In his letter recommending Richard W. Furlong for ASCE Honorary

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Membership, John E. Breen (3) captured well some of the contributions Dick has
made to structural concrete design.
"He was one of three principal contributors over a long time period to the joint
ASCE-ACI Committee 428 - Limit Design of Concrete Structures. As an
experienced designer before joining academia, Dick's contributions to the
committee brought practicality and usefulness to a very important area and
greatly influenced the practical provisions for moment redistribution now found
in building codes. He offered similar important leadership to the work of ASCE-
ACI Committee 441 -Reinforced Concrete Columns as well as the joint ASCE-
ACI activities on composite construction."
Speaking of his long period of service as Executive Director of the Texas Section
of the ASCE, Breen added, "Dick, aided by his most capable and creative wife
Helen (as Editor of the Texas Section monthly news magazine), advanced the
Texas Section to a completely new level of activity. The then Executive Director
of ASCE, Ed Pfrang, told me that the Texas Section under the day-to-day
leadership of Dick Furlong was the goal that he held out for other ASCE
sections."
Honorary Member is the highest award given to an ASCE member and Richard
W. Furlong was most deserving of that title which was awarded in 2001.
The citation in naming him an Honorary Member of ASCE was, "In recognition
of his professional engineering leadership serving local and national offices
while developing standards and design aids for reinforced concrete structures and
composite columns."
ACI Fellow Edward G. Nawy (4) said it well in nominating Richard W. Furlong,
"His numerous publications in refereed journals speak for themselves to their
high caliber, innovative approaches and insight into the way structures behave
and ought to be designed. His work on concrete column research and behavior
place him among the foremost accomplished among his peers in this area."

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226 Burns
Dick has contributed chapters to eight books since 1977, but the publication of
his programs for reinforced concrete design was a major contribution to
designers of reinforced concrete. Many structural engineers use the International
Personal Computer Design Handbook (5), which he published in 1990. His
more recent Reinforced Concrete Personal Computer Design Helper (6),
published in 1993, is widely used by designers and some refer to it as their
"office assistant." He has also been developing notes for use in teaching
reinforced concrete design to the undergraduate students at The University of
Texas at Austin, Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete Design- Notes CE 331.
Since retirement, he has continued to teach a class (Reinforced Concrete - CE
331) in the summer session, and he is in the process of publishing these notes as
a text.
Richard W. Furlong and Kishor C. Mehta were made Honorary Members of

ASCE in 2001 at the same ceremony. This was 30 years after the photo of these
two in Figure 9 was taken. A photo of several of the Honorary Member
inductees from October 2001 is shown in Figure 11. Other ACI members
included are Kishor C. Mehta, Richard N. White, Loring A. Wyllie, Jr., W. Gene
Corley, and David A. VanHorn along with Richard W. Furlong, second from
right.
Figure 12 shows Richard W. Furlong with the Sphinx in Egypt and you might
not recognize much similarity because the nose is missing from the Sphinx. But
you will recognize the photo of Dick in Figure 13. This Richard W. Furlong
Symposium is a well-deserved and most fitting tribute to Dick for all of the
contributions he has made to ACI and the profession of structural concrete
research and design over the years, as I've attempted to show in this paper.
The professorship title at The University of Texas at Austin is both well earned
and descriptive of Richard Wilson Furlong. He was the E.C.H. Bantel Professor
for Professional Practice. I have been most fortunate to share a personal and
professional friendship with Dick over so many years at The University of Texas
at Austin. Thanks for all you have contributed to our program at UT -Austin over
the years we've worked together. In designating this the Richard W. Furlong
Symposium, we thank you for all you have done for the American Concrete
Institute. Well done!
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REFERENCES
1. Furlong, Richard W. "Strength of Steel Encased Concrete Beam Columns,"

Journal of the Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers,
October 1967.
2. Jirsa, James 0., letter of nomination for Richard W. Furlong as Honorary

Member, ASCE (dated January 5, 2000).
3. Breen, John E., letter of nomination for Richard W. Furlong as Honorary

Member, ASCE (dated December 22, 1999).
4. Nawy, Edward G., letter of nomination for Richard W. Furlong as Honorary

Member, ASCE (dated January 18, 2000).
5. Furlong, R.W., International Reinforced Concrete Personal Computer

Design Handbook, Prince Davidson and Wilson Company, Austin, Texas,
1990.
6. Furlong, R. W., Reinforced Concrete Personal Computer Design Helper,

Prince, Davidson and Wilson Company, Austin, Texas, 1993.
Figure 1- 1940 photo of young Richard W. Furlong.
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228 Burns
Figure 2- Christmas 1950 photo of Richard W. Furlong and his date, Helen Prince,
three months before they were engaged.
Figure 3- 1956 photo of Richard W. Furlong, Structural Engineer with

F. Ray Martin, Inc., St. Louis, MO.
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Figure 4- 1961 photo of Richard W. Furlong outside the Structures Laboratory on

The University of Texas at Austin campus.
Figure 5- 1963 photo of Richard W. Furlong (left) with family

