Physics For Scientists and Engineers With Modern Physics 4Th Edition Douglas C Giancoli Download PDF Chapter

Physics for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics 4th Edition

Douglas C. Giancoli
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SCIENTISTS & ENGINEERS
with Modern Physics
DOUGLAS C. GIANCOLI
• .
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Giancoli, Douglas C.
Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics / Douglas C.
Giancoli.-4th ed.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-149508-9
- - -
1. Physics-Textbooks.
— I. Title.
QC21.3.GS39 2008
—
530---dc22
2006039431
President, Science: Paul Corey

Sponsoring Editor: Christian Botting
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a continuation of the copyright page.
© 2009, 2000, 1989, 1984 by Douglas C. Giancoli

Published by Pearson Education, Inc.
Pearson Prentice Hall
• Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, KJ 07458
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Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978 - 0-13-149508 -1

ISBN-10: D-13-149508 - 9
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KINEMATICS IN Two OR
Contents 3 THREE DIMENSIONS; VECTORS 51
3-1
- Vectors and Scalars 52
3-2
- Addition of Vectors-Graphical
- Methods 52
3-3
- Subtraction of Vectors, and
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 54
-
3--4 Adding Vectors by Components 55
3-5
- Unit Vectors 59
-
3-6 Vector Kinematics 59
3-7
- Projectile Motion 62
3-8
- Solving Problems: Projectile Motion 64
3-9
- Relative Velocity 71
SUMMARY 74 QUESTlOKS 75
PROBLEMS 75 GEJ\"ERAL PROBLEMS 80
DYNAMICS:
4 NEWTON'S LAws OF MOTION 83
4-1
- Force 84
4-2
- Newton's First Law of Motion 84
4-3
- Mass 86
APPLICATIONS IJST xii -
4--4 Newton's Second Law of Motion 86
PRl:EA.CI:: xiv 4-5
- Newton's '!bird Law of Motion 89
To SrnoE~rs xviii 4-6
- — JbrceofGravity;the Nonna! Force 92
Weight-the
USE.OFCoLOR xix 4-7
- Solving Problems with Ne\Vton's Laws:
Free-Body
- Diagrams 95
Volume 1 4-8
- Problem Solving-A General Approach l02
SUMMARY 102 OUESTrOKS 103
INTRODUCTION, PROBLEMS 104 GEJ\ERAL PROBLEMS 109
1 MEASUREMENT, ESTIMATING 1 USING NEWroN's l.Aws: FruCTioN,

1-1
-
1-2
-
The Nature of Science
Models, Theories, and Laws
2
2
5 CIRCUIAR MOTION, DRAG FORCES 112
5-1 Applications of Newton's Laws
1-3
- Measurement and Uncertainty; Involving Friction 113
Significant Figures 3 5-2
- Uniform Circular Motion-Kinematici;
— 119
1-4
- Units, Standards, and the SI System 6 5-3
- Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion 122
1-5
- Converting Units 8 -
5--4 Highway Curves: Banked and Unbanked 126
1-6
- Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating 9 «5-5 Nonuniform Circular Motion 128
*l-7 Dimensioni; and Dimensional Analyi;is 12 *5-6 Velocity-Dependent
- Forces:
SUMMARY 14 QUESTIONS 14 Drag and Terminal Velocity 129
PROBLEMS 14 GENERAL PROBLEMS 16 SUMMARY 130 QUESTlOKS 131
PROBLEMS 132 GEKilRAL PROBLEMS 136
DESCRIBING MOTION:
2 KINEMATICS IN ONE DIMENSION 18
2-1
- Reference Frames and Displacement 19
2-2
- Average Velocity 20
2-3
- Instantaneous Velocity 22
2-4
- Acceleration 24
2-5
- Motion at Constant Acceleration 28
2-6
- Solving Problems 30
2-7
- Freely Falling Objects 34
*2-8 Variable Acceleration; Integral Calcului; 39
*2-9 Graphical Analysis and
Numerical Integration 40
SUMMARY 43 QUESTIONS 43
PROBLEMS 44 GENERAL PROBLEMS 48
Ill
GRAVITATION AND
6 NEWTON'S' SYNTHESIS 139 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM 214
6-1
- Newton's Law of Univeri;al Gravitation 140 9-1 Momentum and Its Relation to Force 215
-
6-2 Vector Form of Newton's Law of 9-2
- Conservation of Momentum 217
Universal Gravitation 143 9-3 Collisions and Impulse 220
6-3 Gravity Near the Earth's Surface; 9-4
- Conservation of Energy and
Geophysical Applications 143 Momentum in Collisions 222
6-4
- Satellites and "Weightlessness" 146 9-5 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 222
6-5 Kepler's Laws and Newton's Synthesis 149 9-6
- Jnelastic Collisioni; 225
"'6-6
- Gravitational Field 154 9-7
- Collisions in Two or Three Dimensions 227
6-7
- Types of Forces in Nature 155 9-8
- Center of Mass (C:\-1) 230
*6-8
- Principle of Equivalence; 9-9
- Center of Mass and Translational Motion 234
Curvature of Space; Black Holes 155 *9-10 Systems of Variable~; Rocket Propulsion 236
SCMMARY 157 QUESTIONS 157
SUMMARY 239 Qt;RSTIONS 239
PROBLEMS 158 OE:>IERAL PROBLEMS HiO
~i!~ ot
10 ROTATIONAL MOTION 248
10-1 Angular Quantities 249
10-2 Vector Nature of Angular Quantities 254
10-3 Constant Angular Acceleration 255
10-4 Torque 256
10-5 Rotational Dynamics;
Torque and Rotational Inertia 258
1()-6 Solving Problems in Rotational Dynamics 26()
10-7 Determining Moments of Inertia 2(i3
10-8 Rotational Kinetic Energy 265
10-9 Rotational Plus Translational Motion; Rolling 267
7 WORK AND ENERGY 163 *10-10 Why Doel$ a Rolling Sphere Slow Down? 273
SUMMARY 274 Ql."ESTIONS 275
7-1 Work Done by a Constant Force 164 PROBLEMS 276 GilNERAL PROBLnMS 281
7-2
- Scalar ProdU(,1 of Two Vectors 167
ANGUlAR MOMENrnM;
7-3
-
-
7--4
Work Done by a Varying Force
Kinetic Energy and the
168
11 GENERAL ROTATION 284
Work-Energy
- Principle 172 11-1 Angular Momentum-Objects
—
SL"l,,.IMARY 176 QUESTIONS 177 Rotating About a Fixed Axis 285
PROBLEMS 177 GE:>IERAL PROBLEMS 180 11-2 Vector Cross Product;Torque as a Vector 289
11-3 Angular Momentum of a Particle 291
8 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 183 11-4 Angular Momentum and Torque for
a System of Particles; General Motion 292
8-1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 184 11-5 Angular Momentum and
-
8-2 Potential Energy 186 Torque for a Rigid Object 294
8-3 Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation 189 11-6 Conservation of Angular Momentum 297
-
8-4 Problem Solving Using *11-7 The Spinning Top and Gyroscope 299
Conservation of Mechanical Energy 190 *11-8 Rotating Frames of Reference; Inertial Forces 300
8-5 111e Law of Conservation of Energy 196 *11-9 The Coriolis Effect 301
8-6
- Energy Conservation with
SUMMARY 302
Dissipative Forces: Solving Problems 197
OUl:iSTIO:,jS 303
8-7
- Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity 199 PRORI.RMS 303
8-8
- Power 201 GENERAL
PROHLl:i.MS 308
*8-9 Potential Energy Diagrams;
Stable and Unstable Equilibrium 204
SD1MARY 205 QUESTIONS 205
PROillEMS 207 GE~ERAL PROBLEMS 211
iv CONTENTS
14 0SCIU.ATIONS 369
14-1 Oscillations of a Spring 370
14-2 Simple Harmonic Motion 372
14-3 Energy in the Simple
Harmonic Oscillator 377
14-4 Simple Harmonic Motion Related
to Uniform Circular Motion 379
14-5 The Simple Pendulum 379
*14-6 The Physical Pendulum and
the Torsion Pendulum 381
14-7 Damped Harmonic Motion 382
14-8 Forced Oscillations; Resonance 385
SUMMARY 387 QUEST1O1'S 388
PROBLEMS 388 GEJ\"ERAL PROBLEMS 392
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM;
12 EIASTICfIY AND FRACTIJRE 311
15 WAVE MOTION 395
15-1 ChaTacteristic:, of Wave Motion 396
12-1 The Conditions for Equilibrium 312 15-2 Types of Waves:
12-2
- Solving Statics Problems 313 Ttansven;e and Longitudinal 398
12-3 Stability and Balance 317 15-3 Energy Transported by Waves 402
12-4
- Elasticity; Stress and Strain 318 15-4 Mathematical Representation of a
12-5 Fracture 322 Traveling Wave 404
*12-6 Trusses and Bridges 324 * 15-5 The Wave Equation 406
*12-7 Arches and Domes 327 15-6 The Principle of Superposition 408
SUMMARY 329 QUESTIONS 329 15-7 Reflection and Transmission 409
PROBI.RM$ 330 GENERAL PRORI.F.MS 334 15-8 Interference 410
15-9 Standing Waves; Resonance 412
~15-10 Refraction 415
13 FLums 339 * 15-11 Diffraction
SUMMARY 417 QUESTrOl\'S 417
416
13-1 Phases of Matter 340 PROBLEMS 418 GEI\ERJ\L PROBLEMS 422
13-2
- Density and Specific Gravity 340
13-3 Pressure in Fluids 341
13-4
- Atmospheric Pressure and
Gauge Pressure
13-5 Pascal's Principle
345
346
16 SOUND 424
- Measurement of Pressure;
l 3-6 16-1 Characteristics of Sound 425
Gauges and the Barometer 346 16-2 Mathematical Representation
13-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle 348 of Longitudinal Waves 426
- Fluids in Motion; Flow Rate
13-8 16-3 Intensity of Sound: Decibels 427
and the Equation of Continuity 352 16-4 Sources of Sound:
13-9
- Bernoulli's Equation 354 Vibrating Strings and Air Columns 431
13-10 Applications of Bernoulli's Principle: *16-5 Quality of Sound, and Noise;
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, TIA 356 Superposition 436
*13-11 Viscosity 358 16-6 Interference of Sound Waves; Beats 437
*13-12 Flow in Tubes: Poiseuille's 16-7 Doppler Effect 439
Equation, Blood Flow 358 "16-8 Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom 443
*13-13 Surface Tension and Capillarity 359 * 16-9 Applicati.oni;: Sonar, Ultrasound,
*13-14 Pumps, and the Heart 361 and Medical Imaging 444
SUMMARY 361 QUESTIONS 362 SUMMARY 446 QUESTlOKS 447
PROBIBMS 363 GENERAL PROBLEMS 367 PROBLEMS 448 GEJ\"ERAL PROBLEMS 451
CONTENTS v
H F ir s t L a w
19 of
eat a n d t h e
T herm od n a m ic s 496
19-1 Heat as Energy Transfer 497
19-2 Internal Energy 498
19-3 Specific Heat 499
19-4 alorimetry — Solving Problems 500
19-5 Latent Heat 502
19-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 505
19-7 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Applied; alculating the Work 507
19-8 Molar Specific Heats for Gases,
and the Equipartition of Energy 511
19-9 Adiabatic Expansion of a Gas 514
19-10 Heat Transfer: onduction,
onvection, Radiation 515
20 S e c o n d La w o f
T h e r m o d n a m ic s 528
T e m p er tu r e, 20-1 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics— Introduction 529
't f j T h e r m l E x p n s io n ,
20 -2 Heat Engines 530
1 / a n d t h e I d e a l G as Law 454 20-3 Reversible and Irreversible
17-1 Atomic Theory of Matter 455 Processes; the arnot Engine 533
17-2 Temperature and Thermometers 456 20 -4 Refrigerators, Air onditioners, and
17-3 Thermal Equilibrium and the Heat Pumps 536
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 459 20-5 Entropy 539
17-4 Thermal Expansion 459 20 -6 Entropy and the Second Law of
*17-5 Thermal Stresses 463 Thermodynamics 541
17-6 The Gas Laws and 20-7 Order to Disorder 544
Absolute Temperature 463 20-8 Unavailability of Energy; Heat Death 545
17-7 The Ideal Gas Law 465 *20-9 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy
17-8 Problem Solving with the and the Second Law 546
Ideal Gas Law 466 *20-10 Thermodynamic Temperature;
17-9 Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Third Law of Thermodynamics 548
Avogadro’s Number 468 *20-11 Thermal Pollution, Global Warming,
*17-10 Ideal Gas Temperature Scale— and Energy Resources 549
a Standard 469 SUMMARY 551 QUESTIONS 552
18 K in e t ic T h e o r of G a se s 476
18-1 The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular
Interpretation of Temperature 476
18-2 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 480
18-3 Real Gases and hanges of Phase 482
18-4 Vapor Pressure and Humidity 484
*18-5 Van der Waals Equation of State 486
*18-6 Mean Free Path 487
*18-7 Diffusion 489
vi C NTENTS
Volume 2 23 E lec tr ic P o t e n t ia l 607
23 -1 Electric Potential Energy and
/■%«
- E lectr c C harge and Potential Difference 607
Z 1 E lectr c F eld 559 23 - 2 Relation between Electric Potential
and Electric Field 610
21-1 Static Electricity; Electric 23 - 3Electric Potential Due to Point harges 612
harge and Its onservation 560
23 - 4Potential Due to Any harge Distribution 614
21-2 Electric harge in the Atom 561
23 - 5Equipotential Surfaces 616
21-3 Insulators and onductors 561
23 - 6Electric Dipole Potential 617
21-4 Induced harge; the Electroscope 562
23 - 7E Determined from V 617
21-5 oulomb’s Law 563
23 - 8Electrostatic Potential Energy; the
21-6 The Electric Field 568 Electron Volt 619
21-7 Electric Field alculations for *23 -9 athode Ray Tube: TV and omputer
ontinuous harge Distributions 572 Monitors, Oscilloscope 620
21-8 Field Lines 575 SUMMARY 622 QUESTIONS 622
21-9 Electric Fields and onductors 577 PROBLEMS 623 GENERAL PROBLEMS 626
21-10 Motion of a harged Particle in
an Electric Field
21-11 Electric Dipoles
*21-12 Electric Forces in Molecular Biology;
578
579 24 C a p a c it a n c e , D ie le c t r ic s ,
E lec tr ic E n e r g S t o r a g e 628
24 -1 apacitors 628
DNA 581 24 - 2 Determination of apacitance 630
*21-13 Photocopy Machines and omputer 24 - 3 apacitors in Series and Parallel 633
Printers Use Electrostatics 582 24 - 4 Electric Energy Storage 636
SUMMARY 584 QUESTIONS 584 24 - 5 Dielectrics 638
*24 -6 Molecular Description of Dielectrics 640
E lec tr ic C u r r e n t s
25 and R e sist a n c e 651
25 -1 The Electric Battery 652
25 - 2 Electric urrent 654
25 - 3 Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Resistors 655
25 - 4 Resistivity 658
25 - 5 Electric Power 660
25 - 6 Power in Household ircuits 662
25 - 7 Alternating urrent 664
25 - 8 Microscopic View of Electric urrent:
urrent Density and Drift Velocity 666
*25 -9 Superconductivity 668
*25 -10 Electrical onduction in the Nervous System 669
26 D C C ir c u it s 677
26 -1 EMF and Terminal Voltage 678
G auss ' s Law ___ 591 26 - 2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 679
26 - 3 Kirchhoffs Rules 683
22-1 Electric Flux 592 26-4 Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery harging 686
22-2 Gauss’s Law 593 26 - 5 ircuits ontaining Resistor
22-3 Applications of Gauss’s Law 595 and apacitor (RC ircuits) 687
*22-4 Experimental Basis of Gauss’s and 26 - 6 Electric Hazards 692
oulomb’s Laws 600 *26-7 Ammeters and Voltmeters 695
SUMMARY 601 QUESTIONS 601 SUMMARY 698 QUESTIONS 698
PROBLEMS 601 GENERAL PROBLEMS 605 PROBLEMS 699 GENERAL PROBLEMS 704
C NTENTS vii
E lectromagnet c I n d u c t o n
and Faraday' s Law 758
29-1 Induced EMF 759
29-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law 760
29-3 EMF Induced in a Moving onductor 765
29-4 Electric Generators 766
*29-5 Back EMF and ounter Torque;
Eddy urrents 768
29-6 Transformers and Transmission of Power 770
29 -7 A hanging Magnetic Flux Produces an
Electric Field 773
*29-8 Applications of Induction:
Sound Systems, omputer Memory,
Seismograph, GF I 775
Inductance , E lectromagnet c
27 M a g n e t is m 707
30-1
O sc llat ons, and AC C rcu ts 7 8 5
Mutual Inductance 786
27-1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 707 30-2 Self-Inductance 788
27-2 Electric urrents Produce Magnetic Fields 710 30-3 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 790
27-3 Force on an Electric urrent in a 30-4 LR ircuits 790
Magnetic Field; Definition of B 710
30-5 LC ircuits and Electromagnetic
27-4 Force on an Electric harge Moving Oscillations 793
in a Magnetic Field 714
30-6 LC Oscillations with Resistance
27-5 Torque on a urrent Loop; Magnetic (.LRC ircuit) 795
Dipole Moment 718
30-7 A ircuits with A Source 796
*27-6 Applications: Motors, Loudspeakers,
Galvanometers 720 30-8 LRC Series A ircuit 799
27-7 Discovery and Properties of the 30-9 Resonance in A ircuits 802
Electron 721 *30-10 Impedance Matching 802
27-8 The Hall Effect 723 *30-11 Three-Phase A 803
*27-9 Mass Spectrometer 724 SUMMARY 804 QUESTIONS 804
M axwell' s E quat ons and
E lectromagnet c W aves 812
S ources o f M agnet c F eld 733
31-1 hanging Electric Fields Produce
28-1 Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire 734 Magnetic Fields; Ampere’s Law and
28-2 Force between Two Parallel Wires 735 Displacement urrent 813
28-3 Definitions of the Ampere and the 31-2 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism 816
oulomb 736 31-3 Maxwell’s Equations 817
28-4 Ampere’s Law 737 31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves 817
28-5 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid and 31-5 Electromagnetic Waves, and
a Toroid 741 Their Speed, from Maxwell’s Equations 819
28-6 Biot-Savart Law 743 31-6 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
28-7 Magnetic Materials— Ferromagnetism 746 and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 823
*28-8 Electromagnets and 31-7 Measuring the Speed of Light 825
Solenoids— Applications 747 31-8 Energy in EM Waves; the Poynting Vector 826
*28-9 Magnetic Fields in Magnetic Materials; 31-9 Radiation Pressure 828
Hysteresis 748 31-10 Radio and Television;
*28-10 Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism 749 Wireless ommunication 829
viii C NTENTS
L g h t : R eflect on
32 and R efract on 837
32-1 The Ray Model of Light 838
32-2 Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror 838
32-3 Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors 842
32-4 Index of Refraction 850
32-5 Refraction: Snell’s Law 850
32-6 Visible Spectrum and Dispersion 852
32-7 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics 854
*32-8 Refraction at a Spherical Surface 856
T he W ave N ature L ght ;
y j i i ' w n in H r . th e n h ( « l K- p l4 A ‘J .11 lltL> N irti

