Introductory Chemistry Essentials 5th

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Chemical Bonding 10
Chapter Overview

Understanding how atoms bond gives us the power of predicting chemical behavior.
Drawing Lewis structures and predicting the resulting molecular shapes is discussed. The
chemical interactions based on shape, including electronegativity and polarity, are also
explained.

Lecture Outline

10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs

A. Bonding theories attempt to explain actual structures
B. Some theories work for some molecules but not for others
10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
Learning Objective: Write Lewis structures for elements.
A. Valence electrons are outermost shell electrons
B. Lewis structure of an atom is simply chemical symbol + valence electrons around it
C. Most atoms “want” eight electrons around them (octet rule)
D. Exception: duet rule for hydrogen and helium
E. A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons to achieve an octet around each atom
10.3 Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds: Electrons Transferred
Learning Objective: Write Lewis structures for ionic compounds.
Learning Objective: Use the Lewis model to predict the chemical formula of an ionic
compound.
A. Metal atom effectively gives valence electrons to the nonmetal
B. Metal is positively charged, nonmetal is negatively charged
C. Attraction of opposite charges constitutes the ionic bond
10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared
Learning Objective: Write Lewis structures for covalent compounds.
A. Two bonded nonmetals share electrons such that both get an octet (or duet)
B. Both species get “credit” for all electrons in bond
C. Two species can share two, four, or six electrons
1. Two electrons shared is a single bond
2. Four electrons shared is a double bond
3. Six electrons shared is a triple bond
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds
Learning Objective: Write Lewis structures for covalent compounds.
A. Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule
B. Calculate the total number of valence electrons
C. Distribute electrons among atoms giving each an octet (or duet)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Page 41

 D. If any atoms then lack an octet, form double or triple bonds as necessary
E. Exceptions to the octet rule
1. Duet rule for hydrogen
2. Odd number of electrons
3. Boron usually has only six electrons about it
4. Some elements in the third row and beyond may have more than eight electrons
around them
10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule
Learning Objective: Write resonance structures.
A. More than one possible Lewis structure
B. True structure is average of all Lewis structures
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
Learning Objective: Predict the shapes of molecules.
A. VSEPR theory
1. Electron groups repel each other
2. Electron geometry
a. Linear
b. Trigonal planar
c. Tetrahedral
B. Predicting structures
1. Draw the Lewis structure
2. Count the number of electron groups
3. Determine the number of bonding groups and lone pair groups
4. Determine electron geometry and molecular geometry
10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil and Water Don’t Mix
Learning Objective: Determine whether a molecule is polar.
A. Electronegativity
B. Bond dipoles
C. Dipole moment
D. Polar and nonpolar bonds
E. Polar and nonpolar molecules

Chemical Principle Teaching Ideas

Lewis Structure
All covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons. By understanding how the atoms
bond to each other, the students can begin to understand why species react the way they do.

Molecular Shapes
The most effective way for students to remember the various molecular shapes is to
memorize one example of each. For example, remember that NH 3 is trigonal pyramidal and has
three bonds and one lone pair. H 2 O has two lone pairs and two bonds, and the geometry is bent.

Electronegativity
Some atoms hold on to electrons tighter than others. In some interactions, the bonding is
therefore uneven. Atoms are involved in a sort of tug-of-war with the electrons. A purely

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Page 42

covalent bond involves two equal strength opponents resulting in equal sharing. An ionic bond
involves one species that is much stronger than the other, resulting in complete electron transfer
with no sharing.