(Sara, Helen and Jack Furlong).
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230 Burns
ECCENTRIC
PRINCIPAL LOAD LOAD CELL

(TESTING MACHINE)
i-
.1
i
FIG. 1.-ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMEN AND TESTING

APPARATUS
Figure 6- Figure from Richard W. Furlong's initial paper, Concrete-Filled Tube Col-
umns, ASCE Structural Division Journal (Ref. 1).
C-----':::>c--------8
II ={ 1+ ~A.] A, (trooo · us ~i-7
C' ------Q
Figure 7 - The "old" formula for capacity of concrete-filled tubes, as shown by Richard
Furlong using Old English fonts for emphasis.
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Figure 8 - 1968 photo of several members of the faculty at

The University of Texas at Austin (Richard W. Furlong second from left).
Figure 9- 1971 photo of Austin Branch ASCE-

President Richard W. Furlong stands at left of this group.
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232 Burns
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Figure 10- 1982 photo of Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory faculty at The
University of Texas at Austin (Richard W. Furlong back row, third from left).
Figure 11-2001 photo of installation ofHonorary Members, ASCE (Richard W.

Furlong standing second from right).

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Figure 12-1986 photo of Richard W. Furlong in Egypt with pyramid and Sphinx.
Figure 13- Richard W. Furlong, ACI Fellow, ASCE Honorary Member, honored with
ACI Furlong Symposium in 2002.

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Burns

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PROFESSIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF
RICHARD W. FURLONG
Books and Book Chapters

Furlong, Richard W., 2002, Basic Decisions for Designing Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Prince, Davidson and Wilson Co., Austin. 191 pp.
Furlong, Richard W., 1997, "Composite Columns- Chapter 4," Composite Construction-
Design for Buildings, edited by Ivan Viest, McGraw-Hill andASCE, pp. 4.1-4.51, B1-B9.
Furlong, Richard W., 1994, "Steel Design - Chapter 8 and Reinforced Concrete
Design-Chapter 9," Principles & Practice of Civil Engineering PE Exam Review, 1994,
Merle Potter, Editor, Great Lakes Press, 1" Ed., 2"d Edition 1996, 3ro Edition 1998, 4th Edition
2000, pp. 243-348.
Furlong, Richard W., 1992, International Reinforced Concrete Computer Design Helper-
in Sl Units, Prince, Davidson & Wilson Co. Austin, 68 pp.
Furlong, Richard W., 1991, "Elastic Rational Analysis and Tests ofUnbraced Concrete
Frames," Progress in Structural Engineering, M.Z. Cohn Anniversary Volume, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Milano, pp. 71-84.
Furlong, R.W., 1990, International Reinforced Concrete Personal Computer Design
Handbook, Prince, Davidson & Wilson Company, Austin, 62 pp.
Furlong, Richard W., 1989, Reinforced Concrete Personal Computer Design Helper,
Prince, Davidson and Wilson Company, Austin, 85 pp.
Furlong, Richard W., 1988, "Composite Columns," Chapter 10, Guide to Stability
Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 4th Edition, Structural Stability Research Council,
Wiley Inter-Science, edited by T. Galambos, pp. 359-386.
Mirza, S.A., and Furlong, R.W., 1987, "Structural Behavior and Design of Inverted T-
Beams," Chapter 8, Civil Engineering Practice ]/Structures, edited by Cheremisinoff et al.,
Technomic Publishing Company, pp. 261-280.
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Furlong, Richard W., 1982, "Steel-Concrete Columns- Chapter 6," Handbook of

Composite Construction Engineering, edited by Gajanan M. Sabnis, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
pp. 211-229.
Furlong, Richard W., and ACI Design Aids Committee 340, 1984, "Design
Handbook-SP-17 & SP-17A," American Concrete Institute, 430 pp.
Furlong, Richard W., 1977, "Flexure-Chapter 1, and Columns-Chapter 3," Metric Design
Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Elements, edited by Murat Saatcioglu, Canadian
Portland Cement Association, Toronto, pp. 1-1 to 1-58 and 3-1 to 3-128.
Publications
Furlong, Richard W., 2002, "Should I Use LRFD or ACI318 for Designing Composite
Columns?" Proceedings-Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete IV, ASCE!Structural
Engineering Institute, pp. 865-878.
Mirza, S.A. and Furlong, R.W., 1997, "Design of Reinforced Concrete Inverted T and
Ledger Beams," Proceedings-Sixth International Colloquium on Concrete in Developing
Countries, Lahore, Pakistan, January 4-6, pp.25-34.
Furlong, Richard W., 1997, "Designing Steel-Concrete Composite Columns,"
Proceedings, Transportation Research Board, January.
Furlong, Richard W., 1997, "ACI 318-95 Appendix B- Unified Design Provisions for

235
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236 Professional Contributions

Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members," ACI Concrete International, ACI, V. 19, No. 6,
pp. 40-51.
Lin, C.H. and Furlong, R.W., 1995, "Longitudinal Steel Limits for Concrete Columns,"
ACI Structural Journal, V. 2, No. 3, pp. 282-287.
Mirza, S.A., Furlong, R.W., and Ma, J.S., 1994, "Behavior and Design of Reinforced
Concrete Inverted T-Beam Ledges", Structural Engineering Review, V. 6, No.2, pp. 97-103.
Furlong, Richard W. 1993, "Column Slenderness in Braced Frames", ASCE Structural
Journal, V. 119, No. 11, pp. 3405-3415.
Furlong, R.W., Fenves, G., and Kasl, E., 1991, "Welded Structural Wire Reinforcement
for Columns," ACI Structural Journal, pp. 585-591.
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Mirza, S.A. and Furlong, R. W., 1991, "Reinforcement for Inverted T and Ledger Beams,"
Structural Engineering Review, V. 3, No. 1, pp. 23-29.
Furlong, Richard W. and Daramsalamwala, S., 1989, "Comparative Review of Composite
Column Design Regulations World-wide," Conference Proceedings, Structural Stability
Research Council World View.
Mirza, S.A. and Furlong R.W., 1988, "Ledge Reinforcement in RC Inverted T-Beams,"
Proceedings- Annual Conference, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Calgary, Alberta,
May 23-27, pp. 179-193.
Mirza, S.A., Furlong, R.W., and Ma, J.S., 1988, "Flexural Shear and Ledge
Reinforcement for Inverted T-Girders," ACI Structural Journal, V. 85, No. 5, pp.509-520.
Furlong, Richard W., 1986, "ASCE Services Through a Local ASCE Office," ASCE
Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering, V. 112, No. 3, pp. 178-185.
Mirza, S. A. and Furlong, R.W., 1985, "Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Inverted T-Beams for Bridge Structures," PC! Journal, V. 30, No. 4, ppll2-136.
Furlong, Richard W., 1985, "Binding and Bonding Concrete to Composite
Columns," Proceedings-US/Japan Joint Seminar on Composite Structures and Systems,
ASCE, pp. 330-336.
Furlong, Richard W., 1983, "Design Aids for Spandrel Beams With Torsion," Texas
Civil Engineer, V. 53, No. 10, pp. 15-19.
Furlong, Richard W., 1983, "Column Rules of ACI, SSRC, and LRFD Compared,"
ASCE Journal of Structural Div., V. 109, No. 10, pp. 2375-2386.
Mirza, SherAli and Furlong, Richard W., 1983, "Strength Criteria for Concrete Inverted
T-Girders," ASCE Journal of the Structural Engineering, V. 109, No.8, pp.1836-1853.
Mirza, SherAli and Furlong, Richard W., 1983, "Serviceability Behavior and Failure
Mechanisms of Concrete Inverted T-Beam Bridge Bentcaps," ACI Journal, V. 80, No.4,
pp. 294-304.
Furlong, Richard W. 1981, "Rational Analysis of Multi-Story Concrete Structures,"
Concrete International, V. 3, No. 6, pp. 29-35.
Furlong, Richard W., 1981, "State of the Art in Composite Construction," Texas Civil
Engineer, V. 51, No.5, pp. 17-19.
Rad, F.N. and Furlong, R.W., 1980, "Behavior of Unbraced Concrete Frames", ACI
Journal, V. 77, No.4, pp.269-278.
Furlong, Richard W. and Committee 20- SSRC, 1979, "A Specification for the Design
of Steel-Concrete Composite Columns," AISC Engineering Journal, V. 16, No.4, pp. 101-115.
Furlong, Richard W. and Rezende, Carlos, 1979, "An Alternate to ACI Analysis

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Coefficients," ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, V. 105, No. 11, pp. 2203-2220.
Furlong, Richard W., 1979, "Concrete Columns Under Biaxial Eccentric Thrust," ACI
Journal, V. 76, No. 10, pp. 1093-1118.
Salmon, Charles G. Chairman, Furlong R.W., Secretary, and ACI Design Handbook
Committee, 1977, "Step-by-Step Design Procedures in Accordance With the Strength Design
Method of ACI 318-71," ACI Journal, Vol. 76, No.8, pp. 333-360.
Rad, F. N., Gunnin, B.L., Furlong, R.W., 1977, "A General Non-Linear Analysis of
Concrete Structures and Comparison With Frame Tests," Journal - Computer Applied to
Structures.
Furlong, Richard W., 1976, "AISC Column Design Logic Makes Sense for Composite
Columns, Too," Engineering Journal- American Institute of Steel Construction, Vol. 13,
No.1, pp. 1-7.
Furlong, R.W., 1976, "Guidelines for Analyzing Column Slenderness by a Rational
Analysis of an Elastic Frame," ACI Journal, V. 73, No.3, pp. 138-141.
Furlong, Richard W., 1974, "Concrete Encased Steel Columns- Design Charts," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, V. 100, No.9, pp. 1865-1882.
Furlong, Richard W., 1974, "Composite Columns: Steel-Concrete Construction," Journal
of the Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, V. 100, ST5, May (with
Committee).
Colville, J., Furlong, R.W., and Becker, E., 1973, "Large Displacement Analysis of
Thin Plates," ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, V.99, No. 3, pp.349-364.
Furlong, Richard W., 1971, "Column Slenderness and Charts for Design," ACI Journal,
V. 68, No.2, pp. 9-17.
Furlong, Richard W., 1970, "Design of Concrete Frames by Assigned Limit Moments,"
ACI Journal, V. 67, No.4, pp. 341-353.
Furlong, Richard W., 1968, "Tests of Steel Encased Concrete Beam Columns," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, V. 94, No. 1, pp. 267-282.
Furlong, Richard W., 1967, "Strength of Steel Encased Concrete Beam Columns," ASCE
Journal of the Structural Division, V. 93, No.5, pp. 113-124.
Furlong, R.W. and Ferguson, Phil, 1966, "Tests of Frames with Columns in Single
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Curvature", ACI Symposium on Concrete Columns- Publication SP-13, pp. 55-73.