34 I nterference
of
900
rm I t u p r o d lM U a v ic tu a l im u jw . h W h 34-1 Waves Versus Particles; Huygens’
> ^ C L S m n i r i t o n n f rw irt
j f n ( . ^ m p j f j s o n u l p jT L { J J ^ ift
IMIw c j* « ictmed.
K K tly U I V f ^ a l p u ir L Principle and Diffraction 901
/viewed t ihe ne r point wirfiSL**vcn
' >™ ‘w the <*jw.i-_ 34-2 Huygens’ Principle and the Law of
object subtends t the eye is much / !k r rl(h>in Refraction 902
m gniricttliim or mttgnifying power, rr‘
ngle subtended by n object when u s i n X ^ S j f c ^ c r,JhlJ ,lf lHc 34-3 Interference — Young’s Double-Slit
un ided eye, with the object t the ne ^P^^u^itn^duMnicih.L: Experiment 903
norm l eye): »" ,h4: lN - fDr * *34-4 Intensity in the Double-Slit
Interference Pattern 906
M (»-£i 34-5 Interference in Thin Films 909
vritcjWin[LinnL»1lilt t«*l *34-6 Michelson Interferometer 914
w here 0 nd flr rs shown in Fig. 3 3 - 3 3 . ' “ /tl" (Hj(. 3? .l.lij,wliLii;
’
length by noting th t 0 = h / N (Fig, 3.1- lc*#tcwialtk>rtandflrcijiml *34-7 Luminous Intensity 915
* « .he heigh, of Ihe object and we J -3J SUMMARY 915 QUESTIONS 916
^buir suits and lungems, ff the eye is
j^t infinity and the ot>ji.>el will h> PROBLEMS 916 GENERAL PROBLEMS 918
^ / nd fl' = h / f .
D ffract on
35 and P olar zat on 921
35-1 Diffraction by a Single Slit or Disk 922
*35-2 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction
Pattern 924
*35-3 Diffraction in the Double-Slit Experiment 927
Lenses a nd O pt cal 35-4 Limits of Resolution; ircular Apertures 929
33 I nstruments 866 35-5 Resolution of Telescopes and
Microscopes; the ALimit 931
33-1 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing 867 *35-6 Resolution of the Human Eye
33-2 The Thin Lens Equation; Magnification 870 and Useful Magnification 932
33-3 ombinations of Lenses 874 35-7 Diffraction Grating 933
*33-4 Lensmaker’s Equation 876 35-8 The Spectrometer and Spectroscopy 935
33-5 ameras: Film and Digital 878 *35-9 Peak Widths and Resolving Power for a
33-6 The Human Eye; orrective Lenses 882 Diffraction Grating 937
33-7 Magnifying Glass 885 35-10 X-Rays and X -Ray Diffraction 938
33-8 Telescopes 887 35-11 Polarization 940
*33-9 ompound Microscope 890 *35-12 Liquid rystal Displays (L D) 943
*33-10 Aberrations of Lenses and Mirrors 891 *35-13 Scattering of Light by the Atmosphere 945
SUMMARY 892 QUESTIONS 893 su m m a r 945 q u e s t io n s 946
C NTENTS ix
Volume 3
36 S pec al T heory of R elat v ty 951
36-1 Galilean - Newtonian Relativity 952
*36-2 The Michelson -Morley Experiment 954
36-3 Postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity 957
36-4 Simultaneity 958
36-5 Time Dilation and the Twin Paradox 960
36-6 Length ontraction 964
36-7 Four-Dimensional Space -Time 967
36-8 Galilean and Lorentz Transformations 968
36-9 Relativistic Momentum and Mass 971
36-10 The Ultimate Speed 974
36-11 E = me2; Mass and Energy 974
*36-12 Doppler Shift for Light 978
36-13 The Impact of Special Relativity 980
E arly Q uantum T heory and

37 M odels o f the A tom 987
Q uantum M echan
37-1 Blackbody Radiation;
Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis 987
39 A toms
cs o f
1044
37-2 Photon Theory; Photoelectric Effect 989 39-1 Quantum -Mechanical View of Atoms 1045
37-3 Photon Energy, Mass, and Momentum 993 39-2 Hydrogen Atom: Schrodinger Equation
37-4 ompton Effect 994 and Quantum Numbers 1045
37-5 Photon Interactions; Pair Production 996 39-3 Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions 1049
37-6 Wave-Particle Duality; the Principle of 39-4 omplex Atoms; the Exclusion Principle 1052
omplementarity 997 39-5 Periodic Table of Elements 1053
37-7 Wave Nature of Matter 997 39-6 X -Ray Spectra and Atomic Number 1054
*37-8 Electron Microscopes 1000 *39-7 Magnetic Dipole Moment;
37-9 Early Models of the Atom 1000 Total Angular Momentum 1057
37-10 Atomic Spectra: Key to Atomic Structure 1001 39-8 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 1060
37-11 The Bohr Model 1003 39-9 Lasers 1061
37-12 deBroglie’s Hypothesis Applied to Atoms 1009 *39-10 Holography 1064
38 Q uantum M echan cs 1017

40 M olecules and S ol ds 1071
38-1 Quantum Mechanics— A New Theory 1018
38-2 The Wave Function and Its Interpretation; 40-1 Bonding in Molecules 1071
the Double-Slit Experiment 1018 40-2 Potential-Energy Diagrams
38-3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 1020 for Molecules 1074
38-4 Philosophic Implications; Probability 40-3 Weak (van der Waals) Bonds 1077
Versus Determinism 1024 40-4 Molecular Spectra 1080
38-5 The Schrodinger Equation in One 40-5 Bonding in Solids 1085
Dimension — Time-Independent Form 1025 40-6 Free -Electron Theory of Metals;
*38-6 Time -Dependent Schrodinger Equation 1027 Fermi Energy 1086
38-7 Free Particles; PlaneWaves and Wave Packets 1028 40-7 Band Theory of Solids 1090
38-8 Particle in an Infinitely Deep 40-8 Semiconductors and Doping 1093
Square Well Potential (a Rigid Box) 1030
40-9 Semiconductor Diodes 1094
38-9 Finite Potential Well 1035
38-10 Tunneling through a Barrier 1036 40-10 Transistors and Integrated ircuits ( hips) 1097
X C NTENTS
N uclear P hys
41 R ad oact v ty
cs and
1104 43 E lementary Part cles 1164
41-1 Structure and Properties of the Nucleus 1105 43-1 High-Energy Particles and Accelerators 1165
41-2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces 1108 43-2 Beginnings of Elementary Particle
41-3 Radioactivity 1110 Physics—Particle Exchange 1171
41-4 Alpha Decay 1111 43-3 Particles and Antiparticles 1174
41-5 Beta Decay 1114 43-4 Particle Interactions and onservation Laws 1175
41-6 Gamma Decay 1116 43-5 Neutrinos—Recent Results 1177
41-7 onservation of Nucleon Number 43-6 Particle lassification 1178
and Other onservation Laws 1117 43-7 Particle Stability and Resonances 1180
41-8 Half-Life and Rate of Decay 1117 43-8 Strangeness? harm? Towards a New Model 1181
41-9 Decay Series 1121 43-9 Quarks 1182
41-10 Radioactive Dating 1122 43-10 The Standard Model: Q D and
41-11 Detection of Radiation 1124 Electroweak Theory 1184
SUMMARY 1126 QUESTIONS 1126 43-11 Grand Unified Theories 1187
43-12 Strings and Supersymmetry 1189
N uclear E nergy; E ffects
42 and U ses o f R ad at on 1131
42-1 Nuclear Reactions and the

Transmutation of Elements 1132
42-2 ross Section 1135
42-3 Nuclear Fission; Nuclear Reactors 1136
42-4 Nuclear Fusion 1141
42-5 Passage of Radiation Through Matter;
Radiation Damage 1146 A strophys cs and C osmology 1193
42-6 Measurement of Radiation — Dosimetry 1147
*42-7 Radiation Therapy 1150 44-1 Stars and Galaxies 1194
*42-8 Tracers in Research and Medicine 1151 44-2 Stellar Evolution: Nucleosynthesis,
and the Birth and Death of Stars 1197
*42-9 Imaging by Tomography: AT Scans 44-3 Distance Measurements 1203
and Emission Tomography 1153
44-4 General Relativity: Gravity and the
*42-10 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR); urvature of Space 1205
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 1156
44-5 The Expanding Universe: Redshift and
Hubble’s Law 1209
44-6 The Big Bang and the osmic
Microwave Background 1213
44-7 The Standard osmological Model:
Early History of the Universe 1216
44-8 Inflation 1219
44-9 Dark Matter and Dark Energy 1221
44-10 Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 1224
44-11 Finally ... 1224
A ppend ces
A M athem atical F o r m u l a s A -1
B D erivatives a n d I n te g r a ls A -6
C M o r e o n D im e n s io n a l A nal sis A -8
D G ravitational F o r c e d u e t o a
S p h e r ic a l M a ss D ist r ib u t io n A -9
E D ifferential Fo r m o f M axwell's E q uations A - 1 2
F S elected I s o t o p e s A -14
A n sw e r s t o O d d - N u m b e r e d P ro bl em s A - 18
In d e x A -4 7
P h o t o C r e d it s A -7 2
C NTENTS xi
A pplic tions (s e le c te d )
Ch pter 1 Escape velocity from Earth or Moon 201 Ch pter 15