Skill Builder Solutions

10.1. Magnesium has just 2 valence electrons, so the Lewis structure is •Mg•

10.2. NaBr is an ionic compound, so Na donates the 1 valence shell electron it has to bromine,
which then has an octet in its valence shell. Sodium has a +1 charge and Br has a –1

charge. The Lewis structure is thus Na+ [: Br :]-


10.3. Since Mg has a +2 charge and N has a –3 charge, the molecular formula is Mg 3 N 2 . The
 
Lewis structure is Mg+2[: N :]-3 Mg+2[: N :]-3 Mg+2
 

10.4. Carbon monoxide has a total of 4 + 6 = 10 valence electrons. The skeletal structure is
C-O, and then we add electrons around the outer atoms, giving them octets. We can start

with : C- O :, but carbon does not have an octet, so we must form a triple bond with the


oxygen atom, giving :CO: or :C:::O:

10.5. There are a total of 12 valence electron in this species. Following the symmetry
guidelines, and placing 2 electrons in for each bond, we get

Now add the remaining electrons around the outer oxygen atom

To give the carbon atom an octet, we must move a lone pair from the oxygen

Which gives our final Lewis structure

10.6. The species has 7 electrons coming from the Cl and 6 coming from the O atom. This
makes a total of 13, but one more comes from the –1 charge of the ion, for a total of 14.
The two species share one pair of electrons, to give each an octet. The Lewis structure is
 
[: Cl : O :]-
 

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Page 43

   
10.7. The base Lewis structure is [: O - N - O :]-. The nitrogen has only 6 electrons around it,
 

so it wishes to make a multiple bond with one of the oxygen atoms. It does not matter
  
from which oxygen it comes, so there are two possible resonance structures: [ O = N - O :]-
 
  
 [: O - N = O ]-
 

10.8. The central nitrogen has three groups of electrons around it, two of which are bonds and
one is a lone pair. The electron geometry is then trigonal planar, and the molecular
structure is bent.

10.9. The central sulfur atom has four groups of electrons around it: one a lone pair and
three bonds. This gives tetrahedral electron structure and trigonal pyramidal molecular
geometry.

10.10. a. Because two iodine atoms have the exact same electronegativity, neither is stronger
than the other. Therefore, the bond is pure covalent.
b. Cesium is a group IA metal, and bromine is a group VIIA nonmetal. When they
bond, there is a transfer of the electrons, giving an ionic bond.
c. Phosphorus and oxygen are both nonmetals and are significantly different in
electronegativity. When they bond, the electrons are shared, but oxygen has a
larger pull, so there is a small dipole moment. The bond is polar covalent.

10.11. CH 4 has a tetrahedral electron geometry and a tetrahedral molecular geometry. Since all
of the bonds are of the same slight polarity in terms of electronegativity difference and
the bonding is symmetric, the bond dipoles cancel each other out. Thus, the overall
molecule is nonpolar.

Suggested Demonstrations

Blow up four equally sized balloons and tie the knots together. The resulting structure is
tetrahedral in geometry, and you can explain how the balloons try to get as far apart as possible.
Then pop one of the balloons to show how three orbitals (balloons) orient themselves. Then pop
another balloon and explain the resulting structure change.

Have a few students (of various sizes) come to the front of the room and have them make various
molecular geometries by holding arms in various orientations. This is an effective method for
showing bond dipoles, dipole moments, and polarity.

Guided Inquiry Ideas

Below are a few example questions that students answer in the guided inquiry activities provided
in the Guided Activity Workbook.

Which atom do you think is central in carbon dioxide? Why?

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Page 44

Carbon dioxide has two groups of electrons surrounding the carbon atom. Why is the OCO bond
angle in CO 2 180°?

The four groups of electrons in methane get as far from each other as possible. Is the angle
between them 90°? If not, what is it?

Can a molecule with no polar bonds be polar?

Is a linear molecule the only one in which all the polar bonds cancel? What other geometric
arrangement of polar bonds also leads to all the polar bonds canceling?

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Page 45

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our polar
flight
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Our polar flight

Author: Roald Amundsen

Lincoln Ellsworth

Release date: August 27, 2023 [eBook #71497]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1925

Credits: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR POLAR

FLIGHT ***
 Transcriber’s Note
Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-
clicking them and selecting an option to view them separately,
or by double-tapping and/or stretching them.
Other notes will be found near the end of this eBook.
OUR POLAR FLIGHT
BEFORE WE LEFT WE PLANTED OUR NORWEGIAN FLAG
 OUR
POLAR FLIGHT
The Amundsen-Ellsworth Polar Flight
BY
ROALD AMUNDSEN
LINCOLN ELLSWORTH
AND

OTHER MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION

ILLUSTRATED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
TAKEN ON THE EXPEDITION

NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1925
 Copyright, 1925,
By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.
PRINTED IN THE U. S. A. BY
The Quinn & Boden Company
BOOK MANUFACTURERS
RAHWAY NEW JERSEY
 CONTENTS
PAGE

Part I: The Expedition 1

BY ROALD AMUNDSEN

Part II: The Amundsen-Ellsworth Polar Flight 101

BY LINCOLN ELLSWORTH

Part III: The Navigator’s Task 141

BY LIEUT. HJALMAR RIISER-LARSEN

Part IV: Report About N 24 from the Start Until We

Joined N 25 and Its Crew on the 26th May 219
BY L. DIETRICHSON

Part V: Whilst We Wait 253

LEAVES FROM THE DIARY OF FREDRIK RAMM FROM MAY 21ST TO JUNE 18TH

Part VI: The Weather 341

BY JAKOB BJERKENS
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Before We Left We Planted our Norwegian Flag
Frontispiece
FACING PAGE
Lincoln Ellsworth 2
The Directors of the King’s Bay Coal Company, Messrs.
Brandal and Knutsen 3
Sailmaker Rönne 3
“Fram” Moored to the Ice at the Edge of King’s Bay 22
Unloading 22
The Games on May 17th 23
The Planes Were Put Together Near the Coal
Company’s Workshops 23
The Crew of N 25: Riiser-Larsen, Amundsen, Feucht 38
The Crew of N 24: Ellsworth, Dietrichson, Omdal 38
Photograph of Amundsen’s Machine Taken in Flight 39
When the Two Planes Were Near Each Other 54
A New Lead Opening in the Ice 55
Getting Ready for a Fresh Start 55
Collecting Snow Blocks for a Run-way 70
Trying Out Our Bulb Sextants 71
Fast in the Ice 71
Members of the Expedition Arriving at King’s Bay 92
Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth at the Reception
by the King of Norway 93
Lincoln Ellsworth and N 24 Just Before the Start 104
The Polar Sea from the Sky 105
N 25 Above the Polar Pack Just Before Landing at 87°
44’ 118
N 24 and Our Arctic Home 119
Ellsworth, Amundsen, Larsen and Feucht with the
Implements with Which They Moved 300 Tons of Ice 134
Lincoln Ellsworth After the Trip 135
Captain Roald Amundsen, Just Before the Take-off from
Spitzbergen 150
Just Before the Take-off 151
Our Footgear 151
Taking the Wings Out of Their Boxes 166
Setting Up the Wings 166
Mounting the Wings 167
The Last Meeting Before the Flight 167
The Edge of the Polar Ice Pack 182
Our Last Hope for a Take-off 183
Disembarking from the Sjoliv at King’s Bay 198
Members of the Expedition After Their First Dinner
Ashore 199
Our First Solid Camp 199
Preparing the Planes for Their Arctic Flight 214
The Last View of Spitzbergen 215
Edge of the Polar Pack 215
The Sjoliv, the Sealer That Picked Them Up 230
At Brandy Bay, Northeast Land, on the Way Home 231
Amundsen—Before the Trip 246
Amundsen—After 246
Ellsworth—Before 246
Ellsworth—After 246
Riiser-Larsen—Before 247
Riiser-Larsen—After 247
Dietrichson—Before 247
Dietrichson—After 247
Omdal—Before 262
Omdal—After 262
Feucht—Before 262
Feucht—After 262
The Explorers at Oslo 263
The Two Meteorologists 344
N 25 on the Way to Oslo 344
Route of the Amundsen-Ellsworth Flight 345
The Course of the Ships on Watch 356
Territory Explored by the Flight Expedition 357
 Part I
THE EXPEDITION

By Roald Amundsen
LINCOLN ELLSWORTH
THE DIRECTORS OF THE KING’S BAY
COAL COMPANY, MESSRS. BRANDAL
AND KNUTSEN
SAILMAKER RÖNNE
 THROUGH THE AIR TO 88° NORTH
The day the brothers Wright rose and flew the curtain went up on a
new era in the history of mankind. Many were certain that they could
see great possibilities opening up for mankind in general, and
particularly for them in their own branch of work, but few, I think, saw
such possibilities of making a full and complete change in his work as
the Polar explorer. What he has tried for years to accomplish would
now be possible for him to achieve in a very short space of time.
Century after century had he worked with his primitive means, the dog
—the sledge. Day after day he had exerted himself with all his craft, all
his intelligence, and all his will, yet had only covered a few miles over
the vast ice desert. What courage, what tenacity, had been shown in
the fight against cold, hunger and hardships. What a brilliant example
of sacrifice and self-denial. Year after year shut up in a tiny little ship,
surrounded by the same people, equipped with only the most
necessary things, he had worked up to this time through the greatest
of difficulties, through the hardest tests—cold and darkness. And now,
all at once, in one moment, the whole of this was to be changed. Cold
and darkness should be dispersed becoming warmth and light instead;
for the complete and troublesome journey should be changed now to a
speedy flight. In truth the possibilities were great. No rationing, no
hunger or thirst—only a short flight. As in a dream, seen as a far-away
possibility, there was ignited that day a small spark which should
quickly blaze up to a mighty fire and in the course of a few years
become one of our most important means of communication.
Emerging from its swaddling-clothes, flying freed itself and went into its
cradle when Bleriot flew across the Channel. It was then speedily led
by the world’s war through its childhood where it (developing with the
years—slowly or quickly who can say?) was led into youth—into
manhood! What the possibilities would become it was difficult to say,
but one had to be satisfied with what was there—flying’s childhood.
The young inexperienced birds leaving their nests show us an
example. Some will hurt their wings, others will break them altogether,
but, it is just as certain that, just as they do, so will mankind also
succeed in reaching his goal in the world of flying.
As I learned of Bleriot’s flight, I knew at once that the time had
come to think of using the air to help the Polar expeditions. Certainly
human power and skill had overcome and conquered vast tracts of this
mighty unknown whiteness, but enormous tracts remained unexplored
—tracts which now could be reached from the air. My thoughts turned
especially to the enormous area in the Arctic which until now had
withstood every attempt. Certainly Nansen, the Duke of the Abruzzi,
and Peary had drawn lines through the unknown doing great and
brilliant work, but colossal and unknown tracts still lay in front of them
unexplored. Should we have had to continue exploration in the same
old manner we should have had to wait many years before our
knowledge had become complete. If one had used the word
“impossible” it seems absolutely reasonable to have used it in
connection with the exploration of this immense ice desert; but it
seems that the word “impossible” has been scratched out of the
dictionary of mankind. How often have we seen the impossible made
possible! What was impossible yesterday is an easy matter to-day.
Bleriot’s flight across the Channel showed me the conquering of the
impossible. When I, in the year 1909, equipped the “Fram” for a trip to
the Arctic, I had a conference with one of the most esteemed aviators
of the day. He declared himself as willing to go with me. But it never
came off, a fact which probably was for the best, as in the case of both
parties it was put off on economical grounds. I mention this in order to
draw attention to the fact that the idea of exploring the Polar regions
from the air is not a recent plan. I have been attacked from many sides
because I have “stolen” the plans of others; this seems to me childish
and scarcely worth talking about, but many people take childish things
for grim earnest if they have not a closer knowledge of the
circumstances. Therefore, these few words.
In 1914 I managed to get sufficient means to buy my first
aeroplane for use in Arctic exploration. As an independent means of
transport in those vast tracts it certainly could not be used where all
circumstances seemed to be against it, but, in conjunction with a
mother-ship, would be of invaluable service. It was therefore my