Furlong, Richard W., 1965, "Design Aids for Square Footings," ACI Journal, V. 62,
No. 3, pp. 363-372.
Furlong, Richard W., 1961, "Ultimate Strength of Square Columns Under Biaxial
Eccentric Loads," ACI Journal, V. 58, No.3, pp. 1129-1140.
Ph.D. Dissertations Supervised

Wahidi, Syed Assif Ali, 1995, "Strength and Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns
Made From High Performance Materials."
Oswald, Charles E., 1993, "A Study of the Response of a Reinforced Concrete Arch
Culvert to Soil Loading."
Lin, Chien-Hung, 1984, "Rationale for Limits to Reinforcement of Tied Concrete Columns."
Mavichak, Viroj, 1977, "Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Concrete Columns Under
Biaxial Bending."
Mirza, SherAli, 1974, "Concrete Inverted T-Beams in Combined Torsion, Shear,

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and Flexure."
Rad, Farrokh Niroomand, 1973, "Behavior of Single Story Two-column Reinforced
Concrete Frames Under Combined Loading."
Ma, John Chung Su, 1971, "Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Inverted T-Beams."
Colville, James, 1970, "A General Solution ofthe Von Karman Plate Equations by the
Finite Element Method."
Gunnin, Bill Lee, 1970, "Non Linear Analysis of Planar Frames."
Nossier, Mohamad Salah Eldin Badawi, 1966, "Static and Dynamic Behavior of
Concrete Beams Failing in Shear."
Master of Science Theses Supervised

Wong, Yui Cheuk Richard, 1997, "ACI318-95 Appendix B Application of Unified Design
Provision to Composite Flexural and Compression Members."
Kular, Ajmer Singh, 1977, "Study of Behavior of Latex-modified Beams Reinforced
with Fiberglass Bars."
Rezende, Carlos Roberto, 1977, "Approximate Analysis for Design of Reinforced
Concrete Building Frames."
Deputy, Leven Thomas, 1977, "Analysis of Multi-story Frames by the Kani's Method
Programmed for the Digital Computer."
Menon, Gangadharan, 1977, "Optimum Reinforcement for Notched Ends of Prestressed
Concrete Girders."
Wahidi, S.A.A., 1976, "Behavior of Stage Cast Inverted T-Beams with Flange in
Tension."
Sakbani, Mohamad, 1976, "Study of the Use of Fiberglass Bars as Reinforcement in
Reinforced Concrete Structures."
Henderson, William Donald, 1976, "Effect of Stud Height on Shear Connector Strength
in Composite Beams with Lightweight Concrete in Three-inch Metal Deck."
Galhoud, Mahmoud, B1975, "Maximum Beam Moments in Continuous Frames."
Desai, JatinAmbalal, 1975, "Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Concrete Rectangular
Columns Under Biaxial Eccentric Loads."
Green, Don Gerald, 1975, "Physical Testing of Concrete Columns in Biaxial Bending."
Fleming, Robert John, 1974, "Ultimate Strength Analysis for Skew Bending of
Reinforced Concrete Columns."
Redwine, Robert Burton, 1974, "Strength and Deformation Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Columns in Biaxial Bending,"
Mavichak, Viroj, 1973, "Reinforced Concrete Inverted T-Beams Loaded in Flexure
and Torsion."
Chatariyawat, Chittrong, 1973, "Analytic Study of Design Eccentricities for Columns
in Braced Frames."
Wong, Wing Cheung, 1971, "Measurement of Reinforced Concrete Creep due to Bond."
Cole, Kynn Monroe, 1970, "Inelastic Computer Analysis for Reinforced Concrete
Building Frames."
Durmus, Bayram Haci, 1970, "A Study of Concrete Encased Composite Columns
Analyzed with Proposed New Building Code Requirements."
Rad, Farrokh Niroomand, 1969, "Behavior of Concrete Filled Circular and Square
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Composite Beam-columns."
Turk, JoAnn, 1969, "Comparative Study of Line-element Solutions Versus Rigid-joint
Solutions of a Frame."
Lehman, John August, 1968, "Strength of Circular Steel Columns Filled With Very
High-Strength Concrete."
Gadgil, Sitaram G., 1967, "Minimum Wall Thicknesses for Concrete Filled Steel Tube
Columns."
Gunnin, Bill Lee, 1967, "Non-linear Analysis of Pin Connected Trusses."
Swartz, Roland Roy, 1967, "The Effect of Horizontal Ties on the Behavior of Hollow
Concrete Columns."
Cheng, Ming-shiong, 1967, "Strength and Behavior of Concrete Filled Square Steel Tubes."
Matthys, John Herbert, 1967, "Experimental Investigation of Concrete-Filled Circular
Steel Columns."
Wilson, Tommie Brooks, 1966, "Strength and Behavior of Concrete-Filled Rectangular
Composite Beam-columns."
Ohanian, Jani, 1966, "Strength and Stiffness of Round Composite Columns."
Benzo-Majia, Francisco Raphael, 1966, "Behavior of Concrete filled Round Steel Tubes."
Husain, Syed Ilyas,1965, "Behavior of Very High Strength Concrete Beams."
Fiedler-Nordalm, Frederico Helmut, 1965, "Strength and Behavior of Concrete Filled
Rectangular Composite Columns."
Invited Lectures and Short Courses Given (past 15 years)