The 8000-m peaks 8 Stair climbing power 202 Echolocation by animals 400
Estimating volume of a lake 10 Power needs of car 202-3 Earthquake waves 401,403,416
Height by triangulation 11 ardiac treadmill (Prl04) 213 Ch pter 16
Radius of the Earth 11 Ch pter 9 Distance from lightning 425
Heartbeats in a lifetime 12 Tennis serve 216 Autofocus camera 426
Particulate pollution (Pr30) 15 Rocket propulsion 219,236-8 Wide range of human hearing 427-8,431
Global positioning satellites (Pr39) 16 Rifle recoil 220 Loudspeaker response 428
Lung capacity (Pr65) 17 Karate blow 221 Stringed instruments 432-3
Ch pter 2 Billiards/bowling 223,228 Wind instruments 433-6
Airport runway design 29 Nuclear collisions 225,228 Tuning with beats 439
Automobile air bags 31 Ballistic pendulum 226 Doppler blood flow meter 442,453
Braking distances 32 onveyor belt 237 Sonar: sonic boom AAA
CD error correction (PrlO) 44 Gravitational slingshot (Prl05) 246 Ultrasound medical imaging 445-6
CD playing time (Prl3) 45 rashworthiness (Prl09) 247 Motion sensor (Pr5) 448
Golfing uphill or down (Pr79) 48 Asteroids, planets (PrllO, 112,113) 247
Rapid transit (Pr83) 49 Ch pter 10 Ch pter 17
Hard drive and bit speed 253 Hot air balloon 454
Ch pter 3 Expansion joints, highways 456,460,463
Kicked football 66,69 Wrench/tire iron 256
Flywheel energy 266,281 Gas tank overflow 462
Ball sports (Problems) 77,81,82 Life under ice 462
Extreme sports (Pr41) 77 Yo-yo 271
ar braking forces 272-3 old and hot tire pressure 468
Ch pter 4 Molecules in a breath 469
Rocket acceleration 90 Bicycle odometer calibration (Ql) 275
Tightrope walker (Q ll) 275 Thermostat (Q10) 471
What force accelerates a car? 90 Scuba/snorkeling (Pr38,47,82,85) 473,475
Triceps muscle and throwing
How we walk 90 Ch pter 18
(Pr38,39) 278
Elevator and counterweight 99 hemical reactions, temperature
D speed (Pr84) 281
Mechanical advantage of pulley 100 dependence 481
Bicycle gears (Pr89) 281
Bear sling (Q24) 104 Superfluidity 483
High-speed elevators (Prl9) 105 Ch pter 11
Rotating skaters, divers 284,286,309 Evaporation cools 484,505
Mountain climbing (Pr31,82,83) 106,110 Humidity, weather 485-6
ity planning, cars on hills (Pr71) 109 Neutron star collapse 287
Auto wheel balancing 296 hromatography 490
Bicyclists (Pr72,73) 109 Pressure cooker (Pr35) 493
“Doomsday” asteroid (Pr84) 110 Top and gyroscope 299-300
oriolis effect 301-2 Ch pter 19
Ch pter 5 Hurricanes 302 Working off the calories 498
Push or pull a sled? 116 SUV possible rollover (Pr67) 308 old floors 516
entrifugation 122 Triple axel jump (Pr79) 309 Heat loss through windows 516
Not skidding on a curve 126-7 Bat’s “sweet spot” (Pr82) 310 How clothes insulate 516-7
Banked highways 127 i?-values for thermal insulation 517
Simulated gravity (Q18, Pr48) 131,134 Ch pter 12
Tragic collapse 311,323 onvective house heating 517
“Rotor-ride” (Pr82) 136 Human radiative heat loss 518
Lever’s mechanical advantage 313
Ch pter 6 antilever 315 Room comfort and metabolism 519
Oil/mineral exploration 144,420 Biceps muscle force 315 Radiation from Sun 519
Artificial Earth satellites 146 Human balance with loads 318 Medical thermography 519
Geosynchronous satellites 147 Trusses and bridges 324-6,335 Astronomy—size of a star 520
Weightlessness 148 Architecture: arches and domes 327-8 Thermos bottle (Q30) 521
Free fall in athletics 149 Forces on vertebrae (Pr87) 337 Weather, air parcel, adiabatic lapse
Planet discovery, extrasolar planets 152 Ch pter 13 rate (Pr56) 525
Black holes 156 Lifting water 345,348 Ch pter 20
Asteroids (Pr44,78) 159,162 Hydraulic lift, brakes 346 Steam engine 530
Navstar GPS (Pr58) 160 Pressure gauges 346-7 Internal combustion engine 531,535-6
Black hole, galaxy center Hydrometer 351 ar efficiency 532
(Pr61,64) 160,161 Helium balloon lift 352,368 Refrigerators, air conditioners 537-8
Tides (Pr75) 162 Blood flow 353,357,361 Heat pump 538
Ch pter 7 Airplane wings, lift 356 Biological evolution, development 545
ar stopping distance of v2 174 Sailing against the wind 357 Thermal pollution, global warming 549-51
Lever(Pr6) 177 Baseball curve 357 Energy resources 550
Spiderman (Pr54) 179 Blood to the brain, TIA 357 Diesel engine (Pr7) 553
Bicycling on hills, gears (Pr85) 181 Blood flow and heart disease 359 Ch pter 21
hild safety in car (Pr87) 181 Surface tension, capillarity 359-60 Static electricity 560,589 (Pr78)
Rock climber’s rope (Pr90) 182 Walking on water 360 Photocopiers 569,582-3
Ch pter 8 Pumps and the heart 361 Electric shielding, safety 577
Downhill ski runs 183 Reynolds number (Pr69) 366 DNA structure and replication 581-2
Rollercoaster 191,198 Ch pter 14 Biological cells: electric forces
Pole vault 192-3 ar shock absorbers 383 and kinetic theory 581-2,617
Toy dart gun 193 Resonance damage 386 Laser & inkjet printers 583
x ii APPLICATI NS
Ch pter 23 Ground fault circuit interrupter Ch pter 36
Breakdown voltage 612 (GF I) 776 Space travel 963
Lightning rods, corona 612 Betatron (Pr55) 782 Global positioning system (GPS) 964
RT, oscilloscopes, Search coil (Pr68) 783 Ch pter 37
TV monitors 620-1,723 Inductive battery charger (Pr81) 784 Photocells 992
Photocell (Pr75) 626 Ch pter 30 Photodiodes 992
Geiger counter (Pr83) 627 Spark plug 785 Photosynthesis 993
Van de Graaff (Pr84) 627,607 Pacemaker 787 Measuring bone density 995
Ch pter 24 Surge protector 792 Electron microscopes 1000
apacitor uses 628,631 LC oscillators, resonance 794,802 Ch pter 38
Very high capacitance 631 apacitors as filters 799 Tunneling through a QM barrier 1038
omputer key 631 Loudspeaker cross-over 799 Scanning tunneling electron
amera flash 636 Impedance matching 802-3 microscope 1038-9
Heart defibrillator 638 Three-phase A 803
DRAM (PrlO, 57) 644,647 0 -value (Pr86,87) 810 Ch pter 39
Electrostatic air cleaner (Pr20) 645 Fluorescence analysis 1060
Ch pter 31 Fluorescent bulbs 1060
MOS circuits (Pr53) 647 Antennas 824,831
Ch pter 25 Phosphorescence, watch dials 1061
Phone call lag time 825 Lasers 1061-5
Light bulb 651,653,660 Solar sail 829
Battery construction 653 DVD and D players 1063
Optical tweezers 829
Loudspeaker wires 659 Barcodes 1063
Wireless: AM/FM, TV, tuning,
Resistance thermometer 660 cell phones, remotes 829-32 Laser surgery 1064
Heating elements, bulb filament 660 Holography 1064-5
Ch pter 32
Why bulbs burn out at turn on 661 Ch pter 40
Lightning bolt 662 How tall a mirror do you need 840-1 ell energy—activation energy,ATP 1075-7
lose up and wide-view
Household circuits, shorts 662-3 Weak bonds in cells, DNA 1077-8
mirrors 842,849,859
Fuses, circuit breakers 662-3,747,776 Protein synthesis 1079-80
Extension cord danger 663 Where you can see yourself in a
concave mirror 848 Transparency 1092
Nervous system, conduction 669-70 Semiconductor diodes, transistors 1094-8
Optical illusions 851,903
Strain gauge (Pr 24) 673 Rectifier circuits 1096
Apparent depth in water 852
Ch pter 26 Rainbows 853 LED displays; photodiodes 1096
ar battery charging, jump start 686,687 olors underwater 854 Integrated circuits ( hips) 1098
RC applications: flashers, wipers 691 Prism binoculars 855 Ch pter 41
Heart pacemaker 692,787 Fiber optics in Smoke detectors 1114
Electric hazards 692-4 telecommunications 855-6,865 arbon-14 dating 1122-3
Proper grounding 693-4 Medical endoscopes 856 Archeological, geological dating 1123-4
Heart fibrillation 692 Highway reflectors (Pr86) 865 Oldest Earth rocks and earliest life 1124
Meters, analog and digital 695-7
Ch pter 33 Ch pter 42
Potentiometers and bridges (Pr) 704,705
Where you can see a lens image 869 Nuclear reactors and power plants 1138^40
Ch pter 27 ameras, digital and film 878 Manhattan Project 1141
ompass and declination 709 amera adjustments 879-80 Stellar fusion 1142-3
Aurora borealis 717 Pixels and resolution 881 Fusion energy reactors 1131,1144-6
Motors, loudspeakers, galvonometers 720-1 Human eye 882-5,892 Biological radiation damage 1146-7
Mass spectrometer 724-5 orrective lenses 883-5 Radiation dosimetry 1147-9
Electromagnetic pumping (Q14) 726 ontact lenses 885 Radon 1148,1150
yclotron (Pr66) 731 Seeing under water 885 Human radiation exposure 1148-9
Beam steering (Pr67) 731 Magnifying glass 885-7 Radiation sickness 1149
Ch pter 28 Telescopes 887-9,931-2 Radiation therapy 1150-1
oaxial cable 740,789 Microscopes 890-1,931,933 Proton therapy 1151
Solenoid switches: car starters, Ch pter 34 Tracers in medicine and biology 1151-2
doorbell 747 Bubbles, reflected color 900,912-3 X-ray imaging 1153
ircuit breakers, magnetic 747,776 AT scans 1153-5
Mirages 903
Relay (Q16) 751 Emission tomography: PET
Atom trap (Pr73) 757 olors in thin soap film, details 912-3
Lens coatings 913-4 and SPET 1156
Ch pter 29 Multiple coating (Pr52) 919 NMR and MRI 1156-9
Induction stove 762 Ch pter 43
EM blood-flow meter 765 Ch pter 35
Lens and mirror resolution 929-30 Antimatter 1174-5,1188
Power plant generators 766-7
ar alternators 768 Hubble Space Telescope 930 Ch pter 44
Motor overload 769 Eye resolution, Stars and galaxies 1194-9
Airport metal detector 770 useful magnification 930,932-3 Star evolution 1200-2
Eddy current damping 770 Radiotelescopes 931 Supernovae 1201,1202,1203
Transformers and uses, power 770-3 Telescope resolution, Arule 931 Star distances 1194,1203^1
ar ignition, bulb ballast 772,773 Spectroscopy 935-6 Black holes 1202,1208-9
Microphone 775 X-ray diffraction in biology 939 urved space 1207-8
Read/write on disks and tape 775 Polarized sunglasses 942 Big Bang 1212,1213-6
Digital coding 775 L Ds—liquid crystal displays 943-4 Evolution of universe 1216-9
redit card swipe 776 Sky color 945 Dark matter and dark energy 1221-3
APPLICATI NS x iii
Preface
I was motivated from the beginning to write a textbook different from others that
present physics as a sequence of facts, like a Sears catalog: “here are the facts and
you better learn them.” Instead of that approach in which topics are begun
formally and dogmatically, I have sought to begin each topic with concrete
observations and experiences students can relate to: start with specifics and only then
go to the great generalizations and the more formal aspects of a topic, showing w y
we believe what we believe. This approach reflects how science is actually practiced.
Why Fourth Edition?

Two recent trends in physics texbooks are disturbing: (1) their revision cycles
have become short—they are being revised every 3 or 4 years; (2) the books are
getting larger, some over 1500 pages. I don’t see how either trend can be of
benefit to students. My response: (1) It has been 8 years since the previous
edition of this book. (2) This book makes use of physics education research,
although it avoids the detail a Professor may need to say in class but in a book shuts
down the reader. And this book still remains among the shortest.
This new edition introduces some important new pedagogic tools. It contains
new physics (such as in cosmology) and many new appealing applications (list on
previous page). Pages and page breaks have been carefully formatted to make the
physics easier to follow: no turning a page in the middle of a derivation or Example.
Great efforts were made to make the book attractive so students will want to read it.
Some of the new features are listed below.
Wh t's New
C apter-Opening Questions: Each hapter begins with a multiple-choice question,
whose responses include common misconceptions. Students are asked to answer
before starting the hapter, to get them involved in the material and to get any
preconceived notions out on the table. The issues reappear later in the hapter,
usually as Exercises, after the material has been covered. The hapter-Opening
Questions also show students the power and usefulness of Physics.
APPROACH paragrap in worked-out numerical Examples .A short introductory
paragraph before the Solution, outlining an approach and the steps we can take to
get started. Brief NOTES after the Solution may remark on the Solution, may give
an alternate approach, or mention an application.
Step -by -Step Examples: After many Problem Solving Strategies (more than 20 in
the book), the next Example is done step-by-step following precisely the steps just
seen.
Exercises within the text, after an Example or derivation, give students a chance to
see if they have understood enough to answer a simple question or do a simple
calculation. Many are multiple choice.
Greater clarity : No topic, no paragraph in this book was overlooked in the search
to improve the clarity and conciseness of the presentation. Phrases and sentences
that may slow down the principal argument have been eliminated: keep to the
essentials at first, give the elaborations later.
F, y, B Vector notation, arrows: The symbols for vector quantities in the text and Figures
now have a tiny arrow over them, so they are similar to what we write by hand.
Cosmological Revolution: With generous help from top experts in the field,
readers have the latest results.
xiv PREFACE
Page layout: more than in the previous edition, serious attention has been paid to
how each page is formatted. Examples and all important derivations and
arguments are on facing pages. Students then don’t have to turn back and forth.
Throughout, readers see, on two facing pages, an important slice of physics.
New Applications'. L Ds, digital cameras and electronic sensors ( D, MOS),
electric hazards, GF Is, photocopiers, inkjet and laser printers, metal detectors,
underwater vision, curve balls, airplane wings, DNA, how we actually see images.
(Turn back a page to see a longer list.)
Examples modified: more math steps are spelled out, and many new Examples
added. About 10% of all Examples are Estimation Examples.
T is Book is S orter than other complete full-service books at this level. Shorter
explanations are easier to understand and more likely to be read.
Content nd Org niz tion l Ch nges

• Rot tion l Motion: hapters 10 and 11 have been reorganized. All of angular
momentum is now in hapter 11.
• First l w of thermodyn mics, in hapter 19, has been rewritten and extended.
The full form is given: AK + AU + AEint = Q — W, where internal energy is
Ete, and U is potential energy; the form Q — W is kept so that dW = P dV.
• Kinematics and Dynamics of ircular Motion are now treated together in
hapter 5.
• Work and Energy, hapters 7 and 8, have been carefully revised.
• Work done by friction is discussed now with energy conservation (energy
terms due to friction).
• hapters on Inductance and A ircuits have been combined into one:
hapter 30.
• Graphical Analysis and Numerical Integration is a new optional Section 2 -9.
Problems requiring a computer or graphing calculator are found at the end
of most hapters.
• Length of an object is a script £ rather than normal /, which looks like 1 or I
Versions of this Book
(moment of inertia, current), as in F = IIB. apital L is for angular Complete version: 44 hapters
momentum, latent heat, inductance, dimensions of length [L\. including 9 hapters of modern
• Newton’s law of gravitation remains in hapter 6. Why? Because the 1/r2 physics.
law is too important to relegate to a late chapter that might not be covered
at all late in the semester; furthermore, it is one of the basic forces in nature. Cl ssic version: 37 hapters
including one each on relativity
In hapter 8 we can treat real gravitational potential energy and have a fine
and quantum theory.
instance of using U = - JF •di.
• New Appendices include the differential form of Maxwell’s equations and 3 Volume version: Available
more on dimensional analysis. separately or packaged together
• Problem Solving Strategies are found on pages 30, 58, 64, 96,102,125,166, (Vols. 1 & 2 or all 3 Volumes):
198,229,261,314,504,551,571, 685,716,740,763,849, 871, and 913. Volume 1: hapters 1 -20 on
mechanics, including fluids,
Org niz tion oscillations, waves, plus heat
and thermodynamics.
Some instructors may find that this book contains more material than can be
Volume 2: hapters 21-35 on
covered in their courses. The text offers great flexibility. Sections marked with a
electricity and magnetism, plus
star * are considered optional. These contain slightly more advanced physics
light and optics.
material, or material not usually covered in typical courses and/or interesting
applications; they contain no material needed in later hapters (except perhaps in Volume 3: hapters 36-44 on
later optional Sections). For a brief course, all optional material could be dropped modern physics: relativity,
as well as major parts of hapters 1, 13, 16, 26, 30, and 35, and selected parts of quantum theory, atomic physics,
hapters 9,12,19,20, 33, and the modern physics hapters. Topics not covered in condensed matter, nuclear
class can be a valuable resource for later study by students. Indeed, this text can physics, elementary particles,
serve as a useful reference for years because of its wide range of coverage. cosmology and astrophysics.
PREFACE XV
Th nks
Many physics professors provided input or direct feedback on every aspect of this
textbook. They are listed below, and I owe each a debt of gratitude.
Mario Affatigato, oe ollege Jim LaBelle, Dartmouth ollege

