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FOR THE
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Physics
THIRD EDITION
John Allum
Paul Morris
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Publisher's acknowledgements
IB advisers: The Publishers would like to thank the following for their advice and support in the development of
this project: Arno Dirks and Aurora Vicens. We would like to offer special thanks to Paul Morris for his invaluable
review and feedback during the writing process.
The Publishers would also like to thank the International Baccalaureate Organization for permission to re-use
their past examination questions in the online materials.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the
Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press,
Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 6991 7
© John Allum 2023
First published in 2012
Second edition published in 2014
This edition published in 2023 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Tools and Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
A Space, time and motion

A.1 Kinematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A.2 Forces and momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A.3 Work, energy and power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A.4 Rigid body mechanics (HL only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
A.5 Relativity (HL only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
B The particulate nature of matter

B.1 Thermal energy transfers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
B.2 Greenhouse effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
B.3 Gas laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
B.4 Thermodynamics (HL only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
B.5 Current and circuits (includes HL section). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C Wave behaviour
C.1 Simple harmonic motion (includes HL section). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
C.2 Wave model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
C.3 Wave phenomena (includes HL section). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
C.4 Standing waves and resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
C.5 Doppler effect (includes HL section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
D Fields
D.1 Gravitational fields (includes HL section). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
D.2 Electric and magnetic fields (includes HL section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
D.3 Motion in electromagnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
D.4 Induction (HL only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
v

E Nuclear and quantum
E.1 Structure of the atom (includes HL section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
E.2 Quantum physics (HL only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
E.3 Radioactive decay (includes HL section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
E.4 Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
E.5 Fusion and stars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Free online content

Go to our website www.hoddereducation.com/ib-extras for free access to the following:
n Practice exam-style questions for each chapter
n Glossary
n Answers to self-assessment questions and practice exam-style questions
n Tools and Inquiries reference guide
n Internal Assessment – the scientific investigation
vi

Introduction
Welcome to Physics for the IB Diploma Third Edition, updated and designed to meet the criteria
of the new International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme Physics Guide. This coursebook
provides complete coverage of the new IB Physics Diploma syllabus, with first teaching from
2023. Differentiated content for SL and HL students is clearly identified throughout.
The aim of this syllabus is to integrate concepts, topic content and the nature of science through
inquiry. Approaches to learning in the study of physics are integrated with the topics, along with
key scientific inquiry skills. This book comprises five main themes:
l Theme A: Space, time and motion
l Theme B: The particulate nature of matter
l Theme C: Wave behaviour
l Theme D: Fields
l Theme E: Nuclear and quantum physics
Each theme is divided into syllabus topics.

The book has been written with a sympathetic understanding that English is not the first language
of many students.
No prior knowledge of physics by students has been assumed, although many will have taken an
earlier course (and they will find some useful reminders in the content).
In keeping with the IB philosophy, a wide variety of approaches to teaching and learning has been
included in the book (not just the core physics syllabus). The intention is to stimulate interest and
motivate beyond the confines of the basic physics content. However, it is very important students
know what is the essential knowledge they have to take into the examination room. This is
provided by the Key information boxes. If this information is well understood, and plenty of self-
assessment questions have been done (and answers checked), then a student will be well-prepared
for their IB Physics examination.
The online Glossary is another useful resource. It's aim is to list and explain basic terminology
used in physics, but it is not intended as a list of essential information for students. Many of the
terms in the Glossary are highlighted in the book as 'Key terms' and also emphasized in the
nearby margins.
The ‘In cooperation with IB’ logo signifies that this coursebook has been rigorously
reviewed by the IB to ensure it fully aligns with the current IB curriculum and
offers high-quality guidance and support for IB teaching and learning.
vii

How to use this book
The following features will help you consolidate and develop your understanding of physics,
through concept-based learning.
Guiding questions
• There are guiding questions at the start of every chapter, as signposts for inquiry.
• These questions will help you to view the content of the syllabus through the conceptual lenses of
the themes.
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 This coursebook follows the order of the contents of the IB Physics Diploma syllabus.
 Syllabus understandings are introduced naturally throughout each topic.
Key information
Throughout the book, you will find some content in pink boxes like this one. These highlight
the essential Physics knowledge you will need to know when you come to the examination.
Included in these boxes are the key equations and constants that are also listed in the IBDP
Physics data booklet for the course.
Tools
The Tools features explore the skills and techniques that you require and are integrated into
Key terms the physics content to be practiced in context. These skills can be assessed through internal
◆ Definitions appear and external assessment.
throughout the margins
to provide context and
help you understand the Inquiry process
language of physics. There
is also a glossary of all key
The application and development of the Inquiry process is supported in close association
terms online.
with the Tools.
Common
mistake Nature of science
These detail Nature of science (NOS) explores conceptual understandings related to the purpose, features and impact
some common of scientific knowledge. It can be examined in Physics papers. NOS explores the scientific process
misunderstandings and itself, and how science is represented and understood by the general public. NOS covers 11 aspects:
typical errors made by Observations, Patterns and trends, Hypotheses, Experiments, Measurements, Models, Evidence,
students, so that you can Theories, Falsification, Science as a shared endeavour, and Global impact of science. It also examines the
avoid making the same way in which science is the basis for technological developments and how these modern technologies, in
mistakes yourself. turn, drive developments in science.
viii

D B Content from the IBDP Physics data booklet is indicated with this icon and shown in bold. The
data booklet contains electrical symbols, equations and constants that you need to familiarize
yourself with as you progress through the course. You will have access to a copy of the data
booklet during your examination.
ATL ACTIVITY
Approaches to learning
Top tip!
(ATL) activities, This feature includes advice relating to the content being discussed and tips to help you retain the
including learning knowledge you need.
through inquiry, are
integral to IB pedagogy.
These activities are WORKED EXAMPLE
contextualized through
These provide a step-by-step guide showing you how to answer the kind of quantitative
real-world applications
of physics. and other questions that you might encounter in your studies and in the assessment.
International mindedness is indicated with this icon. It explores how the exchange of information
and ideas across national boundaries has been essential to the progress of science and illustrates
the international aspects of physics.
Self-assessment questions appear throughout the chapters, phrased to assist comprehension and
recall, but also to help familiarize you with the assessment implications of the command terms.
These command terms are defined in the online glossary. Practice exam-style questions and
their answers, together with answers to most self-assessment questions are on the accompanying
website, IB Extras: www.hoddereducation.com/ib-extras
I B L E AR N
HE
The IB learner profile icon indicates material that is particularly useful to help you towards
ER
T
PROFILE
developing in the following attributes: to be inquirers, knowledgeable, thinkers, communicators,

principled, open-minded, caring, risk-takers, balanced and reflective. When you see the icon,
think about what learner profile attribute you might be demonstrating – it could be more than one.
LINKING QUESTIONS
These questions are introduced throughout each topic. They are to strengthen your understanding by
making connections across the themes. The linking questions encourage you to apply broad, integrating and
discipline-specific concepts from one topic to another, ideally networking your knowledge. Practise answering
the linking questions first, on your own or in groups. The links in this coursebook are not exhaustive, you may
also encounter other connections between concepts, leading you to create your own linking questions.
TOK
Links to Theory of Knowledge (TOK) allow you to develop critical thinking skills and deepen
scientific understanding by bringing discussions about the subject beyond the scope of the content of
the curriculum.
ix

About the author
John Allum taught physics to pre-university level in international schools for more than thirty
years (as a head of department). He has now retired from teaching, but lives a busy life in a
mountainside village in South East Asia. He has also been an IB examiner for many years.
■ Adviser, writer and reader

Paul Morris is Deputy Principal and IB Diploma Coordinator at the International School of
London. He has taught IB Physics and IB Theory of Knowledge for over 20 years, has led teacher
workshops internationally and has examined Theory of Knowledge. As an enthusiast for the IB
concept-based continuum, Paul designed and developed Hodder Education's 'MYP by Concept'
series and was author and co-author of the Physics and Sciences titles in the series. He has also
advised on publishing projects for the national sciences education programmes for Singapore
and Qatar.
x

Tools and Inquiry
Skills in the study of physics

The skills and techniques you must experience through the course are encompassed within the
tools. These support the application and development of the inquiry process in the delivery of the
physics course.
■ Tools ■ Inquiry process

l Tool 1: Experimental techniques l Inquiry 1: Exploring and designing
l Tool 2: Technology l Inquiry 2: Collecting and processing data
l Tool 3: Mathematics l Inquiry 3: Concluding and evaluating
Throughout the programme, you will be given opportunities to encounter and practise the skills;
and instead of stand-alone topics, they will be integrated into the teaching of the syllabus when
they are relevant to the syllabus topics being covered.
You can see what the Tools and Inquiry boxes look like in the How to use this book section on page vi.
The skills in the study of physics can be assessed through internal and external assessment. The
Approaches to learning provide the framework for the development of these skills.
Thinking skills
Experimental
Technology Mathematics
techniques
Social skills Research skills
Exploring and
designing
Collecting and
processing data
Communication Self-management
skills Concluding and skills
evaluating
■ Figure 0.01 Tools for physics
Visit the link in the QR code or this website to view the Tools and Inquiry reference guide:
www.hoddereducation.com/ib-extras
Tools and Inquiry xi

Tools
■ Tool 1: Experimental techniques
Skill Description
Addressing safety of self, • Recognize and address relevant safety, ethical or environmental issues in an
others and the environment investigation.
Measuring variables Understand how to accurately measure the following to an appropriate level of
precision:
• Mass
• Time
• Length
• Volume
• Temperature
• Force
• Electric current
• Electric potential difference
• Angle
• Sound and light intensity
■ Tool 2: Technology
Skill Description
Applying technology to collect • Use sensors.
data
• Identify and extract data from databases.
• Generate data from models and simulations.
• Carry out image analysis and video analysis of motion.
Applying technology to process • Use spreadsheets to manipulate data.
data
• Represent data in a graphical form.
• Use computer modelling.
■ Tool 3: Mathematics
Skill Description
Applying general mathematics • Use basic arithmetic and algebraic calculations to solve problems.
• Calculate areas and volumes for simple shapes.
• Carry out calculations involving decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios,
reciprocals, exponents and trigonometric ratios.
• Carry out calculations involving logarithmic and exponential functions.
• Determine rates of change.
• Calculate mean and range.
• Use and interpret scientific notation (for example, 3.5 × 106).
• Select and manipulate equations.
• Derive relationships algebraically.
• Use approximation and estimation.
• Appreciate when some effects can be neglected and why this is useful.
• Compare and quote ratios, values and approximations to the nearest order
of magnitude.
• Distinguish between continuous and discrete variables.
xii