"Designing Reinforced Concrete," American Concrete Institute Short Course,
December 2001 (Salt Lake City, UT; San Diego, CA; Orlando, FL); November 2001
(Minneapolis, MN; Chicago, IL; Denver, CO); October 2001 (Berkeley, CA); May 2001
(Cleveland, OH); March 2001 (Chicago, IL); January 2000 (Hanover, WA); November 1999
(Charlotte, NC); September 1999 (Philadelphia, PA); May 1999 (Atlanta, GA; Miami, FL);
November 1998 (Dallas, TX); October 1998 (Los Angeles, CA); May 1998 (St. Louis, MO);
March 1998 (Port of Spain, Trinidad); December 1997 (Washington, DC); November 1997
(Kansas City, MO); September 1997 (New Orleans, LA); April 1997 (Ontario, CA);
December 1996 (Birmingham, AL); January 1996 (Austin, TX); April1994 (Phoenix, AZ)
December 1993 (Tampa, FL); November 1993 (Houston, TX); August 1993 (Mobile, AL)
March 1993 (Boston, MS); January 1993 (Washington, DC); December 1992 (Denver, CO).
"Reinforced Concrete Columns-Design Simplifications," New Orleans ACI Chapter,
March 2001.
"Design Refresher for Concrete Structures," University of Texas at Arlington,
January 2001.
"Applying Appendix B-ACI 318 Unified Method," Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute,
August 2001 (San Antonio); December 1998 (Philadelphia, PA).
"Reinforced Concrete Columns-Design Simplifications," New Orleans ACI Chapter,
March 2001.
"Design Refresher for Concrete Structures;' University of Texas at Arlington, January 2001.
"Applying Appendix B-ACI 318 Unified Method," Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute,
August 2001 (San Antonio); December 1998 (Philadelphia, PA).
"Designing Composite Columns for Bridges," Transportation Research Board, January 1997.
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"Significant Changes in ACI318-95," Structural Engineers Association of Texas Annual
Meeting, El Paso, TX, October 1997.
"Civil Engineering History, Traditions, and Opportunities;' September 1997 (El Paso, TX,
Midland, TX, Houston, TX); July 1997 (Fort Worth, TX); June 1997 (Corpus Christi, TX);
May 1997 (Beaumont, TX); March 1997 (Edinburg, TX).
"Composite Columns-Estranged Relative of the Structural Family," April 1997 (ASCE
Structures Congress, Portland OR); May 1996 (Retired Faculty Recognition, Edmonton, Alberta).
"Teaching Reinforced Concrete Design," American Concrete Institute, November 1996
(New Orleans).
"Analytic Model of Composite Shear Walls," Third International Conference on
Composite Structures and Systems, Irsee, Germany, June 1996.
"Column Slenderness in Braced Frames," March 1995 (El Paso, TX); February 1994
(University of Houston); October 1992 (ASCE Texas Section Fall Meeting, Houston).
"Proposed Changes in Slenderness Provisions in ACI 318," Structural Engineers
Association of Texas, November 1992 (Annual Meeting, San Antonio); October 1992
(El Paso Chapter); February 1992 (North Texas Chapter); November 1991 (Houston Chapter).
"Technology West of the Pecos," Elderhostel Course (5 days), September 1988 (Fort
Davis, TX); December/January 1989 (Fort Davis, TX).
Service to Professional Societies

