Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SIXTH
EDITION
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contained in the material herein.
Names: Ballweg, Ruth, editor. | Brown, Darwin, editor. | Vetrosky, Daniel T.,
editor. | Ritsema, Tamara S., editor.
Title: Physician assistant : guide to clinical practice / [edited by] Ruth
Ballweg, Darwin Brown, Daniel T. Vetrosky, Tamara S. Ritsema.
Other titles: Physician assistant (Ballweg)
Description: Edition: sixth. | Philadelphia, PA : Elsevier, [2017] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016053047 | ISBN 9780323401128 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Physician Assistants | Clinical Competence | Professional
Role | Delivery of Health Care--methods | United States
Classification: LCC R697.P45 | NLM W 21.5 | DDC 610.7372069--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053047
v
vi Contibutors
Torry Grantham Cobb, MPH, MHS, DHSc, Christine Everett, PhD, MPH, PA-C
PA-C Assistant Professor
Dartmouth Medical School Duke Physician Assistant Program
Hanover, New Hampshire Department of Community and Family Medicine
Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Duke University School of Medicine
Lebanon, New Hampshire Durham, North Carolina
xi
xii Foreword
education. The world is open, and PAs are grasping debt and continue the excellent work of the original
their share. five.
We all owe a debt of gratitude to the first five stu-
dents who were willing to risk 2 years of their lives
to enter a new profession when there was little sup- Eugene A. Stead Jr., MD
port from doctors, nurses, or government. From the The late Dr. Stead was the Florence
beginning, patients responded favorably, and each McAlister Professor Emeritus of Medicine,
PA gained confidence and satisfaction from these Duke University Medical Center, Durham,
interactions. Patients made and saved the profession. North Carolina. This Foreword was published in
We hope that every new PA will acknowledge this the previous edition, and is being reprinted.
Preface
Welcome to the sixth edition of Physician Assistant: A important, the textbook’s content was reorganized to
Guide to Clinical Practice! make it more responsive to the new Physician Assis-
The sixth edition recognizes that our students tant Competencies, which were approved by all four
increasingly do not enter PA school with years of expe- major PA organizations in 2006. New sections on
rience as health professionals. Ten new chapters have professionalism, practice-based learning and improve-
been written to provide guidance to students regarding ment, and systems-based practice address specific top-
clinical environments, key pieces of medical knowledge, ics delineated in the competencies. Sections covering
and preceptor expectations before they start on each materials that had become available in other books
core rotation and four common elective rotations. We (e.g., physical examination and detailed history-tak-
have also added a new section called “Your Physician ing skills) were omitted. Significant new material was
Assistant Career” which provides resources for students added on the international PA movement, profession-
as they near the end of their training. Chapters include alism, patient safety, health disparities, PA roles in
“Leadership Skills for Physician Assistants,” “Be a Phy- internal medicine and hospitalist settings, and issues
sician Assistant Educator,” “Professional Service” and in caring for patients with disabilities.
an overview article on the future of the profession. The new content for the fifth edition included
The history and utilization of this publication chapters on the electronic health record, population-
mirror the expansion of the physician assistant (PA) based practice, the new National Commission on
profession. The first edition, published in 1994, was Certification of Physician Assistants specialty recog-
the first PA textbook to be developed by a major pub- nition process, health care delivery systems, and mass
lisher and was at first considered to be a potential risk casualty/disaster management.
for the company. Ultimately, it came to be seen as a Many PA programs find the textbook useful for
major milestone for our profession. Our first editor, their professional roles course and as a supplement to
Lisa Biello, attended the national PA conference in other core courses. PA students have found the chap-
New Orleans and immediately saw the potential! She ters on specific specialties helpful in preparing for clin-
made a strong case to the W.B. Saunders Co. for the ical rotations. PA graduates thinking about changing
development of the book. Quickly, other publishers jobs and encountering new challenges in credentialing
followed her lead. Now there are multiple PA-spe- will find a number of relevant examples. All practicing
cific textbooks and other published resources for use PAs will find the new material useful as they continue
in PA programs by practicing physician assistants. their lifelong learning in a rapidly changing health care
The first edition was written at a time of rapid system. Health care administrators and employers can
growth in the number of PA programs and in the benefit from an overview of the profession, as well as
number of enrolled PA students. Intended primar- information specific to PA roles and job descriptions.
ily for PA students, the textbook was also used by Policy analysts and health care researchers will find
administrators, public policy leaders, and employers a wealth of information at the micro and macro lev-
to better understand the PA role and to create new els. Developers of the PA concept internationally will
roles and job opportunities for PAs. find what they need to adapt the PA profession in new
The second edition was expanded and updated to settings. Finally, potential PAs can be informed and
reflect the growth of the PA profession. inspired by the accomplishments of the profession.
The third edition included eight new chapters and a Although Dr. Eugene Stead died in 2005, we
new format. This format included Case Studies, which have decided to continue to use the foreword that he
illustrated the narrative in “real-life” terms; Clinical wrote for this book. Encouraged by Dr. Stead and by
Applications, which provided questions to stimulate countless colleagues, students, and patients, we hope
thought, discussion, and further investigation; and a that this textbook will continue to serve as a signifi-
Resources section, which provided an annotated list of cant resource and inspiration for the PA profession.
books, articles, organizations, and websites for follow-
up research. With the third edition, the book became Ruth Ballweg, MPA, PA-C Emeritus, DFAAPA
an Elsevier publication with a W.B. Saunders imprint. Darwin Brown, MPH, PA-C, DFAAPA
The fourth edition had a totally new look and was Daniel Vetrosky, PhD, PA-C, DFAAPA
also the first edition with an electronic platform. Most Tamara Ritsema, MPH, MMSc, PA-C
xiii
Acknowledgments
As we reach the sixth edition, we want to thank the loved ones who have helped us to continue to move
many individuals—across time—who have made this this project ahead. The patience and good humor
book possible. Much of the success of this book has of our spouses, Jeanne Brown, Penelope Vetrosky,
had its roots in physician assistant (PA) educational and the late Arnold Rosner, have been critical to this
networks. Not only did we want to create a book that project. Our children, Pirkko Terao, Dayan Ballweg,
would be a critical resource for PA students and edu- and Alex, Tim, and Jackson Brown, provided us with
cators, but also we wanted to create new publishing their valuable opinions and perspectives.
