SCH 105

Basic Inorganic Chemistry

Bonding
 Compound Formation
Definition: A compound is a chemical species that is formed
when two or more atoms join together chemically.

NaCl: Solid
H2O: Liquid
HCl: Gas 2
 Types of Bonds
▪ Different types of chemical bonds exist depending on the atoms
involved.

▪ The main types of chemical bond are:

1. Ionic
2. covalent
3. Dative/Co-ordinate
4. Metallic
5. Secondary/Van der Waals forces

▪ The ionic and covalent bonds are idealized cases. However; most
bonds are of an intermediate type.

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 Bond Formation
▪ Elements tend to gain, lose or share electrons to achieve a full set of valence
orbitals.

▪ In doing so, they achieve the Noble Gas Structure (8 electrons; Octet).

▪ Full shells are very stable and elements achieve this by reacting with other
elements.

When an element gains or loses electrons, Ions are formed

Lose of electrons = Positive Ions called CATIONS

Gain of electrons = Negative Ions called ANIONS

Remember Sodium in Water: Explosion 4

 Example
Let us consider Na and Cl
Na: 1s22s22p63s1 (High School Notation: 2:8:1)

Remove one electron from the 3s1 orbital, a CATION is formed, Na+

Na+ : 1s22s22p6 (Similar to the noble gas Neon).

Cl: 1s22s22p63s23p5

Cl gains one electron to fill the 3p orbital to form ANION, Cl-

Cl-: 1s22s22p63s23p6 (Similar to Argon).

FOOD FOR THOUGHT:

Is it possible for Na to gain 7 electrons and Cl to lose 7 electrons???

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 Ionic Compounds
➢ Ionic compounds are formed when two oppositely charged ions react.

➢ The bond formed is called an IONIC BOND.

➢ A neutral compound contains the same number of negative and positive

charges.

➢ For example the ionic compound formed between Na and Cl has the
formula NaCl (sodium chloride) while Ca+2 and Cl- is CaCl2.

Na+ + Cl- NaCl

Ca2+ + 2Cl- CaCl2

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 Lewis Symbols and Structures
• Lewis structures are also called Lewis dot diagrams, electron dot diagrams,
Lewis dot formulas, Lewis dot structures, or electron dot structures.

• They are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and
the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule.

• The number of electrons around each atom is equal to the valence electrons or
group number.

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Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds

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Lewis Structures of ionic compounds

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 Covalent Bonding
➢ A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs
between two/more atoms to form a covalent compound.

➢ This occurs when it is unfavourable to form cations or anions (lose or gain

electrons? For example diatomic molecules.

➢ For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the
full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration (Noble gas
structure).

➢ Binding force: Electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and the
positively charged Nuclei.

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 2 e pairs= double bond
(One Single Bond)

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H gains 1 e- to achieve a noble gas configuration (He).

NOTE: Please refer to drawing Lewis structures, next slide

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 Point 6: Minimise the formal charges on all atoms

Where: FC = Formal charge

V = Total number of Valence electrons
N = Number of Non-bonding electrons (Lone pairs)
B = Bonding electrons

NOTE: For a neutral molecule, the sum of the charges should be

zero. 15
 Example 1: Draw Lewis Structure for CO2

1. Count electrons

C = 1 x 4 electrons = 4
O = 2 x 6 electrons = 12
Total = 16 electrons

2. Assemble bonding frame work

3. Place 3 the lone pairs to bonded 4. Assign the remaining valence

atoms (except H) electrons to the central atom

NO EXTRA ELECTRONS

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5. If the central atom has less than 8 electrons, form multiple bonds.