Lorraine Allen, United States oast Guard Academy M.A.K. Lodhi, Texas Tech
Zaven Altounian, McGill University Bruce Mason, University of Oklahoma
Bruce Barnett, Johns Hopkins University Dan Mazilu, Virginia Tech
Michael Barnett, Lawrence Berkeley Lab Linda McDonald, North Park ollege
Anand Batra, Howard University Bill McNairy, Duke University
ornelius Bennhold, George Washington University Raj Mohanty, Boston University
Bruce Birkett, University of alifornia Berkeley Giuseppe Molesini, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica Florence
Dr. Robert Boivin, Auburn University Lisa K. Morris, Washington State University
Subir Bose, University of entral Florida Blaine Norum, University of Virginia
David Branning, Trinity ollege Alexandria Oakes, Eastern Michigan University
Meade Brooks, ollin ounty ommunity ollege Michael Ottinger, Missouri Western State University
Bruce Bunker, University of Notre Dame Lyman Page, Princeton and WMAP
Grant Bunker, Illinois Institute of Technology Bruce Partridge, Haverford ollege
Wayne arr, Stevens Institute of Technology R. Daryl Pedigo, University of Washington
harles hiu, University of Texas Austin Robert Pelcovitz, Brown University
Robert oakley, University of Southern Maine Vahe Peroomian, U LA
David urott, University of North Alabama James Rabchuk, Western Illinois University
Biman Das, SUNY Potsdam Michele Rallis, Ohio State University
Bob Davis, Taylor University Paul Richards, University of alifornia Berkeley
Kaushik De, University of Texas Arlington Peter Riley, University of Texas Austin
Michael Dennin, University of alifornia Irvine Larry Rowan, University of North arolina hapel Hill
Kathy Dimiduk, University of New Mexico indy Schwarz, Vassar ollege
John DiNardo, Drexel University Peter Sheldon, Randolph-Macon Woman’s ollege
Scott Dudley, United States Air Force Academy Natalia A. Sidorovskaia, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
John Essick, Reed ollege James Siegrist, U Berkeley, Director Physics Division LBNL
assandra Fesen, Dartmouth ollege George Smoot, University of alifornia Berkeley
Alex Filippenko, University of alifornia Berkeley Mark Sprague, East arolina University
Richard Firestone, Lawrence Berkeley Lab Michael Strauss, University of Oklahoma
Mike Fortner, Northern Illinois University Laszlo Takac, University of Maryland Baltimore o.
Tom Furtak, olorado School of Mines Franklin D.Trumpy, Des Moines Area ommunity ollege
Edward Gibson, alifornia State University Sacramento Ray Turner, lemson University
John Hardy, Texas A&M Som Tyagi, Drexel University
J. Erik Hendrickson, University of Wisconsin Eau laire John Vasut, Baylor University
Laurent Hodges, Iowa State University Robert Webb, Texas A&M
David Hogg, New York University Robert Weidman, Michigan Technological University
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale ommunity ollege Edward A. Whittaker, Stevens Institute of Technology
Andy Hollerman, University of Louisiana at Lafayette John Wolbeck, Orange ounty ommunity ollege
William Holzapfel, University of alifornia Berkeley Stanley George Wojcicki, Stanford University
Bob Jacobsen, University of alifornia Berkeley Edward Wright, U LA
TerukiKamon, Texas A&M Todd Young, Wayne State ollege
Daryao Khatri, University of the District of olumbia William Younger, ollege of the Albemarle
Jay Kunze, Idaho State University Hsiao-Ling Zhou, Georgia State University
I owe special thanks to Prof. Bob Davis for much valuable input, and especially for
working out all the Problems and producing the Solutions Manual for all Problems, as
well as for providing the answers to odd -numbered Problems at the end of this book.
Many thanks also to J. Erik Hendrickson who collaborated with Bob Davis on the
solutions, and to the team they managed (Profs. Anand Batra, Meade Brooks, David
urrott, Blaine Norum, Michael Ottinger, Larry Rowan, Ray Turner, John Vasut,
William Younger). I am grateful to Profs. John Essick, Bruce Barnett, Robert oakley,
Biman Das, Michael Dennin, Kathy Dimiduk, John DiNardo, Scott Dudley,
David Hogg, indy Schwarz, Ray Turner, and Som Tyagi, who inspired many of
the Examples, Questions, Problems, and significant clarifications.
rucial for rooting out errors, as well as providing excellent suggestions, were
Profs. Kathy Dimiduk, Ray Turner, and Lorraine Allen. A huge thank you to them
and to Prof. Giuseppe Molesini for his suggestions and his exceptional photographs
for optics.
xvi PREFACE
For hapters 43 and 44 on Particle Physics and osmology and Astrophysics,
I was fortunate to receive generous input from some of the top experts in the field,
to whom I owe a debt of gratitude: George Smoot, Paul Richards, Alex Filippenko,
James Siegrist, and William Holzapfel (U Berkeley), Lyman Page (Princeton and
WMAP), Edward Wright (U LA and WMAP), and Michael Strauss (University
of Oklahoma).
I especially wish to thank Profs. Howard Shugart, hair Frances Heilman, and
many others at the University of alifornia, Berkeley, Physics Department for
helpful discussions, and for hospitality. Thanks also to Prof. Tito Arecchi and others
at the Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Florence, Italy.
Finally, I am grateful to the many people at Prentice Hall with whom I
worked on this project, especially Paul orey, Karen Karlin, hristian Botting,
John hristiana, and Sean Hogan.
The final responsibility for all errors lies with me. I welcome comments,
corrections, and suggestions as soon as possible to benefit students for the next reprint.
D. .G.
email: Paul. orey@Pearson.com
Post: Paul orey
One Lake Street
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
About the Author

Douglas . Giancoli obtained his BA in physics (summa cum laude) from the
University of alifornia, Berkeley, his MS in physics at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, and his PhD in elementary particle physics at the University of ali
fornia, Berkeley. He spent 2 years as a post-doctoral fellow at U Berkeley’s Virus
lab developing skills in molecular biology and biophysics. His mentors include
Nobel winners Emilio Segre and Donald Glaser.
He has taught a wide range of undergraduate courses, traditional as well as
innovative ones, and continues to update his texbooks meticulously, seeking ways to
better provide an understanding of physics for students.
Doug’s favorite spare-time activity is the outdoors, especially climbing peaks
(here on a dolomite summit, Italy). He says climbing peaks is like learning physics:
it takes effort and the rewards are great.
Online Supplements (p rti l list) Student Supplements (p rti l list)

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PREFACE xvii
To Students
HOW TO STUDY
1. Read the hapter. Learn new vocabulary and notation. Try to respond to
questions and exercises as they occur.
2. Attend all class meetings. Listen. Take notes, especially about aspects you do
not remember seeing in the book. Ask questions (everyone else wants to, but
maybe you will have the courage). You will get more out of class if you read
the hapter first.
3. Read the hapter again, paying attention to details. Follow derivations and
worked-out Examples. Absorb their logic. Answer Exercises and as many of
the end of hapter Questions as you can.
4. Solve 10 to 20 end of hapter Problems (or more), especially those assigned.
In doing Problems you find out what you learned and what you didn’t. Discuss
them with other students. Problem solving is one of the great learning tools.
Don’t just look for a formula — it won’t cut it.
NOTES ON THE FORMAT AND PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Sections marked with a star (*) are considered option l. They can be omitted
without interrupting the main flow of topics. No later material depends on
them except possibly later starred Sections. They may be fun to read, though.
2. The customary conventions are used: symbols for quantities (such as m for
mass) are italicized, whereas units (such as m for meter) are not italicized.
Symbols for vectors are shown in boldface with a small arrow above: F.
3. Few equations are valid in all situations. Where practical, the limit tions of
important equations are stated in square brackets next to the equation. The
equations that represent the great laws of physics are displayed with a tan
background, as are a few other indispensable equations.
4. At the end of each hapter is a set of Problems which are ranked as Level I, II, or
III, according to estimated difficulty. Level I Problems are easiest, Level II are
standard Problems, and Level III are “challenge problems.” These ranked
Problems are arranged by Section, but Problems for a given Section may depend
on earlier material too. There follows a group of General Problems, which are not
arranged by Section nor ranked as to difficulty. Problems that relate to optional
Sections are starred (*). Most hapters have 1 or 2 omputer/Numerical
Problems at the end, requiring a computer or graphing calculator. Answers to
odd-numbered Problems are given at the end of the book.
5. Being able to solve Problems is a crucial part of learning physics, and provides
a powerful means for understanding the concepts and principles. This book
contains many aids to problem solving: (a) worked-out Ex mples and their
solutions in the text, which should be studied as an integral part of the text;
(b)some of the worked-out Examples are Estim tion Ex mples, which show
how rough or approximate results can be obtained even if the given data are
sparse (see Section 1 -6); (c) special Problem Solving Str tegies placed
throughout the text to suggest a step-by-step approach to problem solving
for a particular topic— but remember that the basics remain the same;
most of these “Strategies” are followed by an Example that is solved by
explicitly following the suggested steps; (d) special problem-solving Sections;
(e) “Problem Solving” marginal notes which refer to hints within the text for
solving Problems; (f) Exercises within the text that you should work out imme
diately, and then check your response against the answer given at the bottom of
the last page of that hapter; (g) the Problems themselves at the end of each
hapter (point 4 above).
6. Conceptu l Ex mples pose a question which hopefully starts you to think and
come up with a response. Give yourself a little time to come up with your own
response before reading the Response given.
7. M th review, plus some additional topics, are found in Appendices. Useful data,
conversion factors, and math formulas are found inside the front and back covers.
xviii PREFACE
USE OF OLOR
Vectors
A gener l vector
result nt vector (sum) is slightly thicker
components of ny vector re d shed
Displ cement (D, ?)
Velocity (v)
Acceler tion ( )
Force (F)
Force on second or
third object in s me figure
Momentum (p ormv)
Angul r momentum (L)
Angul r velocity (to)
Torque ( f )
Electric field (E)
M gnetic field (B)
Electricity nd m gnetism Electric circuit symbols

Electric field lines Wire, with switch S
S
Equipotenti l lines Resistor -v w v -
T T
1 l
M gnetic field lines C p citor
Electric ch rge (+) + ) or • + Inductor - /n n n p -

Electric ch rge ( - ) Q or • - B ttery
Ground x
Optics Other
Light r ys — *— Energy level
Object ( tom, etc.)
1 Me surement lines h—1.0 m —H
Re l im ge 4
■ P th of moving ------------
(d shed) ■
■ object
Virtu l im ge 4 Direction of motion ------- ►

(d shed nd p ler) ■
■ or current
■
PREFACE
Image of the Earth from a NASA satellite. The sky
appears blackfrom out in space because
there are so few molecules to
reflect light (Whythe sky
appears blue to us on
Earth has to do with
scattering of light by
molecules of the
atmosphere, as
• * 4 Chapter 35.)
Note the
storm off
the coast
of Mexico.
Introduction,
Measurement, Estimating
CHAPTER-OPENING QUESTION — Guess now!
Suppose you wanted to actually measure the radius of the Earth, at least roughly, CONTENTS
rather than taking other people’s word for what it is. Which response below 1 - 1 The N ture of Science
describes the best approach? 1 - 2 Models, Theories, nd L ws
( ) Give up; it is impossible using ordinary means. 1 - 3 Me surement nd Uncert inty;
(b) Use an extremely long measuring tape. Signific nt Figures
(c) It is only possible by flying high enough to see the actual curvature of the Earth. 1 - 4 Units, St nd rds, nd
(d) Use a standard measuring tape, a step ladder, and a large smooth lake. the SI System
(e) Use a laser and a mirror on the Moon or on a satellite. 1 - 5 Converting Units
\We start eac C apter wit a Question, like t e one above. Try to answer it rig t away. Don ’t worry 1 - 6 Order of M gnitude:
about getting t e rig t answer now — t e idea is to get your preconceived notions out on t e table. If t ey R pid Estim ting
are misconceptions, we expect t em to be cleared up as you read t e C apter. You will usually get anot er :1 - 7 Dimensions nd Dimension l
c ance at t e Question later in t e C apter w en t e appropriate material as been covered. T ese An lysis
C apter-Opening Questions will also elp you to see t e power and usefulness of p ysics. ]
1
hysics is the most basic of the sciences. It deals with the behavior and
P structure of matter. The field of physics is usually divided into classicalp ysics
which includes motion, fluids, heat, sound, light, electricity and magnetism;
and modem p ysics which includes the topics of relativity, atomic structure,
condensed matter, nuclear physics, elementary particles, and cosmology and astrophysics.
We will cover all these topics in this book, beginning with motion (or mechanics, as it
is often called) and ending with the most recent results in our study of the cosmos.
An understanding of physics is crucial for anyone making a career in science
or technology. Engineers, for example, must know how to calculate the forces within
a structure to design it so that it remains standing (Fig. 1 - la). Indeed, in hapter 12
we will see a worked-out Example of how a simple physics calculation— or even
intuition based on understanding the physics of forces—would have saved
hundreds of lives (Fig. 1 - lb). We will see many examples in this book of how
physics is useful in many fields, and in everyday life.
1—1 The N ture of Science

The principal aim of all sciences, including physics, is generally considered to be
the search for order in our observations of the world around us. Many people
think that science is a mechanical process of collecting facts and devising theories.
But it is not so simple. Science is a creative activity that in many respects resem
bles other creative activities of the human mind.
One important aspect of science is observ tion of events, which includes the
design and carrying out of experiments. But observation and experiment require
imagination, for scientists can never include everything in a description of what
they observe. Hence, scientists must make judgments about what is relevant in
their observations and experiments.
onsider, for example, how two great minds, Aristotle (384-322 b .c .) and
Galileo (1564-1642), interpreted motion along a horizontal surface. Aristotle
noted that objects given an initial push along the ground (or on a tabletop) always
slow down and stop. onsequently, Aristotle argued that the natural state of an
object is to be at rest. Galileo, in his reexamination of horizontal motion in the
1600s, imagined that if friction could be eliminated, an object given an initial
push along a horizontal surface would continue to move indefinitely without
stopping. He concluded that for an object to be in motion was just as natural as for
it to be at rest. By inventing a new approach, Galileo founded our modern view of
motion ( hapters 2,3, and 4), and he did so with a leap of the imagination. Galileo
made this leap conceptually, without actually eliminating friction.
(b)
Observation, with careful experimentation and measurement, is one side of the
FIGURE 1 - 1 ( ) This Rom n scientific process. The other side is the invention or creation of theories to explain
queduct w s built 2000 ye rs go and order the observations. Theories are never derived directly from observations.
nd still st nds, (b) The H rtford Observations may help inspire a theory, and theories are accepted or rejected based
Civic Center coll psed in 1978, just on the results of observation and experiment.
two ye rs fter it w s built.
The great theories of science may be compared, as creative achievements, with
great works of art or literature. But how does science differ from these other
creative activities? One important difference is that science requires testing of its
ideas or theories to see if their predictions are borne out by experiment.
Although the testing of theories distinguishes science from other creative
fields, it should not be assumed that a theory is “proved” by testing. First of all, no
measuring instrument is perfect, so exact confirmation is not possible. Further
more, it is not possible to test a theory in every single possible circumstance. Hence
a theory cannot be absolutely verified. Indeed, the history of science tells us that
long-held theories can be replaced by new ones.
1 -2 Models, Theories, nd L ws
When scientists are trying to understand a particular set of phenomena, they often
make use of a model. A model, in the scientist’s sense, is a kind of analogy or
2 CHAPTER 1 mental image of the phenomena in terms of something we are familiar with. One
example is the wave model of light. We cannot see waves of light as we can water
waves. But it is valuable to think of light as made up of waves because experiments
indicate that light behaves in many respects as water waves do.
The purpose of a model is to give us an approximate mental or visual picture—
something to hold on to —when we cannot see what actually is happening. Models
often give us a deeper understanding: the analogy to a known system (for instance,
water waves in the above example) can suggest new experiments to perform and can
provide ideas about what other related phenomena might occur.
You may wonder what the difference is between a theory and a model. Usually
a model is relatively simple and provides a structural similarity to the phenomena
being studied. A theory is broader, more detailed, and can give quantitatively testable
predictions, often with great precision.
It is important, however, not to confuse a model or a theory with the real
system or the phenomena themselves.
Scientists give the title l w to certain concise but general statements about
how nature behaves (that energy is conserved, for example). Sometimes the state
ment takes the form of a relationship or equation between quantities (such as
Newton’s second law, F = ma).
To be called a law, a statement must be found experimentally valid over a wide
range of observed phenomena. For less general statements, the term principle is
often used (such as Archimedes’ principle).
Scientific laws are different from political laws in that the latter are
prescriptive: they tell us how we ought to behave. Scientific laws are descriptive:
they do not say how nature s ould behave, but rather are meant to describe how
nature does behave. As with theories, laws cannot be tested in the infinite variety
of cases possible. So we cannot be sure that any law is absolutely true. We use the
term “law” when its validity has been tested over a wide range of cases, and when
any limitations and the range of validity are clearly understood.
Scientists normally do their research as if the accepted laws and theories were
true. But they are obliged to keep an open mind in case new information should
alter the validity of any given law or theory.
1 -3 Me surement nd Uncert inty;