opportunities for many of our colleagues to become We gratefully acknowledge our editors over time,
contributors. A major strength of the book has always including Lisa Biello, Peg Waltner, Shirley Kuhn,
been the inclusion of a wide range of faculty mem- Rolla Couchman, John Ingram, Kate Dimock, and
bers from PA programs from all regions in the United Sarah Barth, and content development specialists,
States. We especially want to acknowledge the contri- Janice Gaillard and Joan Ryan. The input from these
bution and leadership of Sherry Stolberg, who served individuals has resulted in the substantial improve-
as our coeditor for the first, second, and third editions, ments in this publication over time. Although new
and Ed Sullivan, who was with us through the fifth authors have joined us for each edition, contributors
edition. When Sherry and Ed stepped down, Darwin to prior editions of this book deserve our apprecia-
Brown and Dan Vetrosky were recruited as new coedi- tion for their participation.
tors. For this sixth edition, Tamara Ritsema has joined Physician Assistant: A Guide to Clinical Practice has
our group. They have brought new energy, new ideas, benefited from the feedback of PA educators and stu-
and new contacts to the subsequent editions of the dents. We hope you will continue to provide us with
book, for which we are grateful. your opinions and suggestions.
This textbook would not be possible without the
support of our colleagues, students, friends, and
xv
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER OUTLINE
OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION rotations. You’ll always have it with you! Be sure to
check out the book’s additional features in the online
Congratulations on choosing to be a physician assis- version.
tant (PA) as we celebrate 50 years of the PA profes- This edition includes additional primers on how
sion! As educators who have also enjoyed clinical to best use many of the unique and latest teaching
practice as part of our professional roles, we welcome and learning approaches that are features of a con-
you to our career and challenge you to explore it stantly evolving PA educational methodology.
fully during your PA education. As many senior PAs In addition to the skilled faculty members in your
say, with great enthusiasm: “I had no idea where the program, whom you know well, you’ll also benefit
PA career would take me or the many options and from experiences from other faculty members and
opportunities that would come along. Who knew?” health care leaders beyond your own program. We’ve
Our goal is for this sixth edition of Physician purposely recruited a wide range of experts from
Assistant: A Guide to Clinical Practice is to be both a the United States and several other countries. You
textbook and your lifelong “go-to” resource on PAs can expect to see even more international involve-
and the profession that remains on your bookshelf ment in future editions as PA utilization, education,
throughout your career. In the early days of the PA and regulation expand beyond the U.S. nexus of our
profession, there were no textbooks or resources profession.
specifically for PAs. We relied on resources for A lot of the stress of PA education is not knowing
physicians and medical students, and faculty mem- what PAs really do. This book will help with that!
bers photocopied handouts they had developed Our goal as editors is to show you a bigger world of
individually or that they had borrowed from their what PAs have been, are currently, and can become.
colleagues in other programs. Fortunately, the Some of the chapters are about cutting-edge topics
Saunders Publishing Company saw the potential you didn’t know you’d need. You’ll probably have a
for a PA textbook, and in 1994, the first edition of different view about the relevance of these issues by
this book was released. The editors were pleased to the time you graduate and start your first job.
receive numerous communications from PA stu- You’ll find that you need the book’s various sec-
dents expressing enthusiasm, pride, and even relief tions at different times in your education and PA
that there was “finally a book for PAs” sitting on the career. Section I features an overview of our career.
shelves of their college bookstores and libraries. You may find these topics assigned early in your PA
The early editions of the book were only available program as your faculty introduce you to PA his-
in hard copy. We’re delighted that it’s now available tory. Although we’ve come a long way in our 50
in both a hard copy and a downloadable version. This years, there is still work to do in the further devel-
eliminates the need for you to carry around the heavy opment and regulation of PAs in new roles. Section
printed version of the book and allows you to have I will provide you with background about how we
just what you need available on your computer screen got to where we are. We hope it will inspire you
for use in the classroom, study sessions, and clinical to consider PA and community leadership roles
3
4 Overview
throughout your career. You’ll learn the principles authors to rewrite these chapters to focus specifi-
behind PA education and why it’s different from cally on what a students need to know for each of
medical school. You’ll find out how to be safe in these rotations. We’ve included the rotations that
clinical settings. You’ll find out the complexities of are required by the Accreditation Review Com-
how PAs are allowed to work because of PA pro- mission on Education for the Physician Assistant
gram accreditation, national certification by the (ARC-PA) as well as examples of the most common
National Commission on Certification of Physician electives. We believe that this section will be espe-
Assistants (NCCPA), licensure at the state level, and cially popular.
privileges at the institutional level. You’ll develop Professionalism is the subject of Section V. Pro-
greater understanding of physician–PA supervisory fessionalism is a hot topic in all clinical education
relationships, and you’ll have appreciation for the programs and is often a topic that students may not
long-term challenges that we faced and continue have previously considered.
to face for appropriate payment for our services. We’ve focused on professionalism as it applies
Finally, you’ll learn about the importance of being to PAs specifically. Similarly, this section considers
part of an interprofessional team. These first chap- ethics and malpractice relative to PA practice. The
ters may be especially helpful to share with your chapter on stress and burnout describes the issues
family and friends who may not yet understand as of adopting an extremely responsible clinical role in
much as they would like to about the PA profession. a relatively short period of time. This section also
Section II focuses on medical knowledge. This recommends strategies for recognizing and manag-
section is not intended to substitute for the many ing these concerns in yourself as well as friends and
outstanding medical textbooks available to all types colleagues. Finally, this section reviews the issue and
of clinical students. Some chapters in Section II are range of postgraduate programs.
examples of how this book serves as a resource for Section VII on systems-based practice has several
topics and skills you didn’t know you’d need. As PA functions. The initial chapter on health care delivery
educators, we’re proud of our responsibility to design systems is designed to provide students with informa-
the PAs of the future. New health care systems will tion about changes in the health care delivery system,
need PAs who understand evidence-based medicine primarily in response to the regulations concerning
and research methodology. Keeping people healthy the provision and access to health care as defined by
becomes more important as more and more people the Affordable Care Act. This is a rapidly evolving
have access to health care. Common clinical pro- topic with a range of regional differences. Recogniz-
cedures are included to give some examples of the ing the underlying principles of these changes will
broad procedural skill sets of PAs. The description of help students and practicing PAs to make employ-
PA prescriptive practice has a similar role. ment decisions about the type of setting in which
Genetics will play a greater role in medicine and they’d be the best fit.