American Concrete Institute: Board of Directors (1978-82); ACI Committees 318D,
Flexure and Axial Loads); 340, Design Aids for ACI Building Codes); 441, Reinforced
Concrete Columns; 335, Composite and Hybrid Structures; 442, Response of Concrete
Buildings to Lateral Loads); Metrication; Notation and Nomenclature; ACI San Antonio
Chapter (Austin Branch) Board of Directors.
American Society of Civil Engineers: Board of Direction; Committees on Structural
Division Technical Activities, Composite Construction, Reinforced Concrete Columns,
Response of Concrete Buildings to Lateral Loads, Metrication; Board Committees on
Professional Conduct, Technical Activities, Administration, Management Group B, History
and Heritage; Standards Committee on Steel Deck Reinforced Concrete Slabs; Texas Section
Executive Secretary, Texas Civil Engineer Editor, President, Board of Directors, Structures
Group; Texas Section Austin Branch Board of Directors, President.
National Society of Professional Engineers: Texas Society of Professional Engineers
Committees on Audit and Finance, Office Relocation.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute: Committees on Education, Speakers Bureau,
Computer Applications Advisory.
Structural Engineers Association of Texas: State Secretary; Board of Directors.
Structural Stability Research Council: Committees on Composite Columns, Structural
Specification Liaison, Stability of Concrete Frames.
Canadian Society for Civil Engineering: Building Seismic Safety Council Composite
Construction Committee.
Consulting Assignments
2002: Wastewater treatment tank - structural performance and design review; Structural
investigation of bridge piers and resistance to lateral impact; Calibration of mild steel long
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bolts to be installed for minimum specified tension.
2001: Forensic advice for 2- and 3-story apartment buildings with alleged damage
from soil movement; Forensic advice regarding foundations for small buildings constructed
on expansive clays; Advise technical staff of Structural Metals Inc. on applications of
castellated girders for roof and floor systems.
2000: Forensic advice regarding faulting beneath reinforced concrete structures; Forensic
advice regarding structural damage from foundation movements beneath 4-story concrete
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block and reinforced concrete frame; Unique Devices - Design compression strut for long
extension boom to hold remotely operated television equipment.
1999: Mason & Hanger Corp. - Investigate, analyze and advise actions for safety of an
unusually cracked reinforced concrete ceiling in a manufacturing building; Mobil Oil
Company- Deliver one-week short course as a review for professional structural engineering
examination to engineers in Sumatra subsidiary LNG installation; Day and Zimmerman,
Attorneys - Investigate cause and recommend remedial actions for three-story concrete
frame structure damaged by soil movement; Spaw-Glass Construction Co. - Prepare
recommendations for a construction opening in a concrete tower wall.
1998: McGinnis Construction Co. -Advise reuse and replacement of steel components
of a large truss frame dropped during erection.
1996: Maury Stiver, P.E. -Advise and explain structural behavior of proprietary support
system for roadway wind-wall.
1993: Intera, Inc. - Predict long term structural performance of concrete vaults for durability
study; Adams, Adami and Cedillo, Attorneys -Advice regarding condition assessment of slab
and warehouse complex. Caldwell Culvert Company -Advise attorneys (alleged patent
infringement) on definitions and performance of corrugated metal pipe structure.
1992: Bill Reiffert, P.E.- Advice regarding steel shearhead inserts for floor system.
1991: Dow Chemical Co. - Provide analytic stiffness and strength parameters for a
wind tunnel study for office structure; Rocky Flats (US Department of Energy) - Condition
assessment of 40-year-old steel and reinforced concrete storage facility.
1990: Hagans & Sydow, Attorneys- Review testimony to explain collapse of bridge on
secondary road; Graves, Daugherty, Hearon, & Moody, Attorneys-at-Law- Review testimony
and explain failure of steel cribbing falsework at deep excavation.
1989: PAL Associates, Inc.- Review structural details and predict stress levels in steel-
concrete composite assembly in nuclear reactor vessel; Cahaba Construction Co. - Evaluate
as-built strength of concrete elements for which form work failure modified dimensions.
1988: Southwest Engineers, Inc. -Review foundation system for elevated water
storage tank.
1987: W.E. Simpson, Inc. -Review design of rehabilitated parking structure; advise
form of design changes.
1986: Mission Mechanical Company - Design components of a portable hoist frame
and construct load tables for its use; Southwest Research Institute -Advise staff engineers
on design for rehabilitation of blast-damaged steel and concrete structures.
1985: Tom Grimm, P.E.- Modify bridge ledge support analysis computer software for
large openings; Hilliard & Gallo, Attorneys - Explain source of weakness that led to steel
roof collapse.
1984: Urban Engineers, Inc. -Teach in-house course on the design of sanitary structures;

