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Cultural
Anthropology
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Fifteenth Edition
Cultural
Anthropology
The Human Challenge
W I L L I A M A . H AV I L A N D
Professor Emeritus, University of Vermont
HARALD E. L . PRINS
Kansas State University
BUNNY McBRIDE
Kansas State University
DA NA WA L R AT H
University of Vermont
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Printed in the United States of America

Printed Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Na’imah Musawwir Khalil, a bright and beautiful African

American girl who first heard about different cultures while curled in her young mother’s womb
in a lecture hall at Kansas State University. May the deeper insights—born of unbiased
knowledge about humanity in its sometimes-bewildering variety—guide your generation in
seeking peace and happiness for all.
Putting the World
in Perspective
Although all humans we know about are capable of

producing accurate sketches of localities and regions
with which they are familiar, cartography (the craft
of mapmaking as we know it today) had its beginnings
in 16th-century Europe, and its subsequent develop-
ment is related to the expansion of Europeans to all
parts of the globe. From the beginning, there have been
two problems with maps: the technical one of how
to depict on a two-dimensional, flat surface a three-
dimensional spherical object, and the cultural one of
whose worldview they reflect. In fact, the two issues are
inseparable, for the particular projection one uses inevi-
tably makes a statement about how one views one’s own
people and their place in the world. Indeed, maps often
shape our perception of reality as much as they reflect it.
In cartography, a projection refers to the system of
intersecting lines (of longitude and latitude) by which
part or all of the globe is represented on a flat surface.
There are more than a hundred different projections in
use today, ranging from polar perspectives to interrupted
“butterflies” to rectangles to heart shapes. Each projection
causes distortion in size, shape, or distance in some way or
another. A map that correctly shows the shape of a land-
mass will of necessity misrepresent the size. A map that is
accurate along the equator will be deceptive at the poles.
Perhaps no projection has had more influence
on the way we see the world than that of Gerhardus
Mercator, who devised his map in 1569 as a naviga-
tional aid for mariners. So well suited was Mercator’s
map for this purpose that it continues to be used
for navigational charts today. At the same time, the
Mercator projection became a standard for depicting
landmasses, something for which it was never intended.
Although an accurate navigational tool, the Mercator
projection greatly exaggerates the size of landmasses in
higher latitudes, giving about two-thirds of the map’s
surface to the northern hemisphere. Thus the lands
occupied by Europeans and European descendants
appear far larger than those of other people. For
example, North America (19 million square kilometers)
appears almost twice the size of Africa (30 million
vi
Putting the World in Perspective vii
square kilometers), whereas Europe is shown as equal in The Robinson Projection, which was adopted by
size to South America, which actually has nearly twice the National Geographic Society in 1988 to replace the
the landmass of Europe. Van der Grinten, is one of the best compromises to
A map developed in 1805 by Karl B. Mollweide date between the distortions of size and shape. Al-
was one of the earlier equal-area projections of the world. though an improvement over the Van der Grinten,
Equal-area projections portray landmasses in correct the Robinson Projection still depicts lands in the
relative size, but, as a result, distort the shape of con- northern latitudes as proportionally larger at the same
tinents more than other projections. They most often time that it depicts lands in the lower latitudes (repre-
compress and warp lands in the higher latitudes and senting most Third World nations) as proportionally
vertically stretch landmasses close to the equator. smaller. Like European maps before it, the Robinson
Other equal-area projections include the Lambert Projection places Europe at the center of the map with
Cylindrical Equal-Area Projection (1772), the Hammer the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas to the left, em-
Equal-Area Projection (1892), and the Eckert Equal-Area phasizing the cultural connection between Europe
Projection (1906). and North America, while neglecting the geographic
The Van der Grinten Projection (1904) was a com- closeness of northwestern North America to north-
promise aimed at minimizing both the distortions of eastern Asia.
size in the Mercator and the distortion of shape in The following pages show four maps that each con-
equal-area maps such as the Mollweide. Although an vey quite different cultural messages. Included among
improvement, the lands of the northern hemisphere them is the Gall-Peters Projection, an equal-area map
are still emphasized at the expense of the southern. For that has been adopted as the official map of UNESCO
example, in the Van der Grinten, the Commonwealth (the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
of Independent States (the former Soviet Union) and Cultural Organization), and a map made in Japan,
Canada are shown at more than twice their relative size. showing us how the world looks from the other side.
The Robinson Projection
The map below is based on the Robinson Projection, less than most other projections. Still, it places Europe at
which is used today by the National Geographic Society the center of the map. This particular view of the world
and Rand McNally. Although the Robinson Projection has been used to identify the location of many of the
distorts the relative size of landmasses, it does so much cultures discussed in this text.
INUIT
INUPIAT
ESKIMO NETSILIK INUIT
YUPIK
ESKIMO TLINGIT
SCOT
INUIT TORY
NASKAPI (INNU) ISLANDER DUTCH
BELLA COOLA
CREE SWISS
KWAKIUTL ABENAKI MONTAGNAIS (INNU)
OJIBWA
BLACKFEET MALISEET
CROW IROQUOIS CR
ARAPAHO MI’KMAQ FRENCH
N. PAIUTE LAKOTA MESKWAKI PENOBSCOT
SHOSHONE BASQUE
POMO OMAHA PEQUOT
CHEYENNE AMISH
MORMON UTE COMANCHE
S. PAIUTE ORTHODOX JEWISH
HOPI NAVAJO
CHEROKEE
PUEBLO PUEBLO MEXICAN
ZUNI APACHE
YAQUI
GOMERAN
HAITIAN
HUICHOL AZTEC
MAYA PUERTO RICAN
HAWAIIAN JAMAICAN TUAREG
ZAPOTEC FUL
CARIBBEAN
YORUBA
MENDE BAULE FON BENIN
IBIB
IGBO
SHUAR KPELLE
Y˜ NOMAMI EGBU
GA
YAKO
CANELA ASHANTI
MUNDURUCU
SHERENTE
CINTA-LARGA
MEKRANOTI KAYAPO
KAYAPO
SAMOAN PITCAIRN KUIKURO
QUECHUA JU/’H
ISLANDER NAMBIKWARA
TAHITIAN
RAPANUI AYMARA BUS
AYOREO
BUSHMAN
GUARANI
MAPUCHE
YAGHAN
viii
SÁMI
NENETS
YUPIK
KHANTY ESKIMO
RUSSIAN TUVAN
S
SLOVAKIAN
MONGOLIAN
ROAT SERB CHECHEN
BOSNIAN UYGHUR
ARMENIAN
TURK UZBEK
TAJIK
KURD
JAPANESE
SYRIAN KUCHI KOHISTANI
BAKHTIARI NYINBA TIBETAN
HAN CHINESE
PASHTUN
AWLAD 'ALI
BEDOUIN
BAHRAINI
MOSUO TAIWANESE
KAREN
TRUK
SHAIVITE
LANI
NUER TIGREAN HANUNÓO
NAYAR ANDAMAN
DINKA AFAR SOMALI
KOTA AND VEDDA
AZANDE ACHOLI KURUMBA PINGELAP ISLANDER
BIO ACEH WAPE
TURKANA MALDIVIAN TODA AND
BADAGA KAPAUKU ENGA
MBUTI NANDI
KIKUYU MINANGKABAU TSEMBAGA
HUTU MAASAI
GUSII BUGIS SOLOMON ISLANDER
TUTSI TIRIKI
HADZA ARAPESH
BALINESE
TROBRIANDER
DOBU
HOANSI
SHMAN
SWAZI
ABORIGINAL
ZULU
BASUTO
MAORI
TASMANIAN
ix
The Gall-Peters Projection
The map below is based on the Gall-Peters Projection, by a ratio of 2 to 1), the Gall-Peters Projection does
which has been adopted as the official map of show all continents according to their correct relative
UNESCO. Although it distorts the shape of continents size. Though Europe is still at the center, it is not shown
(countries near the equator are vertically elongated as larger and more extensive than the Third World.
AUSTR
GREENLAND GERMANY
ICELAND DENMARK
UNITED NORWAY
STATES NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
UNITED
KINGDOM
CANADA
IRELAND
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
IT
AL
Y
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
UNITED STATES SLOVEN
TUNISIA
O
CC
RO
MO
ALGERIA
BAHAMAS
MEXICO
WESTERN
SAHARA
A
NI
HAITI
ITA
CUBA
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
UR
MA
JAMAICA MALI
BELIZE NIGER
GUATEMALA HONDURAS SENEGAL

EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA GAMBIA
GUINEA-BISSAU
A
GUINEA
RI
COSTA RICA
GE
NI
PANAMA VENEZUELA FRENCH GUIANA SIERRA LEONE
LIBERIA
COLOMBIA CÔTE D’IVOIRE

BURKINA FASO
GUYANA GHANA
SURINAM TOGO
BENIN
ECUADOR
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
BRAZIL
PERU
BOLIVIA
PARAGUAY
CHILE
ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
ANTARCTICA
RIA CZECHOSLOVAKIA
EN
ED
SW FINLAND
RUSSIA
ESTONIA AZERBAIJAN
LATVIA
LITHUANIA ARMENIA
POLAND BELARUS GEORGIA
KAZAKHSTAN
ROMANIA
UKRAINE KYRGYZSTAN
HUNGARY MOLDOVA
TAJIKISTAN MONGOLIA
SERBIA UZ NORTH
BULGARIA BE KOREA
MONTENEGRO KI
ST
TU AN
MACEDONIA SOUTH
RK
NIA ALBANIA ME KOREA
GREECE TURKEY NI
ST PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC
AN
BOSNIA-
HERZEGOVINA SYRIA OF CHINA
CROATIA AFGHAN-
LEBANON IRAN ISTAN JAPAN
IRAQ
ISRAEL
BHUTAN
AN
BAHRAIN I ST NEPAL
JORDAN K
PA
LIBYA KUWAIT
EGYPT
MYANMAR
INDIA
QATAR TAIWAN
SAUDI OMAN
ARABIA
UNITED
ARAB BANGLA- LAOS
R EMIRATES DESH
CHAD
SUDAN N
ME THAILAND
YE
VIETNAM PHILIPPINES
DJIBOUTI CAMBODIA
SOUTH ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL SUDAN BRUNEI
AFRICAN
REPUBLIC MALAYSIA
SRI LANKA
LIA
MA
CAMEROON PAPUA
SO
SINGAPORE NEW
UGANDA GUINEA
GABON
CONGO INDONESIA
KENYA
RWANDA
BURUNDI
DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
CONGO
MALAWI
ANGOLA
ZAMBIA
MADAGASCAR
NAMIBIA
ZIMBABWE
BOTS-
WANA
AUSTRALIA
MOZAMBIQUE
SWAZILAND
LESOTHO
SOUTH
AFRICA
NEW ZEALAND
ANTARCTICA
xi
Japanese Map
Not all maps place Europe at the center of the world, world, this map has the virtue of showing the geographic
as this Japanese map illustrates. Besides reflecting the proximity of North America to Asia, a fact easily
importance the Japanese attach to themselves in the overlooked when maps place Europe at their center.
GREENLAND
GREENLAND
NORWAY
NORWAY
ICELAND
ICELAND GERMANY
GERMANY
DENMARK
DENMARK
ED N
EN
SWEDE
NETHERLANDS
NETHERLANDS
LA D
ND
SW
BELGIUM
BELGIUM
FINLAN
RUSSIA
RUSSIA
FIN
ESTONIA
ESTONIA
UNITED
UNITED LATVIA
LATVIA
KINGDOM
KINGDOM
LITHUANIA
LITHUANIAARMENIA
ARMENIA
IRELAND
IRELAND POLAND
POLAND BELARUS GEORGIA
BELARUS GEORGIAAZERBAIJAN
AZERBAIJAN
HUNGARY
HUNGARY KAZAKHSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
CZECHOSLOVAKIA ROMANIA
ROMANIA
AUSTRIA
AUSTRIA UKRAINE
UKRAINE KYRGYZSTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
SWITZERLAND
SWITZERLAND MOLDOVA
MOLDOVA
MONGOLIA
MONGOLIA
FRANCE
FRANCE SERBIA
SERBIA TAJIKISTAN
TAJIKISTAN NORTH
NORTH
UZ UZ
ITA
ITALY
BULGARIA
BULGARIA BE BE KOREA
KOREA
LY
KI KI
SPAIN
SPAIN TU TU ST ST
PORTUGAL
PORTUGAL SLOVENIA
SLOVENIA MACEDONIA
MACEDONIA R R
KMKM A A
N N SOUTH
SOUTH
CROATIA
CROATIA GREECE
GREECE TURKEY
TURKEY ENEN KOREA
KOREA
ISTIST PEOPLE’S
PEOPLE’S
REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC
ANAN
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA ALBANIA
ALBANIA SYRIA
SYRIA OFOF
CHINA
CHINA
TUNISIA MONTENEGRO
TUNISIA MONTENEGRO LEBANON
LEBANON IRAN
IRAN AFGHAN-
AFGHAN-
IRAQ
IRAQ JAPAN
JAPAN
MOROCCO
MOROCCO ISRAEL
ISRAEL KUWAIT ISTAN
KUWAIT ISTAN
AN AN NEPAL
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BHUTAN
BAHRAIN
BAHRAIN ST ST
ALGERIA
ALGERIA JORDAN
JORDAN AKIAKI
LIBYA
LIBYA EGYPT
EGYPT P P
WESTERN
WESTERN MYANMAR
MYANMAR
SAUDI
SAUDI INDIA
INDIA
SAHARA
SAHARA ARABIA
ARABIA TAIWAN
TAIWAN
QATAR
QATAR UNITED
UNITED
O AN
AN
MAURITANIA
MAURITANIA SUDAN
SUDAN ARABARAB
M
M
MALI NIGER
MALI NIGER CHAD BANGLA-
BANGLA- VIETNAM
VIETNAM
O
CHAD EMIRATES
EMIRATES
SENEGAL
SENEGAL ENEN DESH
DESH LAOS
LAOS PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES
GAMBIA
GAMBIA CENTRAL
CENTRAL YEM
YEM
GUINEA-
GUINEA- AFRICAN
AFRICAN DJIBOUTI
DJIBOUTI THAILAND
THAILAND
NIGERIA
NIGERIA REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC SOMALIA
SOMALIA
BISSAU
BISSAU SOUTH
SOUTHETHIOPIA CAMBODIA
CAMBODIA BRUNEI
BRUNEI
ETHIOPIA
GUINEA
GUINEA SUDAN
SUDAN MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
SIERRA
SIERRA LEONE
LEONE SRISRI
LANKA
LANKA PAPUA
PAPUA
DEMOCRATIC
DEMOCRATIC NEW
NEW
LIBERIA
LIBERIA REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OFOF KENYA
UGANDA
UGANDA SINGAPORE
SINGAPORE
KENYA GUINEA
GUINEA
CÔTE
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
D’IVOIRE CONGO
CONGO INDONESIA
INDONESIA
BURKINA
BURKINA FASO
FASO RWANDA
RWANDA
GHANA
GHANA TANZANIA
TANZANIA
BURUNDI
BURUNDI
TOGO
TOGO CONGO
CONGO
MALAWI
MALAWI
BENIN
BENIN
CAMEROON
CAMEROON ANGOLA
ANGOLA ZAMBIA
ZAMBIA
EQUATORIAL
EQUATORIAL MADAGASCAR
MADAGASCAR
GUINEA
GUINEA NAMIBIA
NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE
ZIMBABWE
GABON
GABON
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
BOTSWANA
BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE
MOZAMBIQUE
SWAZILAND
SWAZILAND
SOUTH
SOUTH
AFRICA
AFRICA LESOTHO
LESOTHO
ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA
xii
GREENLAND
GREENLAND
UNITED
UNITED
STATES
STATES
CANADA
CANADA
UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
BAHAMAS
BAHAMAS
MEXICO
MEXICO HAITI
HAITI
DOMINICAN
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC
CUBA
CUBA
JAMAICA
JAMAICA
BELIZE
BELIZE NICARAGUA
NICARAGUA
GUATEMALA
GUATEMALA
EL EL SALVADOR
SALVADOR VENEZUELA
VENEZUELA FRENCH
FRENCH GUIANA
GUIANA
HONDURAS
HONDURAS
COSTA
COSTA RICA
RICA COLOMBIA
COLOMBIA
PANAMA
PANAMA
GUYANA
GUYANA
ECUADOR
ECUADOR SURINAM
SURINAM
BRAZIL
BRAZIL
PERU
PERU
BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA
PARAGUAY
PARAGUAY
CHILE
CHILE
ARGENTINAURUGUAY
ARGENTINA URUGUAY
NEW
NEW ZEALAND
ZEALAND
ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA
xiii
The Turnabout Map
The way maps may reflect (and influence) our thinking is things upside-down may cause us to rethink the way North
exemplified by the Turnabout Map, which places the South Americans regard themselves in relation to the people of
Pole at the top and the North Pole at the bottom. Words Central America.
and phrases such as “on top,” “over,” and “above” tend © 1982 by Jesse Levine Turnabout Map™—Dist. by Laguna Sales, Inc.,
to be equated by some people with superiority. Turning 7040 Via Valverde, San Jose, CA 95135
xiv
Brief Contents
1 The Essence of Anthropology 3

2 Characteristics of Culture 27
3 Ethnographic Research—Its History, Methods, and Theories 47
4 Becoming Human—The Origin and Diversity of Our Species 75
5 Language and Communication 111
6 Social Identity, Personality, and Gender 135
7 Patterns of Subsistence 157

8 Economic Systems 181
9 Sex, Marriage, and Family 205
10 Kinship and Descent 231
11 Grouping by Gender, Age, Common Interest, and Social Status 253
12 Politics, Power, War, and Peace 271
13 Spirituality, Religion, and Shamanism 297
14 The Arts 325
15 Processes of Cultural Change 347
16 Global Challenges, Local Responses, and the Role of Anthropology 369
xv
Features Contents
Anthropologists of Note The Biology of Human Speech 129