our genetics chapter provides updated information Other chapters in this section have been written
that you can integrate into your practice. Other to allow readers to explore settings and populations
marketable skill areas this text will enhance include where PAs are employed and practice. In addition to
chapters on chronic care, alternative and compli- providing background for job choices, this section
mentary medicine, end-of-life issues and the chang- is also written to encourage PAs to understand and
ing health care environment. appreciate the wide range of employment opportuni-
PAs are known for their outstanding communi- ties and challenges that are available to PAs.
cation and people skills. Section III is designed to Finally, Section VIII will help new graduates as
reinforce the communication experiences that PA they move into clinical practice. New PAs describe
students receive throughout their education and several years of transition as they move from being
practice. This section provides important background students into the world of clinical practice. It’s rea-
about the appropriate use and value of electronic sonable to expect that this transition will take 2 to 3
medical records. Tools such as patient education, years. Even in the early stages of a PA career, there
cultural sensitivity, and cultural competence are also are opportunities to move into leadership and pro-
available in this section. fessional service. This is a time to think about the
Section IV focuses on clinical rotations. These potential of involvement in PA education, as a pre-
chapters are not intended as a substitute for other ceptor, or as a part- or full-time faculty member.
textbooks on these medical and surgical specialties The last chapter explores our future. As authors
nor are they there to supplant your program’s rota- and teachers, we are excited that you will be a part
tion manuals. For the sixth edition, we’ve asked our of it.
1 Maximizing Your Physician Assistant Education 5
We would like to offer some general pieces of d. Stay caught up—pay attention to objectives in
advice that we hope will further maximize your expe- your courses. They’re designed to guide you in
rience as a PA student and as a PA: what you need to know and in how to spend your
a. In class and in clinic: go early, stay late. precious time.
b. Get to know your faculty members—be transparent. e. Meet as many PAs as you can. They will be role
c. Get to know each of your classmates—schedule a models and mentors.
time with each of them one on one at least once in f. Most important, learn from you patients.
the first quarter or semester of school. Again, welcome to this wonderful career!
KEY POINTS
• T he principle and culture of medical and clinical roles is about lifelong learning. We’ve
designed this book to promote this concept.
• We encourage you to develop a support system of peers, senior mentors, supervising doctors,
and others to serve as a foundation for the long-term decisions that you make about your
career.
• Effective leaders are needed to promote access and health care quality.
• The PA profession has moved ahead because PAs have been willing to say “yes!” to leadership
opportunities. Please consider leadership as part of your PA career.
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
What was to become the physician assistant (PA) from the military settled in small rural communities,
profession has many origins. Although it is often where they continued their contribution to health
thought of as an “American” concept—recruiting care access. Feldshers assigned to Russian communi-
former military corpsmen to respond to the access ties provided much of the health care in remote areas
needs in our health care system—the PA has histori- of Alaska during the 1800s.1 In the late 19th century,
cal antecedents in other countries. Feldshers in Rus- formal schools were created for feldsher training, and
sia and barefoot doctors in China served as models by 1913, approximately 30,000 feldshers had been
for the creation of the PA profession. trained to provide medical care.2
As the major U.S. researchers reviewing the feld-
sher concept, Victor Sidel2 and P.B. Storey3 described
FELDSHERS IN RUSSIA a system in the Soviet Union in which the annual
number of new feldshers equaled the annual number
The feldsher concept originated in the European mil- of physician graduates. Of those included in the feld-
itary in the 17th and 18th centuries and was intro- sher category, 90% were women, including feldsher
duced into the Russian military system by Peter the midwives.3 Feldsher training programs, which were
Great. Armies of other countries were ultimately located in the same institutions as nursing schools,
able to secure adequate physician personnel; how- required 2 years to complete. Outstanding feldsher
ever, because of a physician shortage, the large num- students were encouraged to take medical school
bers of Russian troops relied on feldshers for major entrance examinations. Roemer4 found in 1976 that
portions of their medical care. Feldshers retiring 25% of Soviet physicians were former feldshers.
6
2 History of the Profession and Current Trends 7
The use of Soviet feldshers varied from rural to The “discovery” in the United States that appro-
urban settings. Often used as physician substitutes in priately trained nonphysicians are perfectly capable
rural settings, experienced feldshers had full author- of diagnosing and treating common medical prob-
ity to diagnose, prescribe, and institute emergency lems had been previously recognized in both Russia
treatment. A concern that “independent” feldshers and China. We can no longer say that PAs “perform
might provide “second-class” health care appears to a very minor role in the provision of health services.”
have led to greater supervision of feldshers in rural In contrast, the numbers of both feldshers and bare-
settings. Storey3 describes the function of urban feld- foot doctors have declined in their respective coun-
shers—whose roles were “complementary” rather tries owing to a lack of governmental support and an
than “substitutional”—as limited to primary care increase in the numbers of physicians.
in ambulances and triage settings and not involv-
ing polyclinic or hospital tasks. Perry and Breitner5
compare the urban feldsher role with that of U.S. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES
physician assistants (PAs): “Working alongside the
physician in his daily activities to improve the physi- Beginning in the 1930s, former military corpsmen
cian’s efficiency and effectiveness (and to relieve him received on-the-job training from the Federal Prison
of routine, time-consuming tasks) is not the Russian System to extend the services of prison physicians. In
feldsher’s role.” a 4-month program during World War II, the U.S.