Signific nt Figures
In the quest to understand the world around us, scientists seek to find relationships
among physical quantities that can be measured.
Uncert inty
Reliable measurements are an important part of physics. But no measurement is FIGURE 1-2 Measuring the width
absolutely precise. There is an uncertainty associated with every measurement. Among of a board with a centimeter ruler.
the most important sources of uncertainty, other than blunders, are the limited accuracy The uncertainty is about ± 1 mm.
of every measuring instrument and the inability to read an instrument beyond some
fraction of the smallest division shown. For example, if you were to use a centimeter
ruler to measure the width of a board (Fig. 1 -2), the result could be claimed to be
precise to about 0.1 cm (1 mm), the smallest division on the ruler, although half of this
value might be a valid claim as well. The reason is that it is difficult for the observer to
estimate (or interpolate) between the smallest divisions. Furthermore, the ruler itself
may not have been manufactured to an accuracy very much better than this.
When giving the result of a measurement, it is important to state the estim ted
uncert inty in the measurement. For example, the width of a board might be
written as 8.8 ± 0.1 cm. The ± 0.1 cm (“plus or minus 0.1 cm”) represents the
estimated uncertainty in the measurement, so that the actual width most likely lies
between 8.7 and 8.9 cm. The percent uncert inty is the ratio of the uncertainty
to the measured value, multiplied by 100. For example, if the measurement is 8.8
and the uncertainty about 0.1 cm, the percent uncertainty is
1%,
where ~ means “is approximately equal to.’ SECTI N 1- 3 3
Often the uncertainty in a measured value is not specified explicitly. In such cases,
the uncertainty is generally assumed to be one or a few units in the last digit specified.
For example, if a length is given as 8.8 cm, the uncertainty is assumed to be about
0.1 cm or 0.2 cm. It is important in this case that you do not write 8.80 cm, for this
implies an uncertainty on the order of 0.01 cm; it assumes that the length is probably
between 8.79 cm and 8.81 cm, when actually you believe it is between 8.7 and 8.9 cm.
Signific nt Figures
The number of reliably known digits in a number is called the number of
signific nt figures. Thus there are four significant figures in the number 23.21 cm
and two in the number 0.062 cm (the zeros in the latter are merely place holders
that show where the decimal point goes). The number of significant figures may
not always be clear. Take, for example, the number 80. Are there one or two signif
icant figures? We need words here: If we say it is roug ly 80 km between two
cities, there is only one significant figure (the 8) since the zero is merely a place
holder. If there is no suggestion that the 80 is a rough approximation, then we can
often assume (as we will in this book) that it is 80 km within an accuracy of about
(a) (b) 1 or 2 km, and then the 80 has two significant figures. If it is precisely 80 km, to
within + 0.1 km, then we write 80.0 km (three significant figures).
FIGURE 1 - 3 These two calculators When making measurements, or when doing calculations, you should avoid the
show the wrong number of significant temptation to keep more digits in the final answer than is justified. For example, to
figures. In (a), 2.0 was divided by 3.0.
The correct final result would be 0.67. calculate the area of a rectangle 11.3 cm by 6.8 cm, the result of multiplication would
In (b), 2.5 was multiplied by 3.2. The be 76.84 cm2. But this answer is clearly not accurate to 0.01 cm2, since (using the
correct result is 8.0. outer limits of the assumed uncertainty for each measurement) the result could be
between 11.2 cm X 6.7 cm = 75.04 cm2 and 11.4 cm X 6.9 cm = 78.66 cm2. At best,
we can quote the answer as 77 cm2, which implies an uncertainty of about 1 or 2 cm2.
The other two digits (in the number 76.84 cm2) must be dropped because they are not
significant. As a rough general rule (i.e., in the absence of a detailed consideration
p PR BLEM S LVING of uncertainties), we can say that t e final result o f a multiplication or division s ould
Significant figure rule: ave only as many digits as t e number wit t e least number o f significant figures
N um ber o f significant figures in final
result s ould be sam e as t e least
used in t e calculation. In our example, 6.8 cm has the least number of significant
significant input value figures, namely two. Thus the result 76.84 cm2 needs to be rounded off to 77 cm2.
EXERCISE A The area of a rectangle 4.5 cm by 3.25 cm is correctly given by (a) 14.625 cm2;
(b) 14.63 cm2; (c) 14.6 cm2; (d) 15 cm2.
When adding or subtracting numbers, the final result is no more precise than
the least precise number used. For example, the result of subtracting 0.57 from 3.6
is 3.0 (and not 3.03).
A AUT I ON Keep in mind when you use a calculator that all the digits it produces may not
Calculators err wit significant figures be significant. When you divide 2.0 by 3.0, the proper answer is 0.67, and not some
such thing as 0.666666666. Digits should not be quoted in a result, unless they are
I PR BLEI VI S LVING truly significant figures. However, to obtain the most accurate result, you should
R eport only t e p ro p er num ber o f normally keep one or more extra significant figures t roug out a calculation, and
significant figures in t e final result. round o ff only in t e final result. (With a calculator, you can keep all its digits in
Keep extra digits during intermediate results.) Note also that calculators sometimes give too few significant
t e calculation figures. For example, when you multiply 2.5 X 3.2, a calculator may give the
answer as simply 8. But the answer is accurate to two significant figures, so the proper
FIGURE 1 - 4 Example 1-1. answer is 8.0. See Fig. 1 -3.
A protractor used to measure an angle.
C NCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 1 - 1 | Significant figures. Using a protractor (Fig. 1-4),
you measure an angle to be 30°. (a) How many significant figures should you quote in
this measurement? (b) Use a calculator to find the cosine of the angle you measured.
RESP NSE (a) If you look at a protractor, you will see that the precision with
which you can measure an angle is about one degree (certainly not 0.1°). So you
can quote two significant figures, namely, 30° (not 30.0°). (b) If you enter cos 30°
in your calculator, you will get a number like 0.866025403. However, the angle
you entered is known only to two significant figures, so its cosine is correctly
given by 0.87; you must round your answer to two significant figures.
N TE osine and other trigonometric functions are reviewed in Appendix A.
4 CHAPTER 1
| EXERCISE B Do 0.00324 and 0.00056 have the same number of significant figures?
Be careful not to confuse significant figures with the number of decimal places.
EXERCISE C For each of the following numbers, state the number of significant figures
and the number of decimal places: {a) 1.23; (b) 0.123; (c) 0.0123.
Scientific_Not tion
We commonly write numbers in “powers of ten,” or “scientific” notation — for
instance 36,900 as 3.69 X 104, or 0.0021 as 2.1 X 10-3. One advantage of scientific
notation is that it allows the number of significant figures to be clearly expressed.
For example, it is not clear whether 36,900 has three, four, or five significant
figures. With powers of ten notation the ambiguity can be avoided: if the number is
known to three significant figures, we write 3.69 X 104, but if it is known to four,
we write 3.690 X 104.
I EXERCISE D Write each of the following in scientific notation and state the number of
| significant figures for each: (a) 0.0258, (b) 42,300, (c) 344.50.
Percent Uncert inty versus Signific nt Figures

The significant figures rule is only approximate, and in some cases may underestimate
the accuracy (or uncertainty) of the answer. Suppose for example we divide 97 by 92:
97
— = 1.05 « 1.1.
92
Both 97 and 92 have two significant figures, so the rule says to give the answer
as 1.1. Yet the numbers 97 and 92 both imply an uncertainty of + 1 if no other
uncertainty is stated. Now 92 + 1 and 97 + 1 both imply an uncertainty of
about 1% (1/92 « 0.01 = 1%). But the final result to two significant figures
is 1.1, with an implied uncertainty of + 0.1, which is an uncertainty of
0.1/1.1 « 0.1 ~ 10%. In this case it is better to give the answer as 1.05 (which is
three significant figures). Why? Because 1.05 implies an uncertainty of + 0.01
which is 0.01/1.05 « 0.01 ~ 1%, just like the uncertainty in the original
numbers 92 and 97.
SUGGESTION: Use the significant figures rule, but consider the % uncer
tainty too, and add an extra digit if it gives a more realistic estimate of uncertainty.
Approxim tions
Much of physics involves approximations, often because we do not have the
means to solve a problem precisely. For example, we may choose to ignore air
resistance or friction in doing a Problem even though they are present in the real
world, and then our calculation is only an approximation. In doing Problems, we
should be aware of what approximations we are making, and be aware that the
precision of our answer may not be nearly as good as the number of significant
figures given in the result.
Accur cy versus Precision

There is a technical difference between “precision” and “accuracy.” Predsion in a strict
sense refers to the repeatability of the measurement using a given instrument. For
example, if you measure the width of a board many times, getting results like 8.81 cm,
8.85 cm, 8.78 cm, 8.82 cm (interpolating between the 0.1 cm marks as best as possible
each time), you could say the measurements give a precision a bit better than 0.1 cm.
Accur cy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value. For example, if the
ruler shown in Fig. 1 - 2 was manufactured with a 2% error, the accuracy of its
measurement of the board’s width (about 8.8 cm) would be about 2% of 8.8 cm or
about + 0.2 cm. Estimated uncertainty is meant to take both accuracy and precision
into account.
SECTI N 1- 3 Measurement, Uncertainty; Significant Figures 5

1—4 Units, St nd rds, nd the SI System
TABLE 1-1 Some Typical The measurement of any quantity is made relative to a particular standard or unit,
Lengths or Distances and this unit must be specified along with the numerical value of the quantity. For
(order of magnitude) example, we can measure length in British units such as inches, feet, or miles, or in
the metric system in centimeters, meters, or kilometers. To specify that the length
Length Meters
(or D ist nce) ( pproxim te)
of a particular object is 18.6 is meaningless. The unit must be given; for clearly,
18.6 meters is very different from 18.6 inches or 18.6 millimeters.
Neutron or proton For any unit we use, such as the meter for distance or the second for time, we
(di m eter) 10- 15 need to define a st nd rd which defines exactly how long one meter or one second
A tom is. It is important that standards be chosen that are readily reproducible so that
(di m eter)
-7
anyone needing to make a very accurate measurement can refer to the standard in
Virus [see Fig. l - 5 ]
the laboratory.
Sheet o f p per
(thickness) 10 - 4 Length
Finger width 10“2 The first truly international standard was the meter (abbreviated m) established as
Footb ll field length 102 the standard of length by the French Academy of Sciences in the 1790s. The stan
H eight o f Mt. Everest dard meter was originally chosen to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the
[see Fig. l - 5 b ] 104 Earth’s equator to either pole,f and a platinum rod to represent this length was
E rth di meter 107 made. (One meter is, very roughly, the distance from the tip of your nose to the tip
E rth to Sun 1011 of your finger, with arm and hand stretched out to the side.) In 1889, the meter was
E rth to ne rest st r 1016 defined more precisely as the distance between two finely engraved marks on a
E rth to ne rest g l xy 1022 particular bar of platinum -iridium alloy. In 1960, to provide greater precision and
E rth to f rthest reproducibility, the meter was redefined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of a particular
g l xy visible 1026 orange light emitted by the gas krypton-86. In 1983 the meter was again redefined,
this time in terms of the speed of light (whose best measured value in terms of the
older definition of the meter was 299,792,458 m/s, with an uncertainty of lm /s).
The new definition reads: “The meter is the length of path traveled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.”*
FIGURE 1 - 5 Som e lengths:
British units of length (inch, foot, mile) are now defined in terms of the
( ) viruses ( bout 10 - 7 m long) meter. The inch (in.) is defined as precisely 2.54 centimeters (cm; 1 cm = 0.01 m).
tt cking cell; (b) Mt. E verest ’s Other conversion factors are given in the Table on the inside of the front cover
height is on the order of 104 m of this book. Table 1 - 1 presents some typical lengths, from very small to very
(8850 m, to be precise). large, rounded off to the nearest power of ten. See also Fig. 1 - 5. [Note that the
abbreviation for inches (in.) is the only one with a period, to distinguish it from
the word “in”.]
Time
The standard unit of time is the second (s). For many years, the second was defined as
1/86,400 of a mean solar day (24h/day X 60min/h X 60s/min = 86,400 s/day).
The standard second is now defined more precisely in terms of the frequency of radi
ation emitted by cesium atoms when they pass between two particular states.
[Specifically, one second is defined as the time required for 9,192,631,770 periods of
this radiation.] There are, by definition, 60 s in one minute (min) and 60 minutes in
one hour (h). Table 1 - 2 presents a range of measured time intervals, rounded off to
(a) the nearest power of ten.
M ss
The standard unit of m ss is the kilogr m (kg). The standard mass is a particular
platinum -iridium cylinder, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures near Paris, France, whose mass is defined as exactly 1 kg. A range of
masses is presented in Table 1 -3. [For practical purposes, 1 kg weighs about
2.2 pounds on Earth.]
tModern me surements of the E rth’s circumference reve l th t the intended length is off by bout
one-fiftieth of 1%. Not b d!
*The new definition of the meter h s the effect of giving the speed of light the ex ct v lue of
(b) 299,792,458 m/s.
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

TABLE 1 - 2 Some Typical Time Intervals TABLE 1 -3 Some Masses
Time Interv l Seconds ( pproxim te) Object Kilogr ms ( pproxim te)
Lifetim e o f very unst ble sub tomic p rticle 1 0 - 23 s Electron 1(T30 kg

Lifetim e o f r dio ctive elem ents 10~22 s to 1028 s Proton, neutron 10 - 27 kg
Lifetim e o f muon 1(T6 s D N A m olecule 1(T17 kg
Time betw een hum n he rtbe ts 10° s ( = 1 s) B cterium 1(T15 kg
O ne d y 105 s M osquito 1(T5 kg
O ne ye r 3 X 107 Plum 10" 1 kg
Hum n life sp n 2 X 109 Hum n 102 kg
Length o f recorded history 1011 Ship 108 kg
Hum ns on E rth 1014 E rth 6 X 1024 kg
Life on E rth 1017 Sun 2 X 1030 kg
A g e of U niverse 1018 G l xy 1041 kg
When dealing with atoms and molecules, we usually use the unified tomic TABLE 1 -4 Metric (SI) Prefixes
m ss unit (u). In terms of the kilogram,
Prefix Abbrevi tion V lue
l u = 1.6605 X 10-27kg.
The definitions of other standard units for other quantities will be given as we yott Y 1024
encounter them in later hapters. (Precise values of this and other numbers are zett Z 1021
given inside the front cover.) ex E 1018
pet P 1015
Unit Prefixes
ter T 1012
In the metric system, the larger and smaller units are defined in multiples of 10 from 109
gig G
the standard unit, and this makes calculation particularly easy. Thus 1 kilometer (km)
m eg M 106
is 1000 m, 1 centimeter is ifem, 1 millimeter (mm) is or ^cm , and so on.
kilo k 103
The prefixes “centi-,” “kilo-,” and others are listed in Table 1 - 4 and can be applied
not only to units of length but to units of volume, mass, or any other metric unit. hecto h 102
For example, a centiliter (cL) is ^ liter (L)> and a kilogram (kg) is 1000 grams (g). dek d 101
deci d KT1
Systems of Units centi c 1(T2
When dealing with the laws and equations of physics it is very important to use a milli m 1(T3
consistent set of units. Several systems of units have been in use over the years. microf 1(T6
V
Today the most important is the Systeme Intern tion l (French for International n no n K T9
System), which is abbreviated SI. In SI units, the standard of length is the meter,
pico P 1(T12
the standard for time is the second, and the standard for mass is the kilogram. This
fem to f 1(T15
system used to be called the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system.
A second metric system is the cgs system, in which the centimeter, gram, and tto KT18
second are the standard units of length, mass, and time, as abbreviated in the title. zepto z 1(T21
The British engineering system has as its standards the foot for length, the pound yocto y KT24
for force, and the second for time. fju, is the Greek letter “mu.”
We use SI units almost exclusively in this book.
B se versus Derived Qu ntities TABLE 1 -5
SI Base Quantities and Units
Physical quantities can be divided into two categories: base quantities and derived
quantities. The corresponding units for these quantities are called base units and Unit
Qu ntity Unit Abbrevi tion
derived units. A b se qu ntity must be defined in terms of a standard. Scientists, in the
interest of simplicity, want the smallest number of base quantities possible consistent Length m eter m
with a full description of the physical world. This number turns out to be seven, and Time second s
those used in the SI are given in Table 1-5. All other quantities can be defined in terms M ss kilogr m kg
of these seven base quantities/ and hence are referred to as derived qu ntities. An Electric
example of a derived quantity is speed, which is defined as distance divided by the time current mpere A
it takes to travel that distance. A Table inside the front cover lists many derived Temper ture kelvin K
quantities and their units in terms of base units. To define any quantity, whether base or A m ount
derived, we can specify a rule or procedure, and this is called an oper tion l definition. of subst nce m ole m ol
Luminous
trThe only exceptions re for ngle (r di ns—see Ch pter 8) nd solid ngle (ster di n). No gener l intensity c ndel cd
greement h s been re ched s to whether these re b se or derived qu ntities.
SECTI N 1- 4 Units, Standards, and the SI System 7