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Aluminum Association - Advise Education Committee regarding university curriculum in
structural aluminum.
1983: Ray Torres, Inc., Miami -Advise consultants on stability analysis and overall
design of multi-story concrete unbraced frames; Duke-Keller Enterprises- Evaluate structural
reliability of steel supports for large outdoor signs; Crenshaw, Dupre and Milam, Attorneys -
Explain cause of fatal accident while prestressed concrete bridge girder was being placed.
1982: United Board for Christian Education in Asia- Advise on redesign of structural
components and addition of footings and exterior columns to salvage and extend building
with poor quality concrete in a partially constructed 6-story building.
1981: Investigate alleged construction deficiencies in construction of a large swimming
facility at Kelly Air Force Base.
1978: City of Bryan, Public School District- Investigate and report on cause of leaks
into library of brick veneer school building.
1977: Southwestern Bell- Investigate and advise modifications required for adding
transmission equipment to existing structure.
1976: Eugene A. Wukasch -Advise design details for churches and small buildings.
1974: W.E. Simpson Co.-Investigate cause of roof collapse after heavy rains.
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1973: Humble Oil Co. -Investigate failure of hoist and maintenance platform attached
to cylindrical steel tanks.
1971: Midwestern University - Investigate and report on probable cause of leak in
gymnasium roof.
1970: Dow Chemical Co. -Advise use of several structures as hurricane shelters; Review
design and recommend controls for thennal changes in structural response for a large process structure.
1969: Dow Chemical Co., Plant engineering Department- Miscellaneous modifications
to structures for existing processes and vibration controls.
1968: Perini-Vinell Contractors - Determine cause of collapse of 10-ft diameter diversion
pipeline; Dow Chemical Co. - Feasibility study of prestressed structure and design of an ore
reduction facility for magnesium casting.
1967: Dow Chemical Co. -Develop structural standards for fiberglass stacks; Investigate
compliance of construction with design of 15-million gallon freshwater storage facility in
Jackson, Mississippi.
1966: Perini-Vinell Contractors - Investigate cause of form work collapse; Eugene A.
Wukasch- Design two-way floor system for apartment building and design foundations for
small buildings on expansive clay.
1965: Bill G. Epps- Design concrete structure for 12-story dormitory; A.A. Toprac-
Design steel frame for motel/restaurant building.
1964: A.A. Toprac -Vibration and displacement analysis of large aluminum antennas.
Other Major Contributions

Editor, Texas Civil Engineer, Monthly Journal of the Texas Section, American Society
of Civil Engineers, November 1979 to October 1985: The TCE Journal won several awards
for ASCE Section publications.
Unpublished engineering reports authored or coauthored on numerous research
topics: 41.
Departmental Master of Science theses supervised in addition to those itemized above: 24.

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CONVERSION FACTORS-INCH-POUND TO SI (METRIC)*
To convert from to multiply by
Length
inch millimeter (mm) 25.4Et
foot meter (m) 0.3048E
yard meter (m) 0.9144E
mile (statute) kilometer (km) ].609
Area
square inch square centimeter (cm 2) 6.451
square foot square meter (m 2 ) 0.0929

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square yard square meter (m 2 ) 0.8361
Volume (capacity)
ounce cubic centimeter (cm 3 ) 29.57
gallon cubic meter (m 3 ):j: 0.003785
cubic inch cubic centimeter (cm 3) 16.4
cubic foot 3 0.02832

cubic meter (m )
cubic yard cubic meter (m 3 ):j: 0.7646
Force
kilogram-force newton (N) 9.807
kip-force newton (N) 4448
pound-force newton (N) 4.448
Pressure or stress
(force per area)
kilogram-force/square meter pascal (Pa) 9.807
kip-force/square inch (ksi) megapascal (MPa) 6.895
newton/square meter (N/m 2 ) pascal (Pa) I.OOOE
pound-force/square foot pascal (Pa) 47.88
pound-force/square inch (psi) kilopascal (kPa) 6.895
Bending moment or torque

inch-pound-force newton-meter (Nm) 0.1130
foot-pound-force newton-meter (Nm) 1.356
meter-kilogram-force newton-meter (Nm) 9.807

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244 Conversion Factors-Inch-Pound to Sl (Metric)

To convert from to multiply by
Mass
ounce-mass (avoirdupois) gram (g) 28.34
pound-mass (avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 0.4536
ton (metric) megagram (Mg) l.OOOE
ton (short, 2000 Ibm) megagram (Mg) 0.9072
Mass per volume