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Psychosomatic
Franz Boas 14
Symptoms and Mental Health 152
Matilda Coxe Stephenson 14
Surviving in the Andes: Aymara Adaptation to High
Bronislaw Malinowski 39
Altitude 159
Margaret Mead 62
Cacao: The Love Bean in the Money Tree 196
Gregory Bateson 62
Marriage Prohibitions in the United States 211
Jane Goodall 82
Maori Origins: Ancestral Genes and Mythical
Svante Pääbo 82
Canoes 232
Ruth Fulton Benedict 142
African Burial Ground Project 265
Rosita Worl 198
Sex, Gender, and Human Violence 287
Claude Lévi-Strauss 212
Change Your Karma and Change Your Sex? 304
Laura Nader 279
Peyote Art: Divine Visions among the Huichol 332
Michael J. Harner 307
Studying the Emergence of New Diseases 365
Eric R. Wolf 349
Toxic Breast Milk Threatens Arctic Culture 387
Paul Farmer 390
Anthropology Applied Globalscape

Safe Harbor? 23
Forensic Anthropology: Voices for the Dead 16
Chicken Out: Bush’s Legs or Phoenix Talons? 174
New Houses for Apache Indians 34
How Much for a Red Delicious? 200
When Bambi Spoke Arapaho: Preserving Indigenous
Transnational Child Exchange? 227
Languages 120
Playing Football for Pay and Peace? 267
Agricultural Development and the
Pirate Pursuits in Puntland? 285
Anthropologist 168
Do Coffins Fly? 339
Global Ecotourism and Local Indigenous Culture in
Probo Koala’s Dirty Secrets? 388
Bolivia 188
Resolving a Native American Tribal Membership
Dispute 241 Original Study
Anthropologists and Social Impact Assessment 261 Whispers from the Ice 18
William Ury: Dispute Resolution and the The Importance of Trobriand Women 64
Anthropologist 293 Reconciliation and Its Cultural Modification
Bringing Back the Past 342 in Primates 83
Development Anthropology and Dams 364 Can Chantek Talk in Codes? 112
Anthropologist S. Ann Dunham, Mother of a The Blessed Curse 146
U.S. President 382 Gardens of the Mekranoti Kayapo 166
Arranging Marriage in India 216
Biocultural Connection Honor Killing in the Netherlands 238
The Jewish Eruv: Symbolic Place in Public
Picturing Pesticides 8
Space 258
Modifying the Human Body 41
Sacred Law in Global Capitalism 316
Pig Lovers and Pig Haters 69
The Modern Tattoo Community 329
Paleolithic Prescriptions for Diseases of Today 90
xvi
Contents
Preface xxv Culture Is Integrated 36

Culture Is Dynamic 38
Acknowledgments xxxvii
Functions of Culture 38
About the Authors xxxviii Culture, Society, and the Individual 39
Culture and Change 40
Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, and Evaluation
of Cultures 42
Chapter 1
Anthropology Applied: New Houses for Apache
The Essence of Anthropology 3 Indians 34
The Anthropological Perspective 3 Anthropologist of Note: Bronislaw Malinowski

Anthropology and Its Fields 5 (1884–1942) 39
Cultural Anthropology 6 Biocultural Connection: Modifying the Human Body 41
Linguistic Anthropology 9
Archaeology 10 Chapter Checklist 44
Biological Anthropology 12 Questions for Reflection 45
Anthropology, Science, and the Humanities 14 Digging into Anthropology 45
Doing Anthropology in the Field 15
Questions of Ethics 20
Anthropology and Globalization 21 Chapter 3
Biocultural Connection: Picturing Pesticides 8
Ethnographic Research—Its
Anthropologists of Note: Franz Boas (1858–1942),
Matilda Coxe Stephenson (1849–1915) 14 History, Methods,
Anthropology Applied: Forensic Anthropology: Voices and Theories 47
for the Dead 16
History of Ethnographic Research and Its Uses 48
Original Study: Whispers from the Ice 18 Salvage Ethnography
or Urgent Anthropology 48
Chapter Checklist 24
Acculturation Studies 48
Questions for Reflection 25
Applied Anthropology 49
Digging into Anthropology 25
Studying Cultures at a Distance 50
Studying Contemporary State Societies 51
Chapter 2 Studying Peasant Communities 51
Characteristics of Culture 27 Advocacy Anthropology 52
Studying Up 53
Culture and Adaptation 27 Globalization and Multi-Sited
The Concept and Characteristics of Culture 30 Ethnography 53
Culture Is Learned 30 Doing Ethnography 55
Culture Is Shared 31 Site Selection and Research Question 55
Culture Is Based on Symbols 35 Preparatory Research 55
xvii
xviii Contents
Participant Observation: Ethnographic Tools The First Bipeds 87

and Aids 56 Early Homo 89
Data Gathering: The Ethnographer’s Archaic Humans 94
Approach 56 Neandertals 94
Challenges of Ethnographic Fieldwork 60 Denisovans as Long-Lost Archaic
Social Acceptance 60 Cousins 97
Physical Danger 62 Global Expansion of Homo sapiens 97
Subjectivity, Reflexivity, and Validation 63 Anatomically Modern Peoples in the Upper
Completing an Ethnography 65 Paleolithic 98
Building Ethnological Theories 66 Human Migrations from Siberia to
Ethnology and the Comparative America 101
Method 67 New Human Era with the Domestication of Animals
A Brief Overview of Anthropology’s Theoretical and Plants 101
Perspectives 67 Human Biological Variation and the Problem of
Mentalist Perspective 67 Race 101
Materialist Perspective 68 Skin Color 102
Other Theoretical Perspectives 68 Race as a Social Construct 103
Ethical Responsibilities in Anthropological Anthropologists of Note: Jane Goodall (b. 1934),
Research 68 Svante Pääbo (b. 1955) 82
Anthropologists of Note: Margaret Mead (1901–1978), Original Study: Reconciliation and Its Cultural
Gregory Bateson (1904–1980) 62 Modification in Primates 83
Original Study: The Importance of Trobriand Women 64 Biocultural Connection: Paleolithic Prescriptions for
Biocultural Connection: Pig Lovers and Pig Diseases of Today 90
Haters 69
Chapter Checklist 71 Questions for Reflection 108
Questions for Reflection 72 Digging into Anthropology 108
Chapter 5
Chapter 4 Language and
Becoming Human—The Origin Communication 111
and Diversity of Our Species 75
Linguistic Research and the Nature of
Humans and Other Primates 75 Language 114
An African Perspective on Great Apes 76 Descriptive Linguistics 114
Europeans Classify Apes as Humanlike Phonology 115
Animals 77 Morphology, Syntax, and Grammar 115
Linnaeus Orders the Natural System 77 Historical Linguistics 116
A Short History of Research on Evolution Processes of Linguistic Divergence 117
and Genetics 78 Language Loss and Revival 117
Darwin as Father of Evolutionary Theory 78 Language in Its Social and Cultural Settings 119
Mendel as Father of Genetics 79 Sociolinguistics 119
A Microscopic Perspective on Biological Ethnolinguistics 122
Evolution 79 Language Versatility 123
Molecular Clock 79 Beyond Words: The Gesture–Call System 124
Genetic Mapping 80 Nonverbal Communication 124
Evolution Through Adaptation 80 Paralanguage 126
Primate Anatomical Adaptation 81 Tonal Languages 126
Primate Behavioral Adaptation 83 Talking Drums and Whistled Speech 126
Human Ancestors 86 The Origins of Language 127
Contents xix
From Speech to Writing 128 Chapter 7

Literacy and Modern Telecommunication 130
Original Study: Can Chantek Talk in Codes? 112
Patterns of Subsistence 157
Anthropology Applied: When Bambi Spoke Arapaho: Adaptation 157

Preserving Indigenous Languages 120 Adaptation, Environment, and Ecosystem 158
Biocultural Connection: The Biology of Human Case Study: The Tsembaga 158
Speech 129 Adaptation and Culture Areas 158
Modes of Subsistence 160
Chapter Checklist 131 Food-Foraging Societies 160
Questions for Reflection 132 Characteristics of Food-Foraging Societies 160
Digging into Anthropology 133 How Technology Impacts Cultural Adaptations
among Foragers 164
Food-Producing Societies 164
Chapter 6
Producing Food in Gardens: Horticulture 165
Social Identity, Personality, Producing Food on Farms: Agriculture 167
and Gender 135 Mixed Farming: Crop Growing and Animal
Breeding 169
Enculturation: The Self and Social Identity 136 Herding Grazing Animals: Pastoralism 169
Self-Awareness 136 Case Study: Bakhtiari Herders 170
Social Identity Through Personal Intensive Agriculture: Urbanization
Naming 137 and Peasantry 171
Self and the Behavioral Environment 139 Industrial Food Production 172
Culture and Personality 139 Adaptation in Cultural Evolution 173
A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Gender Types of Cultural Evolution 175
and Personality 140 Case Study: The Environmental Collapse of
Case Study: Childrearing and Gender among Easter Island 176
the Ju/’hoansi 140 Population Growth and the Limits of Progress 177
Three Childrearing Patterns 141 Biocultural Connection: Surviving in the Andes: Aymara
Group Personality 144 Adaptation to High Altitude 159
Alternative Gender Models 146 Original Study: Gardens of the Mekranoti Kayapo 166
Intersexuality 147
Anthropology Applied: Agricultural Development and the
Transgender 148
Anthropologist 168
Castration 149
The Social Context of Sexual and Gender Chapter Checklist 177
Identity 150 Questions for Reflection 178
Normal and Abnormal Personality in Social Digging into Anthropology 179
Context 150
Sadhus: Holy Men in Hindu Culture 150
Mental Disorders Across Time and
Cultures 152
Personal Identity and Mental Health in Globalizing
Society 153
Anthropologist of Note: Ruth Fulton Benedict
(1887–1947) 142
Original Study: The Blessed Curse 146
Biocultural Connection: A Cross-Cultural Perspective
on Psychosomatic Symptoms and Mental Health 152

xx Contents
Chapter 8 Family and Household 221

Forms of the Family 222
Economic Systems 181 Residence Patterns 224
Marriage, Family, and Household in
Economic Anthropology 181
Our Technological and Globalized
Case Study: The Yam Complex
World 226
in Trobriand Culture 181
Adoption and New Reproductive
Production and Its Resources 183
Technologies 226
Land and Water Resources 183
Migrant Workforces 226
Technology Resources 184
Biocultural Connection: Marriage Prohibitions
Labor Resources and Patterns 184
in the United States 211
Distribution and Exchange 189
Reciprocity 189 Anthropologist of Note: Claude Lévi-Strauss
Redistribution 192 (1908–2009) 212
Market Exchange and the Marketplace 194 Original Study: Arranging Marriage in India 216
Money as a Means of Exchange 195
Local Economies and Global Capitalism 195 Chapter Checklist 228
Informal Economy and the Escape from State Questions for Reflection 229
Bureaucracy 199 Digging into Anthropology 229
Anthropology Applied: Global Ecotourism and Local
Indigenous Culture in Bolivia 188
Biocultural Connection: Cacao: The Love Bean in the Chapter 10
Money Tree 196
Kinship and Descent 231
Anthropologist of Note: Rosita Worl 198
Descent Groups 231
Chapter Checklist 201 Unilineal Descent 233
Questions for Reflection 202 Other Forms of Descent 237
Digging into Anthropology 202 Descent Within the Larger Cultural System 237
Lineage Exogamy 240
Chapter 9 From Lineage to Clan 240
Phratry and Moiety 242
Sex, Marriage, and Family 205 Bilateral Kinship and the Kindred 243
Kinship Terminology and Kinship
Regulation of Sexual Relations 206
Groups 244
Marriage and the Regulation of Sexual
The Eskimo System 245
Relations 206
The Hawaiian System 246
Marriage as a Universal Institution 208
The Iroquois System 247
Sexual and Marriage Practices among
Making Relatives 247
the Nayar 208
Fictive Kin by Ritual Adoption 247
Incest Taboo 209
Kinship and New Reproductive
Endogamy and Exogamy 209
Technology 249
Distinction Between Marriage
Biocultural Connection: Maori Origins: Ancestral
and Mating 210
Genes and Mythical Canoes 232
Forms of Marriage 211
Monogamy 211 Original Study: Honor Killing in the
Polygamy 213 Netherlands 238
Other Forms of Marriage 214 Anthropology Applied: Resolving a Native American
Choice of Spouse 215 Tribal Membership Dispute 241
Cousin Marriage 218
Same-Sex Marriage 218 Chapter Checklist 249
Marriage and Economic Exchange 219 Questions for Reflection 250
Divorce 220 Digging into Anthropology 250
Contents xxi
Chapter 11 Violent Conflict and Warfare 284

Why War? 284
Grouping by Gender, Evolution of Warfare 287
Age, Common Interest, Ideologies of Aggression 288
Genocide 290
and Social Status 253 Armed Conflicts Today 290
Grouping by Gender 253 Peacemaking 291
Grouping by Age 254 Peace Through Diplomacy 291
Institutions of Age Grouping 254 Politics of Nonviolent Resistance 291
Age Grouping in East Africa 255 Anthropologist of Note: Laura Nader (b. 1930) 279
Grouping by Common Interest 256 Biocultural Connection: Sex, Gender, and Human
Kinds of Common-Interest Associations 257 Violence 287
Men’s and Women’s Associations 259
Anthropology Applied: William Ury: Dispute Resolution
Associations in the Digital Age 260
and the Anthropologist 293
Grouping by Social Status in Stratified Societies 260
Social Class and Caste 261 Chapter Checklist 294
Historical Racial Segregation in South Africa Questions for Reflection 295
and the United States 264 Digging into Anthropology 295
Indicators of Social Status 264
Maintaining Stratification 264
Social Mobility 266
Original Study: The Jewish Eruv: Symbolic Place
Chapter 13
in Public Space 258 Spirituality, Religion,
Anthropology Applied: Anthropologists and and Shamanism 297
Social Impact Assessment 261
Biocultural Connection: African Burial Ground
Roles of Spirituality and Religion 298
Project 265
Anthropological Approach to Spirituality and
Religion 299
Chapter Checklist 268 Myth and the Mapping of a Sacred
Questions for Reflection 268 Worldview 299
Digging into Anthropology 269 Supernatural Beings and Spiritual Forces 300
Gods and Goddesses 300
Ancestral Spirits 301
Chapter 12 Other Types of Supernatural Beings
and Spiritual Forces 302
Politics, Power, War, Religious Specialists 303
and Peace 271 Priests and Priestesses 303
Spiritual Lineages: Legitimizing Religious
Systems of Political Organization 272 Leadership 304
Uncentralized Political Systems 272 Shamans 305
Centralized Political Systems 275 Ritual Performances 309
Political Systems and the Question of Rites of Purification: Taboo and Cleansing
Authority 278 Ceremonies 309
Politics and Religion 278 Rites of Passage 309
Politics and Gender 280 Rites of Intensification 310
Cultural Controls in Maintaining Order 281 Magical Rituals 311
Internalized Control 281 Sacred Sites: Saints, Shrines, and Miracles 313
Externalized Control 282 Pilgrimages: Devotion in Motion 313
Cultural Control: Witchcraft 282 Desecration: Ruining Sacred Sites 315
Holding Trials, Settling Disputes, and Punishing Cultural Dynamics in the Superstructure:
Crimes 283 Religious and Spiritual Change 316
xxii Contents
Revitalization Movements 318 Chapter 15

Syncretic Religions 318
Syncretic Religions Across the Atlantic: Processes of Cultural Change 347
Vodou in Haiti 318

Cultural Change and the Relativity of
Secularization and Religious Pluralism 319
Progress 348
Biocultural Connection: Change Your Karma
Mechanisms of Change 348
and Change Your Sex? 304
Innovation 348
Anthropologist of Note: Michael J. Harner Diffusion 349
(b. 1929) 307 Cultural Loss 351
Original Study: Sacred Law in Global Repressive Change 352
Capitalism 316 Acculturation and Ethnocide 352
Case Study: Ethnocide of the Ya˓ nomami
Chapter Checklist 321 in Amazonia 353
Questions for Reflection 322 Directed Change 355
Digging into Anthropology 323 Reactions to Change 355
Syncretism 356
Revitalization Movements 356
Rebellion and Revolution 358
Modernization 361
Indigenous Accommodation
to Modernization 361
Globalization in the “Underdeveloped”
World 363
Anthropologist of Note: Eric R. Wolf (1923–1999) 349
Anthropology Applied: Development Anthropology
and Dams 364
Biocultural Connection: Studying the Emergence
of New Diseases 365