Skill Description
• Understand direct and inverse proportionality, as well as positive and
negative relationships or correlations between variables.
• Determine the effect of changes to variables on other variables in
a relationship.
• Calculate and interpret percentage change and percentage difference.
• Calculate and interpret percentage error and percentage uncertainty.
• Construct and use scale diagrams.
• Identify a quantity as a scalar or vector.
• Draw and label vectors including magnitude, point of application
and direction.
• Draw and interpret free-body diagrams showing forces at point of
application or centre of mass as required.
• Add and subtract vectors in the same plane (limited to three vectors).
• Multiply vectors by a scalar.
• Resolve vectors (limited to two perpendicular components).
Using units, symbols and • Apply and use SI prefixes and units.
numerical values
• Identify and use symbols stated in the guide and the data booklet.
• Work with fundamental units.
• Use of units (for example, eV, eVc–2, ly, pc, h, day, year) whenever appropriate.
• Express derived units in terms of SI units.
• Check an expression using dimensional analysis of units (the formal process
of dimensional analysis will not be assessed).
• Express quantities and uncertainties to an appropriate number of significant
figures or decimal places.
Processing uncertainties • Understand the significance of uncertainties in raw and processed data.
• Record uncertainties in measurements as a range (±) to an appropriate precision.
• Propagate uncertainties in processed data in calculations involving addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and raising to a power.
• Express measurement and processed uncertainties—absolute, fractional
(relative) and percentage—to an appropriate number of significant figures or
level of precision.
Graphing • Sketch graphs, with labelled but unscaled axes, to qualitatively
describe trends.
• Construct and interpret tables, charts and graphs for raw and processed data
including bar charts, histograms, scatter graphs and line and curve graphs.
• Construct and interpret graphs using logarithmic scales.
• Plot linear and non-linear graphs showing the relationship between two
variables with appropriate scales and axes.
• Draw lines or curves of best fit.
• Draw and interpret uncertainty bars.
• Extrapolate and interpolate graphs.
• Linearize graphs (only where appropriate).
• On a best-fit linear graph, construct lines of maximum and minimum
gradients with relative accuracy (by eye) considering all uncertainty bars.
• Determining the uncertainty in gradients and intercepts.
• Interpret features of graphs including gradient, changes in gradient,
intercepts, maxima and minima, and areas under the graph.
Tools and Inquiry xiii

Inquiry process
■ Inquiry 1: Exploring and designing
Skill Description
Exploring • Demonstrate independent thinking, initiative and insight.
• Consult a variety of sources.
• Select sufficient and relevant sources of information.
• Formulate research questions and hypotheses.
• State and explain predictions using scientific understanding.
Designing • Demonstrate creativity in the designing, implementation and presentation of
the investigation.
• Develop investigations that involve hands-on laboratory experiments,
databases, simulations and modelling.
• Identify and justify the choice of dependent, independent and control variables.
• Justify the range and quantity of measurements.
• Design and explain a valid methodology.
• Pilot methodologies.
Controlling variables Appreciate when and how to:
• calibrate measuring apparatus, including sensors
• maintain constant environmental conditions of systems
• insulate against heat loss or gain
• reduce friction
• reduce electrical resistance
• take background radiation into account.
■ Inquiry 2: Collecting and processing data

Skill Description
Collecting data • Identify and record relevant qualitative observations.
• Collect and record sufficient relevant quantitative data.
• Identify and address issues that arise during data collection.
Processing data • Carry out relevant and accurate data processing.
Interpreting results • Interpret qualitative and quantitative data.
• Interpret diagrams, graphs and charts.
• Identify, describe and explain patterns, trends and relationships.
• Identify and justify the removal or inclusion of outliers in data (no
mathematical processing is required).
• Assess accuracy, precision, reliability and validity.
■ Inquiry 3: Concluding and evaluating

Skill Description
Concluding • Interpret processed data and analysis to draw and justify conclusions.
• Compare the outcomes of an investigation to the accepted scientific context.
• Relate the outcomes of an investigation to the stated research question
or hypothesis.
• Discuss the impact of uncertainties on the conclusions.
Evaluating • Evaluate hypotheses.
• Identify and discuss sources and impacts of random and systematic errors.
• Evaluate the implications of methodological weaknesses, limitations and
assumptions on conclusions.
• Explain realistic and relevant improvements to an investigation.
xiv

A.1 Kinematics
◆ Kinematics Study of motion.

Guiding questions
◆ Classical physics Physics theories
that pre-dated the paradigm shifts • How can the motion of a body be described quantitatively and qualitatively?
introduced by quantum physics and
• How can the position of a body in space and time be predicted?
relativity.
• How can the analysis of motion in one and two dimensions be used to solve real-life problems?
◆ Uniform Unchanging.
◆ Magnitude Size.
Kinematics is the study of moving objects. In this topic we will describe motion by using
◆ Scalars Quantities that have only
magnitude (no direction). graphs and equations, but the causes of motion (forces) will be covered in the next topic,
◆ Vector A quantity that has both A.2 Forces and Momentum. The ideas of classical physics presented in this chapter can
magnitude and direction. be applied to the movement of all masses, from the very small (freely moving atomic
particles) to the very large (stars).
N To completely describe the motion of an object at any one moment we need to state its
velocity,
W E 8 m s–1 position, how fast it is moving, the direction in which it is moving and whether its motion
is changing. For example, we might observe that a car is 20 m to the west of an observer
S
stationary and moving northeast with a constant (uniform) velocity of 8 m s−1. See Figure A1.1.
car observer
20 m Of course, any or all, of these quantities might be changing. In real life the movement of
■ Figure A1.1 Describing the
many objects can be complicated; they do not often move in straight lines and they might
position and motion of a car even rotate or have different parts moving in different directions.
In this chapter we will develop an understanding of the basic principles of kinematics by dealing
first with objects moving in straight lines, and calculations will be confined to those objects that
have a uniform (unchanging) motion.
Tool 3: Mathematics
Identify a quantity as a scalar or a vector However, when using the following quantities, we need to
know both the magnitude and the direction in which they
Everything that we measure has a magnitude and a unit.
are acting, so they are vectors:
For example, we might measure the mass of a book
to be 640 g. Here, 640 g is the magnitude (size) of the l displacement (distance in a specified direction)
measurement, but mass has no direction. l velocity (speed in a given direction)
l force (including weight)
Quantities that have only magnitude, and no direction,
l acceleration
are called scalars.
l momentum and impulse
All physical quantities can be described as scalars or vectors. l field strength (gravitational, electric and magnetic).
Quantities that have both magnitude and direction are In diagrams, all vectors are shown with straight arrows,
called vectors. pointing in a certain direction from the correct point
of application.
For example, force is a vector quantity because the
direction in which a force acts is important. The lengths of the arrows are proportional to the
Most quantities are scalars. Some common examples of magnitudes of the vectors.
scalars used in physics are mass, length, time, energy,
temperature and speed.
A.1 Kinematics 1
369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 1 04/01/2023 19:29

Distance and displacement
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 The motion of bodies through space and time can be described and analysed in terms of position,
velocity and acceleration.
 The change in position is the displacement.
 The difference between distance and displacement.
◆ Distance Total length The term distance can be used in different ways, for example we might say that the distance
travelled, without between New York City and Boston is 300 km, meaning that a straight line between the two cities
consideration of directions.
has a length of 300 km. Or, we might say that the (travel) distance was 348 km, meaning the length
◆ Displacement, linear
of the road between the cities.
Distance in a straight line
from a fixed reference We will define distance as follows:
point in a specified
direction. Distance (of travel) is the total length of a specified path between two points. SI unit: metre, m
◆ Metre, m SI unit of
length (fundamental). In physics, displacement (change of position) is often more important than distance:
The displacement of an object is the distance in a straight line from a fixed reference point in a
specified direction.
Continuing the example given above, if a girl travels from

South Station,
Boston, MA
New York to Boston, her displacement will be 300 km to the
northeast (see Figure A1.2).
384 km
Both distance and displacement are given the symbol s and
the SI unit metres, m. Kilometres, km, centimetres, cm, and
300 km
millimetres, mm, are also in widespread use. We often use
the symbol h for heights and x for small displacements.
Figure A1.3 shows the route of some people walking around a
Port Authority Bus Terminal,
park. The total distance walked was 4 km, but the displacement
New York
from the reference point varied and is shown every few
■ Figure A1.2 Boston is a travel distance of 384 km and a
minutes by the vector arrows (a–e). The final displacement was
displacement of 300 km northeast from New York City zero because the walkers returned to their starting place.
Speed and velocity

a
SYLLABUS CONTENT
b
start and
 Velocity is the rate of change of position.
end here
c  The difference between instantaneous and average values of velocity, speed and
e acceleration, and how to determine them.
d
■ Speed
■ Figure A1.3 A walk in the park The displacement of Wellington from Auckland, New Zealand, is 494 km south
(Figure A1.4). The road distance is 642 km and it is predicted that a car journey
between the two cities will take 9.0 hours.
2 Theme A: Space, time and motion

If we divide the total distance by the total time (642 / 9.0) we
determine a speed of 71 km h−1. In this example it should be
Auckland obvious that the speed will have changed during the journey
and the calculated result is just an average speed for the
whole trip. The value seen on the speedometer of the car is
the speed at any particular moment, called the
instantaneous speed.
◆ Speed, v Average speed = distance travelled/time taken.