1—5 Converting Units
Any quantity we measure, such as a length, a speed, or an electric current, consists
of a number and a unit. Often we are given a quantity in one set of units, but we
want it expressed in another set of units. For example, suppose we measure that a
table is 21.5 inches wide, and we want to express this in centimeters. We must use a
conversion f ctor, which in this case is (by definition) exactly
1 in. = 2.54 cm
or, written another way,
1 = 2.54 cm/in.
Since multiplying by one does not change anything, the width of our table, in cm, is
21.5 inches = (21.5 X ^ 2 .5 4 ^ ^ = 54.6 cm.
Note how the units (inches in this case) cancelled out. A Table containing many unit
conversions is found inside the front cover of this book. Let’s consider some Examples.
0 PHYSICS APPLIED EXAMPLE 1 - 2 The 8000 - m peaks. The fourteen tallest peaks in the world
T e world’s tallest peaks (Fig. 1 - 6 and Table 1 - 6) are referred to as “eight-thousanders,” meaning their
summits are over 8000 m above sea level. What is the elevation, in feet, of an
elevation of 8000 m?
APPR ACH We need simply to convert meters to feet, and we can start with the
conversion factor 1 in. = 2.54 cm, which is exact. That is, 1 in. = 2.5400 cm to
any number of significant figures, because it is defined to be.
S LUTI N One foot is 12 in., so we can write
cm
1 ft = (1 2 is.)(2 .5 4 — J = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m,
FIGURE 1 - 6 The w orld ’s second
highest pe k, K2, w h ose sum m it is
which is exact. Note how the units cancel (colored slashes). We can rewrite this
considered the m ost difficult o f the
equation to find the number of feet in 1 meter:
“8000 - ers. ” K2 is seen h ere from
the north (C hin ).
lm = a U s = 3'28084ft
TABLE 1 - 6
The 8000 - m Peaks We multiply this equation by 8000.0 (to have five significant figures):
Pe k H eigh t (m )
Mt. E verest 8850 8000.0m = (8000.0 l .) ^ 3 .2 8 0 8 4 ; ^ = 26,247ft.

K2 8611
K ngchenjung 8586 An elevation of 8000 m is 26,247 ft above sea level.
L hotse 8516 N TE We could have done the conversion all in one line:
M k lu 8462
C ho O yu 8201
annum - - 26O T «.
D h ul giri 8167
M n slu 8156
N ng P rb t 8125 The key is to multiply conversion factors, each equal to one ( = 1.0000), and to
A nn purn 8091
make sure the units cancel.
G sherbrum I 8068
B ro d Pe k 8047 EXERCISE E There re only 14 eight - thous nd - m eter pe ks in the world (see E x m ple 1 - 2 ),
G sherbrum II 8035 nd their n m es nd elev tion s re given in T ble 1 - 6 . They re ll in the H im l y m ou n
t in r nge in Indi , P kist n, Tibet, nd Chin . D eterm in e the elev tion o f the w orld ’s
Shish P ngm 8013
three highest pe ks in feet.

EXAMPLE 1 - 3 Apartment area. You have seen a nice apartment whose
floor area is 880 square feet (ft2). What is its area in square meters?
APPR ACH We use the same conversion factor, 1 in. = 2.54 cm, but this time
we have to use it twice.
S LUTI N Because lin. = 2.54cm = 0.0254m, then lft2 = (12 in.)2(0.0254 m/in.)2 =
0.0929 m2. So 880 ft2 = (880ft2)(0.0929 m2/ft2) « 82 m2.
N TE As a rule of thumb, an area given in ft2 is roughly 10 times the number of
square meters (more precisely, about 10.8 X) .
EXAMPLE 1 - 4 Speeds. Where the posted speed limit is 55 miles per hour
(mi/h or mph), what is this speed (a) in meters per second (m/s) and (b) in
kilometers per hour (km/h)?
APPR ACH We again use the conversion factor 1 in. = 2.54 cm, and we recall
that there are 5280 ft in a mile and 12 inches in a foot; also, one hour contains
(60min/h) X (60s/min) = 3600 s/h.
S LUTI N (a) We can write 1 mile as
jGirr 1m
1 mi = (5280ir)( 2.54 = 1609 m.
'TRv. / \ 100 jGfTf
We also know that 1 hour contains 3600 s, so
'mi. m 1 JT
55 — = 55 1609 = 25“ ,
h ir ~mL J V3600 s s
where we rounded off to two significant figures.
(b) Now we use 1 mi = 1609 m = 1.609 km; then
' m i. km _km
55 — = 55 1.609 - 88- .
h 'm i
N TE Each conversion factor is equal to one. You can look up most conversion j PR BLEM S LVING
factors in the Table inside the front cover. Conversion factors = 1
EXERCISE F Would driver tr veling t 15 m /s in 35 m i/h zone be exceeding the speed

limit?
When changing units, you can avoid making an error in the use of conversion \PR BLEM S LVING
factors by checking that units cancel out properly. For example, in our conversion Unit conversion is w ron g if units do
of 1 mi to 1609 m in Example 1 - 4(a), if we had incorrectly used the factor ( n ^ ) n ot cancel
instead of (ujoSn), the centimeter units would not have cancelled out; we would not
have ended up with meters.
1—6 Order of M gnitude: R pid Estim ting

We are sometimes interested only in an approximate value for a quantity. This
might be because an accurate calculation would take more time than it is worth
or would require additional data that are not available. In other cases, we may
want to make a rough estimate in order to check an accurate calculation made
on a calculator, to make sure that no blunders were made when the numbers
were entered. ^
A rough estimate is made by rounding off all numbers to one significant figure \ \ PR BLEM S LVING
and its power of 10, and after the calculation is made, again only one significant H o w to m ake a roug estimate
figure is kept. Such an estimate is called an order-of-m gnitude estim te and can
be accurate within a factor of 10, and often better. In fact, the phrase “order of
magnitude” is sometimes used to refer simply to the power of 10.
SECTI N 1- 6 rder of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating 9

r = 500 in
10 m
(b)
FIGURE 1 - 7 E x m ple 1 - 5 . ( ) H ow
m uch w ter is in this l ke? (P h oto is o f
on e o f the R e L kes in the Sierr
N ev d o f C liforni .) (b) M od el o f
the l ke s cylinder. [We could go on e
step further nd estim te the m ss or
w eight o f this l ke. W e w ill see l ter
th t w ter h s density o f 1000 k g /m 3,
so this l ke h s m ss o f bout
(I0 3 k g /m 3) ( l0 7 m 3) « 1010 kg, which is
bout 10 b illion kg or 10 m illion m etric
tons. (A m etric ton is 1000 kg, bout
2200 lbs, slightly l rger th n British
ton, 2000 lbs.)]
EXAMPLE 1 - 5 ESTIMATE I Volume of a lake. Estimate how much water

© - PHYSICS APPLIED
E stim atin g t e vo lu m e (or m ass) o f there is in a particular lake, Fig. l - 7 a , which is roughly circular, about 1 km
a lake; see also Fig. 1 - 7 across, and you guess it has an average depth of about 10 m.
APPR ACH No lake is a perfect circle, nor can lakes be expected to have a
perfectly flat bottom. We are only estimating here. To estimate the volume, we
can use a simple model of the lake as a cylinder: we multiply the average depth
of the lake times its roughly circular surface area, as if the lake were a cylinder
(Fig. l - 7 b ).
S LUTI N The volume V of a cylinder is the product of its height times the
area of its base: V = irr2, where r is the radius of the circular base.f The radius r
is \ km = 500 m, so the volume is approximately
V = irr2 M (10 m) X (3) X (5 X 102m)2 m 8 X 106m3 « 107m3,
where tt was rounded off to 3. So the volume is on the order of 107m3, ten
million cubic meters. Because of all the estimates that went into this calculation,
the order-of-magnitude estimate (l07m3) is probably better to quote than the
8 X 106m3 figure.
N TE To express our result in U.S. gallons, we see in the Table on the inside
front cover that 1 liter = 10-3 m3 « \ gallon. Hence, the lake contains
(8 X 106m3)(l gallon/4 X 10_3m3) « 2 X 109 gallons of water.
EXAMPLE 1 - 6 ESTIMATE I Thickness of a page. Estimate the thickness

of a page of this book.
APPR ACH At first you might think that a special measuring device, a micrometer
(Fig. 1 - 8), is needed to measure the thickness of one page since an ordinary
PR BLEM S LVING ruler clearly won’t do. But we can use a trick or, to put it in physics terms, make
Use sy m m e try w en p o ssib le use of a symmetry, we can make the reasonable assumption that all the pages of
this book are equal in thickness.
S LUTI N We can use a ruler to measure hundreds of pages at once. If you
measure the thickness of the first 500 pages of this book (page 1 to page 500),
you might get something like 1.5 cm. Note that 500 numbered pages,
fFormul s like this for volume, re , etc., re found inside the b ck cover of this book.

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three weeks (farther than to Europe) by steamers of the Brazilian
Lloyd Line. After making calls along the Brazilian coast, at
Montevideo and Buenos Aires, these boats continue up the Paraná
and Paraguay Rivers, arriving at last once more in their own country.
This new railway and others now in construction will be an immense
factor in opening the great central table-land of Brazil, with its rich
possibilities for agriculture, cattle raising, and mining.
The São Paulo-Rio Grande, another important railway, 853 miles,
runs from São Paulo to Sant’ Anna do Livramento on the border of
Uruguay, where it connects with the Central Uruguay Railway to
Montevideo. Improvements have been made so that with better
connections and sleeping cars to the border, which were lacking part
of the way in 1916, the journey is now made in comfort in 4¹⁄₂ days to
Montevideo. The road runs through a rich, often beautiful country; in
some places with splendid scenery and fine forests, in others with
open grazing lands where good cattle are visible, past small towns
and pleasant rivers. People who are willing to work could find
agreeable homes in this section with excellent temperate climate.
Low land values are spoken of, which if genuine should make this an
attractive region now that fairly good transportation exists with more
in prospect. This line has several branches of its own, while other
railways are connected with the through line, local roads to ports or
to interior towns. One of these, the Paraná Railway, has its main line
from the port Paranaguá to the State capital, Curityba, and to Ponta
Grossa on the São Paulo-Rio Grande; it has north and south
branches, the latter to Rio Negro and to São Francisco.
The southern part of the São Paulo-Rio Grande Line belonged to
the Compagnie Aux Chemins de Fer de Brasil which had a
concession for the entire State of Rio Grande. Roads from Porto
Alegre and from the city of Rio Grande extend to the line from São
Paulo, thus making connection with Montevideo and Buenos Aires.
From the Cacequy junction a line goes west to Uruguayana on the
Uruguay River. Along this river the Brazil Great Southern operates in
Rio Grande 110 miles from Quarahim on the Uruguay border through
Uruguayana north to Itaqui, with an extension to São Borja 77 miles
farther up. At Quarahim an international bridge 700 yards long
connects the Brazil and Uruguay Railways. Across the Uruguay
River connection is made from Uruguayana with Argentine Railways,
and a direct route to Buenos Aires.
There are other roads in the São Paulo, which has the best
system in Brazil and the most mileage: over 4000.
The Paulista Railway, extending northwest from Jundiahy
through rich coffee territory with Barretos a recent terminal, has
many branches and a mileage of 721.
The Mogyana goes much farther north, crossing a corner of
Minas and entering the State of Goyaz, on the way to the capital city
of that name. It has arrived at Santa Cruz, still quite a distance from
Goyaz, though with a total mileage of 1081.
The Southern São Paulo Railway runs along or near the coast
100 miles from Santos to Juquiá.
The Leopoldina. An important British line or system nearly 2000
miles in length is the Leopoldina, the main line extending from
Nictheroy, on the bay shore opposite Rio, to Friburgo, Campos,
Victoria, Leopoldina, and other points in the States of Rio, Minas,
and Espirito Santo. Lines run also from Rio and Mauá up the
mountain to Petropolis and beyond, connecting with the main line.
This follows the Parahyba Valley for some distance and then crosses
four mountain ranges, a work involving many unusual feats of
engineering. On the main line the maximum grade is 8 per cent, on
the Petropolis section 15 per cent. The territory traversed is highly
productive, and in spite of expensive construction good returns in
normal times are assured.
The Great Western. Under British control is the Great Western
Railway which has Pernambuco as its centre. Lines extend north
along the coast and also to the interior with 1000 mileage in the
several states of Pernambuco, Alagôas, Parahyba and Rio Grande
do Norte. It reaches the ports of Maceió, Parahyba, Cabedello and
Natal. Two and a half million passengers were carried in one year
and much freight.
In the state of Bahia short lines run back to the interior, one, 140
miles, from Nazareth, south of the bay, and one from São Felix, 165
miles, to Santo Amaro, serving the best sugar district, as Nazareth
that of cacao and manganese ores. The principal road is from Bahia,
281 miles, to Joazeiro, on the São Francisco River; the oldest,
opened in 1860, is along the coast to Aracajú in Sergipe, 268 miles.
Two other small railways are farther south, in all about 950 miles.
The Brazil North East Railway operates in Ceará about 472
miles, one division from the port of Forteleza, another from the port
Camocím to Granja and Crato.
The State of Pará has less mileage than most of the others, the
short line, 40 miles built, at the junction of the Tocantins and
Araguaya to avoid bad cascades. Another road, the Bragança, runs
northeast from Pará to the Atlantic Coast.
The Madeira-Mamoré is in some respects the most remarkable
railway in Brazil, perhaps in the world. It was built in accordance with
a treaty with Bolivia in settlement of the Acre difficulty, and in
compensation for the surrender by that country of the Acre Territory,
to give access to that Republic by making a way around the
prohibitive falls and rapids on the Madeira and the Mamoré Rivers.
In the heart of the wilderness, 570 miles up the Madeira River and
about 1100 miles from the sea, this road, 202 miles long, was
constructed. In 1871 an American, Colonel George Earl Church, a
Civil War veteran, and a distinguished civil engineer, turned the first
sod of the railway, but work was soon suspended. In 1877 P. T.
Collins of Philadelphia undertook the task and completed 20 miles of
railway, but the difficulties were too great, especially the mortality,
modern methods of sanitation not then being understood; the work
was therefore abandoned. In 1907 the recent operations were
begun, again in charge of Americans, and the road was opened for
traffic, July 15, 1912. From Porto Velho the road runs up the river to
Guajará-Mirím, the road of course on the Brazilian side of the river,
and in the State of Matto Grosso, which is thus made accessible as
well as Bolivia. The new little American town of Porto Velho of 1500
population has an ice plant making six tons a day, a wireless
telegraph to Manaos and other conveniences. The road passes
through a jungle which is cut out 100 feet wide. Two days are
required for the short journey. At Abuná they halt for the night;
leaving early next morning they should arrive at the terminus at 3:15.
About 60 miles south of Abuná, Villa Murtinho is passed, opposite
the town of Villa Bella in Bolivia, at the junction of the Beni and the
Mamoré, which two rivers form the Madeira. A road across from Villa
Church opposite Guajará-Mirím or from Villa Bella to Riberalta on the
Beni was in the plan, as the Beni below Riberalta is unnavigable on
account of rapids. Automobile roads are now in construction, at least
one from Riberalta to Puerto Bello (Villa Bella) or to Villa Church.
CHAPTER XLIX
BRAZIL: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES
Brazilian industries as we have already seen have the variety