Chapter 14 Digging into Anthropology 367
The Arts 325

Chapter 16
The Anthropological Study of Art 326
Visual Art 328 Global Challenges, Local
Verbal Art 331 Responses, and the Role
Musical Art 335
The Functions of Art 337
of Anthropology 369
Art, Globalization, and Cultural Survival 340
Cultural Revolutions: From Terra Incognita to
Original Study: The Modern Tattoo Community 329 Google Earth 369
Biocultural Connection: Peyote Art: Divine Visions A Global Culture? 371
among the Huichol 332 Global Integration Processes 372
Pluralistic Societies and Multiculturalism 373
Anthropology Applied: Bringing Back the Past 342
Pluralistic Societies and Fragmentation 373
Chapter Checklist 343 Structural Power in the Age of
Questions for Reflection 343 Globalization 377
Digging into Anthropology 344 Military Hard Power 378
Contents xxiii
Economic Hard Power 379 Biocultural Connection: Toxic Breast Milk Threatens
Soft Power: A Global Media Environment 380 Arctic Culture 387
Problems of Structural Violence 380 Anthropologist of Note: Paul Farmer (b. 1959) 390
Poverty 381
Hunger, Obesity, and Malnutrition 382 Chapter Checklist 391
Pollution and Global Warming 384 Questions for Reflection 392
Reactions to Globalization 386 Digging into Anthropology 393
Ethnic Minorities and Indigenous Peoples: Struggles
for Human Rights 386 Glossary 394
Anthropology’s Role in Meeting the Challenges Bibliography 401
of Globalization 389
Index 414
Anthropology Applied: Anthropologist S. Ann Dunham,
Mother of a U.S. President 382
Preface
For the last edition of this textbook, we did some se- into the rich diversity of humans as a culture-making
rious housecleaning—sorting through the contents species. Recognizing the wide spectrum of students en-
“clear down to the bottom to determine what should rolled in entry-level anthropology courses, we cover
be kept and what should be tossed to make room for the fundamentals of the discipline in an engaging, il-
new material that warrants a place in a limited space.” lustrative fashion—providing a broad platform on
Our efforts resulted in a book more thoroughly revised which teachers can expand the exploration of concepts
than any new edition since Bill Haviland took on coau- and topics in ways that are meaningful to them and to
thors at the turn of the century. For the current edition their particular group of students.
of Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge—the fif- In doing this, we draw from the research and ideas
teenth—we continued our paring down efforts, reduc- of a number of traditions of anthropological thought,
ing the overall narrative by nearly 10 percent in order exposing students to a mix of theoretical perspectives
to give more space to stimulating visuals and other and methodologies. Such inclusiveness reflects our
pedagogical enhancements. Once again, our own on- conviction that different approaches offer distinctly
going research fueled our efforts, as did vital feedback important insights about human biology, behavior,
from students and anthropology professors who have and beliefs.
used and reviewed previous editions. Once again, we If most students start out with only a vague sense
scrutinized the archetypal examples of our discipline of what anthropology is, they often have even less
and weighed them against the latest innovative re- clearly defined (and potentially problematic) views
search methodologies, archaeological discoveries, ge- concerning the position of their own species and cul-
netic and other biological findings, linguistic insights, tures within the larger world. A second task for this
ethnographic descriptions, theoretical revelations, and text, then, is to encourage students to appreciate the
significant examples of applied anthropology. richness and complexity of human diversity. Along
And then, this team of veteran coauthors took an with this goal is the aim of helping them to understand
entirely new turn. Working closely with our publisher, why there are so many differences and similarities in
we adapted our newly trimmed text to MindTap—a the human condition, past and present.
personalized digital learning solution that engages stu- Debates regarding globalization and notions
dents with interactivity while also offering them and of progress; the “naturalness” of the mother, father,
instructors choices in content, platform devices, and child(ren) nuclear family; new genetic technologies;
learning tools. So it is that the fifteenth edition of this and how gender roles relate to biological variation
Haviland et al. anthropology textbook weds depth of all benefit greatly from the distinct insights gained
experience to cutting-edge learning innovations. More through anthropology’s wide-ranging, holistic perspec-
than a traditional textbook, it has become a holistic tive. This aspect of the discipline is one of the most
learning tool that presents both classical and fresh mate- valuable gifts we can pass on to those who take our
rial in variety of ways designed to stimulate student in- classes. If we as teachers (and textbook authors) do our
terest, stir critical reflection, and prompt aha moments. jobs well, students will gain a wider and more open-
minded outlook on the world and a critical but con-
structive perspective on human origins and on their
own biology and culture today. To borrow a favorite
Our Mission line from the famous poet T. S. Eliot, “The end of all
our exploring will be to arrive where we started and
Most students enter an introductory anthropology know the place for the first time” (“Little Gidding,”
class intrigued by the general subject but with little Four Quartets).
more than a vague sense of what it is all about. Thus, We have written this text, in large part, to help
the first and most obvious task of our text is to provide students make sense of our increasingly complex world
a thorough introduction to the discipline—its founda- and to navigate through its interrelated biological and
tions as a domain of knowledge and its major insights cultural networks with knowledge, empathy, and skill,
xxv
xxvi Preface
whatever professional path they take. We see the book plays an important role in the learning process—from
as a guide for people entering the often-bewildering clarifying and enlivening the material to revealing rel-
maze of global crossroads in the 21st century. evancy and aiding recall.
MindTap
Organization and Unifying This all-encompassing innovation heads the inventory
Themes of pedagogical perks in this new edition. MindTap is
a customizable digital learning solution that contains
In our own teaching, we recognize the value of mark- all the material for the course in one easy-to-use on-
ing out unifying themes that help students see the big line interface. On top of an array of tools and apps that
picture as they grapple with the vast array of material help students understand the text, the MindTap for
involved with the study of human beings. In Cultural Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge offers
Anthropology: The Human Challenge we employ three several dynamic activities for students that illustrate
such themes: chapter concepts—including photo analysis exercises,
engaging videos, interactive GIS story maps, fieldwork
1. Systemic adaptation. We emphasize that every
activities, and “Mastery Training,” an adaptive learning
culture, past and present, like the human species
study tool that helps students master core concepts.
itself, is an integrated and dynamic system of
adaptation that responds to a combination of
internal and external factors, including influences of Accessible Language
the environment. and a Cross-Cultural Voice
2. Biocultural connection. We highlight the
integration of human culture and biology in In the writing of this text, we consciously cut through
the steps humans take to meet the challenges unnecessary jargon to speak directly to students. Manu-
of survival. The biocultural connection theme script reviewers have recognized this, noting that even
is interwoven throughout the text—as a thread the most difficult concepts are presented in straight-
in the main narrative and in boxed features that forward and understandable prose for today’s first- and
highlight this connection with a topical example second-year college students. Where technical terms
for every chapter. are necessary, they appear in bold type with a clear def-
3. Globalization. We track the emergence of inition in the narrative. The definition appears again
globalization and its disparate impact on various in the running glossary at the bottom of our pages, as
peoples and cultures around the world. European well as in a summary glossary at the end of the book.
colonization was a global force for centuries, To make the narrative more accessible to students,
leaving a significant and often devastating we deliver it in chewable bites—short paragraphs. Nu-
footprint on the affected peoples in Asia, Africa, merous subheads provide visual cues to help students
and the Americas. Decolonization began about track what has been read and what is coming next.
200 years ago and became a worldwide wave in Accessibility involves not only clear writing en-
the mid-1900s. However, since the 1960s, political hanced by visual cues, but also an engaging voice or
and economic hegemony has taken a new and fast- style. The voice of Cultural Anthropology: The Human
paced form: globalization (in many ways a process Challenge is distinct among introductory texts in the
that expands or builds on imperialism). Attention discipline because it has been written from a cross-
to both forms of global domination—colonialism cultural perspective. We avoid the typical Western “we/
and globalization—runs through Cultural they” voice in favor of a more inclusive one to make
Anthropology: The Human Challenge, culminating sure the narrative resonates with both Western and
in the final chapter where we apply the concept non-Western students and professors. Also, we high-
of structural power to globalization, discussing it light the theories and work of anthropologists from all
in terms of hard and soft power and linking it to over the world. Finally, we have drawn the text’s cul-
structural violence. tural examples from industrial and postindustrial soci-
eties as well as nonindustrial ones.
Compelling Visuals
Pedagogy The Haviland et al. texts garner praise from students
Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge features a and faculty for having a rich array of visuals, including
range of learning aids, in addition to the three unifying maps, photographs, and figures. This is important be-
themes described previously. Each pedagogical piece cause humans—like all primates—are visually oriented,
Preface xxvii
and a well-chosen image may serve to “fix” key infor- In addition, every Biocultural Connection essay
mation in a student’s mind. Unlike some competing ends with a probing question designed to help stu-
texts, nearly all of our visuals are in color, enhancing dents grapple with and firmly grasp that connection.
their appeal and impact. Also, the Globalscape features conclude with a Global
Twister question, which asks students to think more
Photographs deeply about the issue presented in the essay.
Our pages feature a hard-sought collection of arrest-
ing, content-rich photographs. Large in size, many
of them come with substantial captions composed Integrated Methods: Digging
to help students do a “deep read” of the image. Each into Anthropology
chapter features more than a dozen pictures, including
our popular Visual Counterpoints—side-by-side photos New to this edition is our Digging into Anthropol-
that effectively compare and contrast biological or cul- ogy feature, presented at the end of every chapter, just
tural features. after the Questions for Reflection. These hands-on as-
signments offer students an opportunity to delve into
Maps each chapter’s content through mini fieldwork projects
designed to integrate methodology throughout the
Map features include our “Putting the World in Per-
book and prod students in exploring topics in their
spective” map series, locator maps, and distribution
own culture.
maps that provide overviews of key issues such as pol-
lution and energy consumption. Of special note are the
Globalscape maps and stories, described in the boxed
features section a bit further on.
Integrated Theory:
Barrel Model of Culture
Challenge Issues Past and present, every culture is an integrated and dy-
namic system of adaptation that responds to a combi-
Each chapter opens with a Challenge Issue and accom- nation of internal and external factors. A pedagogical
panying photograph, which together carry forward the device we refer to as the “barrel model” of culture il-
book’s theme of humankind’s responses through time lustrates this. Depicted in a simple but telling drawing
to the fundamental challenges of survival within the (Figure 2.7), the barrel model shows the interrelated-
context of the particular chapter. ness of social, ideological, and economic factors within
a cultural system along with outside influences of envi-
ronment, climate, and other societies. Throughout the
Student Learning Objectives, book examples are linked to this point and this image.
Knowledge Skills,
and Chapter Checklists Integrated Gender Coverage
Each chapter features a set of learning objectives (pre- In contrast to many introductory texts, Cultural Anthro-
sented just after the Challenge Issue and photograph). pology: The Human Challenge integrates coverage of gender
These objectives focus students on the main goals, throughout the book. Thus, material on gender-related
identifying the knowledge skills they are expected to issues is included in every chapter. As a result of this ap-
have mastered after studying each chapter. The main proach, gender-related material in this text far exceeds
goals are incorporated in a closing Chapter Checklist, the single chapter that most books devote to the subject.
which summarizes the chapter’s content in an easy-to- We have chosen to integrate this material because
follow format. concepts and issues surrounding gender are almost al-
ways too complicated to remove from their context.
Spreading this material through all of the chapters has a
Thought-Provoking Questions pedagogical purpose because it emphasizes how consid-
Each chapter closes with four Questions for Reflection, erations of gender enter into virtually everything peo-
including one that relates back to the Challenge Issue ple do. Gender-related material ranges from discussions
introduced in the chapter’s opening. Presented right af- of gender roles in evolutionary discourse and studies
ter the Chapter Checklist, these questions ask students of nonhuman primates to intersexuality, homosexual
to apply the concepts they have learned by analyzing identity, same-sex marriage, and female genital mutila-
and evaluating situations. They are designed to stimu- tion. Through a steady drumbeat of such coverage, this
late and deepen thought, trigger class discussion, and edition avoids ghettoizing gender to a single chapter
link the material to the students’ own lives. that is preceded and followed by resounding silence.
xxviii Preface
Glossary as You Go Anthropologists of Note

Profiling pioneering and contemporary anthropolo-
The running glossary is designed to catch the student’s
gists from many corners of the world, this feature
eye, reinforcing the meaning of each newly introduced
puts the work of noted anthropologists in histori-
term. It is also useful for chapter review, enabling stu-
cal perspective and draws attention to the interna-
dents to readily isolate the new terms from those intro-
tional nature of the discipline in terms of both subject
duced in earlier chapters. A complete glossary is also
matter and practitioners. This edition highlights
included at the back of the book. In the glossaries, each
fourteen distinct anthropologists from all four fields of
term is defined in clear, understandable language. As a
the discipline (see page xvi for a list of the profiles).
result, less class time is required for going over terms,
leaving instructors free to pursue other matters of
interest.
Globalscapes
Appearing in eight chapters, this unique feature charts
the global flow of people, goods, and services, as well
Special Boxed Features as pollutants and pathogens. With a map, a story, and
one or two photos highlighting a topic geared toward
Our text includes five types of special boxed features. student interests, every Globalscape shows how the
Every chapter contains a Biocultural Connection, world is interconnected through human activity. Each
along with two of the following three features: an Orig- one ends with a Global Twister—a question that en-
inal Study, Anthropology Applied, or Anthropologist of courages students to think critically about globaliza-
Note. In addition, about half of the chapters include tion. Check out the titles of Globalscapes on page xvi.
a Globalscape. These features are carefully placed and
introduced within the main narrative to alert students
to their importance and relevance. A complete listing
of features is presented on page xvi.
Highlights in the
Biocultural Connections Fifteenth Edition
Appearing in every chapter, this signature feature of
Most revolutionary among the changes in this edi-
the Haviland et al. textbooks illustrates how cultural
tion is the introduction of MindTap. In addition to
and biological processes interact to shape human bi-
incorporating this enlivening learning tool, Cultural
ology, beliefs, and behavior. It reflects the integrated
Anthropology: The Human Challenge has undergone
biocultural approach central to the field of anthropol-
a thorough updating. Definitions of key terms have
ogy today. All of the Biocultural Connections include a
been honed. Many new visuals and ethnographic ex-
critical thinking question. For a quick peek at titles, see
amples have been added and others dropped. Nearly
the listing of features on page xvi.
every chapter features a new opening photograph and
related Challenge Issue. The much-used Questions
Original Studies for Reflection include at least one new question per
Written expressly for this text, or adapted from eth- chapter, and on the heels of those questions we have
nographies and other original works by anthropolo- added a brand-new Digging into Anthropology fea-
gists, these studies present concrete examples that ture with hands-on assignments that prompt deeper
bring specific concepts to life and convey the passion investigation through mini projects related to each
of the authors. Each study sheds additional light on an chapter’s contents.
important anthropological concept or subject area for As with earlier editions, we further chiseled the
the chapter in which it appears. Notably, each Origi- writing to make it all the more clear, lively, engaging,
nal Study is carefully integrated within the flow of the and streamlined. On average, chapter narratives have been
chapter narrative, signaling students that its content is trimmed by about 10 percent. Statistics and examples
not extraneous or supplemental. Appearing in eleven have been updated throughout—in the narrative, cap-
chapters, Original Studies cover a wide range of topics, tions, and figures. In addition to numerous revisions of
evident from their titles (see page xvi). boxed features, some of these are completely new.
Finally, we have replaced footnotes with in-text
Anthropology Applied parenthetical citations, making sources and dates more
Featured in eleven chapters, these succinct and fasci- visible and freeing up space for larger visuals. The com-
nating profiles illustrate anthropology’s wide-ranging plete listing of citations appears in the bibliography at
relevance in today’s world and give students a glimpse the end of the book.
into a variety of the careers anthropologists enjoy (see Beyond these across-the-board changes, particular
page xvi for a listing). changes have been made within each chapter.
Preface xxix
Chapter 1: The Essence of Anthropology The main narrative begins with a section on culture
This opening chapter emphasizes the contemporary and adaptation, setting the foundation for a discussion
relevance of anthropology as it introduces students to of culture and its characteristics. Our re-colored “barrel
the holistic perspective, philosophical underpinnings model” illustration shows the integrative and dynamic
and defining methodological approaches that run nature of culture and introduces the key concepts of cul-
across its distinct four fields. Students will come to un- tural infrastructure, social structure, and superstructure.
derstand anthropology in relation to other disciplines We present the Kapauku Papua of Western New Guinea
and as a living laboratory that allows for the testing of as an example of culture as an integrated system and
hypotheses without the influence of culture-bound no- explore pluralistic societies and subcultures through an
tions. A new Challenge Issue, centered on the repur- updated look at the Amish in North America.
posing of free antimalarial mosquito nets as fishing The chapter includes discussions on culture, so-
nets, shows the interconnectedness of our world today ciety, and the individual; ethnocentrism and cultural
as individuals must chose between disease prevention relativism; and cultural change in the age of globaliza-
and the health benefits of increased fishing yields. tion. Special features include the Biocultural Connec-
Our discussion of anthropology and globalization, “Modifying the Human Body with an updated
tion brings students to the current global refugee crisis illustration, an Anthropologist of Note on Bronislaw
through new material on the distinction between na- Malinowski, and the Anthropology Applied feature,
tion and state and a new Globalscape “Safe Harbor?” “New Houses for Apache Indians” by George Esber,
on the plight of Rohingya boat people. Similarly, the who describes his role in designing culturally appropri-
global flow of food and pesticides is highlighted with ate homes for a Native American community. The new
the new placement of the Biocultural Connection “Pic- Digging into Anthropology task, “Hometown Map,”
turing Pesticides.” invites students to map aspects of their community
The diversity of anthropologists and the subjects utilizing the barrel model.
and forms of work they undertake will draw students
in as they see: the collaborative nature of contempo- Chapter 3: Ethnographic Research—Its
rary anthropological research through archaeologist History, Methods, and Theories
Anne Jensen’s work in the Arctic; innovative ethno- Opening with a new Challenge Issue on fieldwork ac-
graphic forms in the work of cultural anthropologist companied by a lively visual of a young anthropologist
Gina Athena Ulysse; novel field sites as with cultural returning from a tortoise hunt with Ayoreo Indians in
anthropologist Philippe Bourgeois’s fieldwork among Paraguay, this chapter takes a distinct approach to dis-
homeless substance abusers; cutting-edge technology cussing ethnographic research. It begins with a histori-
in the genetics work of forensic anthropologist Mer- cal overview on the subject—from the colonial era and
cedes Doretti in the updated Anthropology Applied salvage ethnography to acculturation studies, advo-
feature (“Forensic Anthropology: Voices for the Dead”); cacy anthropology, cyberethnography, and multi-sited
and even the collaboration between archaeologists and ethnography in the era of globalization. Relaying this
microbreweries with the work of biomolecular archae- story, we touch on the work of numerous anthropolo-
ologist Pat McGovern. gists, past and present.
The new Digging into Anthropology feature, The chapter continues with a detailed discussion
“Talking Trash: Hidden in the Middens,” on archaeol- on ethnographic fieldwork research methods—from
ogy and trash provides the opportunity for students to selecting a research question and site to doing prepa-
learn archaeological concepts through hands-on expe- ratory research to engaging in participant observation.
rience. This feature is enhanced by the chapter updates It chronicles the ethnographer’s approach to gathering
on William Rathje’s Garbage Project that focus on trash qualitative and quantitative data, delineates the chal-
production and disposal in large urban areas. lenges of fieldwork, and touches on the creation of an
ethnography in written, film, or digital formats. Readers
Chapter 2: Characteristics of Culture will also find an overview of anthropology’s theoretical
This chapter addresses anthropology’s core concept perspectives, along with discussions of the comparative
of culture, exploring the term and its significance for method and the Human Relations Area Files. Moral di-
individuals and societies. It opens with a vibrant new lemmas and ethical responsibilities encountered in an-
Challenge Issue photo highlighting Kuchi nomads in thropological research are also explored.
Afghanistan, recognizable by their distinctive dress Boxed features include an Original Study on field-
and pack camels. Five other new photos are part of this work in the Trobriand Islands, a Biocultural Connection
chapter’s revision, including a satellite image illustrat- feature on the environmental and economic conditions
ing the transformation of vast stretches of the Arabian that impact attitudes about pigs, and an Anthropolo-
Desert into rich agricultural land with water from non- gists of Note feature highlighting Margaret Mead and
renewable sources deep under ground. Gregory Bateson’s collaborative research in Papua New
xxx Preface
Guinea. The new Digging into Anthropology assign- de Waal’s Original Study, “Reconciliation and Its Cul-
ment calls on students to carry out a bit of multi-sited tural Modification in Primates”; and an Anthropolo-
research with six individuals in their social network: two gists of Note box, pairing primatologist Jane Goodall
with whom they live, two with whom they interact at with paleogeneticist Svante Pääbo. The new Digging
work or school, and two with whom they communicate into Anthropology feature, “Does Racing Get You Any-
via social media channels but rarely see. where?,” invites students to survey others about how
they categorize themselves racially or ethnically and
Chapter 4: Becoming Human—The Origin how they feel about that classification.
and Diversity of Our Species
This chapter conveys biology’s role in culture. Thor-
Chapter 5: Language and Communication
oughly overhauled for this edition, it opens with a new This chapter begins with a dynamic new photograph
photo of an Aboriginal elder in front of a cave painting of a busy Chinatown street in Thailand’s capital city of
depicting ancestral spirit beings. The accompanying Bangkok, where signs appear in multiple languages. It
new Challenge Issue raises questions about the evo- goes on to investigate the nature of language and the
lution of our species, our biological relationship with three branches of linguistic anthropology—descriptive
other primates, and ancient material remains, includ- linguistics, historical linguistics, and the study of lan-
ing fossil bones, tools, and art. guage in its social and cultural settings (ethnolinguis-
We establish primate biology as a vital part of be- tics and sociolinguistics). Also found here are sections
ing human and provide different cultural perspectives on paralanguage and tonal languages and a unique in-
on early humans. Offering an overview of the evolu- troductory exploration of talking drums and whistled
tion and diffusion of Homo, we discuss some of the speech. The sections on sociolinguistics and ethnolin-
disputes concerning that development and note the guistics cover gendered speech, social dialects, code
contrasting roles different disciplines play in piecing switching, and linguistic relativity, drawing on a range
together this complex story. The chapter’s short history of examples from Lakota Indians in South Dakota to
on evolution and genetics includes Darwin, Mendel, Aymara Indians in Bolivia and Hopi Indians in Arizona.
and genetic mapping. After discussing early human Our discussion on language loss and revival in-
evolution, from the first bipeds to Neandertals and cludes a look at modern technology used by linguistic
Denisovans, we trace the global expansion of Homo anthropologists collaborating on field research with
sapiens, human migrations around the world, and the speakers of endangered Khoisan “click” languages in
domestication of animals and plants. southern Africa. It also features the latest data on the
Investigating why the convoluted concept of race digital divide and its impact on ethnic minority lan-
is not useful for analyzing human biological variation, guages—plus an updated chart showing Internet lan-
we present a comparative historical overview on the cre- guage populations. A historical sketch about writing
ation of false racial categories. A new section on the his- takes readers from traditional speech performatives
tory of scientific racism starts with Linnaeus, Blumenbach, and memory devices to Egyptian hieroglyphics to the
and Knox and continues with the ideologies of Grant, conception and spread of the alphabet. A concluding
Hitler, and early 20th-century Chinese. The chapter section on literacy and modern telecommunication
explores race as a social construct and skin color as a looks at issues of language in our globalized world.
biological adaptation, while debunking race as a biologi- New photos include Visual Counterpoint images
cal category. Finally, we describe anthropology’s princi- contrasting social space across cultures. Boxed features
pled stand on eliminating racism, scientific and popular. include S. Neyooxet Greymorning’s Anthropology
New illustrations for this chapter include a Visual Applied essay on language revitalization, Lyn White
Counterpoint on the similarity of human and primate Mile’s Original Study on her research with Chantek the
anatomy; a 17th-century engraving of a chimpanzee, orangutan, and a Biocultural Connection on the biol-
which conveys early confusion about how to classify ogy of human speech. “Body Talk,” a new Digging into
great apes; a photograph of chimp tool use; a painting Anthropology task, asks students to investigate the
depicting Neandertals hunting mammoths; an image relationship between language and culture by docu-
of a statue outside of the American Museum of Natural menting the body language of six people from differ-
History, indicative of racist ideology; and a photo of ge- ent cultures and experimenting with altering their own
netic research in a high-throughput sequencing labora- body language.
tory. The chapter also offers a new image of DNA and
the human genome, an updated depiction of species Chapter 6: Social Identity, Personality,
branching in primate evolution, and revised maps of and Gender
Homo erectus fossil sites and Neandertal range. Looking at individual identity within a sociocultural
Special features include a Biocultural Connection, context, this chapter surveys the concept of self, en-
“Paleolithic Prescriptions for Diseases of Today”; Frans culturation and the behavioral environment, social
Preface xxxi
identity through personal naming, the development foraging—including a section chronicling the im-
of personality, the concepts of group and modal per- pact of technology on foragers, with Mbuti Pygmies
sonality, and the idea of national character. The new providing an ethnographic example. Moving on to
opening Challenge Issue features Khanty mothers and food-producing societies, we discuss pastoralism, crop
their fur-clad children on a reindeer sled at their win- cultivation, and industrial food production, including
ter camp in Siberia—one of several new photos in this a case study of Bakhtiari herders in Iran, a discussion
chapter. on peasantry, and the $55 billion U.S. poultry business.
The section on culture and personality includes A section on adaptation and cultural evolution
Margaret Mead’s classic research on gender and person- touches on the notion of progress, explores convergent
ality, followed by an Anthropologist of Note essay on and parallel evolution through ethnographic exam-
Ruth Benedict. Also featured in this section is a case ples, and features the latest ethnohistorical research on
study on childrearing and gender among traditional ecosystemic collapse on Rapa Nui, commonly known
and nontraditional Ju/’hoansi and a revised overview as Easter Island. A new conclusion looks at population
of three childrearing patterns, including interdepen- growth and the limits of progress.
dence training among the Beng of West Africa. A sec- The chapter’s boxed features include an Original
tion on group personality describes the Y˛a nomami Study on slash-and-burn cultivation in the Amazon
masculine ideal of waiteri, followed by discussions on basin in Brazil, an Anthropology Applied piece about
the questions of national character and core values. reviving ancient farming practices in Peru, and a Glo-
Our exploration of alternative gender models in- balscape on the international poultry industry. “Global
cludes a highly personal Original Study about intersex- Dining,” the topic of this chapter’s Digging into Anthro-
uality. Ethnographic examples concerning transgender pology task, gives students an opportunity to see how
include the Bugis of Indonesia, who recognize five they “embody” globalization by having them locate the
genders. A section on “The Social Context of Sexual sources of their groceries on a map.
and Gender Identity” provides new global statistics on
state-sponsored homophobia. On its heels is the broad- Chapter 8: Economic Systems
ranging section, “Normal and Abnormal Personality
Opening with a new Challenge Issue and photo high-
in Social Context,” which presents the extreme sadhu
lighting an open city market in the highlands of
tradition in India and then discusses mental disorders
Guatemala, this reworked chapter offers eight new
and concepts of “normality” across time and cultures.
photographs and captions, including a new Visual
The Biocultural Connection offers a cross-cultural view
Counterpoint on harvesting and exporting tea. After a
on psychosomatic symptoms and mental health, while
brief description of economic anthropology, illustrated
a concluding section, “Personal Identity and Mental
by a case study on the yam complex in Trobriand cul-
Health in Globalizing Society,” drives home the need
ture, we discuss production and resources (natural,
for medical pluralism with a variety of modalities fit
technological, labor). Considering labor resources and
for humanity in the worldwide dynamics of the 21st
patterns, we look at gender, age, cooperative labor, and
century. This chapter’s new Digging into Anthropology
task specialization, drawing on ethnographic examples
assignment charges students to do intergenerational
that include salt mining in Ethiopia.
interviewing on the concepts of femininity and mascu-
A section on distribution and exchange explains
linity to gain insight on gender differentiation.
various forms of reciprocity (including an illustrated
description of the Kula ring), trade and barter, redistri-
Chapter 7: Patterns of Subsistence bution (with brief accounts of the Inca empire and the
Here we investigate the various ways humans meet northwestern American Indian potlatch), and market
their basic needs and how societies adapt through exchange. The discussion on leveling mechanisms fea-
culture to the environment, opening with a dramatic tures an ethnographically rich photo of a contempo-
new photo of a peasant farmer practicing wet-rice cul- rary Tlingit potlatch in Sitka, Alaska.
tivation on the steep slopes of China’s Guangxi Prov- After providing an overview on the history of
ince—one of half a dozen new visuals enlivening this money as a means of exchange, we conclude with a
chapter. The chapter narrative, significantly revised section on local economies and global capitalism, fea-
and reconfigured with several new headings, begins turing discussions on the informal economy and the
with a general discussion of adaptation, followed by a development and marketing of genetically modified
new section titled “Adaptation, Environment, and Eco- seeds.
system,” which includes a case study on the Tsembaga Boxed features include an Anthropology Applied
who raise pigs in Papua New Guinea. On the heels of piece on global ecotourism in Bolivia, a newly illus-
that comes a brief section on adaptation and culture trated Biocultural Connection on chocolate, and an
areas, featuring a new map. Next come modes of sub- Anthropologist of Note about Tlingit anthropolo-
sistence and their characteristics. It begins with food gist Rosita Worl’s work with Sealaska, an indigenous
xxxii Preface
collective that markets wood products and other goods. socially accepted or prohibited by law or faith and what
The new Digging into Anthropology task, “Luxury the punishment is for breaking the prohibition. The
Foods and Hunger Wages,” asks students to track down second half of the exercise is comparison and analysis.
the source of a luxury food or drink, the ethnicities and
wages of those who harvested it, and the profit margin Chapter 10: Kinship and Descent
of the company that markets it. Beginning with a new photograph of a clan gathering
in Scotland, this chapter marks out the various forms
Chapter 9: Sex, Marriage, and Family of descent groups and the role descent plays as an in-
Exploring the connections between sexual reproductive tegrated feature in a cultural system. The narrative in-
practices, marriage, family, and household, this chapter cludes details and examples of lineages, clans, phratries,
opens with a gorgeous photo of a Muslim bride and her and moieties (highlighting Hopi Indian matriclans and
female relatives and friends displaying hands decorated Scottish highland patriclans, among others), followed
with traditional henna design. Particulars addressed in by illustrated examples of a representative range of kin-
the chapter include the incest taboo, endogamy and ship systems and their kinship terminologies.
exogamy, dowry and bridewealth, cousin marriage, Along with an array of new and revised visu-
same-sex marriage, divorce, residence patterns, and als, this chapter offers ethnographic examples from
nonfamily households. Up-to-date definitions of the Han Chinese, the Maori of New Zealand, and the
marriage, family, nuclear family, and extended family Canela Indians of Brazil; it also takes a look at diasporic
encompass current real-life situations around the world. communities in today’s globalized world. A section en-
Of the dozen visuals in this chapter, six are new. titled “Making Relatives” explores fictive kin and rit-
The diverse ethnographic examples in this chap- ual adoption, illustrating that in cultures everywhere,
ter come from many corners of the world. Opening people have developed ideas about how someone be-
paragraphs on the traditional sexual freedom of young comes “one of us.” We also present a discussion of kin-
people in the Trobriand Islands lead into a discussion ship and new reproductive technologies, touching on
on the regulation of sexual relations across cultures. the mind-boggling array of reproductive possibilities
A section on marriage and the regulation of sexual re- and how they are impacting humanity’s conceptions
lations includes a recent example of Shariah law as it of what it means to be biologically related.
relates to women and adultery—along with a nuanced Boxed features include an Anthropology Applied
commentary about the relationship between such re- piece on resolving Native American tribal membership
strictive rules and the incidence of sexually transmitted disputes, a thought-provoking Original Study on honor
diseases. Also featured is a short case study on sexual killings among Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands,
and marriage practices among the Nayar in India, and a freshly illustrated Biocultural Connection piece
which describes consanguineal and affinal kin. about ancient Maori mythical traditions that are now
A discussion on endogamy and exogamy includes supported by genetic research. The Digging into An-
a fresh look at cousin marriages among Pakistani immi- thropology project invites students to glean the impor-
grants in England. Immigration is also touched upon tance of kin terms by interviewing someone (“EGO”)
in the “Forms of Marriage” section, which notes the and mapping EGO’s kin-group.
impact immigration is having on polygamy statistics
in Europe and the United States, even as the practice Chapter 11: Grouping by Gender, Age,
declines in sub-Saharan Africa. Other ethnographic Common Interest, and Social Status
examples concern woman–woman marriage among Starting with a vibrant photograph of Afghan horse-
the Nandi of Kenya, dowries in the Kyrgyz Republic, men playing buzkashi, their country’s fiercely competi-
all-male households among the Mundurucu in Brazil’s tive national sport, this chapter includes discussions
Amazon rainforest, and matrilocal residence among on grouping by gender, age, common interest, and
traditional Hopi Indians. social status.
A closing section sketches the impact of global The gender grouping discussion features ethno-
capitalism, electronic communication, and transna- graphic material from the Mundurucu of Brazil, among
tionalism on love relations. It includes revised subsec- others, while age grouping highlights the Tiriki and
tions on adoption, new reproductive technologies, and Maasai of East Africa. Common-interest grouping ex-
migrant workforces. Boxed features include an Original amples range from “pink vigilantes” in India to the
Study on arranged marriages in India, a Biocultural African diaspora in the United States. A section on as-
Connection on marriage prohibitions in the United sociations in the digital age provides new figures on
States, and an Anthropologist of Note on Claude Lévi- the rapid and widespread changes in social network-
Strauss. The new Digging into Anthropology feature is ing platforms across the globe. The revised section
titled “Sex Rules?” It involves making a list of six dis- on grouping by social status explores social class and
tinctive sets of sexual relationships, noting which are caste. We give special attention (with poignant new
Preface xxxiii
photographs) to the traditional Hindu caste system Christian holy war in Uganda. Following discussions on
in India and touch on customarily closed European genocide and contemporary armed conflicts, the narra-
social classes known as estates, as well as historical rative looks at approaches to peacemaking—diplomacy,
cial segregation in South Africa and the United States. treaty making, and the politics of nonviolent resistance,
Indicators of social status are discussed, along with including brief profiles of movements led by Gandhi in
social mobility and various means of maintaining India and Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar. An updated
stratification. Anthropology Applied box on dispute resolution has
Boxed features include an updated Globalscape been relocated to this section. Other special features in
profiling the impact of football on Côte d’Ivoire’s this chapter include a Biocultural Connection on gender,
ethnic conflicts, a Biocultural Connection about the sex, and human violence and an updated Globalscape on
African Burial Ground Project in New York City, an Somali pirates. “Politics and Purses,” the new Digging into
Original Study on the Jewish eruv, and an Anthropology Anthropology assignment for this chapter, takes students
Applied feature on policy research revealing institution- on a journey to locate links between money and power.
alized inequality. The new Digging into Anthropology
assignment is designed to help students reflect on how Chapter 13: Spirituality, Religion,
their social media self and relationships may differ from and Shamanism
their face-to-face self and relationships.
This chapter, rich with nine new visuals, opens with a
colourful new photo and Challenge Issue highlighting a
Chapter 12: Politics, Power, War, and Peace sacred Buddhist dance ritual in Bhutan. The main nar-
This chapter opens with a new Challenge Issue and rative begins with a discussion of superstructure and
photo in which masses of people, besieged by Syria’s worldview. Noting the distinction between spirituality
civil war, are trying to escape the Yarmouk refugee and religion, we discuss the anthropological approach
neighborhood outside of Damascus. The main narra- to studying them and offer an updated chart and a map
tive begins by defining power and politics, followed showing the numbers of religious adherents and the con-
by descriptions of uncentralized and centralized politi- centrations of major religions around the world. After in-
cal systems and their characteristics—from bands and troducing myths and their role in mapping cosmology,
tribes to chiefdoms and states. Ethnographic examples we discuss supernatural beings and spiritual forces—from
include the Ju/’hoansi Bushmen, the Kapauku Papua, gods and goddesses to ancestral spirits and the concepts
the Pashtun of Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the of animism and animatism. This section features a new
Kpelle of Liberia. We explain the distinction between image of the dual-gender divinity, Ardhanaraishvara.
state and nation, highlighting the Kurdish fight for in- Next we mark out religious specialists. Our over-
dependence. After discussing the concepts of authority view of priests and priestesses includes a Biocultural
and legitimacy, the narrative explores the link between Connection on the masculinization of Taiwanese nuns
politics and religion and gender—touching on the role and a discussion on spiritual lineages, comparing how
religion may play in legitimizing the political order spiritual authority is obtained and passed on among
and leadership and taking a historical, cross-cultural Tibetan Buddhists and three other religious groups. A
look at the incidence of female leadership. Among the comprehensive exploration of shamanism features our
ethnographic examples we present is the dual-gender “shamanic complex” diagram, a description of sha-
government system of the Igbo in Nigeria. manic healing among the Ju/’hoansi with a remarkable
A section titled “Cultural Controls in Maintaining new photo, and an Anthropologist of Note on modern-
Order” investigates internalized control (such as self- day shamanic practitioner-teacher Michael Harner.
control) and externalized control (such as sanctions), In a section on ritual performances, we discuss ta-
as well as witchcraft. The witchcraft discussion features boos and cleansing ceremonies, rites of passage (with
new material on modern witch hunts, including a sear- ethnographic examples noting the phases of separa-
ing photo of a woman who fell victim to one. Under tion, transition, and incorporation), rites of intensifica-
the heading “Holding Trials, Settling Disputes, and tion, magic (imitative and contagious), and divination
Punishing Crimes,” we contrast traditional kin-based (with a new Visual Counterpoint juxtaposing “bone
approaches to those of politically centralized societ- throwing” diviners in South Africa with a feng shui
ies. This includes descriptions of Inuit song duels in master in Hong Kong). A section on witchcraft offers
Canada and Kpelle trials by ordeal in Liberia, plus a a brief cross-cultural overview, followed by a more de-
discussion of restorative justice. tailed description of Navajo skin-walkers. Next come
A section on violent conflict sketches the evolu- sacred sites—from shrines to mountains—and the
tion of warfare and the impact of technology, includ- pilgrimages (devotions in motion) they inspire. This
ing drones. It presents a brief new profile (with photo) includes a subsection on female saints (highlighting
of the self-proclaimed Islamic State and its jihad. Delving Marian devotions and Black Madonnas) and a discus-
further into ideologies of aggression, it chronicles a sion of desecration, past and present.
xxxiv Preface
In a section on cultural dynamics, we explore re- Chapter 15: Processes of Cultural Change
ligious and spiritual change, including revitalization A new opening photo showing a crowd of people
movements and syncretic religions (especially Vodou stranded by a delayed train in India suggests the chal-
in Haiti). Turning to religious pluralism and seculariza- lenge of human dependency on major technologi-
tion, we give an overview of spirituality and religious cal advances made since the invention of the steam
practices today (including an Original Study on Sha- engine. Globalization themes and terms are woven
riah banking), driving home the point that the an- through this chapter, which includes definitions distin-
thropological study of religion is crucial to gaining an guishing progress from modernization and rebellion from
understanding of today’s world. This chapter’s Digging revolution. Discussing mechanisms of change—primary
into Anthropology, “Going Through a Phase,” calls on and secondary innovation, diffusion, and cultural
students to observe a rite of passage, take note of its loss, as well as repressive change—we highlight the
phases, and analyze why the event requires a ritual. spear-thrower (atlatl) and wheel-and-axle technology,
as well as the dynamics that encourage or discourage
Chapter 14: The Arts innovative tendencies. Examples in the discussion on
This chapter begins with a Challenge Issue about artic- diffusion range from bagpipes in Bhutan to the spread
ulating ideas and emotions through various art forms, of maize and the metric system.
illustrated by a dramatic new photograph showing a A streamlined exploration of cultural change and
crowd of Kayapo Indians staging a political protest in loss covers acculturation and ethnocide—featuring
artful ceremonial paint and dress. The main narrative an illustrated passage on Y˛anomami. After discussing
explores three key categories of art—visual, verbal, and directed change, we chronicle reactions to change—
musical. It features eight new photographs, including a explaining syncretism through the story of Trobrian-
new Visual Counterpoint juxtaposing ancient rock art ders transforming the British game of cricket and elab-
and modern urban graffiti. orating on revitalization movements with a description
Describing the distinctly holistic approach an- of cargo cults in Melanesia and the revival of sacred
thropologists bring to the study of art, we note the precolonial rituals such as sun worship in Bolivia. A
range of cultural insights art discloses—from kinship discussion on rebellion and revolution highlights the
structures to social values, religious beliefs, and po- Zapatista Maya Indian insurgency in southern Mexico
litical ideas. We also explain aesthetic and interpretive and the Chinese communist revolution (including a
approaches to analyzing art, as applied to rock art in new photo and caption concerning its long-term im-
southern Africa and cross-cultural depictions of the pact on women). Discussing processes of moderniza-
Last Supper in the Bible. A revised verbal arts section tion, we consider self-determination among indigenous
presents several ethnographic examples, including the peoples with two contrasting examples: the Shuar Indi-
Abenaki creation myth and the culturally widespread ans of Ecuador and a newly illustrated story of Sámi
“Father, Son, and Donkey” tale. reindeer herders in northwest Russia and Scandinavia.
The section on music carries readers from flutes Boxed features include a Biocultural Connection
made of bones from 42,000 years ago to traditional on the emergence of new diseases, an Anthropologist
and new age shamans drumming to evoke trances; of Note on Eric R. Wolf, and an Anthropology Applied
from rapping and beatboxing to online music mash- about development anthropology and dams, with a fas-
ups; from laborers on the edge of the Sahara working cinating satellite image of China’s Three Gorges Dam.
to the beat of a drum to West African griots recount- A new Digging into Anthropology, “Life Without Im-
ing personal histories through percussion and lyrics. ports,” asks students to analyze how their culture would
We touch on the elements of music, including change if they faced a political revolution that prohib-
tonality, rhythm, and melody, and through music we ited the consumption of foreign goods and information.
explore the functions of art. Boxed features include
a Biocultural Connection about the role of peyote Chapter 16: Global Challenges, Local
in Huichol art, a newly illustrated Original Study on Responses, and the Role of Anthropology
tattoos, a Globalscape on artful West African coffins, Our final chapter opens with a new photo of an Inter-
and a moving Anthropology Applied feature about net café in China coupled with a revised Challenge Issue
a Penobscot Indian anthropologist recreating tradi- about cultural adaptations that have fueled population
tional regalia as part of a cultural and economic sur- growth and globalization. The main narrative begins
vival strategy. The new Digging into Anthropology with a new passage describing the stunning globalizing
assignment, “A Heart for Art,” invites students to effect of today’s digital telecommunication technol-
look into a public art performance in their own com- ogy—featuring a new illustration of satellites orbiting
munity and compare that to the Kayapo Indians’ art- earth and raising the question of whether our species
ful political protest featured in the chapter’s opening can successfully adapt to the dynamic ecosystem of the
photo and Challenge Issue. current geological epoch known as the Anthropocene.
Preface xxxv
A section titled “Cultural Revolutions: From Terra Incog-

nita to Google Earth” offers a 500-year overview of tech-
Online Instructor’s Manual
nological inventions that have transformed humanity’s and Test Bank
lifeways, expanded interconnections, and changed our The instructor’s manual offers detailed chapter out-
perceptions about our place and destiny in the uni- lines, lecture suggestions, key terms, and student activ-
verse. It ends with the first full-view photograph taken ities such as video exercises and Internet exercises. In
of earth and speculations by some that a homogenous addition, there are over seventy-five chapter test ques-
global culture is in the making. tions including multiple choice, true/false, fill in the
A section on global integration processes marks blank, short answer, and essay.
out the emergence of international organizations. We
then consider pluralistic societies, multiculturalism, and
fragmentation, illustrating the push-and-pull aspects Online Resources for
of today’s world. A section on global migrations cata-
logues the number of internal and external migrants,
Instructors and Students
including transnationals working in one country while MindTap
remaining citizens of another, plus the millions of refu- MindTap is a digital learning solution providing in-
gees forced outside their countries. Marking out chal- structors with dynamic assignments, activities, and ap-
lenges migrants face, we include a new section titled plications that they can personalize; real-time course
“Diasporas and Xenophobia,” followed by “Migrants, analytics; and an accessible reader. For students, MindTap
Urbanization, and Slums,” reporting on the 1 billion offers tools to better manage limited time, with course
people worldwide now living in slums. material specially customized for them by the instruc-
Next comes what may be most important section tor and streamlined in one proven, easy-to-use interface.
in this chapter, “Structural Power in the Age of Global- An array of tools and apps—from note taking to flash-
ization,” with comprehensive subsections on hard power cards—help reinforce course concepts, helping students
(economic and military) and soft power (media) featur- to achieve better grades and setting the groundwork for
ing updated and newly designed graphs. On its heels is a their future courses. MindTap for Cultural Anthropology:
revised overview of the problems of structural violence— The Human Challenge, 15th edition, features several
from poverty and income disparity; to hunger, obesity, dynamic activities for students that illustrate chapter
and malnutrition; to pollution and global warming. This concepts—including photo analysis exercises, engaging
section features two new world maps—one showing in- videos, interactive GIS story maps, fieldwork activities,
come inequality, the other depicting energy consump- and “Mastery Training,” an adaptive learning study tool
tion. Discussing reactions to globalization, we touch that helps students master core concepts.
on religious fanaticism among Muslims and Christians,
along with the human rights struggles of ethnic minori-
ties and indigenous peoples. The chapter concludes with Readings and Case Studies
an encouraging look at anthropology’s role in meeting
the inequities and other challenges of globalization.
Classic and Contemporary Readings in
Special box features include a Biocultural Connec- Physical Anthropology, edited by M. K.
tion about the threat to Arctic cultures from outside Sandford with Eileen M. Jackson
contamination; an updated Globalscape about dumping This highly accessible reader emphasizes science—its
toxic waste in poor countries; an Anthropology Applied principles and methods—as well as the historical devel-
piece on Ann Dunham (President Obama’s mother), opment of physical anthropology and the applications of
who was a pioneer in microfinancing; and an uplifting new technology to the discipline. The editors provide an
Anthropologist of Note profile about Paul Farmer and introduction to the reader as well as a brief overview of
his global Partners In Health foundation. The new Dig- the article so students know what to look for. Each article
ging into Anthropology feature calls on students to ana- also includes discussion questions and Internet resources.
lyze their use of telecommunication devices.
Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology,
4th edition, edited by Gary Ferraro
Supplements Now in its fourth edition, this reader includes histori-
cal and recent articles that have had a profound effect
Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge comes on the field of anthropology. Organized according to
with a comprehensive supplements program to help the major topic areas found in most cultural anthropol-
instructors create an effective learning environment ogy courses, this reader includes an introduction to the
both inside and outside the classroom and to aid material as well as a brief overview of each article and
students in mastering the material. discussion questions.
xxxvi Preface
Globalization and Change in Fifteen and cultural continuity, reflecting the globalization of
Cultures: Born in One World, Living the world.
in Another, edited by George Spindler
Case Studies on Contemporary Social
and Janice E. Stockard
Issues, edited by John A. Young
In this volume, fifteen case studies describe cultural
Framed around social issues, these contemporary case
change in diverse settings around the world. The fif-
studies are globally comparative and represent the cut-
teen authors of the original case studies provide insight
ting-edge work of anthropologists today.
into the dynamics and meanings of change, as well as
the effects of globalization at the local level.
Case Studies in Archaeology, edited
Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology, by Jeffrey Quilter
edited by George Spindler These engaging accounts of new archaeological tech-
niques, issues, and solutions—as well as studies dis-
and Janice E. Stockard
cussing the collection of material remains—range
Select from more than sixty classic and contemporary from site-specific excavations to types of archaeology
ethnographies representing geographic and topical practiced.
diversity. Newer case studies focus on cultural change
Acknowledgments
No textbook comes to fruition without extensive collabo- and good cheer. Also worthy of note here are the in-
ration. Beyond the shared endeavors of our author team, troductory anthropology teaching assistants at Kansas
this book owes its completion to a wide range of individ- State University and the students from the University
uals, from colleagues in the discipline to those involved of Vermont College of Medicine and the Honors Col-
in development and production processes. Sincere thanks lege who, through the years, have shed light for us on
to colleagues who brought their expertise to bear—as effective ways to reach new generations of students.
sounding boards and in responding to questions concern- And, finally, we recognize the introductory students
ing their specializations: Marta P. Alfonso-Durruty, Frans themselves, who are at the heart of this educational
B. M. de Waal, John Hawks, Amber Campbell Hibbs, endeavor and who continually provide feedback in for-
Heather Loyd, Gillian E. Newell, Martin Ottenheimer, mal and informal ways.
Svante Pääbo, Herbert Prins, and Michael Wesch. We are Our thanksgiving inventory would be incom-
particularly grateful for the manuscript reviewers listed plete without mentioning individuals at Wadsworth/
below, who provided detailed and thoughtful feedback Cengage Learning who helped conceive of this text and
that helped us to hone and re-hone our narrative. bring it to fruition. Of special note is our content de-
We carefully considered and made use of the wide velopment editor Catherine (Cat) Craddock, who came
range of comments provided by these individuals. Our to us midstream when her predecessor Stefanie Chase
decisions on how to utilize their suggestions were in- took another post at Cengage. Both women brought
fluenced by our own perspectives on anthropology and joy, steadiness, and skill to our efforts. Thanks also to
teaching, combined with the priorities and page limits Gordon Lee, our former product manager, and his suc-
of this text. Thus, neither our reviewers nor any of the cessor Elizabeth (Libby) Beiting-Lipps—Gordon for his
other anthropologists mentioned here should be held integrity, brainstorming skills, and lively collaborative
responsible for any shortcomings in this book. They manner, and Libby for welcoming us so graciously to
should, however, be credited as contributors to many her already substantial workload. Additional gratitude
of the book’s strengths: Elizabeth de la Portilla, Tracy to Michael Cook (art director), Cheri Palmer (content
Evans, Julie Goodman-Bowling, Linda Light, Andre project manager), and Jennifer Levanduski (marketing
Nelson, John Otte, and Lakhbir Singh. director).
Thanks, too, go to colleagues who provided ma- In addition to all of the above, we have had the
terial for some of the Original Study, Biocultural Con- invaluable aid of several most able freelancers, includ-
nection, and Anthropology Applied boxes in this text: ing our long-cherished copy editor Jennifer Gordon,
Michael Blakey, Nancy I. Cooper, Hillary Crane, Margo thoroughly kind and kindly thorough; our stellar pro-
DeMello, George S. Esber, S. Neyooxet Greymorning, duction coordinator Jill Traut of MPS Limited, who can
Marvin Harris, Michael M. Horowitz, Ann Kendall, keep more balls in the air than the best of jugglers; and
Susan Lees, Bill Maurer, H. Lyn White Miles, Serena our resilient veteran photo researcher, Sarah Evertson.
Nanda, Jennifer Sapiel Neptune, Martin Ottenheimer, Thanksgiving as well to Larry Didona, cover designer;
Sherry Simpson, Amanda Stronza, William Ury, Lisa Buckley text interior designer; GraphicWorld for
Clementine van Eck, Annette B. Weiner, Dennis new maps; Santosh Kumar for artwork; and lastly the
Werner, and R. K. Williamson. composition team lead by Rakesh Pandey.
We have debts of gratitude to office workers in our And finally, as always, we are indebted to family
departments for their cheerful help in clerical matters: members and close friends who have put up with our
Karen Rundquist and research librarian extraordinaire hectic schedules during every textbook revision season,
Nancy Bianchi. Aram Bingham, Tavid Bingham, and and provided us with good company when we man-
Adrienne Rule tracked innumerable details with insight aged to take a break.
xxxvii
About the Authors
States. A staunch supporter of indigenous rights, he

served as expert witness for the Missisquoi Abenaki of
Vermont in an important court case over aboriginal
fishing rights.
Awards received by Dr. Haviland include being
named University Scholar by the Graduate School of
the University of Vermont in 1990; a Certificate of Ap-
preciation from the Sovereign Republic of the Abenaki
Nation of Missisquoi, St. Francis/Sokoki Band in 1996;
and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Center for
Research on Vermont in 2006. Now retired from teach-
Courtesy of the authors

ing, he continues his research, writing, and lecturing
from the coast of Maine. He serves as a trustee for the
Abbe Museum in Bar Harbor, focused on Maine’s Na-
tive American history, culture, art, and archaeology.
His most recent books are At the Place of the Lobsters
Authors Bunny McBride, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins,
and William Haviland.
and Crabs (2009) and Canoe Indians of Down East Maine
(2012), along with the monograph Excavations in
All four members of this author team share overlapping Residential Areas of Tikal (2015).
research interests and a similar vision of what anthro-
pology is (and should be) about. For example, all are Harald E. L. Prins is a University Distinguished Pro-
true believers in the four-field approach to anthropol- fessor of cultural anthropology at Kansas State Univer-
ogy and all have some involvement in applied work. sity. Academically trained at half a dozen Dutch and
U.S. universities, he previously taught at Radboud
William A. Haviland is professor emeritus at the Uni- University (Netherlands), Bowdoin College and Colby
versity of Vermont, where he founded the Department College in Maine, and as a visiting professor at the Uni-
of Anthropology and taught for thirty-two years. He versity of Lund, Sweden. He has received numerous
holds a PhD in anthropology from the University of honors for his teaching, including the Conoco Award
Pennsylvania. for Outstanding Undergraduate Teaching in 1993,
He has carried out original research in archae- Presidential Award in 1999, Coffman Chair of Distin-
ology in Guatemala and Vermont; ethnography in guished Teaching Scholars in 2004, Carnegie Founda-
Maine and Vermont; and physical anthropology in tion Professor of the Year for Kansas in 2006, and the
Guatemala. This work has been the basis of numer- AAA/Oxford University Press Award for Excellence in
ous publications in various national and international Undergraduate Teaching of Anthropology in 2010.
books and journals, as well as in media intended for His fieldwork focuses on indigenous peoples in
the general public. His books include The Original the western hemisphere, and he has long served as an
Vermonters, coauthored with Marjorie Power, and a advocacy anthropologist on land claims and other na-
technical monograph on ancient Maya settlement. He tive rights. In that capacity, Dr. Prins has been a lead
also served as consultant for the award-winning tele- expert witness in both the U.S. Senate and Canadian
course Faces of Culture, and he is coeditor of the series federal courts. He has refereed for forty academic book
Tikal Reports, published by the University of Pennsylva- publishers and journals. His own numerous academic
nia Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. publications appear in nine languages, with books
Besides his teaching and writing, Dr. Haviland including The Mi’kmaq: Resistance, Accommodation, and
has given lectures for numerous professional as well as Cultural Survival (Margaret Mead Award finalist).
nonprofessional audiences in Canada, Mexico, Leso- Also trained in filmmaking, he served as presi-
tho, South Africa, and Spain, as well as in the United dent of the Society for Visual Anthropology and has
xxxviii
About the Authors xxxix
coproduced award-winning documentaries. He has been for the Women’s World Summit Foundation (based in
the visual anthropology editor of American Anthropolo- Geneva, Switzerland) after ten years on the organiza-
gist, coprincipal investigator for the U.S. National Park tion’s board and three as its president.
Service, international observer in Paraguay’s presidential
elections, and a research associate at the National Dana Walrath—an award-winning writer, artist, and
Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. anthropologist—is a faculty member at the University
of Vermont College of Medicine. After earning her
Bunny McBride is an award-winning author special- PhD in medical and biological anthropology from the
izing in cultural anthropology, indigenous peoples, University of Pennsylvania, she taught there and at
international tourism, and nature conservation issues. Temple University. Dr. Walrath broke new ground in
Published in dozens of national and international print paleoanthropology through her work on the evolution
media, she has reported from Africa, Europe, China, of human childbirth. She has also written on a wide
and the Indian Ocean. Holding an MA from Colum- range of topics related to gender in paleoanthropology,
bia University and highly rated as a teacher, and she the social production of sickness and health, sex differ-
has taught at the Salt Institute for Documentary Field ences, genetics, and evolutionary medicine. Her work
Studies and at Principia College, where she was a vis- has appeared in edited volumes and in journals such as
iting faculty member in the Sociology-Anthropology Current Anthropology, American Anthropologist, American
Department on and off for many years. Since 1996 she Journal of Physical Anthropology, and Anthropology Now.
has been an adjunct lecturer of anthropology at Kansas Her books include Aliceheimer’s, a graphic memoir, and
State University. Like Water on Stone, a verse novel.
Among McBride’s many publication credits are She developed a novel curriculum in medical ed-
the books Women of the Dawn; Molly Spotted Elk: A ucation at the University of Vermont College of Medi-
Penobscot in Paris; and Our Lives in Our Hands: Micmac cine that brings humanism, anthropological theory
Indian Basketmakers. She has also contributed chapters and practice, narrative medicine, and professionalism
in a dozen books and coauthored several books, skills to first-year medical students. Dr. Walrath also
including Indians in Eden and The Audubon Field Guide has an MFA in creative writing from Vermont College
to African Wildlife. Working on a range of issues and of Fine Arts and has exhibited her artwork in North
projects with Maine Indian tribes since 1981, McBride America and Europe. Her recent work in the field of
received a commendation from the Maine state legis- graphic medicine combines anthropology with mem-
lature for her research and writing on the history of oir and visual art. Spanning a variety of disciplines,
Native American women. Boston Globe Sunday Magazine her work has been supported by diverse sources such
featured a long profile about her, and Maine Public as the National Science Foundation, the Temple-
Television made a documentary about her research and ton Foundation, the Centers for Disease Control, the
writing on Molly Spotted Elk. Health Resources and Services Administration, the
In recent years, McBride has served as coprincipal Vermont Studio Center, the Vermont Arts Council,
investigator for a National Park Service ethnography and the National Endowment for the Arts. She spent
project and curated several museum exhibits, includ- 2012–2013 as a Fulbright Scholar at the American Uni-
ing “Journeys West: The David & Peggy Rockefeller versity of Armenia and the Institute of Ethnography
American Indian Art Collection” for the Abbe Museum and Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences
in Bar Harbor, Maine. Her exhibit, “Indians & Rusti- of Armenia. She is working on a second graphic mem-
cators,” received a Leadership in History Award from oir that combines her Aliceheimer’s work with her field-
the American Association for State and Local History work on aging and memory in Armenia and a graphic
(2012). As of 2016, she serves on the advisory panel novel about the genetics of mental illness.
Uriel Sinai/The New York Times/Redux
CHALLENGE ISSUE
How do we make sense of the world? Who are we, and how are we connected to the person
pictured here? Why might we look different from this person or speak a different language?
Anthropologists approach such questions holistically, framing them in a broad, integrated
context that considers human culture and biology, in all times and places, as inextricably
intertwined. Consider David Abongo Owich pictured here catching baby catfish in Kenya’s Lake
Victoria with repurposed mosquito nets, provided by health organizations to regions with a
high incidence of malaria, which is spread by mosquitoes. However, the free malarial nets are
useful for trapping fish, so some choose to improve their diet rather than protect themselves
from malaria. This has led to problems not only with the continued spread of the disease but
with overfishing and water contamination from the insecticides in the nets. Historically, disease-
specific interventions have often overlooked the needs and values of each particular human
society. The anthropological perspective equips us to negotiate today’s interconnected, global-
ized world, enabling us to contribute to practical solutions for the problems of contemporary life.
The Essence
of Anthropology 1
The Anthropological Perspective
Anthropology is the study of humankind in all times and places. Of course, In this chapter you
many disciplines focus on humans in some way. For example, anatomy and will learn to
physiology concentrate on our species as biological organisms. Anthropology fo- ●● Describe the discipline
cuses on the interconnections and interdependence of all aspects of the human of anthropology and
experience in all places, in the present and deep into the past, well before written
make connections
between each of its four
history. This unique, broad holistic perspective equips anthropologists to fields.
address that elusive thing we call human nature.
●● Compare anthropology
Anthropologists welcome the contributions of researchers from other disci- to the sciences and the
plines and, in return, offer their findings to these disciplines. Anthropologists may humanities.
not know as much about the structure of the human eye as anatomists or as much ●● Identify the
about the perception of color as psychologists. As synthesizers, however, anthro- characteristics of
pologists seek to understand how anatomy and psychology relate to color-naming anthropological field
methods and the ethics
practices in different societies. Because they look for the broad basis of ideas and
of anthropological
practices without limiting themselves to any single social or biological aspect, research.
anthropologists acquire an expansive and inclusive overview of our species. ●● Explain the usefulness
Embracing a holistic perspective allows anthropologists to guard against possi- of anthropology in light
ble personal or cultural biases. As the old saying goes, people often see what they of globalization.
believe rather than what appears before their eyes. By maintaining a critical aware-
ness of their own assumptions about human nature—checking and rechecking the
ways their beliefs and actions might be shaping their research—anthropologists
strive to gain objective knowledge about humans. With this in mind, anthropol-
ogists avoid the pitfalls of ethnocentrism, a belief that the ways of one’s own
culture are the best or only proper ones. anthropology The study of humankind in all
times and places.
Thus anthropologists have expanded holistic perspective A fundamental
principle of anthropology: The various parts
our understanding of diversity in hu-
of human culture and biology must be viewed
man thought, biology, and behavior, as in the broadest possible context in order
to understand their interconnections and
well as our understanding of the many interdependence.
ethnocentrism The belief that the ways of
things humans have in common. one’s own culture are the only proper ones.
4 CHAPTER 1 The Essence of Anthropology
as for one investigat-

ing tropical food gar-
dens or traditional
healing ceremonies.
We might say anthro-
pology is a discipline
concerned with unbi-
ased evaluation of di-
verse human systems,
including one’s own.
Although other
social sciences have
predominantly concen-
trated on contempo-
rary peoples living in
North American and
European (Western) so-
cieties, anthropologists
have historically fo-
cused on non-Western
peoples and cultures.
Anthropologists work
with the understanding
that to fully access the
complexities of human
ideas, behavior, and bi-
ology, all humans, wher-
ever and whenever,
must be studied. A
Gina Ulysse
cross-cultural and long-
term evolutionary per-
Figure 1.1 Anthropologist Gina Athena Ulysse spective distinguishes
Anthropologists come from many corners of the world and contribute to the field in myriad ways. Dr. anthropology from
Gina Athena Ulysse, pictured here, was born in Pétion-Ville, Haiti, and immigrated to the United States other social sciences.
with her family when she was a teenager. Now an associate professor of anthropology at Wesleyan This approach guards
University, she is a writer and spoken word scholar-artist. Her work explores Haitian history, identity, against theories that
spirituality, and the lingering, dehumanizing effects of colonialism. Her performances incorporate spoken are culture-bound—
word and Vodou chant, blurring the lines between anthropology and art. She recently brought her
based on assumptions
performance back to Haiti while wearing the International Peace Belt, first created from coins that went
about the world and
out of circulation when the euro replaced most former European currencies. Today 115 of the world’s
reality that come from
196 countries are represented on the belt. As a “living link between cultures and a symbol of peace
the researcher’s own
and unity of all nations” (Artists for World Peace, 2015), the belt has traveled to over twenty-five
culture.
countries on five continents.
As a case in point,
consider the fact that
Anthropologists come from many different backgrounds, infants in the United States typically sleep apart from
and individuals practicing the discipline vary in their their parents. To people accustomed to multibedroom
personal, national, ethnic, political, and religious beliefs houses, cribs, and car seats, this may seem normal,
(Figure 1.1). At the same time, they apply a rigorous but cross-cultural research shows that co-sleeping, of
methodology for researching from the perspective of the mother and baby in particular, is more common globally
culture being studied, which requires them to check for (Figure 1.2). Further, the practice of sleeping apart favored
the influences of their own biases. This is as true for an in the United States dates back only about 200 years
anthropologist analyzing the global banking industry (McKenna & McDade, 2005). Cultural norms are neither
universal nor eternal.
Consider also the medical practice of organ transplan-
culture-bound A perspective that produces theories about the world
and reality that are based on the assumptions and values from the tation, which has become widespread since the first kid-
researcher’s own culture. ney transplant between twin brothers in Boston in 1954.
Anthropology and Its Fields 5
V ISUAL
V I S UA L COUNTE
COU N T E R RP
POIOINT
NT
Picture Partners/Alamy
Dinodia Photo
Figure 1.2 Sleeping Habits Across Cultures
A newborn baby in United States lies alone in a hospital cradle. A newborn Ho baby in Chakradharpur, India, sleeps nestled
beside her mother. The patterns set in the first hours of life repeat in the coming weeks, months, and years. The U.S. pattern
promotes the cultural norm of 8 isolated, uninterrupted hours of sleep at night throughout all phases of the life span. Cross-cultural
research shows that co-sleeping and periods of wakefulness during the night are far more common. For U.S. infants sleeping
alone in cribs, the consequences can be dire. They do not benefit from breastfeeding cues provided by someone sleeping nearby.
Consequently, they are more susceptible to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), a phenomenon in which a baby, usually between
4 and 6 months old, stops breathing and dies while asleep. The highest rates of SIDS are found among infants in the United States
(McKenna, Ball, & Gettler, 2007). That 50 to 70 million adults in the United States suffer from sleep disorders may also be a
product of this cultural pattern (Institute of Medicine, 2006).
Today, transplants between unrelated individuals are

common, so much so that organs are illegally trafficked,
Anthropology
often across continents from the poor to the wealthy. A
practice like organ transplantation can only exist if it fits
and Its Fields
with cultural beliefs about death and the human body. Individual anthropologists tend to specialize in one of four
The dominant North American and European view—that fields or subdisciplines: cultural anthropology, linguistic
the body is a machine that can be repaired much like a anthropology, archaeology, and biological (physical) an-
car—makes organ transplantation acceptable. However, thropology (Figure 1.3). Some anthropologists consider
in Japan the concept of brain death (that a person is archaeology and linguistics to be part of a broader study of
“dead” when the individual’s brain no longer functions, human cultures, but both subdisciplines have close ties to
despite a still-beating heart) is hotly contested. Their idea biological anthropology. For example, although linguistic
of personhood does not incorporate a mind–body split, anthropology focuses on the cultural aspects of language,
so Japanese people do not accept that a warm body is a it has deep connections to the evolution of human lan-
corpse from which organs can be harvested. In addition, guage and to the biological basis of speech and language
the idea of organs as anonymous “gifts” does not fit with studied within biological anthropology.
the Japanese social pattern of reciprocal exchange. Conse- Researchers in each of anthropology’s fields gather and
quently, organ transplants are rarely performed in Japan analyze data to explore similarities and differences among
(Lock, 2001). humans, across time and space. Moreover, individuals
The findings of anthropologists have often challenged within each of the four fields practice applied anthro-
the conclusions of sociologists, psychologists, and econ- pology, using anthropological knowledge and methods
omists. At the same time, anthropology is indispensable to prevent or solve practical problems. Most applied an-
to those in other disciplines because it provides the only thropologists actively collaborate with the communities
consistent check against culture-bound assertions. In a
sense, anthropology is to these disciplines what the lab-
oratory is to physics and chemistry: an essential testing applied anthropology The use of anthropological knowledge and
ground for their theories. methods to solve practical problems, often for a specific client.
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de remarquable en elle. Ne m’a-t-elle pas demandé de recueillir son vieux
rickshaw et ses coolies et de n’épargner pour cela ni démarches ni dépenses,
n’est-ce pas une fantaisie morbide? Oui, j’appelle cela une fantaisie de
malade, mais j’ai fini quand même par faire ce que me demandait la
Memsahib. Le croiriez-vous? L’homme, à qui elle l’avait loué, m’a dit que
les quatre coolies,—c’étaient quatre frères,—sont tous morts du choléra sur
la route de Hardwar, les pauvres diables! Quant au rickshaw, c’est l’homme
lui-même qui l’a mis en morceaux. Il m’a dit qu’il ne se servait jamais du
rickshaw d’une Memsahib qui était morte. Ça lui portait la déveine. Drôle
d’idée, n’est-ce pas? Vous imaginez-vous cette pauvre petite mistress
Wessington portant la guigne à quelqu’un, si ce n’est à elle-même?
A cet endroit de la causerie, j’éclatai de rire, mais mon rire sonnait faux
à mes oreilles.
Après tout il existait donc des rickshaws fantômes, il y avait donc des
emplois-fantômes dans l’autre monde?
Combien mistress Wessington payait-elle ses hommes?
A quelles heures les employait-elle?
Où allaient-ils?
La réponse apparut sous une forme visible: l’horrible apparition était là,
me barrant le passage, dans le crépuscule.
Les morts vont vite et voyagent par des raccourcis ignorés des vulgaires
coolies.
J’éclatai une seconde fois d’un rire bruyant et je retins soudain mon rire:
Je craignais de devenir fou.
Je dus être fou jusqu’à un certain point, car je me souviens que je tirai
les rênes de mon cheval au moment même où je fus devant le rickshaw et
que je dis poliment bonjour à mistress Wessington.
Sa réponse fut celle que je ne connaissais que trop.
Je l’écoutai jusqu’au bout et je répliquai que j’avais déjà entendu tout
cela, mais que je serais enchanté si elle avait quelque autre chose à dire.
Je ne sais quel malicieux démon plus fort que moi dut me posséder ce
soir-là, car je me rappelle vaguement avoir passé cinq minutes à raconter les
banalités du jour à la Chose que j’avais devant moi.
—... Fou comme un lièvre de mars... ou ivre. Max, tâchez de le ramener
chez lui.
Sûrement cette voix-là n’était point celle de mistress Wessington!
Les deux hommes avaient surpris les propos que je tenais en l’air, tout
seul, et ils étaient revenus sur leurs pas pour me regarder.
Ils se montrèrent très bons, très calmes, et d’après leurs propos, il était
aisé de conclure qu’ils me jugeaient tout à fait gris.
Je les remerciai en phrases confuses et rentrai au trot à mon hôtel.
J’y changeai de toilette et j’arrivai chez les Mannering avec dix minutes
de retard.
Je donnai comme excuse que la nuit était très noire. Kitty me gronda
pour ce retard indigne d’un amoureux et je m’assis.
La conversation était déjà devenue générale, ce qui me permettait
d’adresser quelques tendres propos à mon adorée, quand je m’aperçus qu’à
l’autre bout de la table un homme replet, aux favoris rouges, racontait, avec
force embellissements, sa rencontre avec un ivrogne inconnu, ce soir-même.
Quelques détails me convainquirent que le sujet de son récit était
l’incident qui avait eu lieu une demi-heure auparavant.
Au milieu de son récit, il jeta des regards autour de lui pour quêter des
applaudissements, ainsi que le font les conteurs de profession et soudain il
s’écroula désemparé sur son siège.
Il y eut un moment de silence embarrassant.
L’homme aux favoris rouges balbutia quelques mots pour donner à
entendre «qu’il avait oublié le reste», et sacrifia ainsi la réputation de bon
conteur qui lui avait coûté six saisons de labeur.
Je lui en sus gré du fond du cœur et me remis à mon poisson.
Le dîner tirait à sa fin.
Avec un regret sincère, je me séparai de Kitty.
Je n’étais pas plus certain de mon existence que je ne l’étais de la
présence de la Chose, de l’autre côté de la porte.
L’homme aux favoris rouges, qui m’avait été présenté comme le docteur
Heatherlegh, de Simla, s’offrit à me tenir compagnie pour le trajet que nous
devions faire ensemble.
J’acceptai avec reconnaissance.
Mon instinct ne m’avait pas trompé.
La Chose m’attendait sur le Mail, et pour mettre le comble à son système
de copier ironiquement nos usages, elle avait à l’avant une lanterne allumée.
L’homme aux favoris rouges alla droit au fait, sans perdre de temps, en
des termes qui montraient qu’il avait réfléchi à l’aventure pendant tout le
dîner.
—Dites donc, Pansay, que diable aviez-vous donc ce soir sur la route de
l’Élysée?
La soudaineté de la question m’arracha une réponse avant que j’eusse le
temps de me mettre en garde.
—Ça! dis-je en montrant du doigt la Chose.
—Ça, ce doit être le D. T.[J] ou bien l’hallucination, si je ne me trompe.
Or, vous ne buvez pas, je l’ai bien vu au dîner. Donc, ça ne peut pas être du
D. T. Il n’y a absolument rien à l’endroit que vous me montrez, et
cependant vous suez, vous tremblez de peur comme un poney effrayé. D’où
je conclus que c’est une hallucination. Et je dois m’y connaître. Venez
jusque chez moi. Je demeure là-bas sur la route basse de Blessington.
A mon extrême joie, le rickshaw, au lieu de nous attendre, marcha à
vingt pas en avant de nous et le fit à notre allure, que nous prenions le pas,
le grand trot ou le petit trot.
Pendant la durée de cette longue nuit, je dis à mon compagnon tout ce
que je vous ai dit jusqu’à présent.
—Eh bien, vous avez gâché une des meilleures histoires sur laquelle
j’aie jamais mis la langue, dit-il, mais je vous pardonne à raison de ce que
vous avez souffert. Venez chez moi maintenant, et faites ce que je vous
ordonnerai et quand je vous aurai guéri, jeune homme, que cela vous
apprenne à éviter les femmes et les mets indigestes jusqu’au jour de votre
mort.
Le rickshaw marchait d’une allure régulière, en avant, et mon ami aux
rouges favoris semblait prendre grand plaisir à m’entendre décrire avec
précision les détails de l’aventure.
—Hallucination, Pansay. Tout est dans l’œil, le cerveau et l’estomac.
Mais le plus essentiel de tous, c’est l’estomac. Vous avez un cerveau trop
gonflé, un trop petit estomac, et des yeux profondément atteints. Rétablissez
l’estomac, et le reste suivra. Et donnez tout ce qui est français pour une
pilule hépatique. Je me charge d’être votre seul médecin à partir de cette
heure. Vous êtes un phénomène beaucoup trop intéressant pour m’en
dessaisir.
A ce moment, nous étions dans les ombres épaisses de la route basse de
Blessington.
Le rickshaw s’arrêta brusquement sous une terrasse couverte de pins et
surplombant la route.
Je m’arrêtai instinctivement aussi, en expliquant pourquoi.
Heatherlegh lança un juron.
—Ah! ça! vous figurez-vous que je vais passer une nuit à geler sur cette
côte pour une illusion cerebro-stomacho-oculaire... Grands Dieux! Qu’est-
ce que c’est que cela?
On entendit un bruit étouffé; un nuage aveuglant de poussière se forma
devant nous, puis ce furent des craquements, des froissements de branches
brisées.
La terrasse, avec les pins, les arbustes, et tout le reste, s’était écroulée sur
une longueur de dix yards, obstruant toute la route qui passait au-dessous.
Les arbres déracinés chancelèrent, se balancèrent un instant dans
l’ombre, pareils à des géants ivres, puis s’abattirent parmi les autres avec un
fracas de tonnerre.
Nos deux chevaux étaient immobiles, suaient de peur.
Dès que le craquement de la terre et des pierres qui dégringolaient se fut
calmé, mon compagnon me dit à mi-voix:
—L’ami, si nous avions avancé, nous serions en ce moment à dix pieds
sous terre. Il y a plus de choses au ciel et sur terre... Venez chez moi,
Pansay, et remercions Dieu. J’ai grand besoin d’un doigt de quelque chose.
Nous revînmes sur nos pas jusqu’à la côte de l’église, et j’arrivai chez le
docteur Heatherlegh un peu après minuit.
Les tentatives pour me guérir commencèrent presque aussitôt, et pendant
une semaine, il me conserva constamment sous ses yeux.
Bien des fois durant ces huit jours, je bénis l’heureuse chance qui
m’avait mis en relation avec le plus capable et le meilleur des médecins de
Simla.
De jour en jour mon entrain revint. Mon caractère reprit son égalité.
De jour en jour aussi, j’en vins à admettre la théorie de Heatherlegh qui
imputait l’hallucination spectrale à l’état des yeux, du cerveau et de
l’estomac.
J’écrivis à Kitty pour lui dire qu’une entorse légère causée par une chute
de cheval me retenait chez moi pour quelques jours, et que je serais rétabli
avant qu’elle eût le temps de regretter mon absence.
Le traitement de Heatherlegh était aussi simple que possible: il consistait
en pilules hépatiques, bains froids et exercices violents, pris à la tombée de
la nuit ou à la pointe du jour, car ainsi qu’il le faisait remarquer avec
sagesse: «Un homme qui a une entorse à la cheville ne fait pas douze milles
par jour et votre jeune dame serait bien étonnée si elle vous voyait.»
A la fin de la semaine, après de fréquents examens de la pupille et du
pouls, la prescription d’un régime strictement sévère et de la marche à pied,
Heatherlegh me renvoya avec autant de brusquerie qu’il m’avait pris sous
sa direction.
—Mon garçon, je garantis votre cure mentale, et cela revient à dire que
je vous ai guéri de la plupart de vos maladies corporelles. Maintenant tirez
vos grègues d’ici le plus tôt que vous pourrez et allez-vous-en faire votre
cour à miss Kitty.
Je m’efforçais de lui exprimer ma gratitude pour sa bonté.
Il m’interrompit:
—Ne vous figurez pas que j’ai fait cela pour vous. J’entrevois que vous
vous êtes conduit dans toute cette affaire comme un coquin. Mais, malgré
tout, vous êtes un phénomène, et un phénomène aussi curieux que vous êtes
un mufle. Non... reprit-il en m’interrompant une seconde fois... pas même
une roupie, s’il vous plaît! Allez-vous-en et voyez si vous retrouverez ces
troubles des yeux, du cerveau, de l’estomac. Je vous donnerai un lakh,
chaque fois que vous l’éprouverez.
Une demi-heure plus tard, j’étais dans le salon des Mannering avec
Kitty.
J’étais ivre de l’ivresse que donne le bonheur présent et de la certitude
que je ne serais plus persécuté par cette odieuse apparition.
Fort du sentiment de ma sécurité toute récente, je proposai aussitôt une
promenade à cheval, et j’indiquai ma préférence pour un trot autour de
Jakko.
Jamais je ne m’étais senti aussi dispos, aussi plein de vitalité, d’esprits
purement animaux que dans cet après-midi du 30 avril.
Kitty était enchantée du changement survenu dans mon aspect, et elle
m’en fit compliment dans son langage charmant et plein de franchise.
Nous sortîmes ensemble de chez les Mannering, riant, causant. Puis nous
partîmes au trot comme autrefois sur la route de Chota Simla.
J’avais hâte d’arriver au Réservoir de Sanjowlie, pour y redoubler la
fermeté de ma conviction.
Les chevaux faisaient de leur mieux, mais ils me paraissaient trop lents.
Kitty était étonnée de ma turbulence.
—Voyons, Jack, s’écria-t-elle à la fin, vous vous conduisez comme un
enfant. Qu’est-ce que vous faites?
Nous étions juste au bas du Couvent, et par pure bravade, je faisais faire
à mon gallois des plongeons, des courbettes à travers la route, tout en le
chatouillant avec la boucle de ma cravache.
—Qu’est-ce que je fais, ma chère? Mais rien. Tout juste rien du tout. Si
vous étiez restée une semaine à ne rien faire que de rester couchée, vous
seriez aussi turbulente que moi.
Chantant et fredonnant dans votre gaîté bruyante,
Toute joyeuse de vous sentir vivre,
Maître de la nature, Seigneur de la terre visible,
Seigneur des cinq sens.
Ma citation était à peine sortie de mes lèvres, et nous n’avions pas

encore tourné l’angle au-dessus du Couvent. En avançant de quelques
yards, on eût pu voir jusqu’à Sanjowlie.
Au milieu de la route plane étaient arrêtés les hommes à livrée noir et
blanc, le rickshaw à caisse jaune, et mistress Keith-Wessington.
Je tirai sur les rênes, je regardai, je me frottai les yeux, et je dus
prononcer quelques mots, à ce que je crois.
La première chose, dont je me souviens ensuite, c’est que j’étais étendu
la face contre terre sur la route, et que Kitty, en larmes, était agenouillée
près de moi.
—Est-ce que c’est parti, enfant? fis-je d’une voix entrecoupée.
Kitty ne fit que pleurer plus fort.
—Qu’est-ce qui est parti, Jack, mon chéri? Qu’est-ce que cela veut dire?
Il doit y avoir quelque part un malentendu, Jack, un affreux malentendu.
Ses dernières paroles me remirent debout, affolé, dans un délire
momentané.
—Oui, il y a quelque part un malentendu, répétai-je, un affreux
malentendu. Venez, regardez cela.
Je me rappelle confusément avoir pris Kitty par le poignet et l’avoir
traînée sur la route jusqu’à l’endroit où était la Chose, avoir supplié Kitty de
lui parler, de lui dire que nous étions fiancés, que ni la mort ni l’enfer
n’étaient capables de rompre le lien qui nous unissait, avoir tenu bien
d’autres propos de ce genre que Kitty est seule à connaître.
De temps à autre je m’adressais à l’épouvantable créature qui était dans
le rickshaw, pour la prendre à témoin de ce que j’avais dit, lui demander de
cesser une torture qui me tuait.
Dans ces propos, je suppose que je dus apprendre à Kitty mes relations
passées avec mistress Wessington, car je vis qu’elle m’écoutait
attentivement, la figure très pâle et les yeux flamboyants.
—Je vous remercie, monsieur Pansay, dit-elle. Cela suffit amplement.
Saïs, ghora lao.
Les saïs, impassibles comme le sont toujours les Orientaux, étaient
revenus avec les chevaux qu’ils avaient repris.
Quand Kitty se remit en selle d’un bond, je tins la bride et la suppliai de
m’écouter et de me pardonner.
La réponse, que j’obtins d’elle fut un coup de cravache qui m’atteignit
de la bouche à l’œil, et un mot d’adieu que même aujourd’hui je suis
incapable d’écrire.
Dès lors je jugeai, et je ne me trompais pas, que Kitty savait tout, et je
reculai en titubant jusqu’à côté du rickshaw. Une coupure saignante me
sillonnait la figure et le cinglant coup de cravache avait fait gonfler la chair
en un relief bleu.
A ce moment même, Heatherlegh, qui avait dû nous suivre de loin, moi
et Kitty, arriva au trot.
—Docteur, dis-je en lui montrant du doigt ma figure, voici comment
miss Mannering a signé le décret par lequel elle me congédie et... vous me
ferez plaisir de m’envoyer ce lakh dès que vous le jugerez à propos.
La mine de Heatherlegh m’arracha un éclat de rire, malgré mon état
misérable.
—Je joue ma réputation professionnelle, commença-t-il.
—Ne faites pas le nigaud, j’ai perdu le bonheur de ma vie, et vous ferez
mieux de me ramener à la maison.
Pendant que je parlais, le rickshaw avait disparu.
Alors je perdis la notion de tout ce qui se passait.
Le sommet de Jakko me paraissait onduler, se soulever comme le bord
d’un nuage et tomber sur moi.
Sept jours plus tard (c’est-à-dire le 7 mai) je revins à moi et me trouvai
dans la chambre de Heatherlegh.
J’étais plus faible qu’un petit enfant.
Heatherlegh m’examinait avec attention de derrière les papiers
amoncelés sur son bureau.
Les premiers mots n’étaient guère encourageants, mais j’étais trop
épuisé pour en être fortement ému.
—Voici vos lettres que miss Kitty vous a renvoyées. Vous autres, jeunes
gens, vous écriviez beaucoup. Voici un paquet qui ressemble à une bague, et
il y avait un billet fort gai de papa Mannering; j’ai pris la liberté de le lire et
de le brûler. Le vieux gentleman n’était pas enchanté de vous.
—Et Kitty? demandai-je d’un ton morne.
—Encore plus raide que son père, à en juger par ce qu’elle dit. Par la
même occasion, vous avez dû laisser échapper un tas de vieux souvenirs
avant que je vous aie retrouvé. Elle dit que quand on s’est conduit envers
une femme comme vous l’avez fait envers mistress Wessington, on devrait
se tuer, ne fût-ce que par pitié pour son espèce. C’est une petite virago à la
tête chaude, votre moitié d’orange. Elle tient pour certain que vous étiez
dans un accès de delirium tremens quand tout ce tapage sur la route de
Jakko s’est produit. Elle dit qu’elle mourra plutôt que de vous adresser la
parole.
Je poussai un gémissement et me tournai de l’autre côté.
—Maintenant vous avez à prendre votre parti, mon ami. Cet engagement
doit être rompu et les Mannering ne veulent pas se montrer trop exigeants à
votre égard. Aura-t-il été rompu à raison de delirium tremens ou à raison de
crises épileptiques? Désolé de ne pouvoir vous offrir d’autre alternative, à
moins que vous ne préfériez la folie héréditaire. Dites un mot, et je parlerai
d’accès. Tout Simla connaît la scène qui s’est passée au Mille des Dames.
Allons, je vous donne cinq minutes pour songer à cela.
Je crois que pendant ces cinq minutes j’explorai les cercles les plus
profonds de l’Enfer qu’il soit permis à l’homme terrestre de parcourir.
Et en même temps je me voyais trébuchant à travers les sombres
labyrinthes du doute, de la souffrance, du désespoir le plus profond.
Je me demandais, comme Heatherlegh assis sur sa chaise pouvait se le
demander, laquelle de ces terribles alternatives je devais choisir.
Bientôt je m’entendis parler d’une voix que j’eus peine à reconnaître:
—Ils sont diablement difficiles en fait de moralité dans ce pays-ci.
Parlez-leur d’accès, Heatherlegh, et joignez-y mes compliments.
Maintenant laissez-moi dormir un peu.
Alors mes deux moi se rejoignirent et ce fut seulement mon moi (rendu à
moitié fou, possédé du diable) qui se retourna avec agitation dans mon lit,
en remontant pas à pas le cours des événements du dernier mois.
—Mais je suis à Simla, me répétais-je sans cesse, moi Jack Pansay, je
suis à Simla, et il n’y a pas de fantômes ici! C’est chose déraisonnable de la
part de cette femme de soutenir qu’il y en a. Pourquoi Agnès n’a t-elle pas
pu me laisser tranquille? Je ne lui ai jamais fait aucun mal. Il eût pu se faire
que ce fût moi aussi bien qu’Agnès. Seulement je ne serais pas revenu
exprès pour la tuer. Pourquoi ne peut-on pas me laisser en paix? Me laisser
en paix et heureux?
Il était midi bien sonné quand je me réveillai pour la première fois.
Le soleil avait beaucoup baissé à l’horizon avant que je me fusse
endormi,—endormi du sommeil du criminel sur son chevalet de torture, où
il est trop épuisé pour éprouver encore de la douleur.
Le lendemain, il me fut impossible de me lever.
Heatherlegh me dit le matin qu’il avait reçu une réponse de M.
Mannering et que, grâce à ses bons offices (ceux de Heatherlegh), l’histoire
de ma maladie avait circulé partout dans Simla où tout le monde me
plaignait.
—Et c’est peut-être plus que vous ne méritez, conclut-il agréablement, et
pourtant Dieu sait si vous avez passé par une sévère épreuve! Cela ne fait
rien. Nous vous guérirons encore, entêté phénomène.
Je me refusai fermement à être guéri.
—Vous avez été déjà beaucoup trop bon pour moi, mon vieux, dis-je,
mais je ne me soucie pas de vous déranger plus longtemps.
Au fond du cœur, j’en étais sûr, rien de ce que pouvait faire Heatherlegh
n’était capable d’alléger le fardeau qui m’avait été imposé.
A cette conviction se joignit un sentiment de révolte désespérée,
impuissante, contre la déraison de toute cette affaire.
Il y avait des vingtaines de gens qui ne valaient pas mieux que moi et
pour lesquels le châtiment avait du moins été ajourné à l’autre monde.
Je trouvais une amère, une cruelle injustice à avoir été tout
particulièrement désigné pour un sort si affreux.
De temps à autre cet état d’esprit faisait place à un autre dans lequel le
rickshaw et moi, nous étions les seules réalités au milieu d’un monde
d’ombres, où Kitty était un fantôme, où M. Mannering, Heatherlegh, tous
les autres gens que j’avais connus, hommes et femmes, étaient des
fantômes, où les grandes montagnes grises elles-mêmes n’étaient plus que
des ombres créées pour me torturer.
J’étais violemment jeté d’un état d’esprit dans un autre.
Cela dura sept jours pénibles.
Mon corps prenait de jour en jour plus de force jusqu’à ce qu’enfin un
regard jeté dans la glace de la chambre à coucher m’apprit que j’étais rentré
dans la vie ordinaire, et que j’étais redevenu ce que sont les autres hommes.
Chose assez curieuse, ma figure ne portait aucune trace de la lutte que
j’avais traversée. Elle était pâle, il est vrai, mais aussi dépourvue
d’expression, aussi banale qu’elle le fut jamais.
Je m’étais attendu à une altération permanente, à une preuve visible de la
maladie qui me rongeait: je n’aperçus rien.
Le 15 mai, je quittai la maison de Heatherlegh à onze heures du matin et
l’instinct du célibataire me conduisit au Club.
Là je vis que tout le monde connaissait mon histoire telle que l’avait
débitée Heatherlegh, et tous me témoignèrent gauchement une bienveillance
et des attentions anormales.
Néanmoins je reconnus que pendant tout le reste de ma vie, je serais
mêlé à mes semblables, sans être l’un d’eux, et j’enviai avec amertume les
coolies rieurs qui étaient là-bas, au Mail.
Je déjeunai au Club et à quatre heures j’allai flâner en désœuvré sur le
Mail dans le vague espoir de rencontrer Kitty.
Près du kiosque à musique, ce que je vis, ce furent les livrées noir et
blanc et j’entendis près de moi la prière que m’avait déjà adressée mistress
Wessington.
Le rickshaw fantôme et moi, nous parcourûmes côte à côte et en silence
la route de Chota Simla.
Aux environs du Bazar, Kitty et un cavalier nous atteignirent et nous
dépassèrent.
J’aurais été un chien errant sur la route qu’elle n’eût pas fait moins
d’attention à moi.
Elle ne me fit pas même l’honneur d’accélérer le pas, bien que la soirée
pluvieuse eût pu lui servir d’excuse.
Aussi Kitty et son compagnon, moi et ma fantastique Lumière d’amour,
nous fîmes le tour de Jakko, par couples.
La route ruisselait d’eau. Les puits formaient des gouttières pareilles à
des gargouilles, qui se déversaient sur les rocs du dessous, et l’air était
saturé d’une pluie fine.
Deux ou trois fois, je me surpris à dire, presque à haute voix:
—Je suis Jack Pansay en congé à Simla, dans le Simla de tous les jours,
avec sa banalité. Je ne dois pas oublier cela, je ne dois pas oublier cela.
Puis, je faisais un effort pour me rappeler les cancans que j’avais
entendus au Club, les prix remportés par les chevaux d’un tel ou d’un tel, en
un mot tout ce qui se rapportait au monde anglo-indien dans son train-train
de tous les jours, que je connaissais si bien.
Je répétai même la table de multiplication très vite pour ma propre
satisfaction, pour me convaincre tout à fait que je n’avais pas encore perdu
la raison.
Cela me réconforta beaucoup et m’empêcha pendant un certain temps
d’entendre mistress Wessington.
Une fois de plus, je gravis péniblement la pente du couvent et
m’engageai sur la route de nouveau.
Là, Kitty et l’homme partirent au trot, et je restai en tête à tête avec
mistress Wessington.
—Agnès, dis-je, voudriez-vous rabattre la capote et me dire ce que
signifie tout cela?
La capote se rabattit en arrière sans faire de bruit et je me trouvai face à
face avec ma défunte maîtresse.
Elle portait la toilette qu’elle avait lorsque je la vis pour la dernière fois
de son vivant.
Elle tenait encore de la main droite le petit mouchoir de poche et de la
main gauche le même porte-cartes. Une femme défunte depuis huit mois, et
qui tient un porte-cartes!
Il me fallut répéter ma table de multiplication et poser les deux mains sur
le parapet en pierre de la route pour m’assurer que cela du moins était de la
réalité.
—Agnès, répétai-je, ayez pitié de moi, et dites-moi ce que tout cela
signifie?
Mistress Wessington se pencha en avant et tourna la tête de ce
mouvement étrange et vif que je connaissais si bien, et elle parla.
Si mon histoire n’a pas déjà follement franchi les bornes de toute
créance humaine, c’est maintenant que j’aurais à m’excuser.
Je le sais, personne, non, personne, pas même Kitty, pour qui ceci est
écrit dans le but de justifier jusqu’à un certain point ma conduite, personne
ne me croira; mais je vais continuer.
Mistress Wessington parla et je fis avec elle tout le trajet depuis la route
de Sanjowlie jusqu’au tournant au dessous de l’habitation du commandant
en chef. Tout comme si j’avais marché à côté du rickshaw d’une femme
vivante, nous causâmes avec animation.
Le second et le plus cruel de mes états d’esprit maladifs s’était soudain
emparé de moi, et pareil au Prince du poème de Tennyson, «je croyais me
mouvoir dans un monde de fantômes».
Il y avait eu un garden-party chez le commandant en chef et nous nous
joignîmes tous deux à la foule des gens rentrant chez eux.
Quand je les regardais, il me semblait que c’étaient eux les ombres, des
ombres fantastiques, impalpables, qui se séparaient pour laisser passer à
travers elles le rickshaw de mistress Wessington.
Qu’est-ce que nous dîmes pendant ce mystérieux entretien? Je ne puis ou
plutôt je n’ose pas le répéter.
Le commentaire qu’aurait fait Heatherlegh se serait réduit à un rire bref
et à la remarque que j’avais caressé une chimère cerebro-stomacho-
oculaire.
C’était une scène fantastique et en même temps charmante, d’un charme
tout particulier, inépuisable.
Se pouvait-il que dans cette autre vie je fusse en train de faire la cour une
seconde fois à la même femme que j’avais tuée par ma cruauté et mon
indifférence?
Je rencontrai Kitty sur la route qui ramenait chez elle.
C’était une ombre parmi d’autres ombres.
Si je devais décrire tous les incidents de la quinzaine suivante dans leur
ordre, mon récit n’en finirait pas et votre patience se lasserait.
Tous les matins, tous les soirs, le rickshaw-fantôme et moi, nous nous
promenions ensemble dans Simla.
Partout où j’allais, j’étais suivi des quatre domestiques à livrée noire et
blanche.
Ils m’accompagnaient quand je sortais de mon hôtel ou que j’y
retournais.
Au théâtre, je les retrouvais au milieu d’une bande de porteurs braillards.
En dehors de la vérandah du club, après une longue soirée de whist, au
bal anniversaire de la naissance de la reine, ils attendaient patiemment que
je reparusse, et de même en plein jour, quand j’allais faire des visites.
A cela près qu’il ne projetait point d’ombre, le rickshaw-fantôme avait
l’air d’un rickshaw réel qui aurait été de bois et de fer.
Plus d’une fois j’ai failli avertir un ami qui allait grand train de prendre
garde à ne pas se heurter contre lui.
Plus d’une fois j’ai parcouru le Mail en soutenant une vive conversation
avec mistress Wessington, ce qui provoquait une stupéfaction indicible chez
les passants.
Avant huit jours de ces allées et venues, j’appris que la théorie des
«accès» avait été écartée pour faire place à celle de la folie. Mais je ne
changeai rien à mon genre de vie.
Je faisais des visites, je montais à cheval, je dînais en ville sans jamais
éprouver la moindre gêne.
J’avais pour la société de mes semblables une passion que je n’avais
jamais éprouvée jusqu’alors.
J’étais avide de prendre ma part des réalités de la vie et en même temps
j’éprouvais un vague malaise quand j’étais resté trop longtemps séparé de
ma fantastique compagne.
Il me serait presque impossible de décrire mes variables états d’esprit
depuis le 15 mai jusqu’au présent jour.
Tour à tour la présence du rickshaw me remplissait d’horreur, de crainte
aveugle, ou d’une sorte de vague plaisir, ou de sombre désespoir.
Je n’osais sortir de Simla et je savais qu’y rester, c’était me tuer.
Je savais en outre que mon destin me condamnait à mourir d’une mort
lente, un peu chaque jour.
Ma seule préoccupation était d’aller aussi tranquillement que possible
jusqu’au bout de mon châtiment.
Tantôt j’avais un désir ardent de voir Kitty et j’assistais à ses flirts
effrontés avec un inconnu, ou pour parler plus exactement, avec mes
successeurs.
Cela m’intéressait, m’amusait.
Elle était autant en dehors de ma vie que j’étais en dehors de la sienne.
Le jour, j’étais presque content de me promener avec mistress
Wessington.
La nuit je suppliais le ciel de me laisser rentrer dans le monde tel que je
le connaissais.
Et au-dessus de ces états d’esprit successifs planait la sensation
d’étonnement engourdi, indécis, de cette fusion du visible et de l’invisible,
qui se mêlaient si étrangement sur cette terre, dans le but de pourchasser, de
mettre aux abois, de pousser dans la tombe une pauvre âme.
*
**
27 août.
Heatherlegh m’a donné ses soins sans jamais se lasser et m’a dit
seulement hier que je devrais faire une demande de congé pour maladie.
Une demande pour échapper de la compagnie d’un fantôme! Une
demande pour obtenir que le gouvernement veuille bien me permettre de
me débarrasser de cinq fantômes et d’un rickshaw aérien en allant en
Angleterre!
La proposition de Heatherlegh m’a fait éclater d’un rire presque
convulsif.
Je lui ai dit que j’attendrais tranquillement le dénoûment à Simla et je
suis sûr que ce dénoûment ne tardera pas.
Croyez-moi quand je dis que je le redoute à un degré que je ne saurais
exprimer; pendant la nuit je me tourmente de mille spéculations sur la façon
dont surviendra ma mort.
Mourrai-je décemment dans mon lit comme doit mourir un gentleman
anglais? Ou bien mon âme me sera-t-elle arrachée pendant une dernière
promenade, pour aller prendre place éternellement à côté de ces fantômes
impénétrables?
Reprendrai-je mon vasselage d’autrefois dans le monde futur, ou
retrouverai-je une Agnès qui aura horreur de moi, et à laquelle je serai
enchaîné pour l’éternité?
Planerons-nous ensemble sur la scène où nous avons vécu, et jusqu’à la
consommation des siècles?
A mesure que se rapproche le jour de ma mort, l’horreur intense
qu’éprouve toute chair, en face des esprits échappés de l’autre côté de la
tombe, se fait de plus en plus puissante.
C’est chose terrible que de descendre tout vivant parmi les morts quand
vous n’avez parcouru que la moitié à peine de votre existence.
Il est mille fois plus terrible d’attendre, comme je le fais, au milieu de
vous, en proie à la terreur de je ne sais quoi.
Plaignez-moi, au moins pour mon «illusion», car je sais que vous ne
croirez rien de ce que j’ai écrit ici.
Et pourtant s’il fut jamais un homme voué à la mort par les puissances
des ténèbres, cet homme c’est moi.
Et pour être juste, plaignez-la aussi. Car si jamais une femme fut tuée par
un homme, j’ai tué mistress Wessington.
Et la dernière phase de mon châtiment s’appesantit sur moi en ce
moment même.
MON HISTOIRE VRAIE DE FANTOME
Quand je traversai le désert, il en
était ainsi... quand je traversai le
désert...
(La Cité de l’épouvantable nuit.)
Dans cette histoire-ci, il s’agit uniquement de fantômes.

Il y a dans l’Inde des fantômes qui se présentent sous la forme de corps
gras, froids, gluants, qui se cachent dans les arbres au bord de la route
jusqu’à ce que passe un voyageur.
Alors ils se laissent choir sur son cou et s’y accrochent.
Il y a aussi de terribles fantômes de femmes en couches.
Ceux-là errent par les chemins, à la tombée de la nuit, ou se cachent dans
les champs de blé aux alentours des villages et se répandent en appels
séducteurs. Mais quand on répond à leur invitation, c’est la mort dans ce
monde et dans l’autre.
Ils ont les pieds retournés à l’envers, afin que tous les hommes qui ont
leur sang-froid puissent les reconnaître.
Ce sont encore les fantômes des petits enfants qu’on a jetés dans les
puits.
Ceux-là sautent les margelles des puits et les lisières des jungles. Ils
poussent des gémissements à la lueur des étoiles, ou saisissent les femmes
par le poignet, et implorent pour qu’on les soulève et les emporte.
Toutefois ces fantômes-là et ceux qui ont l’air de cadavres, sont de purs
articles indigènes; ils ne s’attaquent pas aux sahibs.
On n’a aucune preuve authentique indiquant qu’ils aient jamais terrifié
un Anglais, mais bien des fantômes anglais ont fait mourir de frayeur des
blancs et des noirs.
Une station sur deux, au moins, a son fantôme.
On dit qu’il y en a deux à Simla, sans compter la femme qui met en
mouvement le soufflet à la maison de poste de Syree sur l’Ancienne Route.
Mussoorie possède une maison hantée par un fantôme plein d’entrain.
Une dame blanche passe pour remplir les fonctions de veilleur de nuit
autour d’une maison de Lahore.
A Dalhousie, on rapporte qu’une des maisons rejoue les soirs d’automne
tous les épisodes d’un horrible accident qui, dans un précipice, coûta la vie
à un cavalier et à sa monture.
Murrée a un fantôme gai et, maintenant que le choléra y a donné un coup
de balai, elle va en avoir un qui sera mélancolique.
A Mian Mir, ce sont les logements des officiers, dont les portes
s’ouvrent toutes seules, et dont les meubles sont, affirme-t-on, sujets à des
bruits de craquement, dûs, non point à la chaleur de juillet, mais au poids
des Invisibles qui s’étirent sur les chaises.
Peshawar compte quelques maisons que personne ne louerait volontiers.
Il y a quelque chose de mauvais—et ce n’est point la fièvre,—dans un
grand bungalow d’Allahabad.
Quant aux anciennes provinces, elles fourmillent littéralement de
maisons hantées et des armées de fantômes manœuvrent le long de leurs
principales artères.
Plusieurs des relais de poste, sur la grande route centrale, ont de
commodes petits cimetières dans leur enceinte, qui attestent «les
changements et les hasards de cette vie mortelle» au temps où les gens
faisaient en voiture le trajet de Calcutta au nord-ouest.
Ces bungalows sont des endroits où on ne s’installe point sans protester.
Généralement, ils sont très vieux, toujours sales, et le Khansamah y est
aussi vétuste que le bungalow. Tantôt, il est affecté de loquacité sénile,
tantôt, il tombe dans les longues somnolences de l’âge.
Dans ces deux états, il n’est bon à rien.
Si vous vous fâchez, il vous parlera d’un sahib défunt et enterré il y a
quelque trente ans, et il vous dira que quand il était au service du sahib, pas
un khansamah de la province ne l’égalait.
Après quoi il bafouille, il grimace, il tremblote, il s’agite parmi les plats
et vous regrettez votre irritation.
Il n’y a pas longtemps, mes obligations m’imposaient la fréquentation
des bungalows où sont les relais de poste.
Je ne passais jamais trois nuits de suite dans la même maison et j’en vins
à connaître à fond toute la séquelle.
J’ai habité ceux qui ont été construits par le gouvernement, avec des
murs de briques rouges et des plafonds en charpente de fer, avec
l’inventaire du mobilier affiché dans chaque chambre, et, sur le seuil, un
cobra surexcité, pour vous souhaiter la bienvenue.
J’ai habité ceux qui ont été «appropriés», de vieilles maisons affectées au
service des bungalows, où rien n’était à sa place et où on n’avait pas même
un poulet pour dîner.
J’ai habité des palais réformés, où le vent soufflait à travers la façade de
marbre ouvragé d’une façon tout aussi opposée au confort que s’il avait
soufflé par une vitre brisée.
J’ai habité des bungalows où la dernière inscription sur le registre des
voyageurs remontait à quinze mois et où on coupait avec un sabre la tête au
chevreau qui devait être accommodé au curry.
Ma bonne fortune m’y a fait rencontrer des gens de toute sorte, depuis
les missionnaires voyageurs aux manières réservées, depuis les déserteurs
des régiments anglais, jusqu’aux vagabonds ivres, qui jetaient des bouteilles
de whisky sur tous les passants, et la fortune, plus favorable encore, m’a fait
échapper à une séance d’accouchement.
Étant donné qu’une bonne partie de la tragédie qu’est notre vie, se
passait dans ces bungalows, je m’étonnais de n’avoir point rencontré de
fantômes.
Certes, un fantôme, qui hanterait les environs d’un bungalow, serait un
fantôme atteint de folie; mais il est mort dans les bungalows un tel nombre
de fous, qu’il doit y avoir un fort tant pour cent de fantômes fous.
L’heure venue, j’ai trouvé mon fantôme ou, pour mieux dire, mes
fantômes, car il y en avait deux.
Nous appellerons ce bungalow-là le relais de Katmal; mais cela c’était le
côté insignifiant de l’horrible chose.
Quand on a la peau sensible, on n’a pas le droit de dormir dans les
bungalows de relais: on doit prendre femme.
Le bungalow de Katmal était vieux, moisi, laissé à l’abandon. Le sol
était de briques usées, les murs sales et les fenêtres presque noires de
poussière.
Il était situé sur un chemin de traverse très fréquenté par les sous-
commissaires auxiliaires indigènes de tout genre, depuis l’administration
des Finances jusqu’à celle des Forêts, mais les vrais sahibs étaient rares.
Le Khansamah, que la vieillesse avait presque ployé en deux, l’avouait.
Quand j’arrivai, le temps s’était mis, dans la région, à la pluie
capricieuse et irrégulière, avec accompagnement constant de vent, dont
chaque rafale faisait un bruit d’ossements desséchés dans les raides
palmiers arack qui se dressaient au dehors.
Le Khansamah perdit complètement la tête à mon arrivée.
Il avait été jadis au service d’un sahib. Il me nomma un homme bien
connu, qui avait été enterré plus d’un quart de siècle auparavant, et me
montra une photographie sur cuivre qui représentait cet homme à l’époque
préhistorique de sa jeunesse.
J’avais vu son portrait en gravure sur acier un mois auparavant, en tête
d’un des volumes de ses Mémoires (et je me sentis plus vieux qu’Hérode).
Le jour tomba et le Khansamah vint m’apporter à manger. Il ne se risqua
pas à prétendre que ce qu’il m’offrait était khana (de la nourriture
humaine); il appela cela ratub, et ratub signifie entre autres choses «pâtée
pour les chiens».
Il n’avait nullement l’intention de m’insulter en choisissant ce terme; il
avait oublié l’autre mot, je suppose.
Pendant qu’il découpait les corps de divers animaux, je m’installai, non
sans avoir exploré le bungalow.
Il y avait trois chambres, sans compter la mienne, qui consistait en un
chenil angulaire, et chacune de ces chambres donnait dans l’autre par des
portes d’un blanc enfumé, qu’assujettissaient de longues barres de fer.
Le bungalow était très solide, mais les murs de séparation des chambres
étaient si légers qu’on les eut crus bâtis de bois pourris.
Quand on marchait, qu’on remuait une malle, le bruit se répercutait en
écho de ma chambre aux trois autres et les murs les plus éloignés
renvoyaient, en une vibration tremblante, le son des pas.
Cela me décida à fermer ma porte.
Il n’y avait pas de lampes, rien que des bougies sous de longs abat-jour
en verre. Une veilleuse à huile était suspendue dans la salle de bains. Avec

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Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Cover Image: Chinese women fan dancing

Printed in the United States of America

Dedicated to Na’imah Musawwir Khalil, a bright and beautiful African

knowledge about humanity in its sometimes-bewildering variety—guide your generation in

seeking peace and happiness for all.

Although all humans we know about are capable of

GUATEMALA HONDURAS SENEGAL

COLOMBIA CÔTE D’IVOIRE

1 The Essence of Anthropology 3

7 Patterns of Subsistence 157

Anthropologists of Note The Biology of Human Speech 129

Anthropology Applied Globalscape

Preface xxv Culture Is Integrated 36

The Anthropological Perspective 3 Anthropologist of Note: Bronislaw Malinowski

Participant Observation: Ethnographic Tools The First Bipeds 87

From Speech to Writing 128 Chapter 7

Anthropology Applied: When Bambi Spoke Arapaho: Adaptation 157

Chapter Checklist 154

Chapter 8 Family and Household 221

Chapter 11 Violent Conflict and Warfare 284

Revitalization Movements 318 Chapter 15

Vodou in Haiti 318

Chapter Checklist 366

The Arts 325

Glossary as You Go Anthropologists of Note

A section titled “Cultural Revolutions: From Terra Incog-

States. A staunch supporter of indigenous rights, he

Courtesy of the authors

ways their beliefs and actions might be shaping their research—anthropologists

as for one investigat-

Today, transplants between unrelated individuals are

Ma citation était à peine sortie de mes lèvres, et nous n’avions pas

Dans cette histoire-ci, il s’agit uniquement de fantômes.

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