Instantaneous speed is determined over a very short time interval,
during which it is assumed that the speed does not change.
494 km 642 km
◆ Reaction time The time delay between an event occurring and a
response. For example, the delay that occurs when using a stopwatch.
◆ Sensor An electrical component that responds to a change in
a physical property with a corresponding change in an electrical
property (usually resistance). Also called a transducer.
◆ Light gate Electronic sensor used to detect motion when an object
interrupts a beam of light.
Wellington
■ Figure A1.4 Distance and displacement from Auckland to Wellington
Tool 1: Experimental techniques
Understand how to accurately measure quantities to an appropriate level of precision: time

■ Figure A1.5 Determining reaction time
Accurate time measuring instruments are common, but the
problem with obtaining accurate measurements of time is
starting and stopping the timers at exactly the right moments.
Whenever we use stopwatches or timers operated by hand,
the results will have an unavoidable and variable uncertainty
because of the delays between seeing an event and pressing
a button to start or stop the timer. The delay between seeing
something happen and responding with some kind of action
is known as reaction time. For example, for car drivers it
is usually assumed that a driver takes about 0.7 s to press Under these conditions a typical reaction time is about
the brake pedal after they have seen a problem. (But some 0.25 s, but it can vary considerably depending on the
drivers will be able to react quicker than this.) A car will conditions involved. The measurement can be repeated
travel about 14 m in this time if it is moving at 50 km h−1. with the person tested being blindfolded to see if the
Reaction times will increase if the driver is distracted, tired, reaction time changes if the stimulus (to catch the ruler) is
or under the influence of any type of drug, such as alcohol. either sound or touch, rather than sight.
A simple way of determining a person’s reaction time In science experiments it is sensible to make time
is by measuring how far a metre ruler falls before it can measurements as long as possible to decrease the effect of
be caught between thumb and finger (see Figure A1.5). this problem. (This reduces the percentage uncertainty.)
The time, t, can then be calculated using the equation for Repeating measurements and calculating an average will
distance, s = 5t2 (explained later in this topic). also reduce the effect of random uncertainties. If a stopwatch
is started late because of the user’s reaction time, it may be
If the distance the ruler falls s = 0.30
offset by also stopping the stopwatch late for the same reason.
s 0.30
Rearranging for t, t = = Electronics sensors, such as light gates, are very useful in
5 5
obtaining accurate time measurements. See below.
So, reaction time t = 0.25 s.
A.1 Kinematics 3

There are a number of different methods in which speed can be measured in a school or college
laboratory. Figure A1.6 shows one possibility, in which a glider is moving on a frictionless air
track at a constant velocity. The time taken for a card of known length (on the glider) to pass
through the light gate is measured and its speed can be calculated from length of card / time taken.
■ Figure A1.6 Measuring
speed in a laboratory
light gate
glider air track
Tool 2: Technology Tool 3: Mathematics
Use sensors Determine rates of change

An electronic sensor is an electronic device used to convert a physical The Greek capital letter delta, Δ, is widely
quantity into an electrical signal. The most common sensors respond used in physics and mathematics to
to changes in light level, sound level, temperature or pressure. represent a change in the value of a quantity.
A light gate contains a source of light that produces a narrow beam For example, Δx = (x2 – x1), where x2 and x1
of light directed towards a sensor on the other side of a gap. When are two different values of the variable x.
an object passes across the light beam, the unit behaves as a switch
The change involved is often considered to
which turns a timer on or off very quickly.
be relatively small.
◆ Second, s SI unit of time Most methods of determining speed involve measuring the small amount of time (Δt) taken to
(fundamental). travel a certain distance (Δs). The SI unit for time is the second, s.
distance travelled
speed = (SI unit m s–1)
time taken
This calculation determines an average speed during time Δt, but if Δt is small enough, we may
assume that the calculated value is a good approximation to an instantaneous speed.
Speed is a scalar quantity. Speed is given the same symbol, (v), as velocity.
■ Figure A1.7 The peregrine falcon is reported to be the world’s fastest animal (speeds measured up to 390 km h−1)

◆ At rest Stays stationary Nature of science: Observations
in the same position.
◆ Milky Way The galaxy
Objects at rest
in which our Solar System It is common in physics for people to refer to an object being at rest, meaning that it is not moving. But
is located. this is not as simple as it may seem. A stone may be at rest on the ground, meaning that it is not moving
when compared with the ground: it appears to us to have no velocity and no acceleration. However, when
the same stone is thrown upwards, at the top of its path its instantaneous speed may be zero, but it has an
acceleration downwards.
We cannot assume that an object which is at rest has no acceleration; its velocity may be changing –
either in magnitude, in direction, or both.
We may prefer to refer to an object being stationary, suggesting that an object is not moving over a
period of time.
Of course, the surface of the Earth is moving, the Earth is orbiting the Sun, which orbits the centre
of the Milky Way galaxy, which itself exists in an expanding universe. So, at a deeper level, we must
understand that all motion is relative and nowhere is truly stationary. This is the starting point for the
study of Relativity (Topic A.5).
■ Velocity
Velocity, v, is the rate of change of position. It may be considered to be speed in a specified direction.
◆ Velocity, v Rate of displacement Δs
change of position. velocity, v = = (SI unit m s–1)
time taken Δt
The symbol Δs represents a change of position (displacement).

Velocity is a vector quantity. 12 m s−1 is a speed. 12 m s−1 to the south is a velocity. We use positive
and negative signs to represent velocities in opposite directions. For example, +12 m s−1 may
represent a velocity upwards, while −12 m s−1 represents the same speed downwards, but we may
choose to reverse the signs used.
Speed and velocity are both represented by the same symbol (v) and their magnitudes are
calculated in the same way v = ( )
Δs
Δt
with the same units. It is not surprising that these two terms
are sometimes used interchangeably and this can cause confusion. For this reason, it may be better
to define these two quantities in words, rather than symbols.
As with speed, we may need to distinguish between average velocity over a time interval, or
instantaneous velocity at a particular moment. As we shall see, the value of an instantaneous
velocity can be determined from the gradient of a displacement–time graph.
Top tip!
When a direction of motion is clearly stated (such as ‘up’, ‘to the north’, ‘to the right’ and so on), it is
very clear that a velocity is being discussed. However, we may commonly refer to the ‘velocity’ of a
car, for example, without stating a direction. Although this is casual, it is usually acceptable because
an unchanging direction is implied, even if it is not specified. For example, we may assume that the
direction of the car is along a straight road.
A.1 Kinematics 5

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.1
A satellite moves in circles along the same path around ◆ Orbit The curved
the Earth at a constant distance of 6.7 × 103 km from the path (may be circular) of
Earth’s centre. Each orbit takes a time of 90 minutes. a mass around a larger
v central mass.
a Calculate the average speed of the satellite.
◆ Tangent Line which
b Describe the instantaneous velocity of the satellite. touches a given curve at a
c Determine its displacement from the centre of the single point.
Earth after
i 360 minutes
ii 405 minutes. ■ Figure A1.8 Satellite’s instantaneous velocity
Answer c i 360 minutes is the time for four complete orbits.

The satellite will have returned to the same place.
circumference 2πr
a v= = Its displacement from the centre of the Earth
time for orbit Δt compared to 360 minutes earlier will be the same.
(2 × π × 6.7 × 106) (But the Earth will have rotated.)
=
(90 × 60) ii In the extra 45 minutes the satellite will have
= 7.8 × 103 m s–1 travelled half of its orbit. It will be on the opposite
b The velocity also has a constant magnitude of side of the Earth’s centre, but at the same distance.
7.8 × 103 m s−1, but its direction is continuously changing. We could represent this as −6.7 × 103 km from the
Its instantaneous velocity is always directed along a Earth’s centre.
tangent to its circular orbit. See Figure A1.8.
1 Calculate the average speed (m s−1) of an athlete who 2 A small ball dropped from a height of 2.0 m takes 0.72 s
can run a marathon (42.2 km) in 2 hours, 1 minute and 9 to reach the ground.
seconds. (The men’s world record at the time of writing.) 2.0
a Calculate
0.72
b What does your answer represent?
c The speed of the ball just before it hits the ground is
5.3 m s−1. This is an instantaneous speed. Distinguish
between an instantaneous value and an average value.
d State the instantaneous velocity of the ball just before
it hits the ground.
e After bouncing, the ball only rises to a lower height.
Give a rough estimate of the instantaneous velocity of
the ball as it leaves the ground.
3 A magnetic field surrounds the Earth and it can be
detected by a compass. State whether it is a scalar or a
vector quantity. Explain your answer.
4 On a flight from Rome to London, a figure of 900 km h−1
is displayed on the screen.
a State whether this is a speed or a velocity.
■ Figure A1.9 b Is it an average or instantaneous value?
Eliud Kipchoge, c Convert the value to m s−1.
world record
holder for the d Calculate how long it will take the aircraft to travel a
men’s marathon distance of 100 m.

Acceleration
SYLLABUS CONTENT
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
 Motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration.
◆ Acceleration, a Rate Any variation from moving at a constant speed in a straight line is described as an acceleration.
of change of velocity with
time. Acceleration is a Going faster, going slower and/or changing direction are all different kinds of acceleration
vector quantity. (changing velocities).
◆ Deceleration Term
commonly used to describe
When the velocity (or speed) of an object changes during a certain time, the symbol u is used
a decreasing speed.
for the initial velocity and the symbol v is used for the final velocity. These velocities are not
necessarily the beginning and end of the entire motion, just the velocities at the start and end of
the period of time that is being considered.
Acceleration, a, is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time:

Δv (v – u)
a= = (SI unit m s–2)
Δt t
One way to determine an acceleration is to measure two velocities and the time between the
measurements. Figure A1.10 shows an example.
light gate
glider air track
■ Figure A1.10 Measuring two velocities to determine an acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity. For a typical motion in which displacement and velocity are both
given positive values, a positive acceleration means increasing speed in the same direction (+Δv),
while a negative acceleration means decreasing speed in the same direction (−Δv). In everyday
speech, a reducing speed is often called a deceleration.
For a motion in which displacement and velocity are given negative values, a positive acceleration
means a decreasing speed. For example, a velocity change from –6 m s−1 to –4 m s−1 in 0.5 s
corresponds to an acceleration:
Δv ([–4]–[–6])
a= = = + 4 ms–2
Δt 0.5
As with speed and velocity, we may need to distinguish between average acceleration over a time
interval, or instantaneous acceleration at a particular moment.
A.1 Kinematics 7