Coast Guard trained 800 purser mates to provide
health care on merchant ships. The program was later
CHINA’S BAREFOOT DOCTORS discontinued, and by 1965, fewer than 100 purser
mates continued to provide medical services. Both of
In China, the barefoot doctor originated in the 1965 these programs served as predecessors to those in the
Cultural Revolution as a physician substitute. In what federal PA training programs at the Medical Cen-
became known as the “June 26th Directive,” Chair- ter for Federal Prisoners, Springfield, Missouri, and
man Mao called for a reorganization of the health Staten Island University Hospital, New York.
care system. In response to Mao’s directive, China In 1961, Charles Hudson, MD, proposed the PA
trained 1.3 million barefoot doctors over the subse- concept at a medical education conference of the Amer-
quent 10 years.6 ican Medical Association (AMA). He recommended
The barefoot doctors were chosen from rural that “ assistants to doctors” should work as dependent
production brigades and received their initial 2- to practitioners and should perform such technical tasks
3-month training course in regional hospitals and as lumbar puncture, suturing, and intubation.
health centers. Sidel2 comments that “the barefoot At the same time, a number of physicians in pri-
doctor is considered by his community, and apparently vate practice had begun to use informally trained
thinks of himself, as a peasant who performs some individuals to extend their services. A well-known
medical duties rather than as a health care worker family physician, Dr. Amos Johnson, publicized the
who performs some agricultural duties.” Although role that he had created for his assistant, Mr. Buddy
they were designed to function independently, bare- Treadwell. The website for the Society for the Pres-
foot doctors were closely linked to local hospitals for ervation of Physician Assistant History provides
training and medical supervision. Upward mobility detailed information on Dr. Johnson and tells more
was encouraged in that barefoot doctors were given about how Mr. Treadwell served as a role model for
priority for admission to medical school. In 1978, the design of the PA career.
Dimond7 found that one third of Chinese medical By 1965, Henry Silver, MD, and Loretta Ford, RN,
students were former barefoot doctors. had created a practitioner-training program for bac-
The use of feldshers and barefoot doctors was calaureate nurses working with impoverished pedi-
significantly greater than that of PAs in the United atric populations. Although the Colorado program
States. Writing in 1982, Perry and Breitner5 noted: became the foundation for both the nurse practitioner
(NP) movement and the Child Health Associate PA
Although physician assistants have received a great Program, it was not transferable to other institutions.
deal of publicity and attention in the United States, According to Gifford, this program depended “. . . on
they currently perform a very minor role in the provi- a pattern of close cooperation between doctors and
sion of health services. In contrast, the Russian feldsher nurses not then often found at other schools.”8 In
and the Chinese barefoot doctor perform a major role 1965, therefore, practical definition of the PA con-
in the provision of basic medical services, particularly cept awaited establishment of a training program that
in rural areas. could be applied to other institutions.
8 Overview
both positive and negative impacts on the PA profes- only were there large numbers of corpsmen available
sion. Although PAs were initially trained to provide but also using former military personnel prevented
health care to medically underserved populations, transfer of workers from other health care careers
the potential for the use of PAs in specialty medicine that were experiencing shortages:
became “the good news and the bad news.” Sadler
and colleagues12 recognized this concern early on, . . . the existing nursing and allied health profes-
when they wrote (in 1972): sions have manpower shortages parallel to physi-
cian shortages and are not the ideal sources from
The physician’s assistant is in considerable danger of which to select individuals to augment the physician
being swallowed whole by the whale that is our present manpower supply. In the face of obvious need, there
entrepreneurial, subspecialty medical practice system. does exist a relatively large untapped manpower
The likely co-option of the newly minted physician’s pool, the military corpsmen. Some 32,000 corpsmen
assistant by subspecialty medicine is one of the most are discharged annually who have received valu-
serious issues confronting the PA. able training and experience while in the service.
If an economically sound, stable, rewarding career
A shortage of PAs in the early 1990s appeared to were available in the health industry, many of these
aggravate this situation and confirmed predictions by people would continue to pursue such a course. From
Sadler and colleagues12: this manpower source, it is possible to select mature,
career-oriented, experienced people for physician’s
Until great numbers of physician’s assistants are pro- assistant programs.
duced, the first to emerge will be in such demand that
relatively few are likely to end up in primary care or The decision to expand these corpsmen’s skills
rural settings where the need is the greatest. The same as PAs also capitalized on the previous investment
is true for inner city or poverty areas. of the U.S. military in providing extensive medical
training to these men.
Although most PAs initially chose primary care, Richard Smith, MD,14 founder of the University
increases in specialty positions raised concern about of Washington’s MEDEX program, described this
the future direction of the PA profession. The Fed- training:
eral Bureau of Health Professions was so concerned
about this trend that at one point, federal training The U.S. Department of Defense has developed ways
grants for PA programs required that all students of rapidly training medical personnel to meet its
complete clinical training assignments in federally specific needs, which are similar to those of the civilian
designated medically underserved areas. population. . . . Some of these people, such as Special
Forces and Navy “B” Corpsmen, receive 1400 hours
of formal medical training, which may include nine
MILITARY CORPSMEN weeks of a supervised “clerkship.” Army corpsmen of
the 91C series may have received up to 1900 hours of
The choice to train experienced military corpsmen this formal training.
as the first PAs was a key factor in the success of the
concept. As Sadler and colleagues12 pointed out, Most of these men have had 3 to 20 years of experi-
“The political appeal of providing a useful civilian ence, including independent duty on the battlefield,
health occupation for the returning Vietnam medical aboard ship, or in other isolated stations. Many have
corpsman is enormous.” some college background; Special Forces “medics”
The press and the American public were attracted average a year of college. After at least 2, and up
to the PA concept because it seemed to be one of to 20, years in uniform, these men have certain
the few positive “products” of the Vietnam War. skills and knowledge in the provision of primary
Highly skilled, independent duty corpsmen from all care. Once discharged, however, the investment of
branches of the uniformed services were disenfran- public funds in medical capabilities and p otential
chised as they attempted to find their place in the care is lost, because they work as detail men, insur-
U.S. health care system. These corpsmen, whose ance agents, burglar alarm salesmen, or truck
competence had truly been tested “under fire,” pro- drivers. The majority of this vast manpower pool
vided a willing, motivated, and proven applicant pool is unavailable to the current medical care delivery
of pioneers for the PA profession. Robert Howard, system because, up to this point, we have not
MD,13 of Duke University, in an AMA publication devised a civilian framework in which their skills
describing issues of training PAs, noted that not can be put to use.14
10 Overview
OTHER MODELS degree at the end of the second year of the 3-year
program and were ultimately awarded a master’s
Describing the period of 1965 to 1971 as “Stage degree at the end of training. Thus, it became the
One—The Initiation of Physician Assistant Pro- first PA program to offer a graduate degree as an out-
grams,” Carter and Gifford10 have identified 16 pro- come of PA training.
grams that pioneered the formal education of PAs Compared with pediatric NPs educated at the
and NPs. Programs based in university medical cen- same institution, child health associates, both by
ters similar to Duke emerged at Bowman Gray, Okla- greater depth of education and by law, could provide
homa, Yale, Alabama, George Washington, Emory, more extensive and independent services to pediatric
and Johns Hopkins and used the Duke training patients.10
model.8 Primarily using academic medical centers as Also offering nonmilitary candidates access to the
training facilities, “Duke-model” programs designed PA profession was the Alderson-Broaddus program
their clinical training to coincide with medical stu- in Philippi, West Virginia. As the result of discus-
dent clerkships and emphasized inpatient medical sions that had begun as early as 1963, Hu Myers,
and surgical roles for PAs. A dramatically different MD, developed the program, incorporating a cam-
training model developed at the University of Wash- pus hospital to provide clinical training for students
ington, pioneered by Richard Smith, MD, a U.S. with no previous medical experience. In the first
public health service physician and former Medical program designed to give students both a liberal arts
Director of the Peace Corps. Assigned to the Pacific education and professional training as PAs, Alder-
Northwest by Surgeon General William Stewart, son-Broaddus became the first 4-year college to offer
Smith was directed to develop a PA training pro- a baccalaureate degree to its students. Subsequently,
gram to respond uniquely to the health manpower other PA programs were developed at colleges that
shortages of the rural Northwest. Garnering the sup- were independent of university medical centers.
port of the Washington State Medical Association, Early programs of this type included those at North-
Smith developed the MEDEX model, which took eastern University in Boston and at Mercy College
a strong position on the “deployment” of students in Detroit.16
and graduates to medically underserved areas.15 This Specialty training for PAs was first developed
was accomplished by placing clinical phase students at the University of Alabama. Designed to facili-
in preceptorships with primary care physicians who tate access to care for underserved populations, the
agreed to employ them after graduation. The pro- 2-year program focused its entire clinical training
gram also emphasized the creation of a “receptive component on surgery and the surgical subspecial-
framework” for the new profession and established ties. Even more specialized training in urology,
relationships with legislators, regulators, and third- orthopedics, and pathology was briefly provided in
party payers to facilitate the acceptance and utiliza- programs throughout the United States, although
tion of the new profession. Although the program it was soon recognized that entry-level PA training
originally exclusively recruited military corpsmen needed to offer a broader base of generalist training.
as trainees, the term MEDEX was coined by Smith
not as a reference to their former military roles but
rather as a contraction of “Medicine Extension.”16 In CONTROVERSY ABOUT A NAME
his view, using MEDEX as a term of address avoided
any negative connotations of the word assistant and Amid the discussion about the types of training for
any potential conflict with medicine over the appro- the new health care professionals was a controversy
priate use of the term associate. MEDEX programs about the appropriate name for these new providers.
were also developed at the University of North Silver of the University of Colorado suggested syni-
Dakota School of Medicine, University of Utah Col- atrist (from the Greek syn, signifying “along with”
lege of Medicine, Dartmouth Medical School, How- or “association,” and iatric, meaning “relating to
ard University College of Medicine, Charles Drew medicine or a physician”) for health care personnel
Postgraduate Medical School, Pennsylvania State performing “physician-like” tasks. He recommended
University College of Medicine, and Medical Uni- that the term could be used with a prefix designating
versity of South Carolina.15 a medical specialty and a suffix indicating the level of
In Colorado, Henry Silver, MD, began the Child training (aide, assistant, or associate).17 Because of his
Health Associate Program in 1969, providing an background in international health, Smith believed
opportunity for individuals without previous medical that “assistant” or even “associate” should be avoided
experience but with at least 2 years of college to enter as potentially demeaning. His term MEDEX for
the PA profession. Students received a baccalaureate “physician extension” was designed to be used as a
2 History of the Profession and Current Trends 11
term of address, as well as a credential. He even sug- by 2015. In 2011, American Academy of Physician
gested a series of other companion titles, including Assistants (AAPA) President Robert Wooten sent
“Osler” and “Flexner.”14 a letter to all PAs describing a formal process for
In 1970, the AMA-sponsored Congress on Health collecting data regarding PA “opinions” about the
Manpower, attempted to end the controversy and “name issue” on the annual AAPA census for review
endorse appropriate terminology for the emerg- by the AAPA’s House of Delegates.
ing profession. The Congress chose associate rather The “name” is currently back on the list of PA
than assistant because of its belief that associate indi- “hot topics” as new PA programs in other coun-
cated a more collegial relationship between the PA tries have adopted the name “physician associate.”
and supervising physicians. Associate also eliminated The United Kingdom PAs were the first to make
the potential for confusion between PAs and medi- this change based on advice from medical organi-
cal assistants. Despite the position of the Congress, zations that “physician assistant” was not a correct
the AMA’s House of Delegates rejected the term description. In addition, the fact that personal secre-
associate, holding that it should be applied only to taries were termed “personal assistants” further mud-
physicians working in collaboration with other phy- died the waters. In 2013, the United Kingdom PAs
sicians. Nevertheless, PA programs, such as those at became physician associates, and the New Zealand
Yale, Duke, and the University of Oklahoma, began PAs followed them. Other non-U.S. PA programs
to call their graduates physician associates, and the and organizations are considering this change, which
debate about the appropriate title continued. A more may make the term “physician associate” easier to
subtle concern has been the use of an apostrophe in support in the United States. Currently, U.S. PA
the PA title. At various times, in various states, PAs organizations are promoting the use of the term PA
have been identified as physician’s assistants, implying rather than the spelled out words for physician assis-
ownership by one physician, and physicians’ assistants, tant to facilitate the transition if needed.
implying ownership by more than one physician;
they are now identified with the current title physi-
cian assistant without the apostrophe. PROGRAM EXPANSION
The June 1992 edition of the Journal of the Ameri-
can Academy of Physician Assistants contains an article From 1971 to 1973, 31 new PA programs were
by Eugene Stead, MD, reviewing the debate and call- established. These startups were directly related
ing for a reconsideration of the consistent use of the to available federal funding. In 1972, Health Man-
term physician associate.18 power Educational Initiatives (U.S. Public Health
The issue concerning the name resurfaces regu- Service) provided more than $6 million in funding
larly, usually among students who are less aware of to 40 programs. By 1975, 10 years after the first stu-
the historical and political context of the title. More dents entered the Duke program, there were 1282
recently, however, a name change has the support of graduates of PA programs. From 1974 to 1985, nine
more senior PAs who are adamant that the title assis- additional programs were established. Federal fund-
tant is a grossly incorrect description of their work. ing was highest in 1978, when $8,686,000 assisted 42
Although most PAs would agree that assistant is a programs. By 1985, the AAPA estimated that 16,000
less than optimum title, the greater concern is that PAs were practicing in the United States. A total
the process to change it would be cumbersome, time of 76 programs were accredited between 1965 and
consuming, and potentially threatening to the PA 1985, but 25 of those programs later closed (Table
profession. Every attempt to “open up” a state PA law 2.1). Reasons for closure range from withdrawal of
with the intent of changing the title would bring with accreditation to competition for funding within the
it the risk that outside forces (e.g., other health pro- sponsoring institution and adverse pressure on the
fessions) could modify the practice law and decrease sponsoring institution from other health care groups.
the PA scope of practice. Similarly, the bureaucratic Physician assistant programs entered an expansion
processes that would be required to change the title phase beginning in the early 1990s when issues of
in every rule and regulation in each state and in every efficiency in medical education, the necessity of team
federal agency would be incredibly labor intensive. practice, and the search for cost-effective solutions to
The overarching concern is that state and national health care delivery emerged. The AAPA urged the
PA organizations would be seen by policymakers as Association of Physician Assistant Programs (APAP)
both self-serving and self-centered if such a change to actively encourage the development of new pro-
were attempted. This has become a particularly con- grams, particularly in states where programs were
tentious issue among PAs since NP educators have not available. Beginning in 1990, the APAP created
chosen to move to a “doctorate in nursing practice” processes for new program support, including new
12 Overview
Development. With increasing acceptance of the PA workforce projections of an expanded need for pri-
concept and the demonstration that PAs could be mary care providers.
trained relatively rapidly and deployed to medically Unfortunately, federal Title VII support for all
underserved areas, the federal investment increased. primary care programs (including family medicine,
In 1972, the Comprehensive Health Manpower Act, pediatrics, general internal medicine, and primary
under Section 774 of the Public Health Act, autho- care dentistry) began to erode in the late 1990s.
rized support for PA training. The major objectives Federal budget analysts believed that the shrinking
were education of PAs for the delivery of primary number of graduates choosing primary care employ-
care medical services in ambulatory care settings; ment was a signal that federal support was no longer
deployment of PA graduates to medically under- justified. The federal Title VII Advisory Committee
served areas; and recruitment of larger numbers of on Primary Care Medicine and Dentistry—which
residents from medically underserved areas, minority includes PA representatives—was formed to study
groups, and women to the health professions. the problem and recommend strategies. Title VII
Physician assistant funding under the Health and Title VIII Reauthorization was delayed until the
Manpower Education Initiatives Awards and Public passage of overarching health reform legislation in
Health Services Contracts from 1972 to 1976 totaled 2010.
$32,669,565 for 43 programs. From 1977 to 1991, PA Physician assistant programs immediately ben-
training was funded through Sections 701, 783, and efited from available funding through traditional
788 of the Public Health Service Act. Grants during 5-year training grants and two one-time only grant
this period totaled $87,927,728 and included strong programs for (1) educational equipment, including
incentives for primary care training, recruitment of simulation models and teleconferencing hardware,
diverse student bodies, and deployment of students and (2) expansion grants to add more training slots
to clinical sites serving the medically underserved. for students who were willing to commit themselves
According to Cawley,19 as of 1992 “This legislation to primary care employment. For the first time, PA
. . . supported the education of at least 17,500, or over training grants were expanded from 3 years to 5 years
70% of the nation’s actively practicing PAs.” Unfor- but were limited to $150,000 per grant.
tunately, this high level of support did not continue
and with lesser funding for primary care, programs
followed medical schools into specialty practice ACCREDITATION
models. Today the majority of the nation’s PAs—
and the programs from which they graduated—have Accreditation of formal PA programs became imper-
unfortunately not been exposed to the primary care ative because the term physician assistant was being
values and experiences that characterized and defined used to label a wide variety of formally and infor-
the early PA concept. mally trained health personnel. Leaders of the Duke
During the period of program expansion, the program—E. Harvey Estes, MD, and Robert How-
focus of federal funding support became much ard, MD—asked the AMA to determine educational
more specific, and fewer programs received funding. guidelines for PAs. This request was consistent with
Tied to the primary care access goals of the Health the AMA’s position of leadership in the development
Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), PA of new health careers and its publication of Guidelines
program grants commonly supported less program for Development of New Health Occupations.
infrastructure and more specific primary care initia- The National Academy of Science’s Board of
tives and educational innovations. Examples of activ- Medicine had also become involved in the effort to
ities that were eligible for federal support included develop uniform terminology for PAs. It suggested
clinical site expansion in urban and rural underserved three categories of PAs. Type A was defined as a
settings, recruitment and retention activities, and “generalist” capable of data collection and presenta-
curriculum development on topics such as managed tion and having the potential for independent judg-
care and geriatrics. ment; type B was trained in one clinical specialty;
An important trend was the diversification of type C was determined to be capable of performing
funding sources for PA programs. In addition to tasks similar to those performed by type A but not
federal PA training grants, many programs have capable of independent judgment.
benefited from clinical site support provided by Although these categories have not remained as
other federal programs, such as Area Health Edu- descriptors of the PA profession, they helped the
cation Centers (AHECs) or the National Health medical establishment move toward the support of PA
Service Corps (NHSC). Also, many programs now program accreditation. Also helpful were surveys con-
receive expanded state funding on the basis of state ducted by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the
14 Overview
American Society of Internal Medicine determining that the new professional role should be developed
the acceptability of the PA concept to their respective in an orderly fashion, under medical guidance, and
members. With positive responses, these organiza- should be measured by high standards. The coopera-
tions, along with the American Academy of Family tion of the AMA and the National Board of Medical
Physicians and the American College of Physicians, Examiners ultimately resulted in the creation of the
joined the AMA’s Council on Medical Education in National Commission on Certification of Physician
the creation of the “educational essentials” for the Assistants (NCCPA), which brought together repre-
accreditation of PA training programs. The AMA’s sentatives of 14 organizations as an independent com-
House of Delegates approved these essentials in 1971. mission. Federal grants contributed $715,000 toward
Three PAs—William Stanhope, Steven Turnip- the construction and validation of the examination.10
seed, and Gail Spears—were involved in the creation In 1973, the first NCCPA national board exami-
of these essentials as representatives of the Duke, nation was administered at 38 sites to 880 candidates.
MEDEX, and Colorado programs, respectively. The In 1974, 1303 candidates took the examination; in
AMA appointed L.M. Detmer Administrator of the 1975, there were 1414 candidates. In 1992, 2121
accreditation process. In 1972, accreditation appli- candidates were examined. In 1997, the examination
cations were processed, and 20 sites were visited in was administered to 3728 candidates. In 2002, 4918
alphabetical order, 17 of which received accredita- candidates took the Physician Assistant National
tion. Ultimately, the accreditation activities were car- Certifying Examination (PANCE) (3995 first-time
ried out by the Joint Review Committee, which was a takers). In 2006, 5495 candidates (4522 first-time
part of the AMA’s Committee on Allied Health Edu- takers), and, in 2007, an estimated 5836 candidates
cation and Accreditation (CAHEA). John McCarty took the PANCE, of whom 4736 were first-time tak-
became the Administrator of the ARC-PA in 1991 ers. In January 2014, Dawn Morton Rias, NCCPA
and has been the first PA to serve in this role. Later, CEO, announced the certification of the 100,000th
the Joint Committee was renamed the Accreditation physician assistant (PA-C) in the nation since the
Review Committee (ARC). In 2000, the ARC became organization’s inception nearly 40 years ago.20
an independent entity, apart from the CAHEA, and Now administered only to graduates of ARC-
changed its name to the Accreditation Review Com- PA–accredited PA programs, the NCCPA board
mission. Current members of the ARC include the examination was originally open to three categories
Physician Assistant Education Association, AAPA, of individuals seeking certification:
American Academy of Family Physicians, American • Formally trained PAs, who were eligible by virtue
Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Physi- of their graduation from a program approved by
cians, American College of Surgeons, and American the Joint Review Committee on Educational Pro-
Medical Association. grams for Physician’s Assistants
• NPs, who were eligible provided that they had
graduated from a family or pediatric NP/clinician
CERTIFICATION program of at least 4 months’ duration, affiliated
with an accredited medical or nursing school
Just as an accreditation process served to assess the • Informally trained PAs, who could sit for the
quality of PA training programs, a certification pro- examination provided that they had functioned for
cess was necessary to ensure the quality of individual 4 of the past 5 years as PAs in a primary care set-
program graduates and become the “gold standard” ting. Candidate applications and detailed employ-
for the new profession. In 1970, the American Regis- ment verification by current and former employers
try of Physician’s Associates was created by programs provided data for determination of eligibility.21
from Duke University; Bowman Gray School of
Medicine; and the University of Texas, Galveston, to Since 1986, only graduates of formally accredited
construct the first certification process. The first cer- PA programs have been eligible for the NCCPA
tification examination, for graduates from eight pro- examination.
grams, was administered in 1972. It was recognized, The NCCPA’s assignments include not only the
however, that the examination would have greater annual examination but also technical assistance to
credibility if the National Board of Medical Exam- state medical boards on issues of certification. The
iners administered it. During this same period, the NCCPA’s website, NCCPA Connect, includes a
AMA’s House of Delegates requested the Council of listing of all currently certified PAs as a resource for
Health Manpower to become involved in the devel- employers and state licensing boards.
opment of a national certification program for PAs. The NCCPA also administers a recertification
Specifically, the House of Delegates was concerned process, which includes requirements to complete
2 History of the Profession and Current Trends 15
and register 100 hours of continuing medical educa- profession by creating and presenting an online vir-
tion (CME) every 2 years and to pass for recertifica- tual repository of historic and current information on
tion examinations on a specified schedule. Originally the PA profession. The Society’s projects include an
every 6 years, since 2014, the NCCPA has begun archive of PA historical items, the extensive website
a transition to a 10-year recertification and exam on PA history designed to serve as a resource for PA
cycle. Since recertification was mandated in 1981, students and practicing PAs and researchers, as well
PAs have been required to retest every 6 years. The as the PA History Center housed in the North Caro-
10-year process now includes CME requirements lina Academy’s headquarters in Raleigh-Durham,
obtained through self-assessment or performance North Carolina. An 11-member board governs the
improvement. Society and provides leadership for history activities
A recent development for the NCCPA is the with support from NCCPA staff.
development of voluntary recognition for specialty
training and education. Called Certificates of Added
Qualification (CAQ), the process is modeled after ORGANIZATIONS
similar acknowledgments in Family Medicine. The
NCCPA’s decision to create the CAQ was based on American Academy of Physician
a long process that involved requests from PA spe-
cialty groups, a history of inquiries from institutional
Assistants
credentialing and privileging bodies, a series of meet- What was to become the AAPA was initiated by
ings involving partnerships between specialty PAs students from Duke’s second and third classes as
and supportive parallel physician organizations, and the American Association of Physician Assistants.
a long exploration of possible options.22 Incorporated in North Carolina in 1968 with E.
The final decision—to try the CAQ process with Harvey Estes, Jr., MD, as its first advisor and Wil-
five specialties—was sharply criticized by the AAPA, liam Stanhope serving two terms as the first presi-
which feared that any specialty process threatens the dent (1968–1969 and 1969–1970), the organization’s
generalist image. Ultimately, the NCCPA decided original purposes were to educate the public about
that it was better for them to move in this direction PAs, provide education for PAs, and encourage ser-
rather than have external for-profit organizations vice to patients and the medical community. With
create certification processes without PA input. The initial annual dues of $20, the Academy created a
five specialties chosen were cardiovascular surgery, newsletter as the official publication of the AAPA and
orthopedics, nephrology, psychiatry, and emergency contacted fellow students at the MEDEX program
medicine. Teams composed of representatives of and at Alderson-Broaddus.
MD and PA specialty organizations worked together By the end of the second year, national media
to create the CAQ process. Subsequently, CAQs in coverage of emerging PA programs throughout
pediatrics and hospital medicine have been added. the United States was increasing (Fig. 2.1), and the
In 2005, the NCCPA created a separate NCCPA AAPA began to plan for state societies and student
Foundation to promote and support the PA profes- chapters. Tax-exempt status was obtained, the office
sion through research and educational projects. The of president-elect was established, and staggered
Foundation supports the work of the NCCPA for terms of office for board members were approved.
the advancement of certified physician assistants and Controversy over types of PA training models
the benefit of the public. PA Foundation activities offered the first major challenge to the AAPA. Believ-
have included a PA Ethics Project with the Physi- ing that students trained in 2-year programs based
cian Assistant Education Association, a Best Practice on the biomedical model (type A) were the only
Project focusing on the relationships between PAs legitimate PAs, the AAPA initially restricted mem-
and their supervising physicians, and a research bership to these graduates. The Council of MEDEX
grants program. Programs strongly opposed this point of view. Ulti-
In 2010, the NCCPA welcomed the Society for mately, discussions between Duke University’s Rob-
the Preservation of Physician Assistant History and ert Howard, MD, and MEDEX Program’s Richard
was moved into its infrastructure. The Society is now Smith, MD, resulted in an inclusion of graduates of
headquartered at the NCCPA offices in Johns Creek, all accredited programs in the definition of physician
Georgia. Originally founded in 2002 as a free-stand- assistant and thus in the AAPA.
ing organization for educational, research, and lit- At least three other organizations also posi-
erary purposes, the Society’s mission is to serve as tioned themselves to speak for the new profession.
the preeminent leader in fostering the preservation, These were a proprietary credentialing association,
study, and presentation of the history of the PA the American Association of Physician Assistants
16 Overview
FIG. 2.1 n The comic strip “Gasoline Alley” is credited with introducing to the public the concept
of the physician assistant in 1971, when leading character Chipper Wallet decided to become
one. (Tribune Media Services. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
2 History of the Profession and Current Trends 17
(a group representing U.S. Public Health Service became the official magazine of the AAPA followed
PAs at Staten Island); the National Association of by Physician Assistant in 1983 and the Journal of the
Physician Assistants; and the American College of American Academy of Physician Assistants in 1988. A
Physician Assistants, from the Cincinnati Technical monthly online publication, PA Professional, has more
College PA Program. AAPA President Paul Moson recently been created by the AAPA to feature news,
provided the leadership that “would result in the policy issues, and the successes of individual PAs.
emergence of the AAPA as the single voice of pro- Clinician Reviews and Physician Assistant, published
fessional PAs” (W.D. Stanhope, C.E. Fasser, unpub- by external publishers, also offer medical articles and
lished manuscript, 1992). coverage of professional issues for PAs. In addition
This unification was critical to the involvement of to formal publications, the AAPA’s website provides
PAs in the development of educational standards and the most current information about current prac-
the accreditation of PA programs. During Carl Fasser’s tice, policy, and advocacy issues for PAs and their
term as AAPA president, the AMA formally recognized employers.
the AAPA, and three Academy representatives were Governed by a 13-member board of directors,
formally appointed to the Joint Review Committee. including officers of the House of Delegates and a
During the AAPA presidency of Tom Godkins and student representative, the AAPA’s structure includes
the APAP presidency of Thomas Piemme, MD, the standing committees and councils. Specialty groups
two organizations sought funding from foundations and formal caucuses bring together academy mem-
for the creation of a shared national office. Funding bers with a common concern or interest.24
was received from the Robert Wood Johnson Foun- The AAPA’s Student Academy is composed of
dation, the van Ameringen Foundation, and the Ittle- chartered student societies from each PA educational
son Foundation. Because of its 501(c)(3) tax-exempt program. Each society has one seat in the Assembly
status, APAP received the funds for the cooperative of Representatives, which meets at the annual con-
use of both organizations. “Discussions held at that ference and elects officers to direct Student Academy
time between Piemme and Godkins and other orga- (SAAPA) activities.
nizational representatives agreed that in the future, The Academy also includes a philanthropic arm,
because of the limited size of APAP . . . funds would the Physician Assistant Foundation, whose mission is
later flow back from the AAPA to APAP”23 (W.D. to foster knowledge and philanthropy that promotes
Stanhope, C.E. Fasser, unpublished manuscript, quality health care.
1992). Donald Fisher, MD, was hired as executive The annual AAPA conference serves as the major
director of both organizations, and a national office political and continuing medical education activity
was opened in Washington, DC. According to Stan- for PAs, with an average annual attendance of 7000
hope and Fasser, “a considerable debt is owed to the to 9000 participants. A list of past and present AAPA
many PA programs and their staff who supported the presidents is provided in Table 2.2. A history of con-
early years of AAPA.” ference locations is given in Table 2.3. Table 2.4 lists
AAPA constituent chapters were created during presidents of the SAAPA from the AAPA.
President Roger Whittaker’s term in 1976. Modeled Legislative and leadership activities for the AAPA
after the organizational structure of the American take place at an annual leadership event, which also
Academy of Family Physicians, the AAPA’s constitu- provides the opportunity for lobbying of state con-
ent chapter structure and the apportionment of seats gressional delegations in Washington, DC.
in the House of Delegates were the culmination of Key to the success of the AAPA is a dedicated staff
initial discussions held in the formative days of the at the national office in Alexandria, Virginia. Under
AAPA. The American Academy of Family Physicians a chief executive officer who is responsible to the
hosted the AAPA’s first Constituent Chapters Work- AAPA Board of Directors, senior vice presidents and
shop in Kansas City, and the first AAPA House of vice presidents manage Academy activities related to
Delegates was convened in 1977. governmental affairs, education, communications,
Throughout its development, the AAPA has been member services, accounting, and administration.
active in the publication of journals for the profes-
sion. As the first official journal of the AAPA, Physi- Association of Physician Assistant
cian’s Associate, was originally designed to encourage Programs to Physician Assistant
research and to report on the developing PA move-
ment. With the consolidation of graduates of all
Education Association
programs into the AAPA, the official academy pub- The APAP evolved from the original A merican
lication became the PA Journal, A Journal for New Registry of Physician’s Associates. The Registry was
Health Practitioners. In 1977, Health Practitioner originally created “to determine the competence
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