Correct Lewis structure

6. Minimize formal charge (zero charge is the most stable).

Use the correct structure

FCcarbon = 4 – 0 – 8/2 = 0
FCoxygen = 6 – 4 – 4/2 = 0

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 Example 2: Draw Lewis Structure for SO2
1. Count electrons

2. Assemble bonding framework

3. Place three non-bonding electron pairs around the oxygen atoms

4. Assign the remaining valence electrons to the inner atom

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 Example 2: Draw Lewis Structure for SO2

5. Form multi bonds

(a) (b)

6. Minimize formal charge (b)

(a) FCsulfur = 6 – 2 – 8/2 = 0

FCdoubleO = 6 -4 - 4/2 = 0
FCsulfur = 6 – 2 – 6/2 = +1
FCsingleO = 6 -6 - 2/2 = -1 Structure (b) is more stable
FCdoubleO = 6 -4 - 4/2 = 0

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 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• Some Period 3-4 elements e.g S, P, Br, I, Xe do have more than 8 electrons in
their respective Lewis Structures.

• This is because of their ability to make use of the d-orbitals during bond
formation.

Examples:

P has 10 electrons Xe has 12 electrons

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Exceptions to the octet rule: More Examples

S has 10 electrons

I has 10 electrons

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 Lewis Structures: Further Exercises

Draw Lewis structures of the following covalent compounds:

1. SO3
2. ClO3-
3. SCN-

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Bond Lengths and Bond Enthalpies

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 Resonance Structures
❑ Resonance occurs when delocalized electrons exist within a
molecule/structure.

❑ Delocalized electrons: Electrons that can reside on more than atom

within a molecule.

❑ A molecule with delocalized electrons is represented by several

contributing structures (resonance structures ).

❑ Each contributing structure can be represented by a Lewis structure.

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 Resonance structures: More Examples:
The nitrate anion (NO3-)

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 Further Exercise: Resonance Structures
Draw Resonance structures of the following covalent molecules: Provide
the hybrid structures and bond order in the hybrid structures

1. Ozone (O3)
2. SO42-
3. CO32-

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 Bond Transitions
• Bond transitions from pure covalent, to polar covalent and to ionic
bond is a continuous gradient of polarity (rather than a distinct
differentation)
Covalent bond - the chemical bond is
purely covalent when electronegativity
difference between the atoms is zero.
Polar covalent bond - electronegativity
difference between 0.5 – 2.0,

Ionic bond - When electronegativity

difference is large, like more than 2.0.

• This continuous polarity gradient from covalent to ionic bonds

depends on the difference between the electronegativity of the
atoms.
This results in the formation of a Polar Covalent Bond

A polar bond arises when a large difference in Electronegativity exists. 32

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 Polar Bonds

Difference in e- = 2.9 – 2.1 = 0.8

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 Ionic verses Covalent Bonding

➢ When the difference is 0 = pure covalent bond

➢ Less than 1.7 – 2.0 are covalent with some ionic character
(polar covalent)

➢ Differences greater than 2.0 are considered ionic 36

 Further Exercise: Polar Covalent Bonds
Classify the following bonds as either: Pure covalent, Polar
covalent or Ionic bonds

(i) MgO
(ii) SiO
(iii)N2
(iv)HS

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 Metallic bonding

• Like atomic solids, metallic solids exhibit close packing

– Bonding between metal atoms is too strong to be attributed
to London forces and there are not enough valence
electrons for covalent bonds to form between atoms
– Valence electrons are free to move around an array of
stationary cations
• Different bonding models
have been developed
– Electron-sea bonding model
– Molecular-orbital model

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 Electron-Sea Bonding Model
• Simple model of an array of metal cations in a ‘sea’ of valence
electrons that are free to move and are uniformly distributed
throughout the metal

• Electrostatic attraction between cations

and electrons

• Delocalised electrons leads to metals:

▫ Good conductors of electricity
▫ Good conductors of heat as kinetic energy is transferred
through out the metal
▫ Malleable (hammered into thin sheets) and ductile (drawn into
wires) as the atoms form bonds with many neighbours and can
slip with respect to one another while the electrons are
redistributed to continue binding the atoms together
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 Electron-Sea Bonding Model
• Electron–sea model predicts that as the number of valence
electrons increase the strength of bonding should increase
and so should the melting point for example

• BUT melting points of transition metals first increase and

then decrease across a period:

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