WORKED EXAMPLE A1.2
A high-speed train travelling with a velocity of 84 m s−1 needs to slow down and stop in a
time of one minute.
a Determine the necessary average acceleration.
b Calculate the distance that the train will travel in this time assuming that the
acceleration is uniform.
Answer
Δv (0 – 84)
a a= = = –1.4 m s–2
Δt 60
The acceleration is negative. The negative sign shows that the velocity is decreasing.
(84 – 0)
b average speed = = 42 m s–1
2
distance = average speed × time = 42 × 60 = 2.5 × 103 m
5 A car moving at 12.5 m s−1 accelerates uniformly on a straight road at a rate of 0.850 m s−2.
a Calculate its velocity after 4.60 s.
b What uniform rate of acceleration will reduce the speed to 5.0 m s−1 in a further 12 s?
6 An athlete accelerates uniformly from rest at the start of a race at a rate of 4.3 m s−2. How
much time is needed before her speed has reached 8.0 m s−1?
7 A trolley takes 3.62 s to accelerate from rest uniformly down a slope at a rate of 0.16 m s−2. A
light gate at the bottom of the slope records a velocity of 0.58 m s−1. What was the speed about
halfway down the slope, 1.2 s earlier?
Inquiry 1: Exploring and designing Tool 3: Mathematics
Designing Interpret features of graphs

I B L E AR N
HE
Suppose that the Principal of your school or college is worried

ER
T
In order to analyse and predict motions we

PROFILE
about safety from traffic on the nearby road. He has asked your have two methods: graphical and algebraic.
physics class to collect evidence that he can take to the police. Firstly, we will look at how motion can be
He is concerned that the traffic travels too fast and that the represented graphically.
vehicles do not slow down as they approach the school.
1 Using a team of students, working over a period of one Graphs can be drawn to represent any motion
week, with tape measures and stop watches, develop an and they provide extra understanding and insight
investigation which will produce sufficient and accurate data (at a glance) that very few of us can get from
that can be given in a report to the Principal. Explain how you written descriptions or equations. Furthermore,
would ensure that the investigation was carried out safely. the gradients of graphs and the areas under graphs
2 What is the best way of presenting a summary of this data? often provide additional useful information.
■ Displacement–time graphs and distance–time graphs

◆ Linear relationship Displacement–time graphs, similar to those shown in Figure A1.11, show how the displacements
One which produces a of objects from a known reference point vary with time. All the examples shown in Figure A1.11
straight line graph. are straight lines and are representing linear relationships and constant velocities.
l Line A represents an object moving away from the reference point (zero displacement) such
that equal displacements occur in equal times. That is, the object has a constant velocity.

s Any linear displacement–time graph represents a constant velocity (it does not need to start or
Displacement, s
Displacement, s
B
A end at the origin).
D
l Line B represents an object moving with a greater velocity than A.
equal changes in
displacement
l Line C represents
C an object that is moving back towards the reference point.
l Line D represents an object that is stationary (at rest). It has zero velocity and stays at the same
0 0
distance from the reference0
point.
0 t 0 Time, t 0 Time, t
equal time intervals Figure A1.12 shows how we can represent displacements in opposite directions from the same
reference point.
Displacement, s
Displacement, s
B The solid line represents the motion of an object moving with a constant (positive) velocity. The
A
object moves towards
D a reference point (where the displacement is zero), passes it, and then moves
away from the reference point with the same velocity. The dotted line represents an identical speed
C
in the opposite direction (or it could also represent the original motion if the directions chosen to
be positive and negative were reversed).
0 0
t 0 Time, t Any0 curved (non-linear)
Time, t line on a displacement–time graph represents a changing velocity, in
ime intervals
other words, an acceleration. This is illustrated in Figure A1.13.
Displacement, s
Displacement, s
a b
Displacement, s
Displacement, s
D s B
C A
0
Time, t
0 C
Time, t 0 Time, t
−s D
0 0
0 Time, t 0 Time, t
■ Figure A1.11
Constant velocities on
■ Figure A1.12 Motion in opposite directions ■ Figure A1.13 Accelerations on displacement–time graphs
displacement–time graphs
represented on a displacement–time graph
a Figure
b
A1.13a shows motion away from a reference point. Line A represents an object
Distance/m
Displacement/m
40 40
accelerating. Line B represents an object decelerating. Figure A1.13b shows motion towards a
reference point. Line C represents an object accelerating. Line D represents an object decelerating.
The values of the accelerations represented by these graphs may, or may not, be constant. (This
20 20
cannot be determined without a more detailed analysis.)
In physics, we are usually more concerned with displacement–time graphs than distance–time
graphs. In order to explain the difference, consider Figure A1.14.
0 0
0 2 4 Figure A1.14a
0 shows
2 a displacement–time
4 graph for an object thrown vertically upwards with an
Time /s Time /s
initial speed of 20 m s (without air resistance). It takes 2 s to reach a maximum height of 20 m. At
−1
b that point it has an instantaneous velocity of zero, before returning to where it began after 4 s and
Distance/m
40
regaining its initial speed. Figure A1.14b is a less commonly used graph showing how the same
motion would appear on an overall distance–time graph.
20 Tool 3: Mathematics
Interpret features of graphs: gradient

0
In this topic we will need to repeatedly use the following information:
2 4 0 2 4
Time /s Time /s l The gradient of a displacement–time graph equals velocity.
■ Figure A1.14 l The gradient of a velocity–time graph equals acceleration.
a Displacement–time and
b distance–time graphs for an In the following section we will explore how to measure and interpret gradients.
object moving up and then down
A.1 Kinematics 9

■ Gradients of displacement–time graphs
Displacement/m
20
Δs Consider the motion at constant velocity represented by Figure A1.15.
8 Δs
Δt The gradient of the graph = , which is the velocity of the object. A downwards sloping
Δt
0 graph would have a negative gradient (velocity).
0 2 8
Time/s In this example,
Δs (20 – 8.0)
■ Figure A1.15 Finding constant velocity, v = = = 2.0 m s–1
a constant velocity from a Δt (8.0 – 2.0)
displacement–time graph
Figure A1.16 represents the motion of an object with a changing velocity,
that is, an accelerating object.
Displacement/m
The gradient of this graph varies, but at any point it is still equal to the
18
velocity of the object at that moment, that is, the instantaneous velocity.
The gradient (velocity) can be determined at any time by drawing a
s tangent to the curve, as shown.
The triangle used to calculate the gradient should be large, in order to
Δt make this process as accurate as possible. In this example:
3
(18 – 3.0)
0
0 t1 t2 t3 velocity at time t2 = = 0.83 m s–1
5 23 (23 – 5.0)
Time/s
A tangent drawn at time t1 would have a smaller gradient and represent
■ Figure A1.16 Finding an instantaneous velocity a smaller velocity. A tangent drawn at time t3 would represent a
from a curved displacement–time graph
larger velocity.
◆ Gradient The rate We have been referring to the object's displacement and velocity, although no direction has been
at which one physical stated. This is acceptable because that information would be included when the origin of the graph
quantity changes in was explained. If information was presented in the form of a distance–time graph, the gradient
response to changes in
another physical quantity.
would represent the speed.
Commonly, for an y–x In summary:
Δy
graph, gradient = .
Δx The gradient of a displacement–time graph represents velocity.
The gradient of a distance–time graph represents speed.
WORKED EXAMPLE A1.3

Figure A1.17 represents the motion of a train on a straight track between two stations.
a Describe the motion. b State the distance c Calculate the maximum d Determine the average
between the two stations. speed of the train. speed of the train.
4000
Answer
Distance/m
a The train started from rest. For the first 90 s the train
3000
was accelerating. It then travelled with a constant
speed until a time of 200 s. After that, its speed
2000
decreased to become zero after 280 s.
1000
b 3500 m
c From the steepest, straight section of the graph:
0 Δs (3000 – 800)
v= = = 20 m s–1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Δt (200 – 90)
Time/s total distance travelled 3500
d average speed = = = 11.7 m s–1
■ Figure A1.17 Distance–time graph for train on a straight track time taken 300

8 Draw a displacement–time graph for a swimmer 11 Figure A1.19 is a displacement–time graph for an object.
swimming a total distance of 100 m at a constant speed of
5
Displacement/cm
1.0 m s−1 in a swimming pool of length 50 m. 4
3
9 Describe the motion of a runner as shown by the graph in 2 A B
Figure A1.18. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
–1 Time/s
Displacement
–2
–3
–4
–5
0
Time ■ Figure A1.19 A displacement–time graph for an object
a Describe the motion represented by the graph in

■ Figure A1.18 Displacement–time graph for a runner Figure A1.19.
b Compare the velocities at points A and B.
10 Sketch a displacement–time graph for the following
c When is the object moving with its maximum and
motion: a stationary car is 25 m away; 2 s later it starts
minimum velocities?
to move further away in a straight line from you with a
d Estimate values for the maximum and minimum
constant acceleration of 1.5 m s−2 for 4 s; then it continues
velocities.
with a constant velocity for another 8 s.
e Suggest what kind of object could move in this way.
v
■ Velocity–time graphs and speed–time graphs
Velocity, v
Velocity, v
B
A
Figure A1.20, shows how the velocity of four Dobjects changed with time. Any straight (linear) line
equal changes
on any velocity–time graph shows that equal changes of velocity occur in equal times – that is, it
in velocity
C
represents constant acceleration.
l Line A shows an object that has a constant positive acceleration.
0 0 0
0 t l Line
0 B represents ant object0moving with Time,
Time, a greater
t positive acceleration than A.
equal time intervals
l Line C represents an object that has a negative acceleration.
l Line D represents an object moving with a constant velocity – that is, it has zero acceleration.
Velocity, v
Velocity, v
B
A Curved lines on velocity–time graphs represent changing accelerations.
D
Velocities in opposite directions are represented by positive and negative values.
C a
We will return to the example shown in Figure A1.14 to illustrate the difference between
Speed
velocity–time and speed–time graphs. Figure A1.21a shows how the speed of an object changes
t
0
0 Time, t
as0 0it is thrown upTime,
in thet air (without air resistance), reaches its highest point, where its speed has
moving
ime intervals reduced to zero, and then returns downwards. Figure A1.21b shows up the same information in terms
moving
of velocity. Positive velocity represents motion upwards, negative velocity represents
down motion
Velocity, v
downwards. In most cases, the velocity graph is preferred 0 to the speed graph.
0 highest Time
D point
a b
+ Velocity
Speed
moving
0 up
Time, t 0 Time, t moving
down
■ Figure A1.20 0 0
0 highest Time Time
Constant accelerations on point
velocity–time graphs b
+ Velocity
− Velocity
■ Figure A1.21 a Speed–time and b velocity–time

graphs for an object thrown upwards.
A.1 Kinematics 11
0
Time
locity

Gradients of velocity–time graphs
Consider the motion at constant acceleration shown by the straight line in Figure A1.22.
Velocity/m s−1
12
Δv
Δt
0
0 4 9
Time/s
■ Figure A1.22 Finding the gradient of a velocity–time graph
Δv
The gradient of the graph = , which is equal to the acceleration of the object.
Δt
In this example, the constant acceleration:
Δv (12.0 – 7.0)
a= = = + 1.0 m s–2
Δt (9.0 – 4.0)
The acceleration of an object is equal to the gradient of the velocity–time graph.
A changing acceleration will appear as a curved line on a velocity–time graph. A numerical value
for the acceleration at any time can be determined from the gradient of the graph at that moment.
See Worked example A1.4.
WORKED EXAMPLE A1.4