befitting a country of its enormous area. The States of Minas,
Pernambuco, and São Paulo can produce almost anything, but even
these have specialties. Of the various products of Brazil, as in the
other South American countries except Bolivia, the vegetable are the
most important, with coffee far in the lead. Stock raising comes next;
minerals of prodigious variety and richness are third. Manufactures,
developing later, may in time largely satisfy the requirements of the
inhabitants.
Agriculture
Coffee, we all know, is in value the most important crop of the

country, growing over vast areas, chiefly in what we may call the
northern part of South Brazil, the States on or near the edge of the
tropics, São Paulo, Rio, Minas, and Espirito Santo. North and south
of these States coffee grows and flourishes more or less according
to local conditions. There are said to be 1,400,000,000 coffee trees
in Brazil, which produce perhaps three-fourths of the world supply,
more than half of them in the State of São Paulo. The State contains
about 60,000 plantations. Probably more than 1¹⁄₂ billions are
invested in the industry, $900,000,000 in São Paulo. The larger part
of the crop moves over the wonderful railway between São Paulo
and Santos and goes out from that port, some from adjoining States
as well as from São Paulo. For ten years the average value of the
coffee exported was $120,000,000.
Great fortunes were made by some who embarked many years
ago in the business; the coffee king, Colonel Schmidt, who has
8,000,000 trees and produces 11,000 or 12,000 tons of coffee yearly,
was himself a poor immigrant. But the best lands were taken up long
since; production is increasing in other countries, as well as
consumption, and there is not now the opportunity of earlier days.
São Paulo especially has the rich red soil that the plant loves, the
sloping ground, the right climate, and the water supply, over a
greater extent of accessible territory, probably, than any other land in
the world; though districts in other countries produce coffee of equal
excellence. Here of course there are different varieties and grades,
the original plants having been imported from Arabia and Java and
preserving their characteristics. Life on the faezendas, as the farms
are called, is agreeable both for the rich proprietor and for the Italian
and other laborer, who has his own garden and whose wife and
children help in the picking season. The rows of trees extend for
miles in even lines; there are great cement drying grounds in the
sun, pulping machinery, and store-houses. The business generally is
in the hands of Brazilians, though there are foreign stock companies,
paying large dividends. Coffee is about 40 per cent of the Brazil
exports and 97 per cent of São Paulo’s.
Cacao. Other agricultural industries are of importance and
capable of infinite expansion. Cacao is a product the consumption of
which is rapidly increasing. Bahia stands second in production, a
crop of 40,000 tons being exported from the city in 1917. Cacao
forms 60 per cent of the State’s export. Large areas of suitable land
are said to be available for plantations in States south of the
Amazon, including North São Paulo and Matto Grosso. That grown
in Maranhão ranks as the best. The groves run inland along the river
valleys, full of rich red soil. There are two gathering seasons, one
from September to April, the next crop beginning in May, less
important. It is said that one person can take care of 1000 trees,
which yield from 5 to 13, sometimes 20 pounds annually. A
plantation at pre-war prices cost 80-85 cents a tree. Three hundred
are planted to an acre. The investment of a moderate sum is pretty
sure to give good returns after three or four years.
Sugar plantations are increasing and sugar is exported in
considerable quantities. This was one of Brazil’s earliest industries,
but languished on the discovery of gold in the 17th century, to be
followed by several revivals. The amount exported varies, in 1909 it
was 70,000 tons, in 1916, 54,000. It is cultivated near the coast and
inland, chiefly from Rio Grande do Norte south to São Paulo, though
it is also raised down to Rio Grande do Sul, where the 1916 crop
was worth $3,000,000. In one year 441,000 tons were produced,
109,000 exported. The yield in some States farther north is 20 tons
to the acre. In general little fertilizing is done and crop rotation is not
followed, so that lands have become degenerate after centuries. The
most flourishing seats of the industry are in Rio, and in Pernambuco,
1000 miles north. In Rio, Campos is the focus. The State has 31
large sugar mills, Pernambuco has 46. São Paulo is third, other
States have fewer, but small mills are scattered everywhere making
brown sugar and cachaca, native rum. In the large mills the best
machinery is used, and it is said that 300,000 tons is the total output.
The export is to Uruguay, Argentina, Great Britain, United States,
and Portugal. Almost every cotton, coffee, or other faezenda grows
its own sugar. Eighty or ninety pounds a head are used. Cane ripens
in the northern States in about 15 months; south of Rio in 18-20
months.
Tobacco was in use in Brazil in prehistoric days. The State of
Bahia is the centre of the largest production, though it is raised in
almost every State. The quality varies in different localities, but in
some it is said to be equal to the best Havana, especially in Bahia,
where the soil is similar. Forty-five thousand tons were exported in
1902, chiefly to Germany; in 1916, 2100 tons, valued at over
$7,000,000. A plantation of 37 acres earns $10,000 a year.
The Coconut is another product, which might be more important.
It is found near the coast from Parahyba to Bahia, 1,250,000 trees
bearing 50,000,000 nuts, the size of which compares well with
others. One hundred million trees are also reported. At present there
is practically no export, but large possibilities exist for an important
industry. There are three shipping ports, Cabedello, Maceió, and
Recife, three-fourths of the trees near the first two. On the plantation
the nuts sell for $25-$35 per 1000, according to size, and in cities at
$42.50. No attempt is made to produce copra, as the natives are
fond of the milk and fruit. With New York price $160 a ton for copra
and $10 freight it is better to sell the nuts at home, but if business
were done on a large scale, good profit would result. Improper
spacing injures production; of two groves, one 75 trees to the acre
and one close by, 130 trees, the yield of the first is four times that of
the second. Labor is cheap, disease and pests unknown. The by-
products are valuable; fibre for cord or rope, the husk for fuel, the
milk for breakfast, and palm leaves for building or for hats. To
develop 2000 acres of land a capital of $30,000 is estimated as
necessary, giving a net return for the first seven years which would
average $31,865 a year, 105 per cent on the capital, with gross
receipts for the last year of $300,000. If the profits are half the
estimate the investment would seem a good one.
Other Nuts. The Brazil nut is an equally well known edible, mostly
exported from Pará; in 1914 over $2,000,000 worth. The trees are
large, often 150 feet high. Babassú nuts are exported, some
thousands of tons, chiefly from Bahia, yielding a high percentage of
oil, similar to that from the coconut. Also the souari or butternut
brings a good price and has commercial possibilities, having a larger
percentage of fat than other known species. Its cultivation is believed
to be more profitable than that of coconuts. Tagua nuts are exported
in small quantities.
Cotton is an important product likely to have a large increase,
though a diminishing amount is exported, $8,000,000 worth in 1914
and $500,000 in 1916. This does not indicate lessening production
but large increase in cotton milling. Cotton of long silky staple of high
merit here grows wild or with careless cultivation. Growing in almost
all parts of the country, it is best on the northeast promontory and
along the coast to the Amazon. There is little culture, not yet ¹⁄₂
million bales, where 20 might be produced. United States cotton
buyers in 1916 were astonished to find here the long silky fibre. One
of the best varieties is similar to the Peruvian, a hardy, prolific
perennial growing 13 feet high and yielding for at least three years.
One tree was bearing after 16 years. Maranhão has raised this kind
for centuries. It has the high percentage of 38 to the boll and is
similar to that cultivated by the Incas. Under the names Moco,
Serido, and Sede de Ceará, this cotton is grown in these north
States. Gossipium microcarpum, related to peruvianum, is said to
produce a pound of clean cotton from 120 bolls. These varieties
have fuzz on the seeds, but four other varieties have clean seeds,
the most important, the Gossipium vitifolium found wild in Brazil, still
producing long silky staple. Sea Island and the best Egyptian belong
to this stock. These varieties can be cultivated here without fear of
rival anywhere, and offer a fine field for the investor. In the State of
Pernambuco cotton production is more important than sugar. Much
is produced in São Paulo. Export growers, and good roads or
railways are needed to stimulate production.
Cereals are obviously of far less importance in Brazil than in
Argentina, yet many tons are produced and the possibilities are
large. Rio Grande do Sul alone produces wheat in quantity, though
not enough for her own needs; Santa Catharina, São Paulo, the hills
of Rio and Minas are suitable for cereals, and wheat, barley, oats,
and a little rye are seen in the south near European colonies. The
chief cereal grown is maize; in patches it is found everywhere, and in
enormous fields in the centre of Brazil. With mandioca it is the food
of the common people, in spite of the large consumption of flour in
the cities.
Fruits. The fine fruits of Brazil deserve greater exploitation. I have
eaten really delicious pineapples in Rio only. There may be as good
elsewhere, there cannot be better. The oranges of Bahia have an
equal reputation. It is from that State that the navels were introduced
into Florida. If superior to the California fruit as were the old Floridas,
it is time they were more extensively cultivated and exported to the
United States.
Rice is growing in importance. Formerly imported, its production
has increased until now there is an export balance.
Beans are raised and consumed in great quantities; recently some
have been exported.
Forestry
It is well known that the forest country of Brazil has an enormous

area. The entire rubber region is estimated by a Brazilian authority
as covering 1,000,000 square miles, half of which is in Brazil. Other
forest regions of a different character are on the highlands and at the
south, all together covering 1¹⁄₂ million square miles. The forests
contain the varieties that might naturally be expected with others
peculiar to the country, medicinal plants, trees with gums and resins,
woods hard and soft, but mainly hard; some ornamental, others
useful as timber; plants supplying tannin, quebracho and others; the
beautiful Araucanian (Paraná) pine, the candelabra tree, of which
there are 800,000,000 in Paraná. The wood is said to be 20 per cent
stronger than the pine of Sweden; the trees are nearly 200 feet high,
with a diameter at the base of ten feet. Other figures are 100 feet tall
and three feet in diameter.
The timber industry is of slight development, but Paraná and
Santa Catharina afford much good building material. The Brazil
Company has in the two States over 500,000 acres with
5,000,000,000 feet of good standing timber and three mills. One of
these, at Tres Barros, located on a railway, has a capacity of
40,000,000 feet a year, with planing mill, box factory, etc. There is a
great market in Brazil and Argentina. Among unusually valuable
trees is the peroba, with a trunk weighing 30 tons, worth $7 a ton on
the spot. The imbuya tree which resembles mahogany is heavier
than water. An infinite variety is found with infinite uses.
Rubber still has some importance, in spite of the great diminution
of export owing to the development of the Ceylon plantations. Once
the price was $3 a pound; in June, 1921, 15¹⁄₂ cents. Unfortunately
the industry in past years was very badly conducted, with short-
sighted policy, wasteful methods in tapping trees, foolish importation
at excessive cost of all kinds of supplies including food, far too high
prices to the laborers; partly in consequence of extortion and cruelty,
a scarcity of labor; in addition, high export duties. The idea prevailed
that people could get rubber nowhere else and must pay whatever
price was asked. It was a severe shock when Ceylon rubber came
more and more into the market, and was found to be a formidable
rival. Although not generally considered equal to Pará fina, the
Ceylon answers for most purposes.
The Government is now lending aid to the industry, encouraging
plantations, and better methods otherwise. The export tax at Pará
has been slightly lowered but is now 24¹⁄₂ per cent. A Government
investigation, however, in 1912-14 at a cost of $47,000,000 did little
besides paying fat salaries to favored individuals. The Ceylon export
has recently been 300,000 tons to Brazil’s 37,000. So far synthetic
rubber with the special therapeutic base has cost four times the
hevea. The Pará fina is of course the hevea brasiliensis, which
constitutes the larger part exported from the Amazon, 80 per cent of
a good workman’s product. Sernamby is a by-product of scraps or
careless work, though even the better is liable to be contaminated
more or less with leaves, nails, etc. Caucho from the castilloa
elastica is not so good, and in procuring it the tree is usually
destroyed, as previously stated. Near the mouth of the Amazon
where some collectors are quite independent, owning their own
homes on the edge of the forest, are white rubber trees producing
fraca or weak rubber; not so good as the hevea which has the most
resilience, and is tough and elastic. For many purposes these
qualities are essential, hence the higher price. Red rubber
coagulates badly.
Men from the State of Ceará, especially in times of drought, have
been glad to go to the Amazon as rubber collectors; and half wild
Indians of Peru and Bolivia have been employed. The rubber is
collected in the dry season, June to November. Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, a
famous Brazilian physician, said of some of the Amazon regions that
there were no natives, as all the children die; others declare that the
normal condition of older persons is to be afflicted with malaria,
beriberi, dysentery, pneumonia. Still others maintain that much of the
higher land is fairly healthful for persons of careful habits who have
good food. Conditions are improving. American and other companies
are organizing on a more scientific basis than formerly, and with
humane plans which in the long run will prove profitable. Lands have
been secured in desirable locations where men can live all the year,
raise their own vegetables, and not be dependent for their entire
living, aside from fish, on canned stuff at enormous prices. To put
Amazon rubber on a better basis it is necessary that the output be
cleaner, the expenses of the collector smaller, and his living better
through local cultivation of fruit and vegetables, which here grow
luxuriantly, and with better habitations on suitable sites, so attracting
a better labor supply. A further reduction by the Brazilian States of
the rubber export tax, now about 24 per cent in Pará, seems also
desirable.
Besides the hevea and caucho, two other varieties of rubber are
exported, the maniçoba and the mangabeira, which have a place,
like the balatá of the Guianas and Venezuela and the Guayule shrub
from Mexico. The first is from the manihot tree which grows up to
4000 feet altitude, on a rocky soil where there is not too much rain; it
is good for many purposes. The mangabeira, mostly from
Pernambuco, grows on a sandy soil at 3000-5000 feet, but is a wet
rubber not highly valued.
The Ceylon rubber trees, the seeds of which were taken from the
Amazon and germinated in Kew Gardens, first blossomed in 1881.
The seeds were used to plant more trees. In 1900 four tons of rubber
came from the East, in 1910, 800 tons; the output in 1916 was about
150,000 tons. One million, three hundred thousand acres are now
producing in Ceylon, India, Borneo, and elsewhere, a monument to
British enterprise.
Herva Matte. A very important export, rather forestal than
agricultural is called in Portuguese herva matte, the yerba mate of
Spanish. Paraná is its special home where it grows wild in the
forests, straying over into the neighboring States of Matto Grosso,
São Paulo, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul, and being
native as we have seen to Paraguay, and to Misiones in Argentina.
The trees or shrubs often grow in sections with the tall Paraná pines,
the tree with the candelabra top, which is not only an ornament to
the landscape but supplies good lumber, and pine kernels as large
as chestnuts. These when boiled make a nutritious food, much
relished by the Italians. The chief export of matte is through the city
of Paranaguá, after preparation in the mills of the region. In 1915,
75,800 tons were exported, largely to Argentina, some also to
Europe; 40,000 tons is an average amount. It is much used by the
residents of Paraná, but in most of Brazil coffee has the preference.
Fibres. Besides cotton Brazil produces fibres of excellence from a
variety of plants. A wonderful article but little known to the general
public is the remarkable paina, called in Europe kapok, 34 times as
light as water, 14 times, as cork. Chiefly produced in the Orient, it is
obviously excellent for life preservers, also for mattresses, pillows,
and for whatever needs to be light, warm, elastic, and impermeable.
The best fibre, best packed, comes from Java, inferior grades from
India and Africa. Introduced into Venezuela, it was so packed with
stones and refuse that it was rejected when sent to Europe, although
the article was of fine quality. Careless exporters of all articles should
take warning. Other good fibres of Brazil are aramin, from which
coffee bags are made; pita, from which the Amazon Indians make
hammocks woven with much art, and sometimes with feathers
interspersed along the edge. Palms and aloes supply other fibres,
some equal, they say, to the famous henequen (sisal) of Yucatan.
Banana fibre is used by north lace makers for a curious stiff shiny
lace, some quite beautiful, fine and intricate, and some with a
darned-in pattern of heavier silk thread, on a filmy background.
Carnaüba Wax, which forms an under coating of the leaves of the
carnaüba palm, is not unlike beeswax. Nearly 600 tons were
exported in 1915 valued at $2,400,000. The trees grow in the north
States, especially in Rio Grande do Norte, where there are
15,000,000 trees, and in Ceará. Large amounts of the product are
used locally. The wax is of excellent quality, melting at a low
temperature and burning with a bright light. Mixed with a little
beeswax and 10 per cent fat, it is easily worked and makes candles
of high quality. It is much used for shoe blacking.
CHAPTER L
BRAZIL: OTHER INDUSTRIES
Cattle Industry
A leading industry of Brazil which, it has been said, may even in