pound-mass/cubic foot kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m 3) 16.02
pound-mass/cubic yard 3 0.5933
kilogram/cubic meter (kgtm )
pound-mass/gallon kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m 3 ) 119.8
Temperature§
deg Fahrenheit (F) deg Celsius (C) !c = (IF - 32)/1.8
deg Celsius (C) deg Fahrenheit (F) IF= 1.8tc + 32
* This selected list gives practical conversion factors of units found in concrete technology. The reference
source for information on SI units and more exact conversion factors is "Standard for Metric Practice" ASTM E
380. Symbols of metric units are given in parentheses.
t E indicates that the factor given is exact.
:j: One liter (cubic decimeter) equals 0.001 m3 or 1000 cm 3
§ These equations convert one temperature reading to another and include the necessary scale corrections. To
convert a difference in temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius degrees, divide by 1.8 only, i.e., a change from 70
to 88 F represents a change of 18 For 18/1.8 = 10 C.
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Index
A D
Aboutaha, R. S., 207 deformability, 61
analysis, 19 design, 19
design rules, 135
B ductility, 61, 119, 207
Bayrak, 0., 61
beam-column connections, 103
beam-column joint, 167 E
beams (supports), 119 earthquakes, 61
biaxial stress, 43 elastic modulus, 43
biography, 221 energy dissipation, 61
bond,207 expedited construction, 1
Bracci, J. M., 167
bridges, 207 F
buildings, 135 fabric structures, 151
Burns, N. H., 1, 221 failure modes, 43
fiber reinforced polymer (FRP), 207
c finite element analysis, 185
carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), flexural strength, 207
207 frame, 167
CFRP anchorage, 207 Furlong, Richard W., 221
Cheok, G. S., 103
civil engineering curricula, 19 G
column design, 83 Griffis, L. G., 151
columns, 61, 185
composite, 167, 207 H
composite construction, 135, 151, 185 high-performance concrete, 43
composite truss, 151 high-strength concrete (HSC), 43, 61, 83,
concrete, 185 119, 151
concrete beams, 207 highway bridges, 135
concrete columns, 83 history, 135
concrete construction, 103
confinement, 83 K
constructability, 167 Kim, S. H., 207
construction, 19
crack control, 119
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246 Index
L reliability, 185
Lacroix, E. A., 185 retractable roof, 151
Lew, H. S., 103
lightweight-aggregate concrete, 119 s
Lim, D. H., 43 Saatcioglu, M., 83
long-span roof, 151 seismic design, 103
shear strength, 119
M Sheikh, S. A., 61
mass concrete, 151 soil-structure interaction, 151
mat foundation, 151 steel, 185
McCullough, B. F., 1 Steele, J.P., 167
McPherson, K. L., 43 stirrups, 119
Merritt, D. K., 1 strength, 185
minimum shear reinforcement, 119 strengthening, 207
Mirza, S. A., 185 stress-strain relationship, 43
moment frame, 103 structural concrete, 19
supercolurnn, 151
N supertruss, 151
Nawy, E. G., 43
T
p teaching, 221
post-tensioned pavement, 1 temperature effects, 151
post-tensioning, 103 tests, 185
Powanusom, S., 167
precast concrete, 103 u
precast concrete pavement, 1 user costs, 1
precast pavement panels, 1
prestressed pavement, 1 v
professional education, 19 Viest, I. M., 135
professional registration, 19
w
R Waggoner, M. C., 151
Ramirez, J. A., 119 Wahidi, A., 151
rectangular stress block, 83 Wattanadechachan, P., 207
reinforced concrete, 83 White, R. N., 19
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PRINCIPAL LOAD
(TESTING MACiiiiiEl
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(1)
FIG. I.-ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMEN AND TESTING

APPARATUS
®
international
en '"H 1
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he Art and Science of

A Symposium Honoring Richard W Furlong

The Art and Science of

Copyright American Concrete Institute

DISCUSSION of individual papers in this symposium may be submitted in accordance

Printed in the United States of America

Editorial production: Bonnie L. Schmick

Library of Congress catalog card number: 2003104532

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

IN TRIBUTE TO RICHARD WILSON FURLONG:

The symposium included 14 presentations recognizing and honoring the enormous

Institute (1990); Engineer-of-the-Year, Bexar Chapter, Texas Society of Professional

Through the early works of A. L. L. Baker, L. Beedle, M. Z. Cohn, K. W. Johansen, and

or so has been a non-fictional tale of exemplary teaching, mentorship, collegiality, and

Preface ............................................................................................................................... iii

In Tribute to Richard Wilson Furlong: Amalgamating Research with

SP-213-1: Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement .......................................................... 1

SP-213-2: Improved Teaching of Structural Concrete Design ...................................... 19

SP-213-3: Compressive Behavior of High-Strength High-Performance

SP-213-4: Design of Rectangular HSC Columns for Ductility ..................................... 61

SP-213-6: Precast Concrete for High Seismic Regions ............................................... 103

SP-213-7: Shear Strength of Lightweight Concrete Beams with

SP-213-8: Design Rules for Composite Construction in Retrospect ........................... 135

SP-213-9: Reliant Stadium-A New Standard for Football ........................................ 151

SP-213-11: Finite Element Analysis of Composite Steel-Concrete Columns ............. 185

SP-213-12: Flexural Ductility of CFRP Strengthened Concrete Beams-

SP-213-13: My View of Richard W. Furlong-Colleague .......................................... 221

Professional Contributions of Richard W. Furlong ........................................................ 235

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement

by N. H. Burns, D. K. Merritt, and B. F. McCullough

Synopsis: With traffic volumes continuing to increase on a rapidly deteriorating

future precast prestressed concrete pavements.

Keywords: expedited construction; post-tensioned pavement;

Copyright American Concrete Institute

in civil engineering from Northern Arizona University in 1998, and MS in civil

Dr. B. Frank McCullough is the Adnan Abou-Ayyash Centennial Professor

New methods are continually being developed for expediting construction of

In response to an ever-increasing demand for methods to expedite pavement

Copyright American Concrete Institute

The Art and Science of Structural Concrete Design 3

The proposed concept for a precast pavement, constructed on a section of frontage

occasional diamond grinding.

Copyright American Concrete Institute

To ensure vertical alignment between adjacent panels, the proposed concept

Copyright American Concrete Institute

The Art and Science of Structural Concrete Design 5

Following assembly (Figure 1) and post-tensioning of the precast panels, the

Another aspect of the precast pavement concept is a friction-reducing medium

DESIGN OF THE GEORGETOWN PRECAST PAVEMENT

The precast pavement constructed near Georgetown, Texas was placed on a

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

The Art and Science of Structural Concrete Design 7

In addition to longitudinal prestress requirements, transverse prestress

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

The Art and Science of Structural Concrete Design 9

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Frontage Road Assembly

Copyright American Concrete Institute