The red line in Figure A1.23 shows an object decelerating (a decreasing negative
acceleration). Use the graph to determine the instantaneous acceleration at a time of 10.0 s.
Velocity/m s−1
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time/s
■ Figure A1.23 Finding an instantaneous acceleration from a velocity–time graph
Answer
Using a tangent to the curve drawn at t = 10 s.
Δv (0 – 12)
Acceleration, a = = = –0.55 m s–2
Δt (22 – 0)
The negative sign indicates a deceleration. In this example the large triangle used to determine
the gradient accurately was drawn by extending the tangent to the axes for convenience.

Tool 3: Mathematics
a b
Speed, v
Speed, v
Interpret features of graphs: areas under
the graph
v2
The area under many graphs has a physical meaning. As
an example, consider Figure A1.24a, which shows part of
a speed–time graph for a vehicle moving with constant
acceleration. The area under the graph (the shaded area) v1
can be calculated from the average speed, given by
(v1 + v2)
, multiplied by the time, Δt.
2
The area under the graph is therefore equal to the distance
0 0
travelled in time Δt. In Figure A1.24b a vehicle is moving 0 0
Δt
with a changing (decreasing) acceleration, so that the Time, t
graph is curved, but the same rule applies – the area under
a b
Speed, v
Speed, v
the graph (shaded) represents the distance travelled in
time Δt.
v2
The area in Figure A1.24b can be estimated in a number
of different ways, for example by counting small squares,
or by drawing a rectangle that appears (as judged by
eye) to have thev1same area. (If the equation of the line
is known, it can be calculated using the process of
integration, but this is not required in the IB course.)
In the following section, we will show how a change in
displacement can
0 be calculated from a velocity–time graph. 0
0 0
Δt Δt
Time, t Time, t
■ Figure A1.24 Area under a speed–time graph for

a constant acceleration and b changing acceleration
◆ Integration ■ Areas under velocity–time and speed–time graphs

Mathematical process used
to determine the area under As an example, consider again Figure A1.22. The change of displacement, Δs, between the fourth
a graph. and ninth seconds can be found from (average velocity) × time.
(12.0 + 7.0)
Δs = × (9.0 – 4.0) = 47.5 m
2
This is numerically equal to the area under the line between t = 4.0 s and t = 9.0 s (as shaded in
Figure A1.22). This is always true, whatever the shape of the line.
The area under a velocity–time graph is always equal to the change of displacement.
The area under a speed–time graph is always equal to the distance travelled.
As an example, consider Figure A1.21a. The two areas under the speed–time graph are equal and
they are both positive. Each area equals the vertical height travelled by the object. The total area =
total distance = twice the height. Each area under the velocity graph also represents the height, but
the total area is zero because the areas above and below the time axis are equal, indicating that the
final displacement is zero – the object has returned to where it started.
A.1 Kinematics 13

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subjects of study that make the strain. I have spoken of this in
another connection as follows:42 “Our children are too largely in the
hands of those educationalists to whom Clouston refers,43 who go on
the theory that there is an unlimited capacity in every individual brain
for education to any extent and in any direction. Children varying in
age and original capacity, in previous preparation, and in home-
surroundings are forced into the same moulds and grooves. The
slow must keep pace with the fleet, the frail with the sturdy, the
children of toil and deprivation with the sons and daughters of wealth
and luxury. A child is always liable to suffer from mental overwork
when the effort is made to force its education beyond its receptive
powers. Education is not individualized enough. The mind of the
child is often confused by a multitude of ill-assorted studies.
Recreation is neglected and unhealthy emulation is too much
cultivated. In many communities admissions to various grades of
public schools are regulated entirely by the averages obtained at
examinations, instead of on the general record of the pupils in
connection with proper but not too severe examinations. In
consequence often, after the campaign of overwork and confusion
called an examination, we see children developing serious
disturbances of health or even organic disease—paroxysmal fever,
loss of appetite, headache or neckache, disturbed sleep, temporary
albuminuria, chorea, hysteria, and hystero-epilepsy.”
42 “Toner Lecture on Mental Overwork and Premature Disease among Public and
Professional Men.” delivered March 19, 1884, Washington, Smithsonian Inst.,
January, 1885.
43 Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases.
The term students' hysteria has been applied to the neuromimetic

disorders from which medical students frequently suffer during their
attendance upon lectures. Some years since, when engaged in
examining students upon the lectures upon the practice of medicine
delivered by Professor DaCosta, I saw many illustrations of this
affection, some of which were very amusing. In a paper on hysteria
which received the prize at the Physical Society of Guy's Hospital, P.
Horrocks44 writes that during the fortnight following the death of the
late Napoleon, Sir James Paget was consulted for stone in the
bladder by no less than four gentlemen who had nothing the matter
with them. “How many students,” says Horrocks, “are there, of one
year's standing or more, who have not imagined and really became
convinced that they were suffering from some disease, generally a
fatal disease?” In such cases we have a combination of true
psychical influence with overwork and the unhygienic surroundings
for which our medical colleges are notorious.
44 Med. and Surg. Reporter, vol. xxxvii., Nov. 24, 1877.
It has been my personal experience that comparatively few cases of

hysteria occur among female medical students. Not long since a
thesis was presented at graduation by a woman medical student45
on the curative effects of professional training in neurasthenic and
hysterical women. In this she shows that there are certain relations
of mind over body which enable it to modify bodily conditions and
ward off disease when other remedies appear almost powerless.
She illustrates the therapeutic power of mental impressions and
occupations by two cases in which a judicious and careful course of
study acted to cure severe nervous and uterine troubles. One of
these women, who had suffered with neurasthenia and general
debility, severe nervous headaches, and other symptoms, was able
during her last year at college to attend fifteen lectures a week,
besides clinics, prepare for examination on five subjects, and was
seldom troubled with even headache. She afterward was employed
in hospital work, and could walk five miles a day without discomfort.
That women medical students know when and how to take care of
themselves during the menstrual period, and that they can, if they
see fit, cease work or lighten their labors at that time, would partly
account for their escaping from nervous break-down.
45 “The Therapeutic Value of Mental Occupation,” by Hannah M. Thompson, M.D.,
Medical and Surgical Reporter, November, 1883.
That any form of irritation in a patient predisposed to hysteria may

act as an exciting cause in this affection has led Laségue to apply
the term peripheral hysteria to certain cases. One of his cases was a
girl fourteen years old, who, having suffered for a few hours with her
eyes because of some sand thrown into one of them by a playmate,
awoke the next morning with a spasm of the eyelid on that side,
which rendered it impossible for her to open that eye; and it
remained closed during four months. He considered that the irritation
produced by the sand was not the immediate cause of the spasm,
but that its long duration was an hysterical phenomenon. The patient
afterward became the subject of hysterical manifestations. In another
complete hysterical aphonia came on after a slight bronchitis.
Another, after an attack of indigestion, refused to touch either food or
drink for twenty-four hours, and later was troubled with regurgitation
from constriction of the pharynx or œsophagus which lasted for
some weeks.
Anæmia and chlorosis are frequent exciting causes of hysteria in

children, particularly in girls.
Disorders of menstruation play a prominent part as exciting causes

of special hysterical manifestations. The period of the establishment
of the menstrual function is one that is particularly fertile in the
production of hysteria, much more so than acquired disorders of
menstruation occurring later. Menorrhagia, dysmenorrhœa, and
certain local utero-vaginal disorders may act upon those predisposed
to hysteria as exciting causes. These conditions themselves are, on
the other hand, sometimes caused by nervous, hysterical states in
the individual.
With reference to the very common assertions that continence on the

one hand, and sexual over-indulgence on the other, are the most
prolific causes of hysteria, the true stand to take is that neither of
these positions is philosophically correct; for, as Briquet has shown,
nuns on the one hand and prostitutes on the other are frequent
victims of this protean disorder.
As affirmed by Jolly, sexual over-irritation, particularly that induced

by onanism, more frequently causes hysteria than sexual abstinence
or deprivation.
The occurrence of hysteria and hysterical choreas among pregnant

women has long been recognized. Scanzoni, quoted by Jolly,46
states that of 217 patients whom he had treated, 165, or 76 per cent.
had been puerperal, and that of the latter not less than 65 per cent.
had borne children more than three times. Cases of grave hysteria or
hystero-epilepsy have been aggravated by pregnancy and have led
to premature labor.
46 Op. cit.
Chrobak attacks the etiological problem of hysteria by referring its

causation to movable kidneys! He observed 19 such patients in
Vienna, 16 being in Oppolzer's clinic.47 Three times no subjective
symptoms accompanied the anomaly; eight times the trouble could
be referred either to the dislocation of the kidneys or to disease of
the same; and eight times the evidence of hysteria was
unmistakable. Among the latter eight cases neither vaginal, uterine,
nor ovarian conditions were recognized. He concludes that there is a
direct nervous connection between the kidneys and the genital
organs, and between both and hysteria.
47 Medizinische-Chirurgische Rundschan, quoted by Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal, 1870, lxxxiii. 430-432.
In brief, the truth is that frequent or severe local irritation in any part
of the body in an individual of the hysterical diathesis may act as the
exciting cause of an hysterical paroxysm or of special hysterical
manifestations. Irritation or disease of the uterus or ovaries may
result in hysteria, as may the bite of a dog, a tumor of the brain, a
polypus in the nose, a phymosis, an irritated clitoris, a gastric ulcer, a
stenosis of the larynx, a foreign body in the eye, a toe-nail ulcer, or a
movable kidney.
Whatever tends to exhaust the nervous system will also cause

hysteria, but only in those who have some inherited predisposition to
the disorder. C. Handfield Jones48 mentions heatstroke and severe
physical labor as such causes. One of the sequelæ of heatstroke
enumerated by Sir R. Martin, and quoted by Jones, is a distressing
hysterical state of the nervous system, with an absence of self-
control in laughing and crying, the paroxysm being followed by great
prostration of nervous power.
48 Op. cit.
The effect of imitation in the production of hysteria has been known

in all ages. Most of the epidemics and endemics of nervous
disorders which have from time to time prevailed in various parts of
the world have either been hysterical in character or have had in
them a large element of hysteria. While it is impossible in a practical
work to devote much space to this branch of the subject, a
discussion of hysteria in its etiological relations would be imperfect
without some reference to these outbreaks. In ancient times, in the
Middle Ages, and within comparatively recent periods extraordinary
epidemics have occurred. No country within the range of medical
observation has been entirely free from them. Communities civilized
and semi-civilized, Christian and Mohammedan, Protestant and
Catholic, have had a fair share of the visitations. Some of them
constitute epochs in history, and, as Hecker,49 their greatest
historian, has remarked, their study affords a deep insight into the
work of the human mind in certain states of society. “They are,” he
says, “a portion of history, and will never return in the way in which
they are recorded; but they expose a vulnerable part of man—the
instinct of imitation—and are therefore very nearly connected with
human life in the aggregate.”
49 The Epidemics of the Middle Ages, from the German of J. F. C. Hecker, M.D.,
Professor at the Frederick William University at Berlin, etc., translated by B. G.
Babington, M.D., F. R. S., etc.; 3d ed., London, 1859.
Some authors under hysteria, others under catalepsy, others under
ecstasy, still others under chorea, have discussed these epidemics—
a fact which serves to emphasize the truth that while these affections
have points of difference, they have also an easily-traced bond of
union. They are but variations of the same discordant tune. Briquet
in an admirable manner sketches their history from the age of
Pausanias and Plutarch to the time of Mesmer. Of American writers,
James J. Levick50 of Philadelphia has furnished one of the most
valuable contributions to this subject.
50 “An Historical Sketch of the Dance of St. Vitus, with Notices of some Kindred
Disorders,” Med. and Surg. Reporter, vol. vii., Dec. 21 and 28, 1861, p. 276, and Jan.
4 and 11, 1862, p. 322.
In the year 1237 a hundred children or more were suddenly seized

with the dancing mania at Erfurt; another outbreak occurred at
Utrecht in 1278.
As early as the year 1374 large assemblages of men and women

were seen at Aix-la-Chapelle affected with a “dancing mania.” They
formed circles and danced for hours in wild delirium. Attacks of
insensibility, of convulsions, and of ecstasy occurred. The disease
spread from Germany to the Netherlands. In a few months it broke
out in Cologne, and about the same time at Metz. “Peasants,” we are
told, “left their ploughs, mechanics their workshops, housewives their
domestic duties, to join the wild revelry, and this rich commercial city
became the scene of the most ruinous disorder.”
The festival of St. John the Baptist was one celebrated in strange
wild ways in these early days. Fanatical rites, often cruel and
senseless, were performed on these occasions. Hecker supposes
that the wild revels of St. John's Day in 1374 may have had
something to do with the outbreak of the frightful dancing mania
soon after this celebration. It at least brought to a crisis a malady
which had been long impending.
The Flagellants afford another illustration of an early religio-nervous

craze. Self-flagellation was indulged in for generations before the
fourteenth century, but it then became epidemic. A brotherhood of
Flagellants was formed; they marched in processions carrying
scourges, with which they violently lashed and scourged themselves.
As late as 1843, Flagellant processions, but without the whips and
scourging, were continued in Lisbon on Good Friday.
Strasburg was visited by the dancing plague in 1418. Those afflicted

were conducted to the chapel of St. Vitus, where priests attempted to
relieve them by religious ceremonies. The name St. Vitus's dance,
still so common as a synonym for chorea, has come down to us
because of the alleged wonderful doings of this saint in behalf of
those affected during some of the dancing epidemics. Both Hecker
and Madden51 give interesting details of the personal history of St.
Vitus, who was a Sicilian, born in the time of Diocletian, and even in
childhood is said to have worked great miracles, and was delivered
from many sufferings and torments. He died about the year 303. His
body was moved to Apulia, afterward to St. Denys in France, and still
later to the abbey of Corvey in Saxony. A legend was invented that
St. Vitus, just before he bent his neck to the sword, prayed to God
that he might protect from the dancing mania all those who should
solemnize the day of his commemoration and fast upon its eve.
51 Phantasmata; or, Illusions and Fanaticisms, etc., by R. R. Madden, F. R. S.,
London, 1857.
Another strange disorder called tarantismus derived its name from

the fact that it was supposed to be caused by the bite of the
tarantula, a ground-spider common in Apulia, Italy. According to
Hecker, the word tarantula is the same as terrantola, a name given
by the Italians to a poisonous lizard of extraordinary endowments.
The fear of the insect was so general that its bite was much oftener
imagined than actually received. The disorder was probably in
existence long before the fifteenth century, although the first account
of it, that of Nicholas Perotti, refers to its occurrence in this century.
Many symptoms followed the bite or supposed bite: the individuals
became melancholy, stupefied, lost their senses, and, above all,
were irresistibly impelled to dance until exhausted and almost
lifeless. It was believed that the results of the bite could be cured, or
at least much benefited, by dancing to a certain kind of music.
Tarantism was at its height in the seventeenth century. To this day, in
some parts of Italy, dances called tarantellas are performed with
intricate figures to marked time.
Abyssinia was visited by a dancing mania called the tigretier, which,

according to Hecker, resembled the original mania of the St. John
dancers. It exhibited a similar ecstasy. Those affected with it were
cured by dancing to the music of trumpeters, drummers, fifers, etc.
Levick says that the dancing mania of the fifteenth century is still
kept in popular remembrance in some places by an annual festival,
especially at Echtermarch, a small town in Luxembourg, where a
jumping procession occurs annually on Whit Tuesday. In the year
1812, 12,678 dancers were in the procession.
The Anabaptists, a religious sect of the sixteenth century, exhibited

many of the wild and grotesque phenomena of hysteria or hystero-
epilepsy.
The French Calvinists or Camisards, who appeared near the close of

the seventeenth century, were also the subjects of ecstasy and of
peculiar fits of trembling. These trembleurs experienced convulsive
shocks in the head, the shoulders, the legs, and the arms, and were
sometimes thrown violently down.
About 1731 and later great crowds frequented the tomb of Deacon
François de Paris, an advocate of the doctrines of Jansenius. It was
reported that miracles were performed at his tomb: the sick were
brought there, and often were seized with convulsions and pains,
through which they were healed. The subjects of these attacks are
sometimes spoken of as the Jansenist Convulsionnaires. The tomb
was in the cemetery of St. Médard, and hence those who visited the
place were also termed the Convulsionnaires of St. Médard. This
disorder increased, multiplied, and disseminated, lasting with more
or less intensity for fifty-nine years. Great immorality prevailed in the
secret meetings of the believers.
Hecker gives some remarkable instances of the effect of sympathy
or imitation exhibited on a smaller scale than in the epidemics of the
Middle Ages. One is of a series of cases of fits in a Lancashire
factory, the first one brought on by a girl putting a mouse into the
bosom of another. In Charité Hospital in Berlin in 1801 a patient fell
into strong convulsions, and immediately afterward six other patients
were affected in the same way; by degrees eight more were
attacked. At Redruth, England, a man cried out in a chapel, “What
shall I do to be saved?” Others followed his example, and shortly
after suffered most excruciating bodily pain. The occurrence soon
became public; hundreds came, and many of them were affected in
the same way. The affection spread from town to town. Four
thousand people were said in a short time to be affected with this
malady, which included convulsions.
Hecker in the edition of his work referred to has also a treatise on

child pilgrimages.52 These pilgrimages, like the dancing mania,
occurred in the Middle Ages. The greatest was the boy crusade in
the year 1212. The passion to repossess the Holy Land then had its
grip on Catholic Europe. The first impulse to the child pilgrimages
was given by a shepherd-boy, who had revelations and ecstatic
seizures, and held himself to be an ambassador of the Lord. Soon
thirty thousand souls came to partake of his revelations; new child-
prophets and miracle-workers arose; the children of rich and poor
flocked together from all quarters; parents were unable to restrain
them, and some even began to urge them. A host of boys, armed
and unarmed, assembled at Vendôme, and started for Jerusalem
with a boy-prophet at their head. They got to Marseilles, and
embarked on seven large ships. Two ships were wrecked, and not a
soul was saved. The other five ships reached Bougia and
Alexandria, and the young crusaders were all sold as slaves to the
Saracens. In Germany child-prophets arose, especially in the Rhine
countries and far eastward. An army of them gathered together,
crossed the Alps, and reached Genoa. They were soon scattered;
many perished; many were retained as servants in foreign lands;
some reached Rome. A second child's pilgrimage occurred twenty-
five years later. It was confined to the city of Erfurt. One thousand
children wandered, dancing and leaping, to Armstadt, and were
brought back in carts. Another child's pilgrimage from Halle, in
Suabia, to Mount St. Michel in Normandy, occurred in 1458.
52 Translated by Robert H. Cooke, M. R. C. S.
In the convent of Yvertet in the territory of Liège, in 1550, the

inmates were seized with a leaping and jumping malady. The
disorder began with a single individual, and was soon propagated.
Sometimes the convulsive disorders of early days, especially those

occurring in convents, were associated with the strange delusion that
the subjects of them were changed into lower animals. Various
names have been given to disorders of this kind, such as
lycanthropia or wolf madness, zoomania or animal madness, etc.
Burton in the Anatomy of Melancholy gives an interesting summary
of these disorders, which are also discussed by Levick.
In 1760 a religious sect known as the Jumpers prevailed in Great

Britain. They were affected with religious frenzy, and jumped
continuously for hours. Other jumping epidemics have appeared at
different times, both in Great Britain and in this country.
The New England witchcraft episode is of historical interest in

connection with this subject of epidemic hysteria. This excitement
occurred during the latter part of the seventeenth century. Adults and
children were its subjects. The Rev. Cotton Mather records many
cases, some of which illustrate almost every phase of hysteria.
Individuals who were seized with attacks, which would now be
regarded as hysterical or hystero-epileptic, were supposed to have
become possessed through the machinations of others. Those who
were supposed to be possessed were tried, condemned, and
executed in great numbers. Many accused themselves of converse
with the devil. The epidemic spread with such rapidity, and so many
were executed, that finally the good sense of the people came to the
rescue.
The nervous epidemics, nearly all religious, which have occurred in
this country have usually been during the pioneer periods, and have
therefore appeared at different eras as one part of the country after
another has been developed. Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and
neighboring States were visited time and again. Even to-day we
occasionally hear of outbreaks of this kind in remote or primitive
localities, whether it be in the far South-west or in the woods of
Maine.
David W. Yandell53 has published a valuable paper on “Epidemic

Convulsions,” the larger part of the materials of which were collected
by his father for a medical history of Kentucky. From this it would
appear the convulsions were first noticed in the revivals from 1735 to
1742. Many instances are related of fainting, falling, trance,
numbness, outcries, and spasms. The epidemic of Kentucky spread
widely, reappeared for years, and involved a district from Ohio to the
mountains of Tennessee, and even to the old settlements in the
Carolinas. Wonderful displays took place at the camp-meetings. At
one of these, where twenty thousand people were present, sobs,
shrieks, and shouts were heard; sudden spasms seized upon scores
and dashed them to the ground. Preachers went around in ecstasy,
singing, shouting, and shaking hands. Sometimes a little boy or girl
would be seen passionately exhorting the multitude, reminding one
of the part taken by the children in the epidemics of the Middle Ages.
A sense of pins and needles was complained of by many; others felt
a numbness and lost all control of their muscles. Some subjects
were cataleptic; others were overcome with general convulsions.
53 Brain, vol. iv., Oct., 1881, p. 339 et seq.
The term jerks was properly applied to one of the forms of

convulsion. Sometimes the jerking affected a single limb or part. The
Rev. Richard McNemar has given a graphic description of this
jerking exercise in a History of the Kentucky Revival. The head
would fly backward and forward or from side to side; the subject was
dashed to the ground, or would bounce from place to place like a
football, or hop around with head, limbs, and trunk twitching and
jolting in every direction. Curiously, few were hurt. Interesting
descriptions of the jerks can be found in various American
autobiographical and historical religious works. In such books as the
Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, a Western Methodist, for
instance, striking accounts of some of the phases of these epidemics
are to be found. Lorenzo Dow in his Journal, published in
Philadelphia in 1815, has also recorded them.
Hysterical laughter was a grotesque manifestation often witnessed.

The holy laugh began to be a part of religious worship. Dancing,
barking, and otherwise acting like dogs, were still other
manifestations. It is remarkable that, according to Yandell, no
instance is recorded in which permanent insanity resulted from these
terrible excitements.
The absurd and extraordinary exhibitions witnessed among the

Shakers belong to the same category, and have been well described
by Hammond and others.
In a History of the Revival in Ireland in 1859, by the Rev. William

Gibson, instances of excitement that fairly rivalled those which
occurred in our Western States are given. Cases of ecstasy are
described.
The religious sect known as the Salvation Army, which has in very
recent years excited so much attention, curiosity, and comment both
in America and England, has much in common with the Jumpers, the
Jerkers, and the Convulsionnaires. The frenzied excitement at their
meetings, with their tambourine-playing, dancing, shouting, and
improvising are simply the same phases of religio-hysterical disorder,
modified by differences in the age and environment.
In 1878, in the district of Tolmezo, Italy, an epidemic of hysteria

which recalls the epidemics of the Middle Ages occurred. It has been
described by M. Léon Colin.54 It was reported to the prefect of
Undine that for three months some forty females living in the
commune of Verzeguis had been attacked by religious mania. “From
the report it appears that the first was in the person of a woman
named Marguerite Vidusson, who had been the subject of simple
hysteria for about eight years. In January, 1878, she began to suffer
from convulsive attacks, accompanied by cries and lamentations.
She was regarded as the subject of demoniacal possession, and on
the first Sunday in May was publicly exorcised. Her affection,
however, increased in severity; the attacks were more frequent and
more intense, and were especially provoked by the sound of the
church-bells and by the sight of priests. Seven months later three
other hysterical girls became subject to convulsive and clamorous
attacks. Here, again, an attempt was made to get rid of the
supposed demon. A solemn mass was said in the presence of the
sufferers, but was followed only by a fresh outbreak. At the time of
the visit of the delegates eighteen were suffering, aged from sixteen
to twenty-six years, except three, whose ages were respectively
forty-five, fifty-five, and sixty-three years. Similar symptoms had also
appeared in a young soldier on leave in the village.” During the
attacks the patients talked of the demon which possessed them,
stated the date on which they were seized by it, and the names of
the persons who were possessed before them. Some boasted of
being prophetesses and clairvoyants and of having the gift of
tongues. In all, the sound of church-bells caused attacks, and
religious ceremonies appeared not only to aggravate the disease in
the sufferers, but also to cause its extension to those not previously
attacked. M. Colin points out that the soil is particularly favorable for
the development of an epidemic of this nature. The people of
Verzeguis are backward in education and most superstitious.
Functional nervous diseases are common among them. The
inhabitants of the village are largely cut off from intercourse with the
adjacent country in consequence of comparative inaccessibility and
the frequent interruption of communications by storms and floods.
Craniometric observations on twelve of the inhabitants seemed to
show that the brachycephalic form of skull predominated, and that
the development of the cranium was slightly below the average. The
epidemic proved extremely obstinate.
54 Annales d'Hygiène, quoted in Lancet, Oct. 16, 1880.
In Norway and New Caledonia similar hysterical outbreaks have
been observed in recent times.
An endemic of hysteria from imitation occurred in Philadelphia in

1880. Some of the cases fell under my own observation. A brief
account of them is given by Mitchell in his Lectures. The outbreak
occurred in a Church Home for Children, to which Dr. S. S. Stryker
was physician. The Home contained ninety-five girls and six boys; all
of them were well nourished and in good condition. The epidemic
began by a girl having slight convulsive twitchings of the extremities,
with a little numbness. Attacks returned daily; respiration became
loud and crowing. She soon had all the phenomena of convulsive
hysteria. Many of her comrades began to imitate her bark. Soon
another girl of ten was attacked with harsh, gasping breathing, with
crowing, speechlessness, clutching at her throat, and the whole
series of phenomena exhibited by the first girl attacked. Nine or ten
others were affected in like manner, and many of the remaining
children had similar symptoms in a slight degree. At first convulsions
occurred irregularly; after a while they appeared every evening; later,
both morning and evening. The presence of visitors would excite
them. Many interesting hysterical phases occurred among the
children. One night some of them took to walking about on their
hands and knees; others described visions. The girls often spoke of
being surrounded by wild beasts, and one child would adopt the
fiction which another related in her hearing. The cases were
scattered about in different hospitals, and made good recoveries in
from one to two months.
The Jumpers or Jumping Frenchmen of Maine and Northern New

Hampshire were described by Beard in 1880.55 They presented
nervous phenomena in some phases allied to hysteria. In June,
1880, Beard visited Moosehead Lake and experimented with some
of them. Whatever order was given them was at once obeyed. One
of the Jumpers, who was sitting in a chair with a knife in his hand,
was told to throw it, and he threw it quickly so that it struck in a beam
opposite; at the same time he repeated the order to throw it with a
cry of alarm. They were tried with Latin and Greek quotations, and
repeated or echoed the sound as it came to them. They could not
help repeating any word or sound that came from the person that
ordered them. Any sudden or unexpected noise, as the report of a
gun, the slamming of a door, etc., would cause them to exhibit some
phenomena. It was dangerous to startle them where they could
injure themselves, or if they had an axe, knife, or other weapon in
their hands. Since the time of Beard's observation accounts of their
doings have now and then found their way into newspapers. One
recent account tells of one of these peculiar people jumping from a
raft into the Penobscot River on an order to jump.
55 Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, vol. vii., 1880, p. 487.
Hammond56 has described under the name Miryachit an affection

which seems to be essentially the same disorder as that of which the
Jumpers are the victims. He quotes from a report of a journey from
the Pacific Ocean through Asia to Europe by Lieutenant B. H.
Buckingham and Ensigns Geo. C. Foulk and Walter McLean of the
United States Navy, an account of this disease. The party made their
first observations on this affection while on the Ussuri River in
Siberia. The captain of the general staff approached the steward of
the boat suddenly, and without any apparent reason or remark
clapped his hand before his face; instantly the steward clapped his
hand in the same manner, put on an angry look, and passed on.
When the captain slapped the paddle-box suddenly, the steward
instantly gave it a similar thump. Some of the passengers imitated
pigs grunting or called out absurd names, etc.; the poor steward
would be compelled to echo them all. The United States naval
officers were informed that the affection was not uncommon in
Siberia, and that it was commonest about Yakutsk, where the winter
cold is extreme. Both sexes were subject to it, but men much less
than women. It was known to Russians by the name of Miryachit.
56 New York Med. Journ., Feb. 16, 1884.
In both these classes of cases a suggestion of some kind was

required, and then the act took place independently of the will.
“There is another analogous condition known by the Germans as
Schlaftrunkenheit, and to English and American neurologists as
somnolentia or sleep-drunkenness. In this state an individual on
being suddenly awakened commits some incongruous act of
violence, ofttimes a murder. Sometimes this appears to be a dream,
but in others no such cause could be discovered.” Curious instances
are mentioned by Hammond of this disorder.
The phenomena of automatism at command in hypnotized subjects

have much similarity to the phenomena of these affections, and the
same explanation to a certain extent will answer for both.
Paget57 has ably discussed the subject of neuromimesis in general,

and Mitchell58 devotes two lectures to its consideration. As already
stated when discussing the synonyms of hysteria, the mistake must
not be made of supposing all cases of hysteria to be instances of
neuromimesis; but, as Mitchell remarks, the hysterical state,
however produced, is a fruitful source of mimicry of disease in its
every form, from the mildest of pains up to the most complete and
carefully-devised frauds. “Its sensitiveness and mobility, its timidity
and emotionalness, its greed of attention, of sympathy, and of power
in all shapes, supply both motive and help, so that while we must be
careful not to see mimicry in every hysteric symptom, we must in
people of this temperament be more than usually watchful for this
form of trouble, and at least reasonably suspicious of every peculiar
or unusual phenomenon.”
57 Op. cit.
58 Op. cit.
SYMPTOMATOLOGY.—At the outset of the discussion of the

symptomatology of hysteria, hysterical cases should be divided into
four classes—viz. (1) Cases in which the symptoms are involuntary;
(2) cases in which the symptoms are artificially induced and become
involuntary; (3) cases in which the symptoms are acted or simulated,
but in which the patient, because of impaired mental power, is
irresistibly impelled to their performance; (4) cases in which the
symptoms are purely acts of deception which are under the control
of the patient.
Keeping in mind these different classes, we will always be able to

link to the phenomena of hysteria the psychical element which is
present in all genuine cases of this disorder. To comprehend the
existence of the psychical element in the first class, in which the
manifestations are absolutely involuntary, may offer difficulties. In
these cases, at a period more or less recent or remote, psychical
stimuli may have acted to produce the hysterical phenomena, and,
once produced, these have been repeated and intensified by habit,
and continue independently both of volition and consciousness. The
experiments of Dercum and Parker show how hysterical symptoms
may be artificially induced and may get beyond the patient's control.
The difference between induced and simulated manifestations must
always be clearly borne in mind. To induce a set of phenomena a
certain mechanism must be set in action, and this, through rational,
explicable processes, leads to certain results. The psychical element
enters here both positively and negatively—positively, in the
determination to produce a certain train of events; negatively, in the
condition of mental concentration or abstraction which is a part of the
procedure. In the third class of cases acting or simulation is
dependent upon the irresistible inclinations of the patient. This may
seem to some an uncertain and even dangerous ground to take. I
am convinced, however, after observing many hysterical cases, that
acts clearly purposive, so far as the particular performance is
concerned, are sometimes the result of a general unstable mental
condition. Some at least of these patients are as irresistibly impelled
to swallow blood and vomit, to scream and gesticulate, etc., as is the
monomaniac to commit arson, to ravish, or to kill. In the fourth class,
the cases of pure, unmitigated, uncontrollable deception, the
psychical element is very evident, although some may question
whether such cases should be ranged under the banner of hysteria,
where it is both convenient and customary to place them.
The symptoms of hysteria may develop in any order or after any

fashion. The graver hysterical phenomena, such as convulsions,
paralysis, and anæsthesia, often seem to come on suddenly, but
usually this suddenness of onset is apparent rather than real. Minor
hysterical symptoms, such as general nervous irritability, pains,
aches, and discomforts, and mental peculiarities, have usually been
present for a long time. These minor evidences of the hysterical
constitution are sometimes the only phenomena ever presented.
Todd59 has described an expression of countenance which he

designates as the facies hysterica. The characteristics of this
expression are a remarkable depth and prominent fulness, with more
or less thickness, of the upper lip, and a peculiar drooping of the
upper eyelids. It would be absurd to assert that all hysterical patients
presented this cast of countenance, but an appearance which
approaches closely to this description is presented in a fair
percentage of cases. It has seemed to me that male hysterics were
more likely to have this peculiar facies than hysterical females.
59 Reynolds's System of Medicine, vol. ii. p. 656.
The psychical peculiarities or mental disorders of hysteria form a

large and important part of its phenomena. We have to deal not only
with peculiar and diverse psychical manifestations, but to one form of
mental disorder it is clinically convenient and correct to apply the
designation hysterical insanity.
In the mildest cases of ordinary hysteria conditions of mental

irritability and mobility are sometimes the only striking features.
“Patients,” says Jolly,60 “are timid, easily overcome by any
unexpected occurrence, sentimental, and sensitive. Every trifle
annoys and upsets them; and there is this peculiarity—that a more
recent stimulus may often effect a diversion in an exactly opposite
direction.”
60 Op. cit.
As bearing upon the question of the mental state in hysteria, the

confessions obtained by Mitchell from several patients are of great
interest. One patient, who had learned to notice and dwell upon any
little symptom, vomited daily and aroused much sympathy. She took
little or no food. Spasms came on, and she confessed that every
new symptom caused new anxiety, and that somehow she rather
liked it all. She gradually lost all her symptoms except vomiting, and
overcame this by desperate efforts. Another patient confessed to
having played a game upon her doctor for a long time by pretending
she took no food. She would get out of bed at night, but remain there
all day; she filled up a vessel with water to make others believe she
passed large quantities of urine, etc. Another patient, a girl of
nineteen, who came on a litter from a Western State, after a time
regained her feet. In her confession she stated that what she lacked
was courage. She believed that she would have overcome her
difficulties if any one had told her that nothing was the matter. “In
looking back over the year with the light of the present,” she says, “I
can only say that I believe that there was really nothing the matter
with me; only it seemed to me as if there was, and because of these
sensations I carried on a sort of starvation process physical and
mental.”
The older and some of the more recent classifications of insanity

recognize hysterical insanity as a distinct form of mental disease.
Morel and Skae, however, in their etiological classifications, and
Hammond, Spitzka, Mann, and Clouston in their recently-published
works, give it a “local habitation and a name.” Krafft-Ebing not only
recognizes hysterical insanity as a distinct form of mental disease,
but, after the German fashion, subdivides it quite minutely, as
follows: First, transitory forms: a. with fright; b. hystero-epileptic
deliria; c. ecstatic visionary forms; d. moria-like conditions. Second,
chronic forms: a. hystero-melancholia; b. hystero-mania; c.
degenerative states with hysterical basis.
Spitzka61 speaks of chronic hysterical insanity as an intensification of

the hysterical character, to which “a silly mendacity is frequently
added, and develops pari passu with advancing deterioration.” At the
State Hospital for the Insane at Norristown and at the department for
the insane of the Philadelphia Hospital cases of chronic hysterical
insanity have come under my observation. Hammond under
hysterical mania includes several different and somewhat distinct
mental disorders.
61 Insanity, its Classification, Diagnosis, and Treatment, by E. C. Spitzka, M.D., New
York, 1883.
With regard to the occurrence of hysterical manifestations amongst

patients suffering from some well-recognized non-hysterical forms of
insanity, a tour through any large asylum will afford abundant
evidence. Cases of tremor closely simulating cerebro-spinal
sclerosis have been observed frequently among the insane.
Paralysis, contracture, hysterical joints, hysterical neuralgias,
convulsions, and cataleptoid phenomena are among other hysterical
manifestations which have fallen under personal observation among
the insane of various classes.
A remarkable case of hysterical motor paralysis was observed at the

State Hospital for the Insane at Norristown. This patient was an
intelligent single woman about thirty-five years of age, of good family,
well educated; she had been a teacher and writer, and became
insane through family and business troubles. When only eight years
of age she was paralyzed for two years and a half, and had had at
times during her life, before becoming insane, attacks of partial or
complete unconsciousness. Prior to coming under observation she
had been an inmate of an English private asylum. She was sick on
shipboard coming to this country, and on her arrival was in a state of
delirium and insomnia, with attacks of loss of sight. Four months
later she developed mania with suicidal inclinations. Just before the
development of this maniacal condition her lower limbs became
comparatively helpless, and soon after she entirely lost their use. I
found her in this condition, and examination showed no change in
knee-jerk, electrical reactions, nutrition, nor genito-urinary conditions,
which led me to diagnosticate the absence of any organic spinal
trouble. The case was pronounced one of hysterical paralysis, and it
was prophesied that she would eventually completely recover,
probably suddenly. For one year her paralysis remained, her mental
condition varying very greatly during this time—sometimes in a

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Physics for the IB Diploma (London)

3rd Edition John Allum

engaging resources, practical companion, full of

grounded in conceptual advice and guidance from

considerations and an experienced TOK

illustrated with real-world expert.

examples. • Learn to apply analytical

helping them examine Thinking, showing you

9781398369917 IB Dip Physics

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 3 09/01/2023 22:18

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 4 09/01/2023 22:18

A Space, time and motion

B The particulate nature of matter

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 5 09/01/2023 22:18

Free online content

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 6 09/01/2023 22:18

Each theme is divided into syllabus topics.

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 7 09/01/2023 22:18

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 8 09/01/2023 22:18

developing in the following attributes: to be inquirers, knowledgeable, thinkers, communicators,

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 9 09/01/2023 22:18

■ Adviser, writer and reader

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 10 09/01/2023 22:18

Skills in the study of physics

■ Tools ■ Inquiry process

Social skills Research skills

■ Figure 0.01 Tools for physics

﻿ Tools and Inquiry xi

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369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 12 09/01/2023 22:18

﻿ Tools and Inquiry xiii

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 13 09/01/2023 22:18

■ Inquiry 2: Collecting and processing data

■ Inquiry 3: Concluding and evaluating

369917_00_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_Prelims.indd 14 09/01/2023 22:18

◆ Kinematics Study of motion.

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 1 04/01/2023 19:29

Continuing the example given above, if a girl travels from

Speed and velocity

2 Theme A: Space, time and motion

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◆ Speed, v Average speed = distance travelled/time taken.

■ Figure A1.4 Distance and displacement from Auckland to Wellington

Tool 1: Experimental techniques

Understand how to accurately measure quantities to an appropriate level of precision: time

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glider air track

Tool 2: Technology Tool 3: Mathematics

Use sensors Determine rates of change

4 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 4 04/01/2023 19:29

The symbol Δs represents a change of position (displacement).

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 5 04/01/2023 19:29

Answer c i 360 minutes is the time for four complete orbits.

6 Theme A: Space, time and motion

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 6 04/01/2023 19:29

Acceleration, a, is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time:

glider air track

■ Figure A1.10 Measuring two velocities to determine an acceleration

369917_01_IB_Physics 3rd_Edn_SEC_A_1.indd 7 04/01/2023 19:29

Inquiry 1: Exploring and designing Tool 3: Mathematics

Designing Interpret features of graphs

Suppose that the Principal of your school or college is worried

Tools and Inquiry xi

Tools and Inquiry xiii