São Paulo supersede in importance that of coffee is live stock. Two
packing houses now slaughter 300,000 cattle per year, one Brazilian,
at Barretos, the other an American, the Continental Products, at
Osasco near São Paulo, exporting chiefly to France and Italy.
Another American Company has at São Paulo a plant that will
handle daily 1500 head of cattle, 1000 hogs, and 2500 sheep. In
tributary territory, which would include parts of Matto Grosso and
Minas, 2,500,000 cattle are estimated. It is said that the best
breeding ground is Matto Grosso, where the cattle run wild as once
in Texas, though each rancher has a certain range and his cattle are
branded. The Brazil Land and Cattle Company procured 8,000,000
acres in Matto Grosso, Paraná, and Minas, mostly well watered and
with good grazing, except in Matto Grosso. Much fencing was done
and buildings were erected. Recent increase in prices has improved
prospects. This property is now owned by the Continental Products
Company, in which the Wilson packers are interested.
Other vast lands are available. From the ranges of Matto Grosso
the cattle are driven across to fattening pastures of southwest Minas
and northwest São Paulo where the land has been planted to grass,
though it is said that a native grass, caipim gordura, grows there all
the year round. Argentina’s alfalfa lands make the cost of fattening
an animal six months $7.50, while with caipim gordura in Brazil
$1.33 covers the expense. Some Brazil grasses are of the highest
class while others are good only for goats. On the Araguaya River
the grass is 16-17 feet high. The Jaragua is over 3 feet. In
Amazonas and Pará cattle are said to flourish but not goats or pigs.
Rio Grande near the Uruguay line has fine grazing lands; those in
Minas and São Paulo at an elevation of 1200-1400 feet where
animals never need shelter are excellent.
Before the packing houses were started jerked beef only was
marketed from the herds, hence, as thin cattle were preferred for that
purpose, there was no object in improving the grade. Now there is
systematic progress. Breeding farms are operated, fine stock has
been imported, and in time high grade meat, perhaps equal to the
Argentine, will be marketed. Twelve thousand tons were sent to
Europe and the United States in six months in 1916, though the first
experimental 1¹⁄₂ tons was sent in November, 1914. At the School of
Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo, are good imported bulls, and one
of native type, the Caracú, with pale buff hide, fitted to be the base of
standardized herds. It seems that in some sections, notably Matto
Grosso, a cross with the Indian zebu, which has a hump, and its
descendants, is best qualified to resist the climate and the insect
pests of that region; but in the pastures of Paraná and Rio Grande,
Herefords, Durhams, Jerseys, etc., will flourish. The zebu is of large
size and its skin is excellent leather, but packers say the hump does
not pack well, and the shoulder is thin. Plants now or soon to be in
operation south of São Paulo are three: in Rio Grande, one of Swift,
one at Pelotas, Brazilian, and one at Sant’ Anna of Armour. The
President of Paraná has been extending high roads towards
Guarapuava to tap the State of Matto Grosso, and a large drove of
cattle has come down. He desires to have an American packing
house established in the State and will arrange with a suitable
company to make no advance on the export tax for 15 years.
Paranaguá, a port which we have already noted, is well served by
the Brazilian Lloyd Line and the Funch-Edye from New York. Similar
concessions are offered in Santa Catharina, which State has lower
export duties; and by the Governor of Rio Grande, who would
exempt from all export taxes any foreign company; though a tax of
10 milreis, $3.33, is imposed for every cow slaughtered, to protect
the herds from decimation. If all the herds number 30,000,000,
2,500,000 or more might be slaughtered yearly without diminution.
Cattle formerly were killed for their hides only, and the export of
these is still important; 37,000 tons exported in 1915 were valued at
$13,000,000.
Sheep raising seems inappropriate for a tropical climate, but in
Rio Grande do Sul development is possible, also on the highlands of
São Paulo, Minas, and Matto Grosso. Experiments with Romney
Marsh have been successful for both wool and meat. Now there are
11,000,000 sheep, 7,000,000 goats, 18,000,000 hogs, 6,000,000
horses, and 3,000,000 mules and donkeys in the country.
Manufactures
While Brazil may not be called a manufacturing country, she had

over 26,000 such plants in 1916; and her statesmen are eager to
increase these industries, for which her immense water power gives
her unusual advantages. The largest concern in this field has a
capital of $8,000,000 and an annual output worth $4,500,000; it
employs 2800 hands making sacking, yarn, rope, thread, etc., this in
São Paulo. In the textile field, the cotton mills naturally lead with over
200 mills and an investment of $80,000,000. They exist in various
States, employing 80,000 persons; one in Pernambuco near the city
of Olinda is a sample. The estate of 45 square miles of pasture and
woodland borders on the sea, the shore fringed with coconut trees.
Machinery and some technical workers were brought from England.
All the processes of making fine cloth are there followed; they spin,
dye, weave, color, and print. Native dyes are used in part. Of 3500
hands employed 70 per cent are women and children. Over $35,000
a month are paid in wages. Dwellings are rented at low prices or
owned by employes; schools, hospital, and dispensary are free. A
dairy and a stock farm belong to the estate, brick factories, a bakery,
etc. A lumber yard is important. One thousand tons of coal a month
are usually consumed, but in war time wood was used. The cotton is
bought, $200,000 a month, and as much a year is spent for
chemicals, drugs, etc. From 960 looms 1,500,000 metres of cloth 22-
26 inches wide are produced a month, from blue denim to fine
flowered fabrics; the products are sold in 80 stores owned by the
Company in various States. Brazil has 11 flour mills of commercial
importance, located in the States of Rio, São Paulo, Paraná, and Rio
Grande do Sul, at one time having no tax on wheat, but ten cents a
kilo on flour, by means of which the infant industry was started. In
1915, 800,000 barrels of flour were imported from the United States
and 600,000 from Argentina, a little from Uruguay; at the same time
enough wheat was imported and milled to make 2,750,000 barrels,
evidence of the work of the mills. For metal working there are 134
shops for imported iron. Factories exist of almost every kind. Leather
goods are produced especially shoes for which there are many
factories; hats, clothing and a variety of ordinary articles, such as
soap, hosiery, brooms, paper, wagons, etc. Brazil workmen are
skilful and the industries are certain to increase.
Mining
The mining industry of Brazil, if not precisely in embryo, for it has

been in a very flourishing condition, is now in a state of prospect; on
the verge of a great development rather than of active operation,
except for a few varieties of metals. At the moment there is little
working except in gold, diamonds, monazite, manganese, and coal.
Manganese has recently been the chief mineral exported on
account of war necessities, 245,000 tons valued at 7 million dollars,
in the first half of 1917, in contrast to 85,000 tons in the same part of
1914. The mines are in Minas, Matto Grosso, Bahia, and elsewhere,
those in Minas being accessible to the port of Rio. In Matto Grosso,
18 miles from Corumbá, there is a deposit called the Urucum,
estimated at 30,000,000 tons of undeveloped ore; one, the Quelez,
in Minas of 5,000,000, 30 miles from Rio, and others. The ore
averages over 50 per cent of metallic manganese, with a little iron
silicate and phosphorus. Americans are interested in the works as
the metal is valuable in the iron and steel industry. With better
transportation facilities for these and other deposits, a good future is
certain.
Gold mining was naturally the first to be developed. Minas has
been the chief producer. Of Minas Geraes the writer Diaz said, “In
this State what does not hide gold contains iron; what does not
contain coal spreads diamonds.” After the discovery of gold in 1693,
80,000 men toiled for a century at placer mining for the King of
Portugal. About $1,000,000,000 has been taken out. The Morro
Velho, said to be the oldest producing mine in the world, is now with
the Ouro Preto worked by British Companies. The first is being
worked at the depth of a mile with no sign of exhaustion. The gross
receipts for the year ending February 28, 1917, were over
$4,000,000, the profits $750,000, from a tonnage crushed of
187,400. The Ouro Preto Company operates the Passagem Mine
five miles from the former capital of that name, being the first to use
a stamp mill in 1819. The average thickness of the lode was ten feet,
now about eight. Gold properties exist in many States, the most
important around three mountain chains, the Mantiqueira and
Espinhaço, which cross Minas and Bahia, running into Pernambuco;
the range between Minas and Bahia, and Goyaz, continuing into
Piauhy and Ceará, west of the São Francisco River; the third east of
the Paraguay and Araguaya Rivers. Those most worked are in the
Espinhaco Range in Minas and Bahia. Dredging has been carried on
with varying success, but some of the companies have been
overcapitalized. An American Company has recently acquired some
old concessions of land in Goyaz, rich in gold and diamonds, where
extensive operations are expected shortly.
Diamonds. As for diamonds, since the first stone was discovered
in 1721, many precious gems have been produced. During 40 years
in that century $17,500,000 worth were exported. The city,
Diamantina, 500 miles from Rio, is the centre of one of the most
important fields. Gems are found in pot-holes, one of which
contained 10 pounds of diamonds and 28 of gold. Others are in clay
deposits in rocks of sandstone and schist. In the River Bagagem
near the border of São Paulo, 250 miles from Diamantina, three
great diamonds have been found: the Estrella do Sul, in 1853,
weighing 254 carats uncut, was sold to the Gaekwar of Baroda for
$400,000, the others weighing 117 and 175 carats. Other fields are
in Paraná, Bahia, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and São Paulo, in Goyaz on
the Garças River, tributary to the Araguaya. Apparently most of the
stones are now smuggled. They are said to be finer than the Cape
diamonds and also to be sold for them. Black diamonds are found, of
great value in the arts, and many precious and semi-precious
stones, such as amethysts, tourmaline, topaz, etc., in various places.
Copper exists in several States, but production is slight. A mass
weighing over 2600 pounds was discovered years ago near the city
of Bahia, and there are six well known districts in the State. In Rio
Grande do Sul an extensive property was opened which showed 6.5
per cent copper and 30 grams gold per ton. Minas will probably rank
next to these States. Promising quantities are near Campos in Rio
de Janeiro; there are also ores in Goyaz, Paraná, Matto Grosso,
Parahyba, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Maranhão; some are
hardly accessible. One of those in Bahia covers nearly 15,000 acres,
about 30 miles from the railway. Belgians and Dutch have operated
at Camaquam, Rio Grande do Sul.
Iron in actual mountains occurs in Minas, 12 billion tons of the
highest grade in 52 outcroppings. Deposits have been acquired by
American, British, German, and French interests. The manager of a
British company which owned 90,000 acres said, “One could travel
23 miles one way and 16 another on outcrops of ore, canga, or
rubble.” In one deposit 30,000,000 tons are in sight, 60 per cent
pure.
American interests, the Itabira Company, have secured deposits
which include the celebrated iron mountain of Itabira do Matto
Dentro in the east near the head of the Doce River. The hematite
iron district is reached from Rio by the Central and the Leopoldina
Railways; but this deposit will be tapped by a prolongation of the
Victoria-Minas Railway, now running along a part of the Doce River.
Also a branch will lead to a terminal 40 miles north of Victoria, Santa
Cruz, a small port which will be developed and equipped with special
loading machinery. Here will be erected a steel plant with an annual
capacity of 150,000 tons of steel products, pig-iron, steel plates,
rails, etc. The iron, 326 miles from this port, runs 69 per cent pure;
some in the United States runs 52 per cent. It will be several years
before manufacture can begin. Coal will be imported.
Development of iron properties has been retarded by lack of
transportation and fuel. Wagon roads are unknown. The altitude is
2000-4000 feet and the climate good. The coal is hardly good
enough or in sufficiently large supply. Oil development is uncertain.
As there is water power the use of electricity may be arranged.
Near Ipanema, São Paulo, iron is found. A large deposit has been
located in Paraná three miles from the port of Antonina. Other
deposits in the two States south give good promise. So far charcoal
has been used for a little smelting.
Coal mining has been carried on for a long time in a small and
primitive way, but most of the coal used has been imported. The
principal deposits found are in Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do
Sul, others are in Paraná and Pernambuco. In Paraná American
interests have made extensive purchases and expect to develop the
property at once. Rio Grande do Sul has been estimated to have
800,000,000 tons and to be able to supply 1,000,000 a year.
In Santa Catharina the veins are about ten feet thick; some in Rio
Grande are 4-10 feet, some 13. The property at Xarquedas,
operated for some years, produces 20,000 tons per annum. With
greater activity, in March 1918, 650 tons were produced daily from
two shafts, and 1000 or more was expected by the addition of a
third. With high volatile matter, good gas and salable coke are
procured for Pelotas. Coal is found in several river valleys in Santa
Catharina. State surveys are being made, and with improvement in
transport by land and water a great industry may be developed of
enormous value in promoting manufactures. Railway construction
has been authorized by the President to aid coal companies in work,
and other concessions have been made. The briquettes from Santa
Catharina coal show hardly less caloric value than those of the
Welsh patent fuel. Much is used by the Lloyd Brasileiro and other
steamship lines including the Japanese; by railways, mills, etc. A
little is exported to Argentina and Uruguay. The Rio Grande Railway
is or was burning coal mixed with wood on its locomotives. The best
coal is 42 per cent combustible, and when pulverized is equal to any
other. Bituminous schist sold at $12.50 a ton was used for gas in
São Paulo during the War. There are great seams 10-12 feet thick in
São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. Lignite occurs in Pará,
Amazonas, and Minas, enormous peat beds in various places.

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Physics for Scientists and Engineers

with Modern Physics 4th Edition

President, Science: Paul Corey

© 2009, 2000, 1989, 1984 by Douglas C. Giancoli

• Pearson Education, Inc.

ISBN-13: 978 - 0-13-149508 -1

Pearson Education LID., London

1 MEASUREMENT, ESTIMATING 1 USING NEWroN's l.Aws: FruCTioN,

T he W ave N ature L ght ;

y j i i ' w n in H r . th e n h ( « l K- p l4 A ‘J .11 lltL> N irti

E arly Q uantum T heory and

38 Q uantum M echan cs 1017

42-1 Nuclear Reactions and the

Ch pter 1 Escape velocity from Earth or Moon 201 Ch pter 15

Why Fourth Edition?

Content nd Org niz tion l Ch nges

Mario Affatigato, oe ollege Jim LaBelle, Dartmouth ollege

About the Author

Online Supplements (p rti l list) Student Supplements (p rti l list)

NOTES ON THE FORMAT AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Electricity nd m gnetism Electric circuit symbols

Electric ch rge (+) + ) or • + Inductor - /n n n p -

Virtu l im ge 4 Direction of motion ------- ►

1—1 The N ture of Science

1 -3 Me surement nd Uncert inty;

Percent Uncert inty versus Signific nt Figures

Accur cy versus Precision

SECTI N 1- 3 Measurement, Uncertainty; Significant Figures 5

6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

Lifetim e o f very unst ble sub tomic p rticle 1 0 - 23 s Electron 1(T30 kg

SECTI N 1- 4 Units, Standards, and the SI System 7

21.5 inches = (21.5 X ^ 2 .5 4 ^ ^ = 54.6 cm.

Mt. E verest 8850 8000.0m = (8000.0 l .) ^ 3 .2 8 0 8 4 ; ^ = 26,247ft.

8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

EXERCISE F Would driver tr veling t 15 m /s in 35 m i/h zone be exceeding the speed

1—6 Order of M gnitude: R pid Estim ting

SECTI N 1- 6 rder of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating 9

EXAMPLE 1 - 5 ESTIMATE I Volume of a lake. Estimate how much water

EXAMPLE 1 - 6 ESTIMATE I Thickness of a page. Estimate the thickness

10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

Brazilian industries as we have already seen have the variety

Coffee, we all know, is in value the most important crop of the

It is well known that the forest country of Brazil has an enormous

A leading industry of Brazil which, it has been said, may even in

While Brazil may not be called a manufacturing country, she had

The mining industry of Brazil, if not precisely in embryo